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PART 1 Origin of Soils

BACKGROUND INFORMATION

Depending on their origin, naturally occurring soils can be divided into two main categories; residual and transported. Residual soils are those which form from the weathering of parent rocks in-situ. As a general rule, dark coloured rocks (rich in iron and magnesium, and silica poor) weather more rapidly to form deeper residual soil deposits than light coloured rocks (poor in iron and magnesium, and silica rich). Transported soils are formed by weathering and erosion of rock (sometimes to a residual soil), followed by transportation, deposition, and sometimes chemical alteration. The first of these processes may involve chemical and physical processes. All others but the last are physical in nature. The type of soil found in a particular deposit depends on the energetics of the environment of deposition. As the energy of the environment increases so does the maximum size of the particle which can be transported out of that environment and away from the material source. Some types of transported soils are listed below. Alluvial soils Soils deposited by stream and rivers. These include river gravels, sand and other finer sediments. Generally synonymous with Fluvial soils. Soils deposited in ocean basins, estuaries, bays and beaches. These include clays (quiet water-low energy), and beach sands (strong wave action-high energy). Soils deposited by wind action. The most obvious example is desert sand, however finer deposits derived from exposed coral and other organisms do occur. Soils deposited in lakes. These are usually clay soils, some of which may be blown onto the lake surface or transported into the lake by rivers. Some swamp deposits which include peat could be included in this category. Soils formed as a result of transportation by gravity in landslides and debris flows. These are often mixed materials of rock fragments and finer materials such as clay and sand.

Marine soils

Aeolian soils

Lacustrine soils

Colluvial soils

Soil in Engineering Terms In engineering terms a soil includes every type of uncemented or partially cemented inorganic and organic material found in the ground. The Australian Standard for Geotechnical Site Investigations (AS1726) further defines soil as an aggregation of discrete particles each of which has a nominal size of less than 60 mm, and which as a whole has a compressive strength of less than 600 kPa. This strength limit implies that most soils can be remoulded by hand or broken into pieces by hitting with a rubber mallet. Discrete particles larger than 60 mm are termed cobbles (60 mm to 200 mm) or boulders (>200 mm). Natural materials with a greater strength than soil are defined as rock.

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Basis of Soil Classification Soils are divided into two groups on the basis of the particle size of their primary component (the component which comprises over 50% of the soil) as follows: Soil Group Coarse Grained Soils Sand and Gravel Fine Grained Soils Fines - Clay and Silt Nominal Particle size 60 mm to 60 m less than 60 m

As a guide 60 m is about the smallest particle that can be individually seen with the (good) naked eye. For convenience the nearest standard sieve sizes are used for these delineations. Coarse grained soils are further subdivided into sand and gravel on the basis of particle size. Those in the coarse grained size range with a nominal particle size greater than 2 mm (about the size of a match head) are described as gravel. Those with a nominal particle size of less than 2 mm are described as sand. Many coarse grained soils are composed of a variety of different sized grains. The distribution of grain sizes can be expressed as grading, or its opposite, sorting. The term grading is most often used in engineering. A well graded (poorly sorted) soil is composed of particles with a wide variety of grain sizes. A poorly graded (well sorted) soil may be composed of particles within either a narrow range of grain size or of two discrete sizes leaving a range of sizes between the two which is unrepresented (see Figure 1). Figure 1. Diagrammatic representation of grading terms. The distribution of sizes is assessed on mass of the particles rather than volume. Therefore, whilst a well graded soil has a wide range of different sized particles it will have fewer large particles than small.

