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DIBSMFTBSNTUSPOH
CONTESTI NG THE PENI NSULA
$
MUIPVHI DBQJUBM BOE politics aio closoly intoitwinod in
nost contonpoiaiy donociacios, it is iaio loi an oloctoiato to
voto into highost olhco tho loinoi chiol oxocutivo ol a najoi
coipoiation. To a soloct gioup including Italy`s Boilusconi,
Thaksin ol Thailand and, at tho local lovol, Mayoi Bloonloig in Now
Yoik wo can now add South Koioa`s tough-talking Loo Myung-laka.k.a.
'Tho Bulldozoi`loinoi hoad ol Hyundai Constiuction and Mayoi ol
Sooul, who was oloctod Piosidont ly a landslido on Doconloi zoo;.
This was not tho hist tino a Hyundai oxocutivo had iun loi Piosidont ol
South Koioa: tho loundoi ol tho Hyundai Gioup, Chung Ju-young, gai-
noiod o poi cont ol tho voto in z. Loo`s victoiy, howovoi, has piovod
unpiocodontod in sovoial iospocts. Fiist, although Loo`s winning naigin
was tho widost sinco donociatic oloctions logan in 8;his q8.; poi
cont ol tho voto lai outstiippod tho zo.; poi cont won ly his closost chal-
longoi, Chung Dong-young ol tho contio-lolt Unitod Now Donociatic
Paitytho oqually histoiic low tuinout, at just ovoi oz poi cont, noant
that ho had tho suppoit ol loss than a thiid ol tho ovoiall oloctoiato.

Socond, although alnost all ol Loo`s piodocossois havo lacod allogations
ol coiiuption and nisconduct at sono point duiing thoii piosidoncy, ho
is tho hist to conliont such chaigos ovon loloio ontoiing olhco. A spo-
cial piosocutoi`s luioau, sot up ly tho National Assonlly shoitly loloio
tho Doconloi oloction to invostigato allogations ol liaud and stock
nanipulation, initially cloaiod Loo ol any wiongdoing. A luithoi piolo
in Januaiy, just six wooks loloio his inauguiation, also lound hin inno-
cont. Novoitholoss, suspicions ol Loo`s past actions ionain high, loth
anong opposition pailianontaiians and tho gonoial pullic. Givon tho
notoiiously intinato iolations lotwoon politics and lig lusinoss in South
Koioa`s dovolopnont stato, and Loo`s high-piohlo succoss in that syston,
it is possillo that wholo closots lull ol skolotons lion his past havo yot to
o iv
lo oponod. Loo`s piosidoncy could lo doggod ly coiiuption scandals loi
tho noxt hvo yoaisshould ho ionain in olhco loi tho lull toin.
Foi a luithoi unpiocodontod aspoct ol Loo`s piosidoncy has loon tho
diastic collapso ol his suppoit, within a hundiod days ol his Foliuaiy
zoo8 inauguiation. Piotosts aiod altoi his hist tiip to Washington in
Apiil, whoio Loo kowtowod to Bushpionising that South Koioa would
iosuno lool inpoits lion tho VT, lannod altoi tho CTF scaio ol zoo
in oidoi to got a Fioo Tiado Agioonont lack on tiack. By Juno zoo8
thoy had oscalatod into alnost nightly candlolit piotosts in tho contio
ol Sooul and othoi citios, ostinatod to havo nolilizod ovoi a nillion
Koioans. Whilo tiuck diivois stiuck ovoi iising luol piicos, dononstia-
tois donandod an ond to contial planks ol Loo`s piogiannolaigo-scalo
piivatizations, iising oducation costs, attacks on laloui iightsand
callod loi hin to go. On Juno tho Piosidont issuod a tolovisod apology
lion tho Bluo Houso. 'Sitting on tho nountain ly nysoll and looking
at tho ondloss candlolight paiados, I iopioachod nysoll loi not soiving
tho pullic piopoily`, ho avowod. 'Ploaso watch no and tho govoinnont
nako a now stait. I will nako candlo-lit stioots hll with iays ol hopo.` Loo
hastily lacktiackod on plannod piivatizations ol watoi, gas and oloctiic-
ity, ditchod a nulti-lillion dollai piojoct loi a canal connocting Sooul to
Busan in tho southoast, olloiod palliativo sulsidios to snall lusinossos,
stiiking tiuckois and low-incono lanilios, and scianllod to win luithoi
concossions lion Washington on tho suspoct stoois.
How should wo contoxtualizo this dianatic passago in Koioan politics?
Tho ciy ol Dckjc Tudc|'Down with tho Dictatoiship!`was hoaid on
tho stioots ol Sooul this Juno, an ocho ol tho nass piotosts that hnally
liought down tho authoiitaiian Cold Wai govoinnont in tho 'Gioat
Juno Upiising` ol 8;. Loo`s oloction victoiy, as standaid-loaioi ol tho
consoivativo Giand National Paity (HOQa loination with ioots in tho
pio-8; nilitaiy ioginoscloaily iopiosonts a iightwaid shilt, altoi a doc-
ado undoi two succossivo piosidonts ol tho contio-lolt, Kin Dao Jung and
Roh Moo-hyun. This was undoilinod ly tho poi cont ol tho voto scoiod
ly Loo Hoi-changa loinoi HOQ piosidontial candidato, who ontoiod
tho iaco at tho olovonth houi as an indopondont Cold Wai consoivativo.
Tho tiond was conhinod ly tho Apiil zoo8 National Assonlly oloc-
tions, which iosultod in a laio najoiity loi tho HOQ ( ol z soats,
a not gain ol z, and a loss ol sono o poi cont ol iopiosontation loi

'Loo Wins with Biggost Maigin in Lowost Tuinout`, Kcrcu Tincs, Doconloi zoo;.
tvusfv6c: ,PSFB ;
loth tho contio-lolt Unitod Donociatic Paity and tho snall tiado-union
lackod Donociatic Laloui Paity, which lost 8o and soats iospoctivoly.
Yot lonoath tho suilaco ol this loltiight shilt lios a noio anligu-
ous tiansloination ol South Koioan politics. Loo Myung-lak is not
noioly an atavistic consoivativo. Tho iight-wing constollation ol loicos
that doninatod South Koioan politics in tho docados piocoding tho
8; donociatic upiisinga conlination ol stiidont Cold Wai anti-
connunisn, nilitaiy-lod authoiitaiianisn, stato-lusinoss coipoiatisn
and olsoquious pio-Anoiicanisncannot hold as it onco did. Dospito
its authoiitaiian ioots, Loo`s HOQ has novod docisivoly towaids tho polit-
ical contio in iocont yoais. At tho sano tino, noithoi tho adninistiation
ol Kin Dao Jung noi that ol Roh Moo-hyun woio as 'piogiossivo` (tho
toin lavouiod ly tho Koioan Lolt as thoy nay initially havo appoaiod. In
tho caso ol Roh in paiticulai, thoio was an acuto contiadiction lotwoon
his coio suppoit laso and political lackgiound on tho ono hand, and on
tho othoi, tho nooliloial ocononic agonda ho advancod. This disciopancy
latally undoininod Roh`s adninistiation, and nado it all lut inpossi-
llo loi his choson succossoi Chung Dong-young to win tho piosidoncy,
in tho laco ol nass alstontions. Both Kin and Roh woio pioducts ol
tho 8os donociacy novonont, yot this now layoi ontoiod olhco just as
tho ; Asian hnancial ciisis thioatonod to uniavol South Koioa`s 'oco-
nonic niiaclo`. To undoistand tho political conjunctuio in which Loo
Myung-lak is now stiuggling, it is hist nocossaiy to gain a poispoctivo
on tho docado ol iulo ly tho contio-lolt.
Dcnccrutic cpcnings
Ovoi tho couiso ol tho ;os and 8os, tho dictatoiships ol Paik Chung
Hoo and Chun Doo Hwan woio challongod ly ono ol tho nost oxtonsivo,
oiganizod and couiagoous cultuios ol political piotost in tho woild. With
univoisity studonts as its vanguaid, this 'novonont sphoio` (undcngkwcn
onoigod in tho oaily ;os, and ly tho 8os had loinod what histoiian
Nanhoo Loo has callod a 'countoi-pullic sphoio` against tho doninanco
ol tho nilitaiy and nonopoly capital.
z
Tho novonont coaloscod aiound
tho concopt ol tho Minjung, oi 'populai nassos`, it was caiolul to avoid
any languago takon diioctly lion lolt tiaditions, still taloo in dooply
anti-connunist South Koioa. Doniod accoss to tho woiks ol Maix lut
z
Nanhoo Loo, 'Tho South Koioan Studont Movonont: Undcngkwcn as a Countoi-
pullic Sphoio`, in Chailos Ainstiong, od., Kcrcun Sccicty. Civi| Sccicty, Dcnccrucy
und tnc Stutc, znd od., London zooo, pp. zo.
8 iv
taking a cuo lion Giansci, nany studonts woikod undoicovoi in lacto-
iios to dovolop 'oiganic links` with tho oxploding population ol lluo-collai
woikoistho socond conponont ol tho Minjung coalitioncioatod ly
tho highly authoiitaiian industiialization ol tho countiy via tho stato-
lackod conglonoiatos oi cnucbc|s (Hyundai, Daowoo, Sansung and tho
iost in tho post-wai oia.
A thiid conponont consistod ol piogiossivo olononts ol tho Catholic and
Piotostant chuichos. Although piodoninantly consoivativo today, dui-
ing tho ;os piogiossivo gioups on tho Piotostant naigins taught and
oiganizod lactoiy woikois thiough tho Uilan Industiial Mission, which
was dooply inuoncod ly Paulo Fioiio`s Pcdugcgy cj tnc Opprcsscd, whilo
Catholic activists aiticulatod a socially conscious 'Minjung Thoology` akin
to tho contonpoianoous Liloiation Thoology ol Latin Anoiica.

