Chapter 1 DESIGN PROBLEM

Introduction The initial design problem is to assess whether it is economically and technically feasible to put up a facility processing dairy products in Mindanao Region. It is needed to have a crucial research that requires thorough analysis regarding its uses, properties, market, process technology, and production economics, associated with these three dairy products. In addition to these requirements, various constraints must be considered such as space availability, safety issues, impact to the environment and financial aspect as well. After the entire processing facility has been investigated, a suitable plant to produced dairy products will be assess and planned. Properties and Uses Milk has been used by humans since the beginning of recorded time. Most of the milk produced is consumed as fresh pasteurized milk. Momentarily, half of the milk is manufactured into different kinds of dairy products that exist today (World Book Encyclopedia, 2007). This section focuses on the properties and uses of fresh milk, cheese and yogurt. First product to evaluate is the pasteurized fresh milk in which it undergoes heat treatment to kill pathogens. Unfortunately, heat may denature milk proteins. However, this effect is not considered a disadvantage from the

nutritional point of view because it only involves changes in the specific arrangement of the casein protein (Alvarez & Parada-Rabell, 2006). This casein can be considered a thermal-resistant compound because there is no breakdown of peptide linkages. Moreover, fat soluble vitamins (A, D, E, K) are not really lost during the process (LeJeune, 2009), and also considered as a good source of B-complex vitamins (thiamine, riboflavin, folate, B12). The products shell life is 10 14 days (Miller, Jarvis, & McBean, 2007). Next product to determine is cheese which is formed from casein and fats, and still contains most of the milks protein, fat, and vitamin A. However, it has lost most of the lactose and the B vitamins (Bouthyette, 2008). Bastin (2004) completed the table with different Cheese Varieties, Characteristics and Uses summarized as follows: Table 1.1. Uses of cheese1 Variety Feta Characteristics Soft; flaky white interior; salty pickled flavour Soft; smooth waxy body; creamy white interior, brownish exterior; strong flavor, highly aromatic Soft; moist, grainy; white; mild, slightly sweet flavour Uses On salads and spinach omelets Add to lasagna and vegetable casseroles Appetizers and sandwiches on strong flavored breads with onions, radishes, pretzels and beer Filling for cannoli, blintzes, crepes, lasagna and manicotti Mix with apricots and toasted almonds Cold or hot sandwiches Cube on fruit kabobs Slice on pizza Slice on pumpernickel with mustard Cube Grilled sandwiches

Limburger

Ricotta

Muenster

Brick

Semi- soft; waxy open texture; creamy white with orange exterior; mild to yellow Semi-soft; waxy open texture; creamy white; mild to mellow, pungent when aged

Lastly the yogurt, except that the lactose level has been reduced is nutritionally similar to milk. It still contains excellent levels of protein, calcium and riboflavin. Fat levels can vary from 0.2 percent to nine percent according to the type of milk used (Pierre-Yves, 2008). According to Lee & Lucey (2010), yogurt is prepared by fermentation of milk with bacterial cultures consisting of a mixture of Streptococcus subsp. thermophilus and Lactobacillus delbrueckii subsp. bulgaricus. Moreover, it can be classified as pseudoplastic material (contains a yield stress that has to be exceeded for flow to be initiated) that can be either a viscoelastic fluid if we are dealing with stirred or drinking yogurt or a viscoelastic solid if we are dealing with set yogurt. Lee & Lucey (2010) also discussed that the physico-chemical mechanisms for the formation of yogurt gels according to its three pH regions. The first region is at the pH of 6.7 6.0. The net negative charge on the casein micelles decreases and results in a decrease in electrostatic repulsion when the pH of milk decreases from 6.6 to 6.0. Since only a small amount of colloidal calcium phosphate (CCP) is solubilized at pH greater than six, the size of the casein micelles is largely unchanged. The second region is at the pH of 6.0 5.0. As the pH of milk decreases further from pH 6.0 to 5.0, the net negative charge on casein micelles greatly decreases and the charged hairs of -casein may shrink (or curl up). This results in a decrease in electrostatic repulsion and steric stabilization, which are both responsible from the stability of casein micelles in the original milk. At pH less

