Angela Leong Feng Ping, Lee Tze How, Tian Junfu M13608 EL6105 Project: Textual Analysis

Text
"My friends, we have already overcome our most formidable enemies, and are now about to encounter not hunger and want, but men. This day will decide everything. Remember what you promised me at Dyrrhachium. Remember how you swore to each other in my presence that you would never leave the field except as conquerors. These men, fellow soldiers, are the same that we met at the Pillars of Hercules, the same that we drove out of Italy. They are the same who sought to disband us without honours, without a triumph, without rewards, after the toils and struggles of ten years, after we had finished those great wars, after innumerable victories, and after we had added 400 nations in Spain, Gaul, and Britain to our country's sway. I have not been able to prevail upon them by offering fair terms, nor to win them by benefits. You know that I dismissed them unharmed, hoping that we should obtain justice from them. Recall all these facts to your minds to-day, and if you have had any experience of me recall also my care for you, my good faith, and the generosity of my gifts to you. Nor is it difficult for hardy and veteran soldiers to overcome new recruits who are without experience in war, and who, moreover, like boys, spurn the rules of discipline and of obedience to their commander. I learned that he [Pompey] was afraid and unwilling to come to an engagement. His star has already passed its zenith; he has become slow and hesitating in all his acts, and no longer commands, but obeys the orders of others. I say these things of his Italian forces only. As for his allies, do not think about them, pay no attention to them, do not fight with them at all. They are Syrian, Phrygian, and Lydian slaves, always ready for flight or servitude. I know very well, and you will presently see, that Pompey himself will not assign them any place in his line of battle. Give your attention to the Italians only, even though these allies are running around you like dogs trying to frighten you. When you have put the enemy to flight let us spare the Italians as being our own kindred, but slaughter the allies in order to strike terror into the others. Before all else, in order that I might know that you are mindful of your promise to choose victory or death, throw down the walls of your camp as you go out to battle and fill up the ditch, so that we may have no place of refuge if we do not conquer, and so that the enemy may see that we have no camp and know that we are compelled to occupy theirs." Julius Caesars pre-battle speech at the Battle of Pharsalus, 9 August 48BC (461 words)

Background
Julius Caesar was a famous Roman general, statesman, and Consul. Caesar is deemed to be one of the greatest military commanders in history, and in 48 BC he engaged in the Battle of Pharsalus, one of his greatest military victories. In the Battle of Pharsalus, Julius Caesars forces were drastically outnumbered by his enemies (about 60000 to 30000), the army of the Republic of Rome led by Gnaeus Pompeius Magnus (also known as Pompey the Great). The demographics of the battle were staggeringly in favor of Pompey; Pompey held the higher ground (an advantageous force multiplier in war), had much greater forces, and had better supplies. In stark contrast, Caesars forces were very low on supplies, had lost an engagement directly before in the Battle of Dyrrhachium, and had no lines of retreat. Despite this massive disadvantage, however, Caesars forces managed to rout the enemy, sustaining losses of only 1200 men to Pompeys 6000.

Analysis
War speeches are an excellent medium allowing national or military leaders to inspire the people under their lead: to boost confidence, give optimism, and band together an often large group, so that their goals and opinions become aligned as one, while concurrently demoralising the enemy[1]. Julius Caesars primary intention in making this speech was to rouse his troops for the battle at Pharsalus; under the particular circumstances his army was in at that point of time vastly outnumbered, cut off on enemy grounds, and low on supplies it was especially critical to raise his soldiers morale. This was achieved mainly through the interpersonal meaning of the text which very effectively established a bond between Caesar and his soldiers. The ideational meaning also contributed to instilling notions of them (the enemy) as morally corrupt, weak and inferior, and us (Caesars army) as righteous, strong, courageous. A secondary aim was to give his army an understanding of the situation of the war, which allowed him to command them on the course of action to take when the time came, and which also served to cast the enemy in a negative light. This was conveyed via the mood of the text, which is large imperative with instances of declarative mood.