Well Graded

Poorly Graded

Gap Graded

Fine grained soils (cohesive soils) comprise silt sized particles (60 m to 2 m) and clay sized particles (less than 2 m). They are subdivided on the basis of their behaviour in consistency limits (Atterberg Limits) tests. Three states of consistency which determine a soils behaviour can be distinguished in cohesive soils as follows: a soil of liquid consistency behaves like a fluid and will not retain its shape if remoulded by hand; a soil of plastic consistency can be readily remoulded without the formation of cracks and will retain its new shape; a soil of solid consistency will only deform under high pressure and will crack on deformation.
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The consistency limits tests define boundaries between the liquid, plastic and solid states for cohesive soils. The liquid limit is the moisture content of a soil at the boundary of liquid and plastic consistency. The plastic limit is the moisture content of a soil at the boundary of plastic and solid consistency. The plasticity index is the plastic limit subtracted from the liquid limit. In general, high plasticity soils; ie, those with a high plasticity index, tend to resemble plasticine or potting clay. Low plasticity soils have a more chalky feel and are less pliable to handle. Some properties of high and low plasticity soils are given in Table 1 which provide an indication of why delineation of plasticity may be important in engineering and environmental assessments. Table 1. Generalised Soil Properties Related to Plasticity Low Plasticity Soils Exhibit small volume changes with change in moisture content May have higher substance permeability Have low clay contents Have low ion exchange capacity

High Plasticity Soils Exhibit large volume changes with change in moisture content Are generally of very low substance permeability Have high clay contents Have high ion exchange capacity

The definition between clay and silt based on consistency limits is shown in Figure 2. As illustrated, the liquid and plastic limits of a silt are significantly closer together than those of a clay. This means that a silt is likely to alter its consistency state and thus its behaviour with only relatively small changes in moisture content; a feature which can be useful for delineating silt and clay in the field where laboratory test results are not available. Because of this difference in behaviour, silts are termed non plastic and clay soils plastic. Unified Classification Symbol (UCS) In reality, soils are often composed of a mixture of components. Soils may include a mixture of fines and sand, fines and gravel or all three. The Unified Classification System classifies soils with a two letter symbol (referred to as the Group Symbol in AS1726). The first letter of the symbol provides identification of the primary component of the soil and will be one of: C-clay, M-silt, S-sand, G-gravel or O-organic. Allocation of the second letter is less simple. UCS for Coarse Grained Soils In coarse grained soils containing an appreciable quantity of fines (>12%), the nature of the fines component defines the second letter of the UCS. A gravel with clay fines is classified as GC. A sand with silt fines is classified as SM. Coarse grained soils without appreciable fines (<12%) are given the second letter of the UCS with respect to their grading. The letter P is representative of poorly graded soil, and W of a well graded soil. Thus a well graded sand is classified as SW, and a poorly graded gravel as GP.

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UCS for Fine Grained Soils The second letter of the UCS for fine grained soils is defined by their liquid limit, either determined in laboratory tests or assessed by visual/tactile means when test results are unavailable. The letter L signifies low liquid limit (<35%). The letter L or I may be used to signify medium or intermediate liquid limit (35% to 50%). H signifies a high liquid limit (>50%). Accordingly, a clay of high liquid limit would be classified as CH and a silt of low liquid limit as ML. This classification scheme for fine grained soils showing the plasticity characteristics of the different soil types is shown in Figure 2. Figure 2. Unified Classification Symbols for fine grained soils. Clay and silt are defined as plastic and non plastic respectively. Therefore a clay of liquid limit >50% is termed a high plasticity clay and classified as CH. A soil classified as MH would be termed a silt of high liquid limit. PART 2 1.
40
Hi gh pl asti ci ty cl ay M edi um CH

30
Low pl asti ci ty cl ay CL

pl asti ci ty cl ay CI

20
Hi gh l i qui dl i mi tsi l t MH

10
Low pl ast.cl ay/si l t Low l i qui dl i mi tsi l t ML

M edi um l i qui dl i mi tsi l t ML

0 0 10 20 30 40 50 Li qui d Li mi t( %) 60 70 80

STANDARD FOR SOIL DESCRIPTION

Introduction

This Manual describes the system we use for all soil descriptions in the field or laboratory. It has been prepared to encourage consistency between logs prepared within and between the various offices of GAP. Where different practises are adopted between different offices, numerous problems arise when engineers, geologists, scientists or technicians operate outside their usual office, especially on large projects where numerous logs may be produced by staff from several offices. In this situation considerable unchargeable time is often expended in checking and modifying the logs so that they conform with those of the office issuing the project report. This situation is unnecessary, inefficient and the potential for errors in logging or interpretation are greatly increased. The standardised logging system will ensure that : all observable and significant properties of a soil are described; every description of soil uses the same terms with the same meaning; particular properties always appear in the same position in the text of the description. The system provides guidelines which should be strictly adhered to in all work unless otherwise instructed by the manager of a particular project. The soil description method complies with AS1726 - 1993, the Australian Standard for Geotechnical Site Investigations.
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2. 2.1