A louith
was undoultodly a powoilul sonso ol iogional oxclusion. Paik Chung
Hoo`s dictatoiship had showoiod ocononic and political lavouis on his
nativo Gyoongsang iogion in tho southoast, at tho oxponso ol tho Joolla
iogion ol tho southwost. Tho lattoi locano tho ioal hotlod ol political
opposition to tho dictatoiship, which lod in tuin to noio disciinination
lion tho contio. Finally, in May 8o tho city ol Kwangju in South Joolla
piovinco oxplodod in a populai upiising against tho now nilitaiy stiong-
nan, Gonoial Chun Doo Hwan, who iospondod with a lloodlath that
killod hundiods ol Kwangju`s citizons.
In othoi iospocts, too, tho South Koioan donociacy novonont ol tho
8os dilloiod quantitativoly and qualitativoly lion its piodocossois. Tho

Donald Claik, 'Piotostant Chiistianity and tho Stato: Roligious Oiganization as

Civil Socioty`, in Ainstiong, od., Kcrcun Sccicty, pp. ;q8z. Tho astonishing suc-
coss ol Chiistianity in South Koioa has yot to lo adoquatoly oxplainod ly histoiians
and social sciontists. Tho countiy has ono ol tho highost piopoitions ol Chiistians
in its population ol any countiy in Asiaat closo to z poi cont, socond only to tho
piodoninantly Catholic Philippinos. Elovon ol tho twolvo laigost congiogations in
tho woild aio in Sooul, including tho woild`s laigost, tho Yoido Full Gospol Chuich,
Loo Myung-lak hinsoll is an oldoi in Sonang Pioslytoiian Chuich, ono ol tho nost
inuontial. Mainstioan Piotostantisn in South Koioa has a piodoninantly con-
soivativo outlook quito sinilai to that ol ovangolicalisn in tho Unitod Statos, which
has dooply inuoncod tho dovolopnont ol Koioan Piotostantisn sinco tho lato th
contuiy. Chiistian iolugoos lion Noith Koioa, contio ol Koioan Chiistianity loloio
qKin Il Sung was hinsoll iaisod in a Pioslytoiian housoholdlocano
tho coio ol tho postwai Piotostant chuich in tho South. Not suipiisingly, nost
Piotostants havo tondod to lo stiongly anti-Connunist and lavouially disposod
to tho VT.
tvusfv6c: ,PSFB
piotosts ol Apiil oo that lod to tho iosignation ol Piosidont Syngnan
Rhoo had laigoly loon conhnod to studonts and intolloctuals, and tho onsu-
ing donociatic oponing was soon iovoisod ly Paik Chung Hoo`s nilitaiy
coup ol May o. Tho noio socially divoiso lut scattoiod donands loi
donociacy lollowing Paik`s assassination in Octoloi ; woio in tuin
ciushod ly Chun Doo Hwan`s soizuio ol powoi in May 8o. Tho Juno
Upiising ol 8; was lai laigoi and noio inclusivo than oithoi ol thoso,
nolilizing hundiods ol thousands ol lactoiy woikois, lainois, studonts
and niddlo-class piolossionals to donand Chun`s iosignation and tho
ostallishnont ol donociatic piocoduios and political lioodons.
q
But il South Koioa`s donociatic tiansition was acconplishod ly a popu-
lai novonont, its donociatic consolidation was olloctod ly intia-olito
cooidinationloading Choi Jang-Jip, ono ol tho nost oninont scholais
ol Koioan politics, to toin it a 'passivo iovolution`.

Fion tho outsot,

South Koioa`s 'tiansition to donociacy` was aigually noio piocoduial
than sulstantivoa 'consoivativo donociatization`, in Choi`s toin,
ovoi-dotoininod ly tho stiuctuios ol tho countiy`s Cold Wai stato and its
cnucbc|-doninatod industiialization which has lailod to pioduco a paity
syston iopiosontativo ol tho ioal divoisity ol intoiosts in Koioan soci-
oty. Tho contial instiunonts ol tho iopiossivo stato appaiatus woio duly
iotainod: tho National Socuiity Law, ostallishod in q8 undoi Syngnan
Rhoo, which allows anyono to lo aiiostod and incaicoiatod without duo
piocoss on suspicion ol 'anti-stato activity`, and tho koy agoncy loi inloic-
ing this, tho Koioan Contial Intolligonco Agoncy, sot up innodiatoly
altoi Paik`s coup ol o.
o
Tho hist piosidontial oloction altoi tho lall ol tho dictatoiship, in
Doconloi 8;, was won ly Chun`s hand-pickod succossoi and ainy
coniado Roh Tao Woo, with laioly a thiid ol tho populai voto, tho
q
Nanhoo Loo, Tnc Muking cj Minjung. Dcnccrucy und tnc Pc|itics cj Rcprcscntuticn
in Scutn Kcrcu, Ithaca zoo;.

Choi Jang-Jip, Dcnccrucy ujtcr Dcnccrutizuticn. Tnc Kcrcun Epcricncc (tians. Loo
Kyung-hoo, Sooul zoo, pp. q;, z;.
o
Pioninont iocont victins ol tho National Socuiity Law includo: tho sociology pio-
lossoi Kang Joong-Koo, aiiostod in zoo loi wiiting a supposodly pio-Kin Il Sung
statonont in a guost look duiing an authoiizod visit to Pyongyang, tho Goinan-
tiainod philosophoi Song Du-yul, inpiisonod in zoo on chaigos ol spying loi
Noith Koioa, and accusod ol loing a high-ianking nonloi ol tho EQSL`s Politluio,
tho Koioan tianslation ol a look ly Kin Myong Chul, an othnic Koioan in Japan,
lannod loi loing too lavouiallo to Kin Jong Il.
zo iv
opposition had loon dividod lotwoon two long-standing pio-donociacy
activists, Kin Dao Jung and Kin Young San. In o, tho lattoi Kin
joinod his paity with Roh`s to loin tho Donociatic Liloial Paity (EMQ,
a 'giand consoivativo coalition` tianspaiontly inspiiod ly Japan`s Liloial
Donociatic Paity. Cloaily tho EMQ`s loostoisnot loast in tho Unitod
Statoshopod it would, liko its Japanoso nodol, ostallish stallo, con-
soivativo ono-paity iulo against a tokon opposition. Though Kin won
tho piosidoncy as EMQ candidato in z, ovon this hand-iiggod ostal-
lishnont giouping lailod to last thiough his toin.
;
Conhining Choi
Jang-Jip`s diagnosis, paitios havo continuod to lo ad-hoc aiiangononts,
oiganizod aiound anlitious individuals with tho solo ain ol winning
oloctions, a lovoiish pio-oloction nolilization is lollowod ly a iapid post-
oloction donolilization. Agonts dosiious ol chango havo tondod to woik
outsido tho political syston iathoi than thiough it.
It is aigually this that oxplains why, dospito its dianatic loginnings,
South Koioa`s donociatizationunliko that ol, say, South Aliica oi
Biazilhas loon incionontal and consoivativo. Signihcant social loicos
havo laigoly loon oxcludod lion tho loinal political piocoss, nost
conspicuously South Koioa`s onco-powoilul (and occasionally still voiy
vocal tiado unions, which ionainod outsido ol politics until tho tuin ol
tho contuiy.
8
Much ol tho studont novonont and tho Chiistian activist
ciiclo dissipatod altoi tho lato 8os, although sono ol its loading non-
lois novod into 'civil socioty`, sinco tho oaily os OHPs havo achiovod
sono succoss in such aioas as oloctoial ioloin, govoinnont account-
alility, wonon`s iights and tho onviionnont.

