Skeletal

Outline: Justificatory Reasoning, Exercise 1

Prewriting

Each writer has a different way of preparing to write. Some write in their minds, consciously or unconsciously puzzling through the task at hand, exploring what to say and how to say it before ever putting a word on a page. Others make lists, cubes, maps, or outlines. Still others simply sit down and write their way into an idea. Its important to find the process thats right for you, as well as to remark that this is the first step in the process and shouldnt be confused with the final presentation, a danger particularly for those whose prewriting process consists of writing their way into an idea. Such writers need to understand that this process is no different from lists or maps: though you are writing sentences, you are still in the midst of conceptualizing, not at the stage of presenting a carefully considered, deliberately arranged piece of writing. One last observation: your process for coming up with a poem or a novel may not be the same as that for creating an academic essay, grant proposal, or engineering report. Thus if you are accustomed to a creative writing process, you may find it useful to explore other approaches that work better for you as a critical writer. Here are the most common prewriting strategies. If you have another, please be sure to share it with your instructor and colleagues when you discuss prewriting in class. Freewriting Freewriting is letting yourself write your way into an idea. Some people constrain themselves, freewriting on the particular topic or assignment, while others just write about whatever comes to mind until, finally, the mind relaxes and focuses and ideas are generated. In freewriting, its important to be receptive rather than critical: dont revise, dont correct errors, dont worry about grammar. Just let the words flow. Often its helpful to give yourself a time limit (5 minutes of freewriting) or a page limit (one page) to encourage your mind to focus. Thereafter sort through the pile of verbiage and you will often find terrific ideas and evidence. A writer often works her way to a strong proposition somewhere toward the end of such a drafta novice writer sometimes turns in such papers as if they were final drafts, rather than prewriting: and it shows. Mapping/Clustering This is a graphic technique for those who are inclined to be visual and associative. You might use mapping/clustering software or you can do this the old-fashioned way, with a large piece of paper, a pen, and perhaps a few differently colored highlighters or pencils. Instead of writing sentences or sentence fragments, you simply jot down in brief the ideas that come to you. When youve run out of ideas, review your various jottings and seek relationships between and among them. When you identify a relationship, draw a line to connect the related ideas. These relationships are often the basis of a solid proposition. Once youve identified a relationship, you might wish to differentiate elements of it with different highlighters: reasons, examples, counterarguments.

 Listing Listing is also a graphic technique, similar to mapping. The difference is that instead of writing words across and around a page, you write them in column form. Reading/Research If, as in this class and in professional life, you have a general idea of what you need to write about, a good way of generating ideas is to review the assigned reading and lecture notes (if youre taking a lecture class). You might also search the internet for articles and websites about your topic, or do library research and find peer-reviewed, scholarly sources that might provide you with substantive material for the assignment. By semesters end, you will become quite familiar with database researching and other such strategies; for the time being, dont hesitate to seek the assistance of Penns excellent and friendly library staff, including the reference librarians as well as online chat service. Its a good idea to write as you research, using one of the prewriting strategies listed here. Talking Another excellent prewriting strategy is to talk to others about your writing task, whether just discussing the assignment as such (Im not sure what this professor is asking me to do) or discussing the topic or approach you have in mind. Having someone who listens and respondsan interlocutoris a superb way of preparing to write because it helps you to consider your audience as well as generate, organize, and refine your ideas. With this strategy, you should also take notes, combining talking with one of the other prewriting strategies above. The Talking Prewrite works well with anyone who will listen and engage, from roommates to family members. If you are looking for skillful, encouraging listeners, you should also consider making an appointment or dropping in at the Writing Center, where trained peers, knowledgeable writers themselves, are happy to function as your interlocutor. Assignment: The Skeletal Outline Outlining is often considered a form of prewriting but thats rather a misconception, for prewriting is the first stage, when you are coming up with ideas. Outlining demands that you gather and organize your thoughts into a meaningful arrangement. Thus the outline that you will be creating in this assignment is more akin to a second draft, the first perhaps having manifested itself in your thoughts or in a map, list, or conversation. Directions: Part I: Rough draft/notes toward the skeletal outline Proposition: Think of a tentative justificatory proposition. Be sure that it is debatable: some or all of your colleagues should need to be persuaded of the truth or rightness of your proposition. Be sure that it is related to the course topic and readings. Audience: Jot down what you think your peers are already likely to feel about this proposition and about you making it. Then list all of the things you think your peers

are likely to believe or know about your proposition. Finally, list what kinds of evidence (qualitative or quantitative, abstract or concrete, visual, aural, written) are likely to be most persuasive to them. List as many reasons and evidence as you can think of to persuade your doubters and opponents to accept your proposition. Consider quantitative and qualitative, abstract and concrete, textual and any other sorts of evidence that they might find compelling and that would be acceptable in your particular discipline. Ask your instructor what kinds of evidence are not permitted in your seminars discipline. What constitutes meaningful reasons and evidence vary based on the academic field and area of specialty. For example, charts, graphs and statistics may be required in some disciplines and unwelcome in others, just as arguments based on a thought experiment or a writers background may find a home in some fields and be roundly rejected by others. Goal: What effect are you seeking as a writer? What designs do you have on your reader? Is there a particular belief or attitude youd like to change? What would you like the reader to act upon something? Change his or her mind or feeling about something? Reasons and Evidence: From your list of reasons, choose the two that you think your peers would find most compelling. Then gather whatever evidence you have to support each of these two reasons. As with the reasons, consider which evidence would be most persuasive and would most directly support your reasons. Revise your current proposition (or rewrite it entirely) so that it captures the two reasons you selected. Make sure that both reasons directly support your proposition. If they do not, revise your proposition or choose other reasons.

Part II: Polished Draft: The Skeletal Outline Create an outline with the following information. Note that there is an example of the Skeletal Outline following these instructions. Refer to the explanations above for questions about the content of the plan. Justificatory Proposition: (one full sentence, as concise as possible) Description of Audience: Goal: Reason One: Evidence: Reason Two: Evidence: Submit Parts I & II to the Blackboard Assignment link. Bring two copies or one copy and your laptop to class.

Justificatory Two Reasons Skeletal Outline Example:

 Justificatory Proposition: Death penalty should be abolished Description of Audience: Students in class who are strongly opposed to the death penalty and base their arguments on moral values (vengeance) or gridlocked beliefs (deterrence of crime). They are very passionate (angry and frightened) about eliminating the death penalty, and they see those who oppose the death penalty as bleeding heart liberals. Goal: Change the terms of the argument by introducing new reasons unrelated to vengeance or deterrence--dead ends. Get readers to consider less value-laden, objective reasons for changing their position, ideally alerting their attitude toward the subject and toward the writer as objective and thoughtful, rather than passionate and entrenched. Skeletal outline: Proposition: The death penalty should be abolished: Reason 1: because it is too costly Evidence: Quantitative hierarchical loci (less is better/money is good) a. The types and costs of executing someone (quantitative) b. The types and costs of life imprisonment (quantitative comparison) Reason 2: because it violates the U.S. Constitution (specialized abstract qualitative loci: the US Constitution must be honored) a. Quotation of relevant passage of US Constitution (qualitative) b. Explanation of the passage in relation to the death penalty (qualitative)