Type and Order of Description Type of Description

Soil descriptions based on laboratory tests of particle size distribution and/or Atterberg Limits are described as laboratory descriptions. Those based on judgement must be described as descriptions by the visual / tactile method. Field descriptions generally fall into the latter category. 2.2 Order of Description

The soil properties are described in the following order: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 3. Classification symbol - BLOCK LETTERS. Soil Name; e.g. Sandy CLAY - with the primary soil type in block letters. Plasticity for cohesive soils, or particle size and shape for sands and gravels. Colour Secondary soil components; with an estimate of their percentage, (optional), and plasticity or particle size. Other minor soil components. Moisture condition. Strength. (Applies to soils in their undisturbed state only) Structure; i.e. fissuring & cementation. Additional observations; i.e. "FILL" or geological notes. Fine Grained vs Coarse Grained Soils

giving their

When classifying for engineering purposes by the Unified Classification System, soils are initially divided into the fine grained (cohesive) group and the coarse grained (granular) group. If it is judged that more than 50% of the sample is smaller than 60m (i.e. passing the 75m sieve), then the soil is of the fine grained group; i.e. clay or silt. Should less than 50% of the sample be smaller than 60m the soil is of the coarse grained group; i.e. sand or gravel. Cohesive soils As clay and silt particles are generally smaller than can be seen by the naked eye, cohesive soils are classified by their behaviour in Atterberg limits tests as shown on the Unified Soil Classification chart in Figure 2. If the plot of liquid limit/plasticity index falls above the 'A' line then the soil must be classified as a clay. Conversely should the plot fall below the line then the soil is a silt. For cases where the plot falls on the line within the dual classification box in the lower left corner of the chart a dual classification of CLAY/SILT may be used. If Atterberg limits are not available the soil should be classified as a clay or silt depending upon the tactile field identification procedures based on dry strength, dilatancy, and toughness, also given in Appendix A. Of these tests, dilatancy is often the most diagnostic. Granular Soils
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Coarse grained soils should be classified as either sand or gravel based on the relative quantity of each component. Soil particles greater than 2mm are defined as gravel; those smaller are defined as sand. For convenience, the 2.36mm sieve is generally used to define the boundary between gravel and sand sized particles. Particles greater than 60mm and less than 200mm are termed cobbles, and those greater than 200mm, boulders. Cobbles and boulders are not included in the main body of the soil description. Any occurrence of >60mm particles should be defined in the "Additional Observations' part of the description. Table 2 lists the particle sizes of the different soil components and the test sieves relevant to each major soil type. Organic and man made materials cannot be adequately described using these terms. If these materials are present in the soil being classified, specific names should be used, such as "brick fragments" rather than a general term like "fill material". Guidance for the description of such materials is given in section 4.11. Table 2 - Division of soil groups by particle size GROUP Fine Silt Sand Coarse Gravel NAME Clay SUB-DIV fine medium coarse fine medium coarse fine medium coarse SIZE <2m 2m -6m 6m -20m 20m -60m 60m -200m 200m -600m 600m -2.0mm 2.0mm-6mm 6mm-20mm 20mm-60mm 60mm-200mm >200mm A.S. SIEVE

75m

2.36mm

Cobbles Boulders 4. 4.1 Soil Description Classification Symbol & Soil Name

19mm 63mm

The primary soil name (ie clay, silt, sand or gravel) and classification symbol of the soil are selected by following the steps given on the flow chart shown in Figure 3. When a secondary component is present, a modifying adjective may be added to the primary soil name, ie sandy gravel. The proportions which define whether a modifier may be used are shown in Table 4. When primary and secondary components are present in almost equal proportions dual names may be used, e.g. sandy clay / clayey sand.