Interpersonal Meaning
Since the main purposes of the speech were to boost troop morale and create a sense of spirit de corps, interpersonal devices are understandably the most prominent here. They further begin to establish a divide between Caesars army and the enemy, which is greatly exploited by the ideational devices. Caesar uses a lot of first-person (I, me, my, we, our, us) and second-person (you, your) pronouns in his speech. This, coupled with the fact that he is directly addressing his army, helps to establish a close relationship between the commander and his troops, and between the soldiers themselves. The phrases you promised me and you swore to each other compel the soldiers to remember the loyalty they pledged to their commander and to one another, and the string of my in my care for you, my good faith, and the generosity of my gifts to you is associated with selfless offers

 care, good faith and gifts. Caesar thus successfully paints himself as a selfless commander who sincerely cares about his men. This is meant to evoke gratitude from his soldiers, which creates a stronger sense of loyalty than that which stems only from a sense of duty. When delivered under circumstances of war, a speech riddled with first- and second-person pronouns aligns the interests of an entire group, compelling every soldier to think and feel the same way this is crucial to ensure that the whole battalion will follow his commands. The third-person pronouns they and them are used exclusively to refer to the enemy soldiers, creating the beginning of a gulf between his army and the enemy armies. However, Caesar still places himself in a position of higher authority, as a figure of power and command. This is achieved largely through the imperative mood of the speech, wherein he commands his troops to remember what you promised [] how you swore [], and instructs them in the strategies to take for this battle (give your attention to the Italians only, let us spare the Italians [] but slaughter the allies). This befits his status as the commander, wielding the power to decide whom they should fight and how. The declarative mood clearly cements Caesars position as one of higher expertise, as he is disseminating information about the war which was previously unknown to his soldiers. This is most evident when Caesar says that I learned that [Pompey] was afraid and unwilling to come to an engagement, and I know very well, and you will presently see. Certain phrases reinforce Caesars power in the relationship between his army and him: Remember how you swore to each other in my presence awards him an almost god-like status; I have not been able to prevail upon them and I dismissed them unharmed show that although victory is earned by the entire battalion, it is Caesar who holds the final decision, who achieves the ultimate victory for the whole army. As the commander, it is crucial that the balance of power is tilted in Caesars favour. This ensures that his troops will obey his commands. Furthermore, the commands often carry high modality, such as you would never leave the field except as conquerors, you will presently see, give your attention to the Italians only, before all else, and especially do not think about them, pay no attention to them, do not fight with them at all. The overarching command is absolute, with no middle ground: choose victory or death. The lexical choice also features high modality, in the adjectives and modal verbs he chooses to describe his army and their enemies. In referring to his army, Caesar uses very positive, high-modality phrases such as after we had finished those great wars, after innumerable victories, and hardy and veteran in describing his soldiers, to remind them of their proven capability, determination and experience. In contrast, Pompey is afraid and unwilling, slow and hesitating in all his acts, and no longer commands, but obeys all highly negative terms painting Pompey as an indecisive, uncourageous puppet leader. The enemy armies are always ready for flight or servitude, implying that they lack loyalty and only care for their individual survival. Note also the wording used in his speech; when referring to his army, he always uses addresses such as friends and fellow soldiers to put himself firmly on their side and portray them as all being together in the same boat. These have a much more pronounced effect on his army by de-alienating his troops from their general; the building of a stronger connection between men and their leader would ensure

greater morale and loyalty in the troops. This also further reinforces the us-versus-them mentality that Caesar wants to instill in his army, one that builds greater confidence and internal trust for his side while simultaneously establishing all hostile troops as one joint enemy.

Ideational Meaning
Transitivity Analysis The process types observed in the speech are mostly material when the actor is either Julius Caesar (I) or his soldiers (you, we). In such clauses, as presented in the unshaded cells in the table below, Caesars and/or his mens goals often are often those involving tremendous courage and ability, requiring them to face their most formidable enemies, ultimately resulting in victory over said formidable foes, and shining glory as conquerors. Furthermore, Caesar is portrayed to act with mercy and righteousness by the circumstances with which he tries to prevail upon and win his enemies via offering fair terms and by benefits. Finally, when rallying his troops for battle, Caesars phrasings put his enemies in the position of beneficiaries, either to be put to flight, spared, or slaughtered, with the decision resting on Caesar. Caesar always uses the active voice when he and/or his army are the actors this is largely due to the nature of the speech, which was addressing his army directly, but it is also to place themselves in an active position, wielding all the choices and decisions in this situation. (However, you is often masked because Caesar is directly addressing you, the soldiers.) The enemy is rarely placed in the actor role, except for the times indicated in the yellow-shaded cells. Doing so relegates the enemies to a passive position, giving the impression that they are sitting ducks waiting unprepared for the attack by Caesars army. Further, the material processes associated with the enemy are often negative: they have sought to, or are trying to, with the implication that they never really succeed; they spurn, and are running around, indicating a lack of discipline and command in their camps; Pompey himself has already passed his prime and will not assign, reinforcing his indecisiveness and distrust of his men. This is in jarring contrast to Caesar and his troops, who, with the help of ample usage of the past perfect tense, already, and future tense, have already accomplished a great many victories and will continue to do so. Actor we [we] This day you we [they] we Material process have already overcome are now about to will decide would never leave met drove sought to had Goal [unless otherwise indicated in brackets] our most formidable enemies to encounter not hunger and want, but men everything the field [goal] except as conquerors [circumstance] at the Pillars of Hercules [circumstance] out of Italy disband us [goal] without honours, without a triumph, without rewards [circumstance] finished those great wars added 400 nations in Spain, Gaul, and Britain to our country's sway