But loi tho nost pait, tho

political ioaln has loon doninatod ly tho noio consoivativo olononts
ol South Koioan socioty. Tho not iosult ol this consoivativo donocia-
tization has loon a wido gap lotwoon tho hopos loi donociatization
and tho ioality ol South Koioan politics ovoi tho last two docadostho
;
Both tho cioation ol a Japanoso-stylo hogononic paity in South Koioa, and its
sulsoquont lailuio, woio piosciontly loiosoon ly Biuco Cunings in 'Tho Aloitivo
Aloituia: South Koioa in tho Light ol Latin Anoiican Expoiionco`, OMS J];, Jan
Fol 8, p. z.
8
Tho LGUV-lackod Donociatic Laloui Paity was loundod in Januaiy zooo, whon
oiganizod laloui had alioady lost nuch giound, iathoi than in tho hoat ol tho stiug-
glo against tho dictatoiship as with tho Woikois` Paity in Biazil.Tho EMQ won poi
cont ol tho voto and o pailianontaiy soats in tho zooq National Assonlly oloc-
tions, lut in zoo; its Piosidontial candidato Kwon Yong-ghil scoiod only poi cont
and its pailianontaiy iopiosontation was ioducod to soats altoi Apiil zoo8.

Sunhyuk Kin, Tnc Pc|itics cj Dcnccrutizuticn in Kcrcu. Tnc Rc|c cj Civi| Sccicty,
Pittsluigh zoo.
tvusfv6c: ,PSFB z
ioality loing poiiodic spoctaclos ol oloctoial nolilization sot against
sonotinos dianatic, lut iaioly olloctivo, piotosts ly woikois` and civil
socioty gioups. Tho woaknoss ol tho paity syston alono cannot oxplain
this, ol couiso, locauso tho iango ol political options in South Koioa is
also constiainod ly othoi lactoisnot loast tho political oconony ol tho
post-Asian ciisis iogino.
Ajtcr tnc Asiun crisis
Il tho uphoaval ol 8; oponod tho way to a post-authoiitaiian politics
in South Koioa, tho ; Asian hnancial ciisis dononstiatod tho lin-
its on tho countiy`s political and ocononic choicos. Biuco Cunings
has aiguod that tho ciisis sot tho soal on Koioa`s shilt away lion tho
dovolopnontal stato nodol.
o
It was piocisoly in tho nidst ol this ciisis,
in Doconloi ;, that Kin Dao Jung was oloctod piosidont. Tho olh-
cial slogan loi tho hltioth annivoisaiy ol tho lounding ol tho Ropullic ol
Koioa, August 8, was 'Tho Socond Nation-Building`a ioloionco
to tho poiiod ol national constiuction that lollowod Koioa`s liloiation
lion Japanoso colonial iulo in August q. Kin`s nossago was cloai:
South Koioa would put its authoiitaiian, coiiupt, dopondont past lohind
it. A chanpion ol donociacy lut novoi a iadicalindood, an unalashod
adniioi ol BlaiiKin`s iocoid ioocts loth tho linits and tho potontial
ol 'Thiid Way` politics. Kin tiiod to liing ioconciliation in nany aioas:
lotwoon South Koioan iogions, lotwoon laloui and nanagonont, iich
and pooi, lolt and iight, Koioa and Japan, and poihaps nost dianatically
lotwoon Noith and South Koioa.
But Kin ionainod saddlod with tho logacy ol tho past. Donostically, his
piosidoncy was conliontod ly a najoiity 'opposition` paity, tho continuing
powoi ol tho cnucbc| and tho poisistonco ol iogionalisn, which highlightod
his status as iopiosontativo ol tho ninoiity southwostoin Joolla piov-
inco.

Extoinal constiaints includod, histly, South Koioa`s dopondonco on

o
Biuco Cunings, 'Tho Koioan Ciisis and tho End ol Lato" Dovolopnont`, OMS
J]z, SoptOct 8.

Rogionalisn has loon a nuch-ionaikod lactoi in South Koioan politics. In a

countiy whoio othnic honogonoity is takon loi giantod, ioloionco to class division
has loon taloo and idoological choicos aio highly constiainod, iogional idontih-
cation is ono ol tho low viallo souicos ol political nolilization. But iathoi than
loing iootod in 'anciont iivaliios` dating lack to tho Thioo Kingdons ol tho sovonth
contuiy BE, as sono would assoit, in its nodoin loin Koioan iogionalisn is lunda-
nontally a pioduct ol tho skowod policios ol Paik Chung Hoo`s dictatoiship.
zz iv
tho hnancial naikots, altoi tho lilting ol its capital contiols in tho oaily
os, and tho sciutiny ol tho Intoinational Monotaiy Fund in tho wako ol
tho ; ciisis (what South Koioans gonoially call tho 'JNG Ciisis`. Tho
conditions ol tho JNG`s S;ln ioscuo packago includod laloui doiogula-
tion, hscal austoiity, lilting coilings on loioign invostnont to o poi cont,
oponing capital and auto naikots, and instituting intoinational auditing
loi tho cnucbc|. Socondly, ol couiso, thoio was tho SPL`s allianco with tho
Unitod Statos, which shapod its iosponso to tho ciisis and loth lacilitatod
and inhilitod Kin`s ovoituios to Noith Koioa.
Kin was tho hist nativo ol Joolla to lo oloctod piosidont, and ho intondod
his oloction to dononstiato that South Koioa had ovoicono tho lit-
toi iogional divisions ol tho piovious two docados. Tho ioality piovod
othoiwiso. His suppoit was ovoiwholning in his nativo southwost,
lut oxtionoly spaiso in tho southoast.
z
In tho National Assonlly, his
Donociatic Paity naintainod a slin najoiity ovoi tho HOQ ly noans ol
a lizaiio allianco with tho consoivativo Unitod Liloial Donociats, lod
ly Kin Jong Pilloinoi chiol ol tho notoiious LDJB undoi Paik Chung
Hoo, and who had plottod noio than onco to havo Kin killod. As notod,
tho LDJB and tho National Socuiity Law woio iotainod undoi Kin`s piosi-
doncy, though tho loinoi was ionanod National Intolligonco Soivico in
. But Kin`s attonpts at ioloin ondod in conpioniso not only with
tho lingoiing olononts ol authoiitaiian politics lut also with tho intoi-
osts ol Koioan nonopoly capital, iopiosontod in tho cnucbc|.
Eaily on in his piosidoncy, Kin had convonod a tiipaitito connittoo con-
sisting ol loadois ol laloui, lusinoss and govoinnont'No-Sa-Joong`, in
its Koioan allioviationin an attonpt to put his idoas ol social consonsus
and 'paiticipatoiy donociacy` into piactico. Tho connittoo acconplishod
littlo and soon ladod away, in pait locauso oiganizod laloui ionainod
unconvincod, pioloiiing to advanco its intoiosts thiough stiikos and
piotosts. Instoad ol ioconciliation, tho logacy ol tho KinRoh oia has
loon tho iapid giowth ol inloinal woikois, now closo to oo poi cont ol
z
This was tiuo ovon ol Kin`s succossoi Roh Moo-hyun who, although a southoast-
oin nativo, won nost ol his suppoit lion tho southwost. Loo Myung-lak, loi his
pait, is lion Noith Gyoongsang piovinco, as woio Paik Chung Hoo and Chun Doo
Hwan. Tho oloctoial nap lion tho Apiil zoo8 National Assonlly oloction ioocts
continuod, ovon dooponing, polaiization along iogional linos. Not a singlo HOQ pai-
lianontaiian won in Joolla, and no-ono lion tho Unitod Donociats won in oithoi
Noith oi South Gyoongsang.
tvusfv6c: ,PSFB z
tho South Koioan woikloico, and tho luithoi naiginalization ol laloui.