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Figure 3. Soil Classification Flow Chart

YES

Is >50% of material < 75m?

NO

Fine grained soil

Coarse grained soil

Above A line Plasticity chart

Below A line

NO

Is >50% of coarse fraction >2.0mm?

YES Clay YES Silt Is there a large organic content? Sand Are there >12% fines? Gravel Are there >12% fines?

NO

YES

NO

NO

YES

Is liquid limit >50?

Is liquid limit >50?

SP or SW

GP or GW

YES

NO YES

NO

OH

OL MH

ML

Are the fines plastic? Liquid Limit <35 - CL 35-50 - CI >50 - CH YES NO

Are the fines plastic?

YES

NO

SC

SM

GC

GM

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4.2 Plasticity (fine grained soils or fines) Liquid limit and plasticity index are either visually assessed or are determined on the soil fraction passing the 425m sieve in accordance with AS 1289. Terms describing plasticity are defined by the liquid limit as shown on Table 3. Table 3 - Plasticity descriptive terms Range of Liquid Limit <35 35-50 >50 4.3 Descriptive Term Low plasticity Medium plasticity High plasticity

Particle Characteristics and Size (Coarse grained soils)

The particle shape of granular soils can range from rounded to angular, however description of the particle shape is generally necessary only for gravel materials. Figure 4 shows definitions of these terms. The particle shape provides useful information about the likely origin and nature of deposition of a soil, and can significantly affect the materials behaviour. The distribution of the different particle sizes found within a soil is described as grading. For most engineering purposes description, a soils grading is adequately defined by the Unified Classification Symbol, however, if necessary, grading may be described using one of the following terms. "Well Graded" "Poorly Graded" "Gap Graded" "Uniform" good representation of all particle sizes from largest to smallest one or more intermediate sizes poorly represented one or more intermediate sizes absent essentially all one size

Figure 4. Typical Shape Of Coarse Grained Particles

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For boulders, the maximum sizes should be noted. 4.4 Colour

The colour of a soil is described in the moist condition using simple terms such as:Red Black Yellow White Brown Green Grey Orange Blue

These may be modified as necessary by "Pale" or "Dark". Borderline colours may be described as a combination of these colours (e.g. red brown). Any unusual colouring which may signify the presence of contamination should be noted. Where descriptions of colour may have contractual implications reference should be made to standard colour charts such as the Munsell System. When the soil contains a mixture of colours the soil may be described as grey with red staining, or pale brown and white. The term mottled should be avoided unless a description of the nature of colouring is also included. 4.5 Description of Secondary Components

The secondary soil components should be described using simple terms such as "approx. 30% to 40% low plasticity fines" or just "low plasticity fines" where it is considered by the classifier that no useful purpose will be served by stating a percentage of secondary material. The proportion of secondary component is always important in clayey sands. Where more than one secondary component is present, the component which is most significant in defining the soil name from the USC chart is used closest to the primary component in the description. i.e. Gravelly Clayey SAND (UCS symbol of SC), rather than Clayey Gravelly Sand. 4.6 Minor Components

Table 4 gives minor soil component descriptive terms. Other terms such as occasional or minor should not be used. Table 4 - Descriptive terms for minor components Coarse Grained Soils % Fines 5 > 5 12 > 12 Modifer Omit, or use trace % Coarse 15 Fine Grained Soils Modifier Omit, or use trace Described as with some sand/gravel as applicable Prefix primary soil name with
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silty/clayey as applicable

sandy/gravelly as applicable

In Table 4, % Fines refers to the per cent passing the 75 micron sieve and% Coarse refers to the percent retained on a 75 micron sieve.