have not been able to [nor to] dismissed them

hardy and veteran to overcome soldiers [new recruits] spurn [Pompeys] star Pompey himself these allies dogs [referring to the allies] you [let] us has already passed will not assign are running around trying to have put spare slaughter

prevail upon them [goal] by offering fair terms [circumstance] win them [goal] by benefits [circumstance] unharmed [goal], hoping that we should obtain justice from them [circumstance] new recruits the rules of discipline and of obedience to their commander its zenith them [beneficiary] any place in his line of battle [circumstance] you [beneficiary] frighten you the enemy [beneficiary] to flight [circumstance] the Italians [beneficiary] as being our own kindred [circumstance] the allies [beneficiary] in order to strike terror into the others [goal]

Mental processes appear less frequently, but reveal interesting information. When the senser is Caesars army, Caesar typically calls upon them to remember or recall their promises of fealty, as well as how kindly he has treated them in the past. Even when he says You know that I, he is in effect asking them to remember a previous action of his (dismissing the enemy unharmed). When the senser is Caesar himself, learned or know very well is used, and this cements his position as a figure with greater knowledge of the battle situation, justifying the declarative mood of the text. Caesar also mentions the enemy, but with an ominous undertone, with the hopes that they sense the magnitude of the motivation driving Caesars army to conquer their camps. Senser [you] [you] You [You] I I you the enemy [the enemy] Mental Remember Remember know Recall learned know very well will presently see may see [may] know Phenomenon what you promised me at Dyrrhachium how you swore that I these facts/my care for you/my good faith/the generosity of my gifts to you that he [Pompey]

that we have no camp that we are compelled to occupy theirs

Finally, relational processes are mostly attributed to the enemy. The attributes that they are identified with are largely very negative. They are depicted as inept (drove out of Italy, without experience in war) and disloyal cowards (ready for flight or servitude), while their commander is presented in an equally derogatory light (afraid and unwilling). Further, by identifying these mean as the same that we met before, that we drove out of Italy, who sought to disband us, Caesar is effectively telling his army that they have defeated these men before and will do so again and furthermore, they have a score to settle against these men who have tried to disband them before. Identifier These men Relational process are Identified the same that we met at the Pillars of Hercules the same that we drove out of Italy the same who sought to disband us without experience in war afraid and unwilling to come to an engagement ready for flight or servitude

new recruits [Pompey]

who are was

[The Syrian, Phrygian, and Lydian are always slaves]

Lexical Choice Through his lexical choice, Caesar constructs a positive self-representation of us himself and his troops and a negative other-representation of them the enemy armies. This is a common global semantic strategy, particularly notable in the ultimatum speech given by then-U.S. President George W. Bush on 17 March 2003, where he derogated the terrorists and their allies, while painting the Western world as stronger physically and on higher grounds morally.[2] Caesar starts off his speech by saying, we have already overcome our most formidable enemies, and are now about to encounter not hunger and want, but men. It is important that in this case the most formidable enemies referred to are hunger and want; this trivialises the opposing army, implying that Caesars troops have already defeated the real enemies and that the current foe is nothing but a annoying hindrance that can be easily swept away. Additionally, Caesar uses When we have put the enemy to flight instead of if. Speaking with such arrogance and self-assurance emphasizes Caesars confidence of victory; his already-legendary reputation adds substance to his claim, further helping to persuade his army of their ability and strength. Caesar goes on to insult the enemy by implying that they lack in not only experience, but also discipline and obedience ("Nor is it difficult for hardy and veteran soldiers to overcome new recruits who are without experience in war, and who, moreover, like boys, spurn the rules of discipline and of obedience to their commander) compared to his hardy and veteran soldiers, these enemies dont stand a chance. (Interesting to note here is that Caesar is very subtly reiterating what he expects of his soldiers discipline and obedience to their commander.) Caesar also describes some of the enemy as dogs and slaves, and phrases such as running around you like dogs trying to frighten you and Pompey

