The randomness of the loads has been discussed in an earlier chapter; that of the actual strength is due to the

variability of the dimensions of the elements and that of the strength of constituent material as well as errors due to simplification in analysis and design. The reasons for the high uncertainty and complexity of the connection are: Complexity of connection geometry Geometric imperfections Residual stresses and strains 2.1 Complexity of connection geometry The geometry of connections is usually more complex than that of the members being joined (Fig.1). The stress analysis of the joint is complicated by the (locally) highly indeterminate nature of the joint, non-linear nature of the behaviour due to lack of fit, local yielding etc. and stress concentration due to discontinuity in elements around bolt holes and weld profiles. Stiffener Beam Tee Angle Bolts Column Flange Plate Bracket (b) Welded Connection (a) Bolted Connection 2.2 Geometric imperfections Fig. 1 Complex Beam to Column Connections The following factors contribute to the geometric imperfections in connection: Bow in the beam or column as rolled Lack of fit in black bolts in clearance holes Gaps in the connecting plate and the surface of the member to be connected to, due to fabrication errors, welding distortions, and tolerances allowed for ease of fabrication and erection 2.3 Residual Stresses and Strains Residual stresses and strains are inherent features of steel joints due to differential cooling after the hot rolling, gas cutting and welding stages. The residual stresses cause premature local yielding and the residual strains cause distortions and lack of fit. 3.0 TYPES OF CONNECTIONS Connections are normally made either by bolting or welding. Bolting is common in field connections, since it is simple and economical to make. Bolting is also regarded as being more appropriate in field connections from considerations of safety. However, welded connections, which are easier to make and are more efficient, are usually resorted to in shop fabrications. 3.1 Bolted Connections Two types of bolts are used in bolted connection. The most common type is bearing bolts in clearance holes, often referred to as ordinary bolts or black bolts. They are popular since they are economical, both in terms of material and installation costs.

The force transfer mechanism under shear is as shown in Fig. 2(a). The force is transferred by bearing between the plate and bolts at the bolt holes. The bolts experience single or double shear depending upon the plate configuration. The failure may be either by shearing of the bolts or bearing of the plate and the bolt.