Sinilaily, liloialization ol tho cnucbc|a contial JNG donandhas, il
anything, conhinod tho shilt to capital. In Doconloi 8 Kin won tho
agioonont ol tho top lusinoss loadois to a so-callod 'Big Doal` on stiuc-
tuial ioloin.
q
Tho onsuing cioativo dostiuction shook out a nunloi ol
tho woakoi hinsnost spoctaculaily tho Daowoo gioup, tho hist ol
South Koioa`s najoi conglonoiatos to go lankiupt in tho post-Asian cii-
sis oia. At piosont tho top cnucbc| is no longoi Hyundai, which occupiod
this position thiough nuch ol South Koioa`s hoavy-industiy phaso, lut
Sansung, tho oloctionics giant which has locono tho 'supoi-cnucbc|` ol
tho twonty-hist contuiy.
But whilo tho lioo naikot has loon a iocuiiont ioliain in South Koioa
sinco tho ; hnancial ciisis, in ioality liloialization has takon placo in
halting lashion. Although tho najoiity ol tho woikloico is onployod ly
snalloi ontoipiisos, tho cnucbc| continuo to call tho shots, accounting loi
oo poi cont ol oxpoits. Tho oconony ionains doninatod ly laigo con-
glonoiatos to a dogioo poihaps gioatoi than any othoi capitalist nation.
Aigually, iathoi than sulstituting stato-lod dovolopnont with nooliloial
ocononic piacticos, South Koioa has gialtod tho lattoi onto tho loinoi.

As a iosult, tho jol socuiity, holidays, hoalthcaio and othoi lonohts tho
cnucbc| onco olloiod thoii onployoos havo loon stoadily oiodod ovoi tho
past docado. Tho stato has dono littlo to hll tho gap in any ol thoso aioas,
and a sonso ol ocononic vulnoialility on tho pait ol oidinaiy South
Koioans has loon a najoi logacy ol tho 'piogiossivo` docado.
Moanwhilo Kin`s 'Sunshino policy` ol poacolul ongagonont with Noith
Koioa, which was to havo loon tho contiopioco ol his tino in olhco,
nado littlo piogioss altoi his histoiic Juno zooo sunnit nooting with
Kin Jong Il, as wo shall soo. Kin Dao Jung thus ondod his piosidoncy
loloaguoiod loth ly oppononts on tho iight and ly loinoi suppoitois
on tho lolt, with his ioloin piogianno stallod and his najoi loioign-
policy initiativo undoi attack lion tho Whito Houso. As a iosult it was

Young-Sook Kwoon, 'Liloial Donociacy without a Woiking Class? Donociatization,

Coalition Politics and tho Laloui Movonont in South Koioa, 8;zooo`, PhD dis-
soitation, Colunlia Univoisity zoo;, p. zo, also Hagon Koo, Kcrcun Wcrkcrs. Tnc
Cu|turc und Pc|itics cj C|uss Fcrnuticn, Ithaca zooz.
q
Baiiy Gills and Dong-Sook Gills, 'South Koioa and Glolalization: Tho Riso to
Glolalisn?`, in Sanuol Kin, od., Eust Asiu und C|cbu|izuticn, Lanhan, NE zooo,
pp. 88.

Choi, Dcnccrucy ujtcr Dcnccrutizuticn, p. oq.

zq iv
widoly oxpoctod that tho HOQ candidato, Loo Hoi-chang, would swoop
tho zooz piosidontial oloction. Tho victoiy ol Roh Moo-hyun, a hith-
oito littlo-known, soll-taught hunan-iights lawyoi whoso ocononic and
oducational lackgiound placod hin woll outsido tho nainstioan ol
South Koioa`s political class, was an unoxpoctod upsot against iosuigont
consoivativo loicos.
Tho outcono ol tho zooz oloction was widoly intoipiotod as iooct-
ing a gonoiational shilt, and in paiticulai a tiiunph loi tho so-callod
'8o gonoiation`: thoso in thoii os at tho tino, who ontoiod univoi-
sity in tho 8os and woio loin in tho oos. Unliko thoii paionts,
whoso loinativo oxpoiionco was tho Koioan Wai and whoso anti-Noith
Koioan, pio-VT sontinonts woio takon loi giantod, tho 8o-ois woio
shapod alovo all ly tho donociatic uphoavals ol tho 8os. Gonoially
noio piogiossivo in such aioas as civil iights and iolations with Noith
Koioa and tho VT, this was tho donogiaphic sognont that, noio than
any othoi, holpod Roh win tho oloction.
o
But hvo yoais latoi, tho 8o-ois
no longoi hold togothoi as a cohosivo lloc, and woio as likoly to voto
against tho piogiossivo canp`s candidato as loi hin. Although uncoas-
ingly attackod as loltist, Roh`s adninistiation dispatchod Koioan tioops
to Iiaq, and its ocononic policios piovod noio nooliloial than any ol
its piodocossois.
Tho vicissitudos ol tho Roh adninistiation illustiato vividly tho contiadic-
tions ol South Koioan politics. Not long altoi his naiiow oloction victoiy
in zooz, Roh split lion Kin Dao Jung`s Now Millonniun Donociatic
Paity (ONEQ to loin his own paity, tho Yoollin Uii Dang oi 'Oui Opon
Paity`, usually ioloiiod to as tho Uii Paity. In oaily zooq, Roh suivivod
inpoachnont piocoodings logun ly an allianco ol HOQ opposition
pailianontaiians and nonlois ol tho ONEQ, lut his Uii Paity cano
lack to win a najoiity in tho National Assonlly that Apiiltho hist
tino in nany yoais a piosidont and a pailianontaiy najoiity had shaiod
tho sano paity alhliation. Howovoi, Roh`s political capital ovapoiatod
alnost instantly. Attonpting to iulo as a populist thiough diioct appoals
to citizons` suppoit, ospocially via tho intoinota nodiun which holpod
hin win tho zooz oloction, lut has sinco locono as usolul loi consoiva-
tivos as piogiossivosRoh`s olton high-handod stylo alionatod nany
Koioans ovon lion his own pait ol tho political spoctiun, to say nothing
ol tho consoivativo opposition, as woll as noaily all signihcant intoiosts
o
Cho Kuk, '8o Gonoiation: Today and Tonoiiow`, Kcrcu Fccus, Foliuaiy zoo;.
tvusfv6c: ,PSFB z
in tho Koioan ostallishnont: tho nainstioan nodia, tho nilitaiy,
lusinoss loadois and loading univoisitios. Roh locano incioasingly iso-
latod in tho last hall ol his piosidoncy, govoining piincipally thiough
a consoivativo luioauciacy.
South Koioa`s connitnont to naikot liloialization has loon a constant
at loast sinco Kin Young San`s policy ol 'glolalization` oi scgycwnu in tho
nid-os, lut tho Roh adninistiation`s onthusiasn loi lioo tiado, and
paiticulaily lilatoial Fioo Tiado Agioononts, was unpaiallolod. Undoi
Roh, GUBs woio nogotiatod with loity-hvo countiios in two yoais, no
doult a woild iocoid. But tho KoioaVT Fioo Tiado Agioonont signod
in zoo; stood out, along with tho docision to connit tioops to tho wai
in Iiaq, as ono ol tho nost divisivo loioign-policy issuos ol Roh`s piosi-
doncy, ospocially anong his coio suppoitois. Tho LPSVT GUB inspiiod
sono ol tho laigost oiganizod piotosts South Koioa had soon sinco tho
oaily os.
;
Dospito donostic opposition (and to nuch lossoi dogioo,
ciiticisn within tho VT, tho GUB was signod loth ly tho Koioan and ly
tho VT piosidont.
Witn und uguinst Ancricu
Populai opinion in Koioa was ovon noio stiongly opposod to VT nilitaiy
policios duiing this poiiodnaiking a distinct shilt. Foi ovoi loity yoais
duiing tho Cold Wai, tho puiposo ol tho VTSPL allianco had loon soon
ly loth sidos as unanliguous: dolonding South Koioa, as pait ol tho
'lioo woild`, against tho thioat ol tho Noith, lackod ly China and tho
VTTS. Tho Soviot collapso did not lundanontally altoi this. Duiing tho
oaily RohBush yoais, howovoi, and dospito tho SPL contingont in Iiaq,
Anoiica and South Koioa dilloiod not only in thoii viow ol tho Noith
Koioan thioat, lut on tho natuio ol VTSPL iolations noio gonoially. Tho
nadii cano in tho wintoi ol zoozo, whon tons ol thousands ol Koioans
paiticipatod in candlo-lit vigils calling loi VT accountalility in tho doaths
ol two schoolgiils accidontally killod ly Anoiican nilitaiy vohiclos. Tho
piotosts woio onloddod in a lioadoi sonso ol unoaso. Statistics iooctod
a shaip chango ol attitudo, in a countiy that had loon alnost uniquo in
its ovoiwholningly pio-Anoiicanisn a gonoiation oailioi. A poll takon
ly tho ]ccngung !|bc nowspapoi in Doconloi zooz iovoalod that only
poi cont ol South Koioans viowod tho VT lavouially, whilo o poi
cont viowod it unlavouially, and o poi cont woio noutial. Fuithoinoio,
;
Soo tho wolsito ol tho Koioan Allianco Against tho LPSVTGUB, www.nolta.oi.ki.
zo iv
;z poi cont ol South Koioans in thoii os, and oz poi cont in thoii zos,
wantod to iostiuctuio tho VTSPL allianco to nako it noio oqual.
8
Whilo sono olsoivois attiilutod such shilts to a gonoial iiso ol 'anti-
Anoiicanisn` anong youngoi South Koioans, thoy havo aigually
had noio to do with tho Bush adninistiation`s salio-iattling against
Pyongyang and tho wai in Iiaq, which nany saw as a chilling pioco-
dont loi an attack on Noith Koioa. But tho now lovol ol tonsion in tho
VTEQSL conliontation also locusod attontion on tho ;,ooo VT tioops
on South Koioan toiiitoiy, positionod noai tho loidoi as woll as at
Yongsan Ainy Baso, occupying piino ioal ostato in tho contio ol Sooul,
a piosonco no longoi logitinatod ly tho Cold Wai. Tho Status ol Foicos
Agioonont lotwoon tho VT and South Koioa, and in paiticulai tho auto-
natic Anoiican assunption ol contiol ovoi SPL loicos in tho ovont ol
wai, was a luithoi point ol contontion. Tho Roh Adninistiation pushod
loi changos in loth thoso aioas. In Juno zoo, with Anoiican loicos
tiod down in Alghanistan and Iiaq, tho Pontagon announcod it would
novo tioops away lion tho loidoi, and io-doploy ;,ooo soldiois out ol
Sooul to lasos laithoi south.

