The Changes To Electronics Found In Cars Over The Last 100 Years

Automobiles have come a long way since their beginning in the late 19th century. One of the major things that has helped automobiles to provide more safety and convenience, though, is electronics. With the advances in technology and electronics, car manufacturers have been able to offer a wide variety of services and conveniences that many new automobile owners appreciate. From the creation of the Electronic Fuel Injection to the popular Global Positioning System found standard in many cars today, the auto industry has revolutionized the way people travel from place to place. Electronic Fuel Injection, or EFI One of the best innovations that electronics have created in the performance of automobiles is the Electronic Fuel Injection, or EFI for short. This device takes the place of the normal carburetor that has been the normal until recently. The job of the carburetor was typically the part of the engine that helps to evaporate fuel so that it mixes with the air for combustion. This provides power to the cylinders which helps the engine operate. A floating device within the carburetor is used to regulate the amount of fuel that the engine receives. The EFI, on the other hand, uses a completely different technology to supply power to the engine. Instead of a floater that regulates the fuel to the engine, the EFI system electronically meters the fuel so that the exact amount needed is provided to the engine. In short, the EFI uses to fuel to power the engine by pumping it forcibly by using high pressure through a small nozzle or valve. This is how the EFI supplies the proper amount of fuel to the combustion process. The EFI system provides a great deal of benefits over the carburetor, too. Not only does this new technology prevent the engine from flooding by allowing too much fuel into the engine, but it is also more efficient and emission-friendly. The EFI system is also compatible with alternative fuels and it is more reliable than the traditional carburetor. You will also notice a smoother ride and more engine power with an EFI system. Computer Diagnostics The field of computer diagnostics has also helped to shape the way that automobile owners use their cars. The cars manufactured in the last couple decades have been built with a computer on-board to help owners realize engine problems or other problems before any damage is done. Before the computer diagnostics technology, most car owners did not know something was wrong with the engine until something drastic happened, such as overheating or running out of gas. Mechanics generally had to endure a trial-and-error method to find out what was the problem in many cases. Now, however, computers in the cars constantly check the engine and its components to make sure it is always up to its optimum performance. When a problem arises, a corresponding light in the dashboard comes on so you know to take it to the mechanic as soon as possible. The computers use many sensors to detect temperature, fluid levels and many other aspects of an engines performance. Many times, the computers in the car will provide a code that mechanics can read so they know exactly what has malfunctioned. They have state-of-the-art equipment that they can attach to the car and find out the reason for the malfunction. While this is a very convenient solution to many engine problems, it does require very expensive equipment, such as oscilloscopes, a digital volt-ohm meter, sensor stimulators and high-tech computers to determine problems. It also requires extensive knowledge about how to use the technology. Mechanics often need to go through training to use this method. All-Wheel Drive / AWD Another great innovation all-wheel drive (AWD) has been a great addition to automobiles. This is commonly referred to as four-wheel drive or even 4x4. It means that all four wheels on the vehicle are receiving power from the engine rather than just two of them. This is a popular feature for sport utility vehicles, but it is becoming quite common among sports cars and other smaller vehicles because of its safety capabilities. With AWD technology, cars get better traction on ice and wet roads and it also gives the driver more control over the car. The technology for AWD was first thought of in 1900 by the Porsche manufacturer, but it did not become popular until World War II. The idea was great for military vehicles that needed to travel over many different terrains and fields. After that, the idea was eventually implemented into civilian vehicles. The American Motors Company created the first complete line of all-wheel drive passenger vehicles in 1980. The Eagle was the most popular model in this line. Now, there are several different types of AWD technology that differs among the different car models, including the center differential with mechanical lock, torsen center differential, multiple clutch systems and several others. It also includes electronic traction control devices as well as an electronic transfer case that shifts control between the front and the rear axles. Airbags Another improvement in safety that electronics have provided is the airbags that are now