himself will not assign them any place in his line of battle imply that there is much confusion and a lack of trust in the enemy camps such direct insults put his army on a figurative pedestal above their foe, implying that they have a significant advantage both militarily and psychologically. Beyond that, it also improves rapport between Caesar and his army by stating a common opinion that they both share that their enemies are weak and inconsequential. In his speech, Caesar says, When you have put the enemy to flight let us spare the Italians as being our own kindred, but slaughter the allies in order to strike terror into the others. This again enforces this divide between us and them, implying our lives are more worthy, and that we deserve more reason to live. This is curious, for in this case Caesar is trying to impress on his army an objective that they would not instinctively follow (dont kill the Romans even though theyre part of the enemy), and he does this by essentially dividing the enemy into dogs/slaves and fellow Romans. Moral superiority is repeatedly emphasized in this speech examples include sought to disband us without honours, without a triumph, without rewards, after the toils and struggles of ten years, after we had finished those great wars, after innumerable victories, and after we had added 400 nations in Spain, Gaul, and Britain to our country's sway, I have not been able to prevail upon them by offering fair terms, nor to win them by benefits, and You know that I dismissed them unharmed, hoping that we should obtain justice from them. This sense of righteousness, when instilled into soldiers, is an important element in improving morality, and is applied well by Caesar in this speech. By asserting that they refuse to reward us after we helped them so, Caesar insults the honour of the foe while enraging his troops, another mechanism by which he increases the determination of his army to fight the enemy. He also implies that every reasonable possible effort to avoid war had already been made and that the enemy refused to see sense, thus justifying and legitimating his reasons for war. If the same mistakes are repeated, it would appear as intentional and thus would make the offending party all the guiltier. Bush exploited this stance in his ultimatum speech[2], and Caesar uses it here to demonise the enemy and put himself on a moral high ground. Aside from having a moral high ground, however, Caesar also boasts of the rift in courage between his troops and the enemy. Examples of such include he was afraid and unwilling to come to an engagement, always ready for flight or servitude. Courage is seen today as a good trait to have in the time of Rome, it was part of the very definition of manhood, something absolutely crucial to have as a man. By these statements, Caesar implies that his army is much manlier than the enemy, and by association improving his armys standing and self-respect relative to their enemy. He also mentions that the enemy has little initiative, independence and ability ([Pompeys] star has already passed its zenith; he has become slow and hesitating in all his acts, and no longer commands, but obeys the orders of others), implying that he has those traits and that he will use them to triumph over the enemy. Lastly, the speech is designed to carry across an idea of immense urgency, of absoluteness. This day will decide everything, Caesar tells them, and he further completely eliminates the possibility of losing the battle in the minds of his soldiers through telling them to dismantle the walls of their camp before they go to battle, removing their ability to retreat. This is a daring move in war an all-or-nothing maneuver that tells his soldiers that there is no room for defeat. This exploits both traditional Roman

honor (come back with your shield, or on it was a famous Spartan saying though Sparta predated Rome, it had a lot of cultural influence on it) and the desire for victory that is part of human nature Caesar even reminds them of their promise to choose victory or death.

Textual Meaning
THEME/RHEME ANALYSIS *Italicized sentences indicate marked themes Clause My friends, we have already overcome our most formidable enemies. These men, fellow soldiers, are the same that we met at the Pillars of Hercules They are the same who sought to disband us without honours, without a triumph, without rewards, after the toils and struggles of ten years [] after we had finished those great wars, after innumerable victories, and after we had added 400 nations in Spain, Gaul, and Britain to our country's sway. I have not been able to prevail upon them by offering fair terms, nor to win them by benefits. You know that I dismissed them unharmed, hoping that we should obtain justice from them. Recall all these facts to your minds to-day, and if you have had any experience of me [] - instance of a marked theme [] recall also my care for you, [] my good faith, and the generosity of my gifts to you "Nor is it difficult for hardy and veteran soldiers to overcome new recruits who are without experience in war, and who, moreover, like boys, spurn the rules of discipline and of obedience to their commander. I learned that he was afraid and unwilling to come to an engagement. His star has already passed its zenith. He has become slow and hesitating in all his acts, and no longer commands, but obeys the orders of others. I say these things of his Italian forces only. As for his allies, do not think about them, pay no attention to them, do not fight with them at all.

Type of Statement Informative Statement Informative Statement Informative Statement

Informative Statement

Informative Statement Informative Statement Statement of Command Statement of Command Statement of Command Informative Statement

Informative Statement Informative Statement Informative Statement

Informative Statement Subject you is not mentioned in this sentence, statement is Statement of Command They are Syrian, Phrygian, and Lydian slaves, always ready for flight Informative Statement or servitude I know very well Factual Statement [] and you will presently see Informative Statement [] that Pompey himself will not assign them any place in his line of Informative Statement

battle. Give your attention to the Italians only [] [] even though these allies are running around you like dogs trying to frighten you. When you have put the enemy to flight Let us spare the Italians as being our own kindred, but slaughter the allies in order to strike terror into the others. Before all else, in order that I might know that you are mindful of your promise to choose victory or death, throw down the walls of your camp as you go out to battle and fill up the ditch [] so that we may have no place of refuge if we do not conquer and so that the enemy may see that we have no camp and know that we are compelled to occupy theirs."