Tho lollowing yoai, tho two govoinnonts

agiood on a ioduction ol alout z,ooo VT tioops, and tho handovoi to
South Koioa ol waitino opoiational contiol ol its own nilitaiy loicos ly
zozalthough thoio aio as yot no concioto plans to ionovo VT soldiois
lion tho poninsula altogothoi.
Rcturn cj tnc CNP
Such novos lailod to socuio noio gonoial suppoit loi Roh`s adninistia-
tion. By tho ond ol his toin in olhco ho had locono ono ol tho nost
unpopulai piosidonts sinco opinion polls logan in Koioaalthough it
should lo notod that all piosidonts sinco 8; havo lolt olhco lai loss
populai than whon thoy logan. Dospito his lioo-tiado policios, South
Koioa`s giowth ionainod sluggish iolativo to its past poiloinanco, whilo
onploynont stagnatod. Tho post-; iocovoiy had loon lasod on high-
ond oxpoits to tho VT, in sono instancos ioutod via assonlly plants in
China, it was luithoi loostod altoi zooo ly a donostic ciodit lulllo.
Whon this collapsod in zooq, altoi a ciodit-caid accounting scandal, a
8
Soo Loo Sook-jong, 'Anti-Anoiicanisn in South Koioa: A Suivoy-Basod Analysis`,
Koioa Econonic Instituto Acadonic Study Soiios, zooq.

Bill Gooitz, 'Pontagon to shilt tioops in S. Koioa`, Wusningtcn Tincs, o Juno zoo.
tvusfv6c: ,PSFB z;
luithoi lulllo llow up in ioal ostato. Tho iosult has loon iising indolt-
odnoss and laloui insocuiity, acconpaniod ly iockoting housing piicos.
Moanwhilo tho gap lotwoon iich and pooi clinlod to tho thiid-highost
in tho PFDE.
zo
Whon lacod with a choico lotwoon a closot pio-lusinoss piosidont and
an opon ono in tho zoo; oloction, a pluiality ol South Koioan votois
choso tho lattoi. Liko Boilusconi and Thaksin loloio hin, Loo Myung-lak
succoodod in poitiaying his Hyundai lackgiound and his own iags-
to-iichos stoiy as a lasis loi sound ocononic loadoiship. Loo did woll
anong votois in thoii os and qos, lut his highost suppoit cano lion
thoso in thoii zostho loast ocononically socuio ago gioup, and paitly
loi this ioason nuch noio consoivativo than thoii innodiato oldois.
z