standard in cars. Technically known as a Supplementary Restraint System (SRS), Air Cushion Restraint System (ACRS), or a Supplemental Inflatable Restraint (SIR), these provide a great deal of safety for the driver and passengers in a car. Created in 1952, the air bag technology is based on electronic sensors that measure the amount of quick deceleration through an accelerometer. This is a small electronic chip that moves as a result of fast deceleration and, as a result, signals the rapid ejection of the airbags. Car manufacturers are currently working on new airbag calculations to make them more effective and to help prevent unnecessary deployments. The new calculations will take into account the position of the seats, the use of a seat belt and the weight of the occupants to help determine when (and if) the airbag should be deployed. Global Positioning System (GPS) The Global Positioning System (GPS) is a popular device that has made a splash in automobile electronics in recent years, too. These are basically electronic navigation devices that use satellites to monitor many aspects of an automobile. By using satellites, the GPS company can find the location of your car, the direction it is moving and the speed at which it is moving. As a result, your car can easily be found if it is stolen. The idea for this technology was first created in 1978 and used as an experimental device for the United States Department of Defense. Like most automobile technology, though, the idea quickly made its way into the civilian vehicles due to popular demand. A GPS will also give you step-by-step voice directions to your destinations, which tends to be the most popular feature of this electronic device. It can also come in handy if you lock your keys in your car. With a simple call to the GPS service provider, a representative can send a satellite signal to your car and unlock the doors. These devices are also great in a wide variety of emergencies, so they provide peace of mind in addition to safety and convenience. Hybrid Cars This section would not be complet without talking about the electronics that is required to drive a Hybrid vehicle and one of the best examples is the Toyota Prius. This car uses the computer and digital electronics to manage the change between the differing combinations of power sources and due to electronics is pretty seamless if it werent for the energy consumption screen located in the Prius center console the driver would have little indication the complexity of it all this technology is called Hybrid Synergy Drive (HSD). The Future With brilliant minds working in the auto industry, there are limitless possibilities to what the manufacturers will include in their products in the coming years. In fact, the Lexus company now has a vehicle that will automatically parallel park your vehicle without the driver even needing to touch the wheel. If we look to the technology and electronics that are being used in the military vehicles, we can often predict the services that will be in civilian vehicles in the near future. This tends to be a trend in the automobile industry and will likely continue as people always want and expect more from their cars. Reference: http://www.thepeoplehistory.com/carelectronics.html

Automotive electronics
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Automotive_electronics

Automotive electronics are the electronics used in automobiles. They include body electronics, in car entertainment, carputers, chassis electronics and telematics. Automotive electronics first began with the need for better controls for the engine. In fact, the first electronic part in an automobile was called an ECU which actually means Engine control unit, but as they used similar electronic control for other automotive application they called it the same ECU but with a more general meaning Electronic control unit. A modern car may have up to 100 electronic control units and a commercial vehicle up to 40. Automotive electronics or automotive embedded systems are distributed systems and according to different domains in the automotive field they can be classified into: 1. Engine Electronics 2. Transmission Electronics 3. Chassis Electronics 4. Active Safety 5. Driver assistance 6. Passenger Comfort

7. Infotainment systems
[edit]Engine

Electronics

One of the most demanding electronic part of an automobile is the engine control unit. Engine controls demand one of the highest real time deadlines, as the engine itself is very fast and complex part of the automobile. Of all the electronics in any car the computing power of the engine control unit is the highest, typically a 32-bit processor. It controls different things like,

In a Diesel Engine for example

-Fuel injection rate -Emission control, Nox control -Regeneration of oxidation catalytic converter

-Turbocharger control -Cooling system control -Throttle control In a Gasoline engine -Lambda control -OBD OnBoard diagnosis -Cooling system control -Ignition system control -Lubrication system control (only few has electronic control) -Fuel injection rate control -Throttle control Lot more engine parameters are actively monitored and controlled in real-time. There are lots of sensors about 20-50, which measure pressure, temperature, flow, engine speed, oxygen level and NOx level and more parameters at different points in an engine. All these sensed signals are sent to the ECU, the ECU has a logic and does the control. The ECU output is connected to different actuators like throttle valve actuation, actuation of an EGR valve, rack actuator in VGT Turbocharger, pulse width actuation in a fuel injector, dosing injector actuation and lots more about 20-30 actuators.