4.7

Moisture Condition

Moisture condition is described using one of the terms shown in Table 5 : Table 5 - Descriptive terms for moisture condition. Term Dry Abbreviation D Description Granular soils : cohesionless and free flowing. Cohesive soils: hard, brittle or friable and powdery, moisture content well below plastic limit Soils are darker than in the dry condition & may feel cool. Granular soils : Sands and gravels tend to cohere Cohesive soils : can be moulded As moist, but with free water forming on hands when handled. Granular Soils : Sands and gravels tend to cohere. Cohesive soils: usually weakened

Moist

Wet

Other terms such as saturated, damp, and humid are not clearly defined or cannot be determined in the field and should not be used. The moisture condition of cohesive soils can be described relative to the plastic or liquid limit if this can be assessed. 4.8 Soil Strength

Consistency (Fine Grained Soils) The terms on Table 6 are used to describe the consistency of fine grained soils. Table 6 - Descriptive terms for consistency of fine grained soils Term Very Soft Soft Firm Stiff Very Stiff Hard Abbreviation VS S F St VSt H Shear Strength (kPa) <12 12 to 25 25 to 50 50 to 100 100 to 200 >200 Field Guide A finger can be pushed well into the soil with little effort. A finger can be pushed into the soil to about 25mm depth The soil can be penetrated about 5mm with the thumb. The surface of the soil can be indented with the thumb, but not penetrated. The surface of the soil can be marked by the fingers, but not indented with thumb pressure. The surface of the soil can be marked only with the thumb nail.
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Friable

Fb

Crumbles or powders when scraped by thumb nail

The undrained shear strength may be assessed using correlations of measured undrained shear strength with pocket penetrometer readings. The instrument must be regularly calibrated and used with care. The use of combination strength terms (e.g. Firm to Stiff) should be restricted to material assessed as having a strength close to the division between the two terms (e.g. an undrained shear strength of about 50 kPa). Materials with strength ranging from firm to stiff should be described as such. Relative Density (Coarse Grained Soils) Coarse grained soils are grouped according to their density indices (relative density) as defined in Table 7. The density index is typically assessed from established correlations with Standard Penetration Test results. Table 7 - Relative Density of Coarse Grained Soils Density Index SPT N blows (%) per 300 mm * Very Loose VL 0 to 15 0 to 4 Loose L 15 to 35 4 to 10 Medium Dense MD 35 to 65 10 to 30 Dense D 65 to 85 30 to 50 Very Dense VD 85 to 100 > 50 * - Dependant on overburden pressure and equipment used Term Abbreviation Visual Assessment Ravels Shovels easily Shovelling difficult Pick required Picking difficult

Further field guides to the relative density of coarse grained soils are given by other dynamic and static cone penetrometers. Without considerable experience it is difficult to make an assessment of the density index without some form of field test or laboratory testing of undisturbed samples. Therefore these terms often cannot be used in field or laboratory descriptions unless other suitable evidence is available. In such a situation it is still important to make an assessment based on field observations, such as Appears Loose, which should appear in the Additional Information column of the log. 4.9 Soil Structure

The structure of the soil may govern its engineering behaviour and should be described where possible. Sketches are often the most reliable and easiest way to record this information. Zoning A sample may consist of separate zones of soils differing in colour, grain size or other properties. The patterns of these zones are described as: Layers Lenses Pockets - continuous across exposure or sample - discontinuous layer with lenticular shape - irregular inclusion

The dominant thickness and distinguishing features of the zones should be noted.
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Fissures Any cracks or surfaces along which the soil breaks easily are fissures. If fissuring is present notes should be made as to the degree of fissuring present. If continuous slickensided shear zones are found an estimate should be made of their angle in relation to the horizontal plane. Other Defects Other defects may include: dykes roots root holes or tubes (hollow) tube casts (solid material filling old tube) surface cracks

Defects may be re-cemented and therefore may be stronger than the parent soil. The approximate dimensions and spacing of defects should be given. Cementing Soils or defects within soils may be cemented together by various agencies. If the cementing agent allows fracturing by hand of the particle aggregations when saturated it is described as weakly cemented. If the cementing agent prevents fracturing of the saturated aggregations it is described as a rock in engineering terms in accordance with AS 1726. The nature of the cementing agent should be identified if possible from its appearance, strength, reaction to acid etc. 4.10 Additional Observations