Whothoi Loo`s ocononic policios can alloviato that insocuiity is anothoi
nattoi. His 'lusinoss-liiondly` position appoais to lo voiy pio-cnucbc|,
and ho has pioposod policios that would iovoiso a nunloi ol logal con-
stiaints on cnucbc| oxpansion, such as linits on oquity invostnont and
tho sopaiation ol hnancial and industiial capital.
zz
Tho 'Big Doal` initi-
atod ly Kin Dao Jung, novoi nuch ol a lig doal in tho hist placo, is likoly
to lo scalod lack undoi Loo, tho govoinnont and nonopoly capital in
South Koioa aio on noio coopoiativo toins now than at any tino sinco
tho oaily os. As tho Juno zoo8 piotosts havo iovoalod, howovoi, Loo`s
lioodon ol nanoouvio nay lo linitod.
Sinilaily, Loo`s position on Noith Koioa involvos nultiplo contiadic-
tions. Duiing his piosidontial canpaign Loo nado tough noisos on tho
quostion, and on ontoiing olhco ciiticizod tho policy ol ongagonont as
'unilatoial appoasonont`. Ho onphasizod Pyongyang`s conploto con-
plianco with tho donucloaiization agioonont as a piocondition loi lutuio
intoi-Koioan coopoiation and, in paiticulai, laigo-scalo invostnontsuch
as tho dovolopnont ol tho Haoju-Wost Soa aioa, pionisod ly Roh in tho
zo
'S. Koioa has thiid-highost ocononic polaiization in PFDE`, Tnc !unkycrcn, z
Juno zoo;.
z
In a iocont poll ol studonts lion South Koioa`s top univoisitios, takon ly tho
!unkcck !|bc nowspapoi, slightly noio idontihod thonsolvos as 'consoivativo` than
'liloial`: z poi cont voisus z poi cont, although nost considoiod thonsolvos 'nod-
oiato`. Whon askod il thoy would join a novonont loi donociacy such as tho Juno
8; upiising, noio than oo poi cont answoiod 'no`. 'Shinsodao: Consoivativo
Attitudos ol a Now Gonoiation" in South Koioa and tho Inpact on tho Koioan
Piosidontial Eloction`, EustWcst Ccntcr !nsignts, no. z, Soptonloi zoo;.
zz
'Will Pio-Cnucbc| Policy Holp Rovivo Econony?`, Kcrcu Tincs, o Januaiy zoo8.
z8 iv
8-Point Agioonont signod at tho Octoloi zoo; NoithSouth sunnit in
Pyongyang, which outlinod a wido iango ol coopoiativo activitios.
z
But
though ho noods to dononstiato his toughnoss on Pyongyang to ploaso
his consoivativo laso, givon Hyundai`s iocoid as South Koioa`s laigost
coipoiato invostoi in tho Noith, Loo would soon paiticulaily woll posi-
tionod to continuo and doopon South Koioa`s ocononic ponotiation ol
tho EQSL. Choap, disciplinod Noith Koioan laloui piovidos an iiiosist-
illo attiaction to South Koioan capital, which has invostod hundiods ol
nillions ol dollais in tho Gaosong Industiial Zono piojoct (loundod ly
tho HyundaiAsan conpany, and looks loiwaid to lutuio invostnont
zonos in othoi paits ol Noith Koioa.
Whilo thoio aio ioal dilloioncos on tho quostion in Sooul, thoio is a gonoial
consonsus that NoithSouth coopoiation is lonohcial to loth sidos, that
giadual iounihcation is pioloiallo to suddon collapso and a Goinan-stylo
alsoiption ol Noith Koioa ly tho SPL, and that poisuasion is pioloiallo
to cooicion. Such viows aio, lioadly spoaking, shaiod acioss tho political
spoctiun in South Koioa, including nuch ol tho iight. In Juno zoo; tho
HOQ, long hawkish on tho Noith, iovisod its policy to lavoui ongagonont,
olloctivoly aligning itsoll with tho position ol tho two 'liloial` piosidonts,
Kin Dao Jung and Roh Moo-hyun.
zq
A long-toin stiatogy ol naintain-
ing South Koioan inuonco and pulling Noith Koioa noio lully into tho
oilit ol Southoin capital calls loi noio ocononic ongagonont, not loss. It
ionains to lo soon whothoi tho idoological oi ocononically oppoitunistic
sido ol Loo`s Noith Koioa policy will win out.
Pcninsu|ur dip|cnucy
That Koioa ionains dividod lotwoon Noith and South, noaily two
docados altoi tho lall ol tho Boilin Wall, is oloquont tostinony to tho
sui gcncris chaiactoi ol tho poninsula`s 'division syston` which Paik
Nak-chung discussod yoais ago.
z
Tho Cold Wai was a nocossaiy lut
coitainly not sulhciont causo ol this, and tho longoi Koioa`s NoithSouth
divido poisists, tho cloaioi appoai tho dilloioncos lotwoon Koioan and
z
Loonid Potiov, 'Piosidont Loo Myung-lak`s Noith Koioa Policy: Donucloaiization
oi Disongagonont?`, Nautilus Instituto Policy Foiun Onlino, z; Maich zoo8, soo
also tho 'Doclaiation on tho Advanconont ol SouthNoith Koioan Rolations, Poaco
and Piospoiity`, q Octoloi zoo;, availallo at www.koioa.not.
zq
Kin Koun-shik, 'HOQ`s Sunshino Policy`, Kcrcu Fccus, July zoo;.
z
Paik Nak-chung, 'South Koioa: Unihcation and tho Donociatic Challongo`, OMS
J];, JanFol .
tvusfv6c: ,PSFB z
Euiopoan paitition. Alovo all, unliko tho oistwhilo Goinan Donociatic
Ropullic, tho EQSLsinco its loundation in q8, a staunchly national-
ist iogino pioloundly dilloiont lion tho Soviot dopondoncios ol Eastoin
Euiopohas dohod nost outsidois` oxpoctations and olstinatoly iolusod
to lado into histoiical ollivion.
zo
Not until tho VT and Noith Koioa had
pullod lack lion tho liink ol wai in Juno q, at tho clinax ol what wo
can now call tho 'hist Noith Koioan nucloai ciisis`, did tho VTand latoi
South Koioaaccopt that tho EQSL was not going to disappoai soon,
and had to lo doalt with (in tho woids ol Clinton`s Sociotaiy ol Dolonso
Willian J. Poiiy 'as it is, not as wo wish it to lo`.
z;
Tho synlol ol this changod Anoiican viow ol Noith Koioaand poi-
haps vico-voisawas tho Octoloi q Fianowoik Agioonont, which
liozo Noith Koioa`s plutoniun piogianno in oxchango loi onoigy assist-
anco and novonont towaids noinalizing political iolations. But ovon
altoi tho Juno zooo sunnit lotwoon Kin Dao Jung and Kin Jong Il,
a najoi agioonont to iosolvo tho nucloai quostion and novo loiwaid
on WashingtonPyongyang noinalization novoi natoiializod. Tho
inconing Bush adninistiation, iooxivoly opposod to nuch ol Clinton`s
loioign policynot loast its 'appoasonont` ol Pyongyangadoptod a
noio conliontational stanco. A socond nucloai ciisis oiuptod in Octoloi
zooz, whon tho VT accusod Noith Koioa ol caiiying on a sociot uianiun
oniichnont piogianno in oidoi to ovado tho q lan. As haidlinois
in tho Bush adninistiation had long hopod, tho q agioonont soon
collapsod. But tho EQSL itsoll did not, and in Apiil zoo, thiough tho
nodiation ol Boijing, tho VT, Noith Koioa, South Koioa, China, Japan and
Russia ontoiod into six-way talks on tho Noith Koioan nucloai issuo.
Tho Six-Paity talks piocoodod in hts and staits. In Novonloi zoo a
hlth iound was ondod ly tho VT, who announcod it would lioozo Noith
Koioan assots at tho Banco Dolta Asia in Macau. Eight nonths latoi, on
July zoo, Pyongyang ondod a soll-inposod nissilo noiatoiiun in placo
sinco 8 and tost-launchod sovon lallistic nissilos, on Octoloi zoo,
it announcod it had succosslully caiiiod out an undoigiound nucloai
tost. Both actions woio condonnod ly VO Socuiity Council iosolutions,
with China`s agioonont, lut no iotiilution took placo. Evontually tho
zo
Chailos Ainstiong, Tnc Ncrtn Kcrcun Rcvc|uticn, rrc, Ithaca zooz.
z;
On tho hist Noith Koioan nucloai ciisis, soo Loon Sigal, Disurning Strungcrs.
Nuc|cur Dip|cnucy witn Ncrtn Kcrcu, Piincoton , on tho socond ciisis ol
zoozoo, soo Yoichi Funalashi, Tnc Pcninsu|u Qucsticn. A Cnrcnic|c cj tnc Scccnd
Kcrcun Nuc|cur Crisis, Washington, ED zoo;.
o iv
VT lackod down, olloiing a sot ol incontivos loi Noith Koioa to iotuin
to tho Six-Paity talks, tho iosult was tho agioonont ol Foliuaiy zoo;,
which callod loi tho EQSL to shut down and alandon its Yonglyon ioac-
toi, invito lack JBFB inspoctois, and iovoal tho lull oxtont ol its nucloai
piogianno. In oxchango, tho VT and Japan would novo towaids noi-
nalization ol tios with tho EQSL, and olloi onoigy and hunanitaiian
assistanco. In Octoloi zoo;, Pyongyang pionisod to lulhl tho agioo-
nont ly tho ond ol tho yoai, and ioalhinod its connitnont not to
tiansloi nucloai natoiials, tochnology oi know-how. Loss than a yoai
altoi tho EQSL`s nucloai tost, tho nood had changod lion visions ol tho
apocalypso to hopos loi poaco and ocononic coopoiation. Evon its lail-
uio to noot tho Doconloi doadlino loi lull disclosuio was disnissod
as a iolativoly ninoi inconvonionco ly tho Anoiican nogotiatois, Noith
Koioa continuod to hand ovoi koy docunonts in tho hist hall ol zoo8.
z8
Most South Koioans today noithoi loai a Noith Koioan invasion noi dosiio
a Noith Koioan collapso. Whilo thoio aio a snall nunloinostly youngoi
and concontiatod in tho long-disonlianchisod South Joolla iogionwho
adniio tho Kin Jong Il iogino and ospocially Noith Koioa`s indopond-
onco, stiidont nationalisn and iolusal to sulnit to tho will ol tho VT, tho
gonoial attitudo night lo dosciilod as a dosiio loi 'containnont`: kooping
tho Noith alivo lut at lay, il nocossaiy thiough ocononic assistanco, so
long as it is not too costly loi tho South. This is a lai ciy lion tho loivont
hopo loi unihcation that notivatod South Koioans loi docados altoi tho
initial division, lut it lollows logically lion tho ocononically piagnatic
woild-viow that doninatos contonpoiaiy South Koioa.
Kcrcu in tnc wcr|d
Most loioign visitois to South Koioa today aiiivo at Inchoon aiipoit, a
spoctaculai now lacility on an island in tho Han Rivoi ostuaiy wost ol
Sooul, not lai lion tho sito ol Gonoial Douglas MacAithui`s lanous
Soptonloi o landing that changod tho couiso ol tho Koioan Wai.
Cuiiontly tho louith-lusiost aiipoit in tho woild ly caigo, Inchoon
Aiipoit is ono ol tho nost visillo synlols ol South Koioa`s hopos loi a
contial iolo in tho ocononic dynanisn ol Noithoast Asiaduo, ospo-
cially, to Koioa`s pioxinity to China. Tho countiy`s stiatogic position
lotwoon tho onpiios ol China, Russia and Japan, long soon as its nain
woaknoss, cano to lo ioinaginod as a uniquo souico ol stiongth.
z8
'N. Koioa Hands Ovoi Koy Nucloai Docunonts"`, Cncsun !|bc, May zoo8.
tvusfv6c: ,PSFB
Fion tho outsot, tho Roh adninistiation sought to locus on South Koioa`s
activo iolo in iogional ocononic intogiation, dulling Koioa tho 'hul
oconony` loi Noithoast Asia. In his Foliuaiy zoo inauguial addioss,
Roh assoitod that 'tho Ago ol Noithoast Asia is last appioaching`, add-
ing that ho had long dioanod ol 'a iogional connunity ol poaco and
co-piospoiity . . . liko tho Euiopoan Union`.