[edit]Transmission

Electronics

This controls the transmission system; mainly it controls the shifting process of the gears. For a better shift comfort, lower torque interrupt while shafting -these electronics are used in a manual transmission. Many semi automatic transmissions which have a fully automatic clutch or a semi-auto clutch (only declutching) use electronics for its operation and control. Also fully automatic transmissions use controls for their operation. The engine control unit and the transmission control interchange messages, sensed signals and control signals for their operation.

[edit]Chassis

Electronics

The chassis systems has lot of sub-systems which monitors different parameters and are controlled actively.

ABS - Anti-lock braking system TC Traction control system

EBD Electronic brake distribution ESP Electronic Stability Program

[edit]Active

Safety

These systems are always ready to act when there is a collision or to prevent it when it scenes the situation.

Air Bags Hill Descent Control Emergency Brake assist system

[edit]Driver

assistance

Lane assist system Speed assist system Blind spot detection Park assist System Adaptive Cruise Control System

[edit]Passenger

Comfort

Automatic Climate control Electronic seat adjustment with memory Automatic wipers Automatic Headlamps adjusts beam automatically

[edit]Infotainmentems

Navigation system Music system Information access

All the above system forms an infotainment system. The developments methods of these systems vary according to the manufacturer. Different tools are used for both hardware and software development.

[edit]Further

reading

William B. Ribbens and Norman P. Mansour (2003). Understanding automotive electronics (6th ed.). Newnes. ISBN 0-7506-7599-3

Moksha: Unmanned Ground Vehicle

The Moksha ground vehicle developed by the robotics team of M.S. Ramaiah Institute of Technology navigates to a given location by evaluating the shortest and safest path
PAVAN KUMAR P.N.

FEBRUARY 2012: The robotics team of M.S. Ramaiah Institute of Technology has developed an autonomous unmanned ground vehicle (UGV) named Moksha. The objective of the project was to build an autonomous ground vehicle capable of following a prescribed track while avoiding obstacles in its path, to Fig.1 Block diagram of the unmanned ground reach specified geometric locations. vehicle system The Moksha-UGV team was divided into five groups based on the different requirements of the project, namely, computer vision, light detection and ranging (LIDAR), GPS, motor controller and power systems.

Innovative approach to hardware

Project Moksha-UGV included various innovations: Split-frame chassis. The chassis of the UGV is designed using split-frame technology. The chassis is split into two frames a rear frame and a front frame. The two frames are interlinked via the flexible joint supported by a suspension system. This split-frame design helps the robot easily manoeuvre through difficult terrains. The suspension system helps keep the UGV stable. Thus the UGV can easily cross ramps and rugged terrains. Camera angle. As a convention, front-facing Hardware Specifications cameras are used in vehicles to capture a complete Material used Mild steel scenario. In the UGVs implementation of image Length 116.8 cm (3 feet 10 processing, only one camera is used, which is inclined downwards to amplify the details captured inches) by the camera. This also prevents the unnecessary Width 73.7 cm (2 feet 5 inches) details that creep in when a conventional position is Height 96.5 cm (3 feet 2 inches) used. By making these small changes, a major Wheels Four overhead of filtering out the details is avoided. Motors Two (each 24V DC, Fabrication. The body of the UGV is fabricated 1.8A max, 120W) using polyurethane material, which is very light and sturdy. Several compartments are made to keep the various components being used in the UGV so that the components remain in place even when the vehicle moves. The body provides protection to the components and also acts as an insulator. The height of the cameras arms is varied with a simple slot -and-screw mechanism. To optimise the use of space, the battery unit is kept below the vehicle in a drawer. Solar energy. Power system includes a compact battery and solar panels. Solar panels provide energy to the vehicle even if the battery fails. These also ensure that the size of the batteries is reduced and introduce the use of green technology. Power supply board. The power supply board is made from wood and the terminals are mounted. The board helps in power division and also provides sturdy

connections. Power is provided to all parts of the vehicle from the power supply board. The power system is designed taking the real-time scenario under consideration in such a way that it provides power to the system without any fluctuation.