Statement of Command Informative Statement Factual Statement Statement of Command Statement of Command Statement of Command Informative Statement Informative Statement

In his speech, it can be observed that Caesar uses mainly marked themes when compelling his soldiers to pursue a course of action, while he uses unmarked themes when making informative statements. This theme-rheme arrangement is used to great effect; marked themes help to emphasize the command that Caesar wishes his army to follow while unmarked themes (mentioning the subject before the information) draw his armys attention in order that they will pay attention to the upcoming information. The sentence As for his allies, do not think about them, pay no attention to them, do not fight with them at all. contains a marked theme. Here, the subject is you Caesars soldiers, who are masked because Caesar is directly issuing a command to them. However, the theme is As for his allies, which is non-subject. Doing so gives particular prominence to his allies the allies of the enemy but the instructed treatment of them that follows is dismissive. This brings out Caesars judgement of them as hardly a concern. Another clause with a marked theme is Before all else, in order that I might know that you are mindful of your promise to choose victory or death, throw down the walls of your camp as you go out to battle and fill up the ditch. Again, you, Caesars soldiers, are the subject, yet the theme is in order that I might know, which is non-subject. This reinforces Caesars request of loyalty from his troops he wants them to show him that they remember their promise to him and his higher position of authority. The flow of thought of the speech also changes as the speech goes on; the first half elaborates on the basic history of the battle, allowing Caesar to remind his troops of the reason why they are at war. As such, the speech flows from giving justification and establishing a moral high ground in the first half, to criticising the enemy to improve the morale of the troops in the latter half. By organising his speech with a clear progression of ideas, Caesar effectively guides his listening troops from one argument or command to the next. This avoids the pitfalls of sending a message through verbal means: topics just spoken of a second ago are easily forgotten as the speaker moves on to the next point, without a transcript to allow one to reread earlier ideas.

Speech Discourse[35]

Caesar frequently uses the Rule of Three, whereby three repetitions following a general theme enhance the fluency and flow of the entire text, e.g. These men, fellow soldiers, are the same that we met at the Pillars of Hercules, the same that we drove out of Italy. They are the same who sought to disband us sought to disband us without honours, without a triumph, without rewards, my care for you, my good faith, and the generosity of my gifts to you.

Where the repetitions do not involve the use of the exact same word or phrase thrice, the three repetitions at least share similar sentence structure: [] Do not think about them, pay no attention to them, do not fight with them at all., convey notions along the same vein: His star has already passed its zenith; he has become slow and hesitating in all his acts, and no longer commands, but obeys the orders of others., or are words in the same functional category, such as adjectives attributing nationality, as in They are Syrian, Phrygian, and Lydian slaves

Sometimes, especially for longer sentences, the repetitions occur in pairs rather than in threes this helps reiterate and reinforce ideas without losing the audiences attention. An example is Remember what you promised me at Dyrrhachium. Remember how you swore to each other in my presence that you would never leave the field except as conquerors. Another rhetorical device he employs is the use of imagery. For instance, he uses the metaphor his star has already passed its zenith to describe Pompey, and the similes like boys to describe how the enemy soldiers spurn spurn the rules of discipline and of obedience, and running around you like dogs to describe the allies of the enemy. Caesar also operated under the assumption that he had his mens undying loyalty; after the loss of the Battle of Dyrrhachium, his men were so ashamed that they begged for decimation) to him to a great extent; with that assumption he was able to make demands of his soldiers that were almost beyond reason; to tell his troops to cut off their own line of retreat. It can also be seen that Caesar uses promises that his troops had made to him as a device to spur their loyalty, rather than the rewards for winning the battle.

Bibliography
[1] http://www.academia.edu/1139934/Churchills_War_Speeches [2] http://www.pearsonschoolsandfecolleges.co.uk/Secondary/EnglishAndMedia/1114/TextBuildingSkillsinEnglish/Samples/SamplepagesfromStudentBook3/Text3_web_pages.pdf [3] http://www.slideshare.net/IhsanIbadurrahman/a-critical-discourse-analysis-of-a-speech-by-georgew-bush [4] http://neboliterature.mrkdevelopment.com.au/language/text-types/Language-of-Speeches.html [5] http://www.slideshare.net/gmurphy_tvo.org/15-oral-persuasion-techniques