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IC211

Experimental and Measurement Laboratory


Instructors:
N K Khosla
H Arya
V M Gadre
Bhaskaran Raman
*
(Coordinator)
Measurements in everyday life
Car and Scooter Dash Board
Level Speed Engine RPM
Measurements in everyday life
Tire pressure gauge
Blood pressure gauge
Clinical Thermometer
Measurements in everyday life
Kitchen Scale Bathroom Scale Chronometer
Measurements in everyday life
open loop control processes: Measurement of ?
Toaster
Clothes Iron
Table fan
Engineering measurements
Furnace Temperature
Battery Voltage
measurement
pH Measurement
Engineering measurements
For evaluation & comparison: Hard disk access time and data
transfer rate
Engineering measurements
Data gathering and analysis
Engineering measurements
Determining characteristics of Light emitting diode (LED)
Ability to generate reliable, useful data
Requires an appreciation of-
1. Quantity to be measured
2. How good should the measurement be
3. Data presentation
4. How should I measure (sensor/An/Dig)
5. How representative is the measured data
Course Objectives
Quantity to be measured
Is the quantity directly measurable:
toasting of bread or Ironing of clothes
manufacturing bulletproof armor.
Bullet proof
helmet
Required
microstructure
Heat treatment cycle
Quantity to be measured
`
Is the true value
clearly definable
Thermal gradient across the thermometer stem
ensure that correct temperature may never be
read unless proper immersion practice is followed
What about
Surface
roughness
Choice of best method
for measuring temperature
Effect of temperature on solid/ liquid/ gas
expansion (expansion thermometry)
Effect of temperature on change in
conductivity (Resistance thermometry)
Other effects such as thermoelectric
(Thermoelectric thermometry)
Dependence of radiation on temperature
(Radiation thermometry)
Sensitivity
Choice of best technique
Perturbation to
the system
Non-contact
measurement
Measurement of Temperature
Choice of best technique
Measurement of strain:
Potential divider or bridge
Choice of best technique
Measures resistance
directly
Measured voltage is
used to compute
resistance
Choice of best technique
Dummy gauge for
Temperature
compensation
Temperature
compensation &
increased signal
output
Choice of best technique
Cantilever load cell with strain gauge half bridge
Choice of best technique
Higher sensitivity with temperature compensation
Principles of measurements
To state sub-systems in a measurement system
To understand main function in each sub-system
To understand the basic properties of measurement
systems
Basic components of a
measurement system
Basic components in a measurement system are-
It is also important to mention that a power supply
is an important element for the entire system.
Amplification and Conditioning
Characteristics of an instrument
Show the expected performance of the
instruments.
Divided into two categories: static and dynamic
characteristics.
Static characteristics refer to the comparison
between steady output and ideal output when the
input is constant.
Dynamic characteristics refer to the comparison
between instrument output and ideal output when
the input changes continuously with time.
Accuracy is the ability of an instrument
to show the true value.
Normally related to the extent of the
wrong reading/ non accuracy.
Normally expressed as percentage of
the full scale reading, or span of the
instrument.
Static Characteristics
1. ACCURACY
Example :
A pressure gauge with a range between 0-1
bar with an accuracy of 5% fs (full-scale)
has a maximum error of:
5 x 1 bar = 0.05 bar
100
Note: It is essential to choose an
equipment which has a suitable operating
range.
Static Characteristics
Example :
A pressure gauge with a range between 0 -
10 bar is found to have an error of 0.15
bar when calibrated by the manufacturer.
Calculate :
a. The error percentage of the gauge.
b. The error percentage when the
reading obtained is 2.0 bar.
Static Characteristics
Answer :
a. Error Percentage = 0.15 bar x 100 = 1.5%
10.0 bar
b. Error Percentage = 0.15 bar x 100 = 7.5 %
2.0 bar
The gauge is not suitable for use in the low
pressure range.