Any aspect of the soil which is not covered by the bulk of this manual should be noted as an "additional observation". It is always important to establish the geological origin of a soil where possible. It should be noted if the soil is from an alluvial or residual deposit. If it can be determined that a soil is a highly weathered rock or a slopewash material this should be noted. In many soils especially in arid and semi-arid regions, soils may contain chemical materials such as calcite (lime), gypsum, or iron oxides. These materials may be well distributed through the soil, or present as isolated nodules or crystals. It is therefore important to choose terms carefully to ensure that the material is clearly and properly described. For example the general term "calcareous" should be reserved for materials with well distributed calcium carbonate. Terms such as "weakly cemented by calcareous material" should be used for soils with their structure strengthened by calcium carbonate
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cementing of the particles. For material containing nodules of limestone "with calcrete nodules" is suitable. Other aspects which are important include such properties as dilatancy and the presence of visible pore space or voids, which may be described with terms such as porous structure, or appears to be of low density. 5 5.1 UNUSUAL MATERIALS Organic Soils

Organic soils are those in which there is sufficient organic material to alter the property of the soils. Such soils commonly have wood fragments included within the fabric. Peat is a dark brown to black residual material, sometimes fibrous, produced by the partial decomposition and disintegration of plant material in a wet environment. Root Mass is a fibrous intergrowth of rootlets. 5.2 Is it Soil, or is it Rock?

Materials which appear to be intermediate between soil and rock in terms of strength, weathering or because of mixed composition are often the most poorly described. Much of this confusion is regarding the definition of terms given in AS1726, but some is because of the complexity of the materials themselves. Examples of such materials are: Extremely weathered rock, which is defined by AS1726-1993 as Rock weathered to such an extent that it has soil properties, i.e. it either disintegrates or can be remoulded, in water. Extremely low strength rock, which is defined by AS1726-1993 as a rock which is easily remoulded by hand to a material with soil properties and has a point load strength index of <0.03 MPa. Mixtures of large rock fragments (>60mm) and soil components, which may be formed by weathering along joints in a rock mass, alluvial processes, colluvial processes or partial cementation such as in duricrusts (calcrete, silcrete, ferricrete). It is especially important to provide a clear description of such materials because many civil contracts and specifications have different rates for activities involving soil and rock. For example, contractors and engineers preparing specifications may depend on our logs to assess how much of each material type is to be excavated or drilled using a certain method. If our description of a material is limited to Extremely Weathered Shale the assumption may be that this material will require rock excavation methods, whereas the material may actually be a clay or silt soil which is significantly easier to excavate. It is therefore important to accurately record the type of equipment (where appropriate) that was used to allow us to make our observations, such as : Caterpillar D9 bulldozer
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Revision Level 2 April, 2002 Hitachi EX300 hydraulic excavator with 1.2 m wide toothed bucket Trailer mounted Gemco 210B rotary drilling rig with solid augers and a V - bit As our business is to provide engineering advice, we should describe materials primarily in terms of their engineering properties, followed by an assessment of their geological origin. A material which can be remoulded by hand and is likely to have the engineering properties of soil should be described as a soil with observations of structure, and an interpretation as to whether it is an extremely weathered or extremely low strength sandstone/siltstone/basalt or whatever. The presence of obvious rock structure does not define a material as rock in engineering terms. The least ambiguous method to describe mixed materials is to use a simple main heading such as: Mixture of Boulders and Soil, or Rock Fragments in a Soil Matrix. The remainder of the description should describe each of the components (i.e. soil and rock) separately, and give an assessment of their proportions. A typical description may be : MIXTURE of SOIL (60%) and ROCK (40%) SOIL is : CI Sandy CLAY, medium plasticity, pale brown; 40% fine to coarse sand, dry, hard. ROCK is : LIMESTONE, pale brown, medium strength, present as subrounded cobbles and boulders to about 600 mm in size. 5.3 Weathering & Rock Strength Page 14 of 19