than or equal to six, the rate of solubilization of CCP increases which weakens the internal structure of casein micelles and increases electrostatic repulsion between the exposed phosphoserine residues. The last region is at the pH of less than or equal to 5.0. When the pH of milk becomes close to the isoelectric point of casein (pH 4.6), there is a decrease in the net negative charge on casein, which leads to a decrease in electrostatic repulsion between casein molecules. On the other hand, caseincasein attractions increase due to increased hydrophobic and plus-minus (electrostatic) charge interactions. The acidification process results in the formation of three-dimensional network consisting of clusters and chains of caseins. Yogurt is a well-known food for breakfast but nowadays people are becoming resourceful in making this ordinary food into different dishes. It becomes a staple food those who wants to lose weight. As per Stringham (2006), he recommended yogurt for diet conscious individual due to the calcium and protein present in the food. The author also ensures that yogurt can offer healthy bacterial balance in the body. Evolution of Production Processes According to Hornsey (2003), the origin of pasteurization had been trace back in China (1117) when the Chinese wine-makers heated their wines for preservation purposes. This had been documented in Japan (1568) in the diary Tamonin-nikki.

Lazzaro Spallanzani, Italian priest and scientist proved experimentally in 1768 that heat really killed bacteria and will not re-appear after sealing of the product (Vallery-Radot & Devonshire, 2003). It was also noted by Day & McNeil (2013) that Nicolas Appert, Parisian chef and confectioner began experimenting with ways to preserve foodstuffs by placing the sealed food in glass jars in boiling water twenty seven years later. In modern era, pasteurization is still evolving from one process to another to destroy the living microorganisms present for health purposes (Kay et al, 1953): 1. Batch Process The process is done in a large jacketed container by steam or heated water in the circulating interspace. The temperature is raised not less than 140 degrees Fahrenheit and not above 150 degrees Fahrenheit for at least 30 minutes. Then it is cooled down to 50 degrees Fahrenheit or less. Then the container is emptied and the operation is left for one hour for the next batch. 2. Continuous Holding Method An extension of the batch process by which the milk is heated by a plate type heat exchanger outside the actual holding tubes around four to five of them. When the milk reached 65 degrees Celsius it is then run into the first holding vessel which is maintained by a steam or heated water. When the tank is full for around 10 15 minutes, the second holding vessel is filled up with the next batch and so on.

The first batch is then emptied after 30 minutes then the process continues. The advantage of this process is that large volumes of milk is process but the disadvantage of this is that the vessels are not cleaned since continuous and there is a difficulty of preventing the growth of thermophilic bacteria. 3. In-bottle Pasteurization The milk is heated first in the holder pasteurization temperature then is filled in the special bottles. These bottles are then maintained for 30 minutes then cooled slowly through immersion or partial immersion in water. 4. Flash Method The milk is heated rapidly between 75 80 degrees Celsius or even above then rapidly cooled. 5. High Temperature Short Time A continuous process by which milk is heated rapidly up to 71 72 degrees Celsius then held up to 15 minutes then rapidly cooled to ten degrees Celsius. 6. Ultra High Temperature Continuous Process The milk is rapidly heated in two stages. The first stage is between 135 150 degrees Celsius for seconds only then cooled rapidly then bottled hot at 75 80 degrees Celsius. In contrary to pasteurization of milk which begins in China, the origin of cheese production still remains unknown. The formulation of cheese had