Circuit description
The hardware of the UGV is divided into three sub-unitsdrive train, control and perception. The UGV is a four-wheeled, two-DC-motored differentially-driven vehicle. The control unit consists of RS160D motor controller. The motor controller is connected to a laptop, which serially communicates with the controller to control the vehicles motion. The computer also receives and processes data from the perception unit which comprises three sensors, namely, ROD 4-20 LIDAR, MaxSonar and Garmin 18HVS GPS device. Perception unit. The three sensors help Moksha perceive its surroundings as follows: ROD 4-20. It is an optical distance-cum-angle sensor, which uses infrared and laser light sources to detect objects, sweeps at 180 degrees and returns distance and angle at a rate of 25 scans per second (range adjustable). MaxSonar. It is an ultrasonic range-finder sensor that can detect objects within the range of 0-6.5 metres. It needs only 5V power supply and gives an analogue output, which is easier to process. Garmin GPS 18 OEM. It is WAAS-enabled and available in CMOS-level serial or USB 2.0 full-speed versions. It comes with an integrated magnetic base, which is sufficient to provide an extremely high level of accuracy. Motor control. The UGV employs Robot-Solutions RS160D motor control. RS160D servo uses custom software to implement a 2.5-channel high-powered servo system. The servo uses a quadrature encoder feedback mechanism to control torque, velocity and position of the output. It operates in pulse-width-modulation (PWM) mode communicating serially with the processor through an RS232 cable. Data is sent in ASCII format from the processor using Visual C++ platform. RS160D is a two-channel controller. Each channel controls two different motors (right and left). Data is sent as: @0sm1 selects mode 1, i.e., PWM mode, @0sj0 selects serial communication mode @0st255 selects torque control Differential drive is used to turn the vehicle left or right depending on the data received from the sensors. Torque values for the controller vary between -255 and +255. Different speeds were tested for the two motors in order to optimise the degree of curve to which the vehicle has to turn in order to avoid obstacles and stay within the lane. The table shows a sample of values that were tested on the motors and their upshots.

Mechanical design overview

The split-frame design ensures better locomotion capabilities of the vehicle. The front wheels are independent and can rotate 360 degrees. This enables the vehicle to turn sharply when it gets very close to any obstacle. The design also permits the UGV to negotiate ramps in a better way. The split-frame technology enables independent motion of the two frames and hence the ramp climbing becomes easier, reducing the burden on the motors. Even if one of the four wheels gets stuck in a pothole, the technology ensures that the other three wheels are placed on the ground. Fig.2 The UGV fabricated using split-frame This helps the UGV to negotiate technology uneven surfaces and hence the use of the encoder is evaded. The design is done on SolidWorks. The UGV is fabricated using mild steel material and is designed to take 150kg load. The material are laser-cut and welded together and then the painting is carried out (refer Fig. 2).

Electrical design
Block diagram of the UGVs electrical system design is shown in Fig. 3. All the components have a common ground. For safety, emergency stops (E-stops) are connected in series with the circuit. These disconnect the power supply to the circuit with a single push of a button. The central custom-made power distribution board is made of wood as it has electrical insulating property. Two metallic terminals are firmly mounted on the board and connected to a 12V, 34Ah power source. This connection is made using 40A, thick copper wires. Solar

Fig. 3: Block diagram of the UGVs electrical system design

cells are used to recharge the battery.

Sample Values Tested on the Motors and Their Upshots Left motor Right motor Upshot @0ST120 @0ST120 Both motors off @0ST130 @0ST130 Low voltage, vehicle moves with jitter motion, not stable @0ST170 @0ST170 Vehicle moves straight smoothly at average speed of 2 Mph @0ST170 @0ST140 Vehicle moves right at an angle

The other connections @0ST140 @0ST170 Vehicle moves left at an angle from the motors and supply board to the motor controller, mechanical emergency-stop (E-stop) and wireless E-stop are made using 14AWG wires. Pressing the mechanical E-stop switch turns off the supply to all the components. A normally-closed (N/C) switch by default, the mechanical E-stop is placed at the back of the robot at an accessible position. The wireless E-stop switch has a range of about 2.5 metres (100 feet). It employs an inbuilt relay to switch contacts between normally-closed (N/C) and normally-open (N/O) positions. The receiver takes 5V. When a signal is sent, it switches between N/C and N/O.