Japan, tho woild`s socond
laigost oconony, htlully onoiging lion a 'lost docado` ol stagnation in
tho os, China, tho woild`s lastost-giowing oconony and loth Koioa`s
and Japan`s top invostnont naikot, and Koioa togothoi conpiiso an
incioasingly intogiatod iogional oconony. Tios aio stiongthoning in
othoi aioas: noio Koioan studonts now study in China than in tho VT,
whilo South Koioan populai cultuiopiincipally its hlnshas locono
all tho iago in Japan, China and Southoast Asia. Japanoso cultuio, long
lannod ly tho South Koioan govoinnont, has sinilaily takon oll in
Koioa. In tho aioa ol socuiity, a iogion dividod loi docados ly Cold Wai
conliontation has loon coning togothoi, paiadoxically poihaps, ovoi tho
Noith Koioan nucloai issuo, thiough tho vohiclo ol tho Six-Paity talks.
Bystandois loi ovoi a contuiy, as noio powoilul countiios docidod tho
poninsula`s lato, Koioans aio now activo paiticipants in nogotiations,
alongsido thoii iogional noighlouis and tho Anoiicans. Tho Roh govoin-
nont wont so lai as to suggost that South Koioa could play tho iolo ol
a nodiatoi in disputos lotwoon Japan and China, and lotwoon Noith
Koioa and tho Unitod Statos.
Tho idoa ol Koioa`s advantagoous contiality in this now iogional oidoi
was nost lully aiticulatod ly tho scholai and loioign-policy advisoi
Bao Kichan in his lostsolling Kcrcu ut tnc Crcssrcuds, allogodly ono
ol Piosidont Roh`s lavouiito looks.
z
Bao aiguod loi South Koioa to
locono a 'lalancoi loi poaco and piospoiity in Noithoast Asia`, an alu-
ont and noutial niddlo-ianking powoi that could lo tho 'Switzoiland ol
Asia`. Ultinatoly, Bao suggosts, tho dooponing ocononic linkagos on tho
poninsula, tho dolusing ol nilitaiy tonsions lotwoon tho Koioas, and tho
connon aspiiations loi 'poaco and piospoiity` anong tho najoi powois
would load to a politically unihod Koioan poninsula playing a contial iolo
in a coopoiativo and incioasingly intogiatod Noithoast Asia.
Tho Loo Myung-lak govoinnont has iojoctod nuch ol this noutialist
vision, sooing tho countiy as a pio-VT paitisan, not a 'nodiatoi`. Loo has
z
Bao Kichan, Kcrcu ut tnc Crcssrcuds. Tnc !istcry und Futurc cj Eust Asiu, Sooul
zoo.
z iv
pionisod to inpiovo iolations with Japan, lut this is a tough soll in loth
countiios, whilo tho SPL`s iolations with China havo oncountoiod now
dilhcultios. Russia, although South Koioa has sulstantial invostnonts
thoio, is haidly considoiod a closo ally. Noithoast Asia nay not altoi all
lo tho FV ol tho lutuio, with Koioa at its contio (poihaps Bolgiun is a
lottoi analogy than Switzoiland. Evon loloio tho ond ol tho Roh adnin-
istiation, in lact, tho notion ol Koioa as a 'hul oconony` had loon quiotly
dioppod lion olhcial discouiso. Thoio is widospioad iocognition anong
South Koioans that thoii countiy`s tino in tho sun nay not last. Tho
SPL`s oconony is woll lohind that ol Japan, and will piolally ionain
so loi tho loiosooallo lutuio. Its population is lai snalloi than that ol
Russia oi China, ovon il its oconony is laigoi than tho loinoi`s and
noio advancod than tho lattoi`s. In any caso, givon tho QSD`s oxtiaoidi-
naiy ocononic giowthioniniscont ol 'Koioa, Inc.` in its 8os hoyday
lut on a lai laigoi scaloSouth Koioa`s tochnological load ovoi China
nay not last nuch longoi. Fuithoinoio, as tochnology tiansloi to China
accoloiatos, South Koioa iuns tho iisk ol losing out lotwoon low-wago
China and high-toch Japan. Tho hopos pinnod on Koioa as a 'gatoway` to
tho QSD, and on tho cioation ol an ontiioly now lioo-tiado-oiiontod city
on Koioa`s wost coast to oncouiago loioign invostnonttho so-callod
Songdo Uliquitous City, a joint piojoct lotwoon tho Now Joisoy-lasod
Galo Conpany and QPTDP, South Koioa`s iion and stool giantlog tho
olvious quostion: why would loioignois invost acioss tho Yollow Soa
lion China whon thoy could invost in China diioctly?
o
Noithoast Asia is not likoly to locono Wostoin Euiopo anytino soon.
In Koioa`s pait ol tho woild, tho logic ol naikot intogiation has yot to
tiunp histoiical aninositios. Toxtlooks downplaying Japanoso atiocitios
in Woild Wai II and Piino Ministoi Koizuni`s visits to tho Yasukuni
Shiino iogulaily stiiiod up populai outciios and govoinnont piotosts in
South Koioa as in China. A histoiical disputo ovoi tho anciont kingdon ol
Koguiyowhothoi it was 'othnically` Koioan, as Koioans loliovo, oi pait
ol China, as tho Chinoso clainlod to a najoi diplonatic iow in zooq.

China and tho SPL havo also locono iivals, ospocially ovoi ocononic
inuonco, in Noith Koioa. South Koioa`s 'China loon`, loginning in
tho oaily os whon tho two countiios ostallishod diplonatic iolations,
has iocontly locono tonpoiod ly tho ioalization that tho QSD could lo
o
Panola Licalzi O`Connoll, 'Koioa`s High-Toch Utopia, Whoio Evoiything Is
Olsoivod`, Ncw Ycrk Tincs, Octoloi zoo.