become way to preserve milk in early times where refrigerator was not yet invented. Evershed, et al (2008) stated that the organic residues preserved in archaeological pottery have provided direct evidence for the use of milk in the fourth millennium in Britain and in the sixth millennium in Eastern Europe, based on the 13C (a measure of the ratio of stable isotopes) values of the major fatty acids of milk fat. Evidences have been found during the Roman era on cheese making. The process was done with skill and knowledge and reached a high standard. Added by Widcome (1978), the ripening process had been developed and it was known that various treatments and conditions under storage resulted in different flavors and characteristics. In fact, migration era of around 4500 BC also helped the extension of cheese making in which the standpoint of cheese history was now one step closer to the development of an excessive array of diverse cheeses (Kindstedt, 2012). It also explained on the first definitive evidence for substantial shifts from meat to milk production occurred around 6500 BC in western Anatolia as indicated by shifts in the bone distributions of domesticated animals and more definitively by the presence of milk fat residues in pottery shards (Evershed et al, 2008). From Renaissance period until today where the classic varieties of cheese which are still marketed today, from farm to factory production have been developed by the middle ages monks as conceded by Widcome (1978). However, cheese popularity during this age suffered a drop in popularity as

being considered unhealthy. Before these eras have been noted, just shortly after 7000 BC two prerequisites for cheese making that was lacking namely the availability of surplus milk, and containers to collect, store and coagulate the milk, then separate the resulting curd from the liquid whey was suddenly obtainable (Evershed et al, 2008). The evolution of both pasteurization and construction of cheese was done with certain purpose; however the creation of yogurt and other milk products were discovered accidentally as a result of milk being stored by primitive methods in warm climates. Most historical accounts attribute yogurt to the Neolithic peoples of Central Asia around 6000 BC. Herdsmen began the practice of milking their animals, and the natural enzymes in the carrying containers (animal stomachs) curdled the milk, essentially making yogurt (Dairy Goodness, 2013). When the Turkish immigrants brought yogurt to North America in the 1700s it really didnt catch on until the 1940s. The first industrialized production of yogurt is attributed to Isaac Carasso in 1919 in Barcelona with a company name Danone. Isaacs son, Daniel and Juan Metzger took over a small yogurt factory in New York with a new name of company, Dannon. With the exemption of innovations in yogurt production, yogurt with fruit on the bottom was first introduced in 1947 by Dannon. Thus, the popularity of yogurt soared in the 50s and 60s with the boom of the health food culture and is now available in different forms to suit every taste and lifestyle.

Chemistry of Central Process Cows milk had been the primary source for producing various dairy products available in the market. Since raw milk is potentially dangerous to any pathogens, it is appropriate that milk should undergo different methods to ensure that it is safe to drink. This section aims to scrutinize the chemistry of the process applicable to the production of fresh milk, yogurt and cheese. Cheese is a very versatile dairy product as it partners with many other wholesome foods, including vegetables, fruits, whole-grain breads, cereals, and carbohydrate-rich pasta. However Bylund (1995) warned that even slight changes to any processes can lead to significant differences in the final cheese. According to the World Book Encyclopedia (2007), there are five basic steps in processing a cheese. The first step is through processing of the milk. Cheese manufacturers inspect the milk and remove any solid substances by a process called clarification. The milk flows into a pasteurizer that kills harmful bacteria. Pumps force the pasteurized milk into metal tanks or vats that hold from 3,600 to 15,900 kilograms. Second step is separating the curd. After the milk has been processed, it is treated to form soft, custard like substance called curd. The curd contains liquid called whey, which must be expelled before cheese can be made. Cheese manufacturers form the curd by first heating the milk to 30 degrees Celcius to 36 degrees Celcius. Next step is treating the curd. In making most cheeses, the curd is left undistributed after the whey is drained off. The particles stick together and

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form a solid mass. The curd is then broken up into small pieces for pressing. The curd for Cheddar goes through a special step after being formed into a solid mass. Workers cut the curd into large slabs, stack them in the vat and turn them every 10 minutes. This process is commonly called cheddaring. Last step, is ripening also called aging or curing, helps give cheese its flavor and texture. Cheese is aged in storage rooms or warehouses that have a controlled temperature and humidity. In contrast with cheese production which requires intensive care, yogurt can be evenly made in our own kitchen due to its easy to do procedure. The first step in yogurt processing is milk standardization. According to Lee & Lucey (2010), it is on this initial stage that the milk is mixed with skim milk and cream to standardize the fat content according to its desired level. Homogenization takes place either before or after heat treatment. This process reduces the size of fat globules that favors uniform distribution of the milk fat. At the same time, separation of the cream is avoided. It is also reduces the stability of the proteins when subjected to heat so that when milk is exposed to high temperatures, the same process is carried out after heat treatment. During the process, milk is passed at high pressure through slots narrower than the fat globules in order to reduce the diameter of the fat globules and kept them in suspension (Regional Activity Center for Cleaner Production, 2002). Added by Lee & Lucey (2010), the heat treatment of milk is also used to destroy unwanted microorganisms, which provides less competition for the