Alternative : use a gauge with a suitable range,
or better precision (lower error).
Static Characteristics
Example :
Two pressure gauges (pressure gauge A and B) have a
full scale accuracy of 5%. Sensor A has a range of 0-1
bar and Sensor B, 0-10 bar. Which of these gauges is
more suitable to be used if the reading is 0.9 bar?
Answer :
Sensor A :
Equipment max error = 5 x 1 bar = 0.05 bar
100
Equipment accuracy
@ 0.9 bar ( in %) = 0.05 bar x 100 = 5.6%
0.9 bar
Static Characteristics
Sensor B :
Equipment max error = 5 x 10 bar = 0.5 bar
100
Equipment accuracy
@ 0.9 bar ( in %) = 0.5 bar x 100 = 55%
0.9 bar
Conclusion :
Sensor A is more suitable to use at a reading of 0.9 bar
because the error percentage ( 5.6%) is smaller compared to
the percentage error of Sensor B ( 55%).
Static Characteristics
2. PRECISION
An equipment which is precise is not
necessarily accurate.
Defined as the capability of an
instrument to show the same reading
when used each time (reproducibility of
the instrument).
Static Characteristics
Accuracy and Precision
Low accuracy
high precision
High Accuracy
low precision
High accuracy
high precision
Accuracy: Accuracy is how close a measured value is to the
actual (true!!) value
Precision: Precision is how close the measured values are to
each other.
High Precision, but
low accuracy.
So, if you are playing soccer
and you always hit the left
goal post instead of scoring,
then you are not accurate,
but you are precise!
Accuracy and Precision
There is a systematic error
also called BIAS.
High accuracy means that the mean is close to the true value, while
high precision means that the standard deviation 1 is small.
Accuracy and Precision
Not to be confused with accuracy in readout:
Accuracy in reading a measurement depends upon the
instrument you are measuring with, and the approximations
made by the observer.
If the instrument measures with a
resolution of 1 unit, any value
between 6.5 & 7.5 may be
measured as 7.
Alternatively, any value between
6 & 7 may be measured as 6.
Likewise, any value between 7 &
8 may be measured as 7.
Repeatability and Reproducibility
Repeatability is the variability of the measurements obtained by
one person while measuring the same item repeatedly.
More repeatable
Repeatability and Reproducibility
Reproducibility is the variability of the measurement system
caused by differences in operator behavior (bias).
Variability of each operator is same.
Overall variability is high
Three operators
Repeatability and Reproducibility
are computed by:
Range and Average Method
Analysis of Variability method
(ANOVA)
3. BIAS
Constant error which occurs during the measurement
of an instrument.
This error is usually rectified through calibration.
Example :
A weighing scale always gives a bias reading. This
equipment always gives a reading of 1 kg even
without any load applied. Therefore, if A with a
weight of 70 kg weighs himself, the given reading
would be 71 kg. This would indicate that there is a
constant bias of 1 kg to be corrected.
Static Characteristics
4. TOLERANCE
Closely related to accuracy of an equipment
where the accuracy of an equipment is
sometimes referred to in the form of
tolerance limit.
Defined as the maximum error expected in
an instrument.
Explains the maximum deviation of the
output (from the true value) at a certain
value.
Static Characteristics
5. RANGE and SPAN
Defined as the range of reading between
minimum value and maximum value for the
measurement of an instrument.
Span always has a positive value e.g..:
The span of an instrument which has a
reading range of 100C to 100 C is 200 C.
Static Characteristics
6. LINEARITY
Maximum deviation from linear relation between input
and output.
The output of an instrument should preferably be
linearly proportionate to the measured quantity.
Normally shown in the form of full scale percentage
(% fs).
The graph shows the output reading of an instrument
when a few input readings are entered.
Linearity = maximum deviation from the reading of x
and the straight line.
Static Characteristics
Linearity
7. SENSITIVITY
Defined as the ratio of change in output, related to
the corresponding change in input, at a steady state
condition.
Sensitivity (K) =