Software design
Autonomous challenge algorithm. Team Moksha adopted an ingenious approach for autonomy of the robot. The software design flowchart is shown in Fig. 4. Platform. The different devices on the UGV are controlled by a C++ program, which includes an integrated algorithm. The algorithm uses data from the sensing devices, camera, LIDAR and SONAR, and directs the RS160D motor controller. The different devices are connected to the processor using the USB ports, which are interfaced to the devices using USB-to-RS232 converters. This is done since the data is exchanged between the processor and the sensors and motor controller serially. 4: Software design flow-chart Image processing. The images are continuously taken from the video captured by a 5megapixel camera and processed using different image-processing algorithms to detect the lane. This is done using the functions in the OpenCV library. The angle of the lane is calculated using the coordinates of the detected lines from the processed images and the instructions sent to the motor controller to move the UGV in the directed angle. The camera is placed at a height of about 90 cm (3 feet) at an angle facing the ground in front of the vehicle. This is done to avoid detection of any unnecessary line due to noise in the image. Also, proper calibration is done in the program to match the angle of Fig. 5: Image processing the lane to the angle of the line that appears in the image. The image is processed as follows (refer Fig. 5): 1. First, the RGB image is converted into greyscale. 2. The greyscale image is processed using Canny algorithm to detect the edges. 3. The resulting image is then processed using Hough (Probabilistic) transform to detect only line segments in the image.

Fig.

Obstacle detection. A serial communication program reads the values continuously from the LIDAR through the serial port. The values are in hex format, which are converted into integer. The protocol structure consists of the following bytes that may be received: start, operation, option (1, 2, 3), scan number, angular step size, start angle, stop angle and distance.

Angular step size specifies the angular separation between two successive transferred measurement values and is equal to 0.36 degree. The difference between start and stop angles gives an approximation about the width of the obstacle. The difference is multiplied by the angular step size to Fig. 6: GPS receiver block diagram calculate the width of the obstacle. The distance bit is the measured distance of an obstacle from the current location of the LIDAR. Using the distance, start and stop bits, the area around the UGV can be mapped. After knowing the distance and the angle of the obstacle, appropriate commands are given to the motor controllers. Waypoint navigation. The GPS unit was upgraded to Garmin GPS 18 OEM. It provides non-volatile memory for storage of configuration information, a real-time clock and raw measurement output data in NMEA 0183 format (industry standard). Each GPS data set is formed in the same way and has the following structure: $GPDTS, Inf_1,Inf_2,Inf_3,Inf_4, Inf_5,Inf_6,Inf_n*CS For example, a GLL data set is shown below: $GPGLL,4717.115,N,00833.912,E,130305 .0,A*32 Data extraction. The UGV employs a Brute force Team behind Moksha algorithm which relies on the map to navigate. This algorithm evaluates the safest and shortest Pavan Kumar P.N. (team leader) path to a given location based on cost calculations, which is determined from the Pramod Bhat M. frequency of encountering the obstacles. For Pavan A. navigation, the desired location is always a GPS Shashanka U. waypoint. Akshay V. Joshi After data extraction, the coordinates are Arun V. obtained and the destination coordinates fed Anush Zamani manually into a sub-controlling program. The Vishwanath D. program continuously calculates the relative angle between the destination point and the present Madhwi Pandey direction of the vehicle. It decides which point is Rama B.R. closest to its present location, selects that point, and then makes its angle calculations using Haversine formula: a = sin(lat/2) + cos(lat1).cos(lat2).sin(long/2) c = 2.atan2(a, (1a)) d = R.c where R is the earths radius (mean radius = 6371 km), lat = lat 2 lat1 and long = long2 long1 This data is returned continuously to the main controlling program where decisions are made. Once the point is reached, the next nearest uncovered point is selected. The process continues till the sixth waypoint is reached.

The GPS receiver returns coordinates, which are converted into decimal degrees. The data input from the GPS software and obstacle-detection sensor is interfaced in the main controlling program. The UGV then finds its way to the waypoints and continues to the next ones. The GPS data is updated continuously.