There is a common perception that the more weathered a rock is, the lower its strength. Weathering and rock strength are not necessarily related. Within a particular formation or rock unit, highly weathered rock may be stronger than fresh rock due to iron cementation or other chemical effects. A relatively young material which is easily remoulded but exhibits rock structure may not be weathered at all, and therefore should not be described as extremely weathered. Examples include some Tertiary sand deposits, calcretes and volcanic ash deposits which have been protected from weathering by an overlying lava flow. These materials should be described as cemented sand or with a soil description and a note as to their assessed origin. 5.4 Duricrusts

Duricrusts are formed by precipitation of previously dissolved chemicals, which form an altered layer within a soil profile. Duricrusts are generally variable, and may range from gravel sized nodules to relatively continuous layers of uniformly strong rock materials. Some examples of typical duricrusts are presented in Table 8.

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Table 8 - Typical Duricrusts Duricrust name Calcrete Ferricrete Description Calcareous material consisting mostly of calcite (calcium carbonate). Calcretes are also referred to as caliche, kunkar and travertine. A material produced by secondary deposition of previously dissolved iron oxides. Ferricretes include lateritic soil, laterites, ferruginous breccias and ferruginous sandstones. Also known as ironstone. A red or yellow soil containing numerous gravel sized particles enriched in iron and/or alumina. These particles may be soft or hard, but do harden on exposure to the atmosphere. Siliceous material, usually of high to very high substance strength. Crystalline structure similar to quartzite.

Laterite

Silcrete

5.5

Fill

It is essential that the thickness and composition of FILL, where present, is recorded accurately. The fact that soils have been deposited on a site by other than natural mechanisms may have significant geotechnical and environmental implications. The material should be identified clearly on the field log as fill, and then described in the same detail as natural soil. Providing less thorough descriptions of fill may prevent us from being able to answer important questions regarding, for instance, the likely origin, suitability for re-use in engineered fills, potential for contamination, etc. Typical characteristics of FILL include : unusually variable range of colours very distinct changes in soil profile presence of foreign objects such as glass, plastic, slag etc. buried organic matter in some instances cloddiness of clay soil indicating previous disturbance by excavation

It is essential that we describe all the components observed in fill accurately. General descriptions such as building refuse or organic waste are not helpful and may be misleading. Even using terms like fill contains plastic and bitumen to describe fill with several plastic bags and a trace of bitumen fragments can give the impression to users of a test pit report that the fill is severely contaminated. Table 9 gives guidelines for the degree of information which should be recorded on field logs.

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Table 9 - Examples of Acceptable Level of Description for Fill Components Misleading Description Fill contains plastic Fill with medical waste Example of Acceptable Level of Description several plastic bags two syringes numerous gauze dressings, jars labelled Biohazard, and decomposing body organs Fill contains concrete blocks about 25% of the fill comprises concrete blocks and slabs to about 1m and slabs in size Fill includes metal scrap lengths of railway track up to about 4m long several lengths of copper wire and some steel drill cuttings 200mm thick layer of rusted scissors Fill with organics several logs up to 2m long pockets of grass clippings up to about 0.5m thick one decomposing poodle The compositions of fills may be highly variable, and it is often useful to describe them as a mixture of materials, for example : FILL - MIXTURE of SOIL (60%) and REFUSE (40%) SOIL is : CI CLAY, medium plasticity, grey brown; trace of fine to medium quartzite gravel, moist, firm. REFUSE includes several plastic bags, concrete slabs up to 1 m in size, galvanised iron sheets, some glass bottles. Some environmental protection agencies make a distinction between fill which has been imported on to the site from elsewhere, and onsite materials which have been reworked and compacted (ie during cut and fill works). Whilst it is often not possible in practice, a comment to the affect that fill materials appear to be of local origin should be included. If the upper surface of a site (<200mm) has been disturbed and remoulded, the affected material should be described as disturbed and remoulded ground, rather than FILL. 5.6 Pavement Materials