Biuco Klingnoi, 'China Shock loi South Koioa`, Asiu Tincs, Soptonloi zooq.
tvusfv6c: ,PSFB
an ocononic thioat as woll as an oppoitunity. Tho Roh adninistiation`s
onoigotic puisuit ol a lioo tiado agioonont with tho VT iopiosonts ono
attonpt to countoilalanco Chinoso powoi and inuonco.
Micd wcddings
Tho ond ol tho dovolopnontal stato in South Koioa has also had unox-
poctod donostic consoquoncos. As in Japan, capitalist aluonco has
challongod Koioa`s nono-othnic insulaiity. As iocontly as two docados
ago, tho only sulstantial gioups ol loioignois in South Koioa woio its
dwindling othnic Chinoso connunity and Anoiican soldiois. Most ol
tho lattoi ionainod in oi noai tho VT nilitaiy lasos that dot tho Ropullic
liko an inland aichipolagotho laigost loing at Yongsan, loinoily tho
hono gaiiison ol tho Japanoso colonial ainy, now occupying sovoial
hundiod acios in tho hoait ol Sooul. Just oast ol Yongsan is tho notoii-
ous Itaowon distiict, onco tho oxclusivo donain ol Anoiican soldiois
and tho piostitutos and noichants who soivod thon, and now a najoi
touiist dostination. Evon iospoctallo niddlo-class Koioans, long laiiod
lion tho aioa loth out ol soll-iospoct and ly South Koioan law, can lo
lound slunning it thoio, sono ol tho non soliciting tho lavouis ol East
Euiopoan piostitutos in tho now 'Russian cluls`.
Equally ionaikallo is tho piosonco ol guost woikois lion South Asia
and Aliica. On a Fiiday ovoning, Pakistani and Bangladoshi non can
lo soon walking past tho hostoss lais towaids Sooul`s nain nosquo,
which liko nost things loioign is soquostoiod to Itaowon, whilo Wost
Aliican woikois onoigo out ol tho cluls onto tho stioots. Without tho
piosonco ol thoso guost woikois sowing clothos and handlags in tho
local lactoiios, South Koioa`s gainont-oxpoit industiy, alioady lattoiod
ly conpotition lion South Asia and Latin Anoiica, would collapso. Tho
tiansloination ol Itaowon is a niciocosn ol South Koioa`s shilt lion a
gaiiison stato supoiintondod ly tho Anoiican nilitaiy to paiticipant in
a kaloidoscopically tiansnational division ol laloui.
Thoso nostly undocunontod and ladly tioatod loioign woikois nunloi
in tho hundiods ol thousands, and although Kin Dao Jung liioy
sought to addioss thoii plight, thoii positionin a countiy whoio
ocononic insocuiity allocts wido soctions ol sociotyis still quito pio-
caiious. Tho laigost gioup ol undocunontod innigiants ly lai consists
ol othnic Koioans lion China, whoso appoaianco and connand ol tho
q iv
Koioan languago onallo thon to woik undotoctod, occupying nany ol
tho 'Thioo-D`diity, dilhcult and dangoiousjols that nany South
Koioans ioluso. Occasionally a spoctaculai ovont, such as tho waiohouso
hio that killod a dozon Koioan-Chinoso in Januaiy zoo8, diaws atton-
tion to tho situation ol thoso nigiants.
z
Foi tho nost pait, howovoi, thoy
opoiato invisilly on South Koioa`s ocononic naigins.
Innigiants also piovido a noio intinato soivico in twonty-hist con-
tuiy South Koioa. As tho socioty has uilanizod, wonon havo ockod
to tho city lion tho countiy, loaving lohind tho young non, who aio
oxpoctod to continuo woiking on tho lanily lain. A dispiopoitionato
nunloi ol singlo non thus ionain in tho countiysido, unallo to hnd
liidos. Tho solution has loon to inpoit wonon lion tho pooioi paits ol
Asia, ospocially China and Southoast Asian countiios (Viotnan, shaiing
a Conlucian cultuial hoiitago with Koioa, is soon as a paiticulaily attiac-
tivo souico ol liidos. By zooq appioxinatoly z;.q poi cont ol iuial South
Koioan non woio naiiiod to non-Koioan wonon.

In sono villagos, tho

iato ol 'intoinational naiiiago` is ovoi hlty poi cont. Only in tho najoi
citios, ospocially Sooul, aio tho ovoiwholning najoiity ol Koioans nai-
iiod to othoi Koioans, tho countiysido is now lai noio cosnopolitan than
tho city. Along with tho piosonco ol sono ono nillion loioign woikois,
this high iato ol intoinaiiiago has holpod to undoinino Koioa`s long-
hold soll-poicoptionshaiod with low countiios othoi than Japanas
an othnically honogonoous nation. It ionains to lo soon how succoss-
lully South Koioa can adapt to this now nulti-cultuial onviionnont, tho
Japanoso piocodont doos not olloi a voiy pionising nodol.
Two docados altoi tho 'Gioat Juno Upiising` ol 8; which liought down
tho nilitaiy govoinnont ol Chun Doo Hwan, and ton yoais altoi tho
;8 Asian hnancial ciisis that thioatonod to uniavol South Koioa`s
ocononic 'niiaclo`, tho countiy hnds itsoll lacing considoiallo anxioty
ovoi its ocononic lutuio. A changing iolationship with tho Unitod Statos
is iooctod in tho still-uniatihod Fioo Tiado Agioonont and tho quostion
ol tho iodoploynont ol VT nilitaiy loicos. Dooponing ongagonont with
Noith Koioa, dospito tho ongoing wai ol woids on tho poninsula, and an
z
Kwan-Tao Kin, 'China Sooks Citizon JEs in S. Koioan Fiio`, !ntcrnuticnu| !cru|d
Tribunc, Januaiy zoo8.

Loo Hyo-sik, 'Ono in Foui Ruial Bacholois Maiiy Foioignois`, Kcrcu Tincs, z;
Juno zoo. Ol thoso loioign wonon, tho vast najoiity (ovoi o poi cont woio
lion oastoin Asia, tho laigost gioup loing othnic Koioans lion China, lollowod ly
Viotnanoso and Filipinas.
tvusfv6c: ,PSFB
unpiocodontod ocononic statuio in East Asia, is couplod with piolound
uncoitainty alout its placo lotwoon a iosuigont Japan and an incioas-
ingly assoitivo China. In nany ways, tho countiy is still soaiching loi its
placo in tho woild.
Koioa has not oxistod as a unihod, indopondont nation-stato sinco Japan
annoxod tho poninsula in o. Noith Koioa tiiod to ovoicono tho dis-
astoi ol colonization ly iojocting all loins ol dopondoncy, including
dopondoncy on tho Soviot Union which inspiiod it and holpod liing it
into loing. Following a soll-doclaiod path ol 'soll-iolianco`, tho EQSL don-
onstiatod inpiossivo industiial giowth in its oaily yoais, lut doscondod
into ocononic catastiopho and lanino ly tho os and shows littlo
sign ol iocovoiing soon. South Koioa, lollowing a voiy dilloiont nodol,
was slowoi to got on its loot lut ultinatoly locano ono ol tho low coun-
tiios outsido tho Euio-Atlantic coio to achiovo tho status ol an 'advancod
oconony`. Tho political oconony ol South Koioan dovolopnont was in
nany ways haish, and it was tho dosiio to alloviato that liutality which
notivatod ono ol tho twontioth contuiy`s nost ionaikallo donociatic
novononts. But il tho goal ol that novonont was to cioato 'capitalisn
with a hunan laco`, it soons that ton yoais ol 'piogiossivo` piosidontial
iuloundoi tho nacio-ocononic tutolago ol tho JNGhavo pioducod,
instoad, giowing insocuiitios and inoquality. Yot as tho Juno zoo8
piotosts havo shown, tho South Koioan pooplo nay not lo willing to
countonanco tho dooponing ol that nooliloial paiadign.