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starter culture. Yogurt starter cultures are sensitive to oxygen so heat treatment helps to remove dissolved oxygen assisting starter growth. After heat treatment, the milk base is cooled to the incubation temperature used for growth of the starter culture. It is where the fermentation process begins, bacterial fermentation converts lactose into lactic acid, which reduces the pH of milk. During acidification of milk, the pH decreases from 6.7 to less than or equal to 4.6. Gelation occurs at pH 5.2 to 5.4 for milk that was given a high heat treatment. Lastly, cooling is done before storing the yogurt. When yogurts have reached the desired pH (approximately 4.6), yogurts are partially cooled (approximately 20 degrees Celcius) before fruit or flavoring ingredients are added. Yogurt products are often blast chilled to less than ten degrees Celcius in the refrigerated cold store to reduce further acid development. In the production of set yogurt, yogurts are directly transferred to a cold store or blast chilled in cooling tunnels. For stirred yogurts, cooling is first performed by agitation in the jacketed fermentation vat and the product is sheared and smoothened by devices like back-pressure values, high shear devices or sieves. References Alvarez, V.B. & Parada-Rabell, F. (2006). Health benefits, risks, and regulations of raw and pasteurized milk. Ohio State University Extension Fact Sheet FSE 3-05.
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Bastin, S. (2004). Cheese basics. UK Cooperative Extension Service.

Bouthyette, P. (2008). Fermentation (Fermentation throughout the ages). Retrieved June 17, 2013 from http://www.chemistrywithdrb.com/files/Fermentation.pdf.

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Bylund, D. (1995). Dairy Processing Handbook. Tetra Pak Processing Systems AB, Lund, Sweden. Dairy Goodness. (2013). History of Yogurt. Retrieved June 17, 2013 from http://www.dairygoodness.ca/yogurt/the-history-of-yogurt. Day, L. & McNeil, I. (2013). Biographical dictionary of the history of technology. Routledge. Evershed, R. P., Payne, S., Sherratt, A. G., Copley, M. S. Coolidge, J., UremKotsu, D., Burton, M. M. (2008). Earliest date for milk use in the near east and southeastern europe linked to cattle herding. UK: Nature Publishing Group. Hornsey, I. S. (2003). A history of beer and brewing. Cambridge: Royal Society of Chemistry. Kay, H. D. et. al. (1953). Pasteurization: Outlines of Procedure and Control. Food and Agriculture Organization and World Health Organization. Kindstedt, P. (2012). Cheese and culture: A history of cheese and its place in western civilization. New Jersey: Chelsea Green Publishing. Lee, W. J. & Lucey, J. A. (2010). Formation and physical properties of yogurt (Volume 23). Products and Technology. LeJeune, J. (2009). Unpasteurized milk: A continued public health threat. Food safety, 48(1), 93-100. Miller, G., Jarvis, J.K., & McBean, L.D. (2007). Handbook of dairy foods and nutrition. Florida: CRC Press.

Regional Activity Centre for Cleaner Production (2002). Prevention of pollution in the dairy industry. United Nations Environmental Programme. Stringham, G. (2006). 101 things to do with yogurt. Utah: Gibbs Smith Publisher. Vallery-Radot, R. & Devonshire, R. L. (2003). Life of pasteur 1928. Kessinger Publishing. Widcome, R. (1978). The cheese book. New Jersey: Chartwell Books.

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World Book Encyclopedia (2007). Page 361362. USA: Berkshire Hathaway Publisher.