: change in output;
i
: change in input
Example 1:
The resistance value of a Platinum Resistance
Thermometer changes when the temperature
increases. Therefore, the unit of sensitivity for this
equipment is Ohm/C.
Static Characteristics
Sensitivity
Variation of the physical variables
Most sensitive
Example 2:
Pressure sensor A with a value of 2 bar
caused a deviation of 10 degrees. Therefore,
the sensitivity of the equipment is 5
degrees/bar.
Sensitivity of the whole system is (k) = k
1
x k
2
x k
3
x .. x k
n
k
1
k
2
k
3

o
Static Characteristics
Consider a measuring system consisting of a
transducer, amplifier and a recorder, with sensitivity for
each equipment given below:
Transducer sensitivity 0.2 mV/C
Amplifier gain 2.0 V/mV
Recorder sensitivity 5.0 mV/V
Therefore, Sensitivity of the whole system:
(k) = k
1
x k
2
x k
3
k = 0.2 mV x 2.0 V x 5.0 mV
C mV V
k = 2.0 mV/C
Static Characteristics
Example
:
Example :
The output of a platinum resistance thermometer (RTD)
PT-100 is as follows:
Calculate the sensitivity of the equipment.
Answer :
Draw an input versus output graph. From that graph, the
sensitivity is the slope of the graph.
K =

slope = (174.697-98.763) ohm = 0.38 ohm/C

i
(470-270) C @370 C
!nput(K) Output(Ohm)
270 98.763
370 137.310
+70 174.697
570 210.929
670 246.005
0
50
100
150
200
250
300
200 300 400 500 600 700
Series1
8. DEAD SPACE / DEAD BAND
Defined as the range of input reading when
there is no change in output (unresponsive
system, caused by friction, backlash).
Dead Space
Output
Reading
Measured
Variables
-
+
Static Characteristics
9. RESOLUTION
The smallest change in input reading that
produces a measurable change in the
output (smallest measurable input change).
Specified in the form % of full scale (% fs)
Static Characteristics
10. THRESHOLD
When the reading of an input is increased
from zero, the input reading will reach a
certain value before change occurs in the
output.
The minimum limit of the input reading is
threshold (smallest measurable input).
Static Characteristics
Dynamic Characteristics
Explain the behaviour of instruments
when the input signal is continuously
changing
May be demonstrated by employing
standard input functions such as step
input, ramp input and sine input.
Step Input
Sudden change in input signal from steady
state to an increased or decreased value
The output signal for this kind of input is
known as transient response of the
instrument
Input
Time
Dynamic Characteristics
Ramp Input
The input signal changes linearly with
time
The output signal for ramp input is a
delayed ramp response.
Input/
Normalized
output
Time
Dynamic Characteristics
Sine-wave Input
Input is a sine function e.g. H Sin(t)
The output signal is a generic (out of phase) sine
function a Cos(t) + b Sin(t)
Study of output amplitude and phase gives the
frequency response of the instrument
Input
Time
Dynamic Characteristics
Response time
One would like to have a
measurement system
with fast response.
In other words, the effect
of the measurement
system on the
measurement should be
as small as possible.
Example of dynamic characteristics
Response from a 2
nd
order instrument:
Output
100%
90%
10%
tr
Time
Dip effect
Another kind of dynamic error
How to use measured data
thermistor
Thermocouple
PRT
Thermocouple characteristics Thermistor & PT100 characteristics
Platinum Resistance Thermometer
Need to calibrate
Calibration table
Calibration curve
Need to calibrate
Linear sensors
Spring scale
LVDT
Need to calibrate
Linear calibration
curve
What did we actually measure
Radiation effect in thermocouple
installations. Thermocouple sees
furnace parts at high, low as well
as intermediate temperatures
Immersion effect. Thermal
mass of the thermometer
changes the system. Heat
dissipated by thermometer
What did we actually measure
Loading effect
Voltage
dropped
Cold junction compensation

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