Pavement materials are a specific type of fill. It is important to clearly identify the extent and nature of pavement materials where present. The question often arises Are the existing pavements suitable for future use? or Can we stabilise/recycle the existing pavements?. In some cases we are asked to comment on these issues after the completion of fieldwork, despite the fact that our field investigation may not have been planned to specifically address the issue of pavement composition. Hence these layers should always be logged carefully. Granular pavements usually contain some or all of the following layers : Wearing Surface (Sprayed bituminous seal or asphalt, usually between 10 mm and 50 mm thick) Basecourse (High quality crushed rock, usually of either 20 mm or 40 mm nominal size) Sub-base (generally lower quality crushed rock than basecourse, may have more fines) Subgrade (either natural soil/rock or compacted FILL)
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Where possible the boundaries between these layers should be noted on the field logs. It is often most useful to sketch the observed structure. The following notes indicate some important issues to be addressed when logging pavements.

1. Where present, the type of wearing surface should be described, including the stone size, and the layer thickness noted to the nearest 5 mm. Wearing surfaces may be either a sprayed bituminous seal or asphalt (also known as asphaltic concrete or hotmix). Sprayed seals are constructed by applying a layer of bitumen to the surface and then pushing gravel (aggregate) into the bitumen. Such seals are usually between 10 mm and 30 mm thick (they may incorporate more than one layer) and typically produce a rough wearing surface. Hotmix seals are produced by a machine which mixes bitumen with gravel and then applies mixed hotmix in a layer of relatively constant thickness to the prepared surface. Hotmix may range in thickness from about 25 mm to greater than 200 mm, and usually produces a smoother wearing surface than spray seals. The basecourse and sub-base layers should be described as a soil (i.e. GW Sandy Gravel, fine to medium etc.) and the layer thicknesses should be noted to the nearest 10 mm. It is useful to describe the rock type (i.e. basalt, quartzite, dolomite etc) and include descriptions of the whether the particles are rounded or angular and whether the gravel appears well or poorly graded. Where the field engineer/geologist is sufficiently experienced with such materials, it is extremely useful to also describe the materials as 20 mm CRUSHED ROCK, 40 mm QUARRY RUBBLE or similar. Such terms vary locally and may infer that the grading and fines content of the material comply with a local specification, and should therefore only be used where appropriate. Terms such as Class 1 20 mm Crushed Rock, DGB20, PM32 etc should be not be included on the field log as compliance with the specifications for these materials can not be visually assessed. As a minimum the materials should be described as PAVEMENT MATERIAL, EXISTING PAVEMENT or QUARRY PRODUCT. 2. If any of the materials present high resistance or refusal to drilling or excavation this must be noted on the field log. 3. Where it is possible to distinguish between BASECOURSE and SUB-BASE layers the layer name should be written in the Additional Observations column. 4. Stabilisation (the addition of cement, lime, or other materials to granular Basecourse or sub-base materials) is often used to increase the strength and hence design life of pavements. The presence of stabilised materials must be noted because : the design life and potential failure mechanisms differ for unstabilised (unbound) or stabilised (bound) pavements. Our assessment of pavement condition or `failure causes may be significantly influenced by the presence of stabilised materials. A stabilised pavement may be significantly more difficult to excavate or rip. If we do not record the presence of stabilised materials we may be liable for a contractors claim for construction difficulties.
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5. Some pavements incorporate geotextile between the pavements layers described above, typically placed above the subgrade or beneath a bituminous seal. The presence of any such materials within the pavement should be noted. 6. Old asphalt layers such as bitumen impregnated macadam (coarse gravel and cobbles) layers should be identified as they may have a large impact on the performance of pavement overlays. 7. The pavement surface distress such as rutting or cracking of asphalt should be noted and, if appropriate, described using A Guide to the Visual Assessment of Pavement Condition (Austroads, 1987). 5.7 Potentially Contaminated Soils

On some environmental projects it may be considered that it is unnecessary to log soils in the same manner as for geotechnical projects. In some cases it may be acceptable to omit some of the details that are not considered relevant, however in general logging for environmental projects should, where possible, be performed to the same standard regardless of the project at hand. Whilst some of the information recorded may not required in the immediate future, if it is collected at the time of the investigation it may be very useful in later stages of the project, or on future projects. Where information required on an engineering log is omitted the log should include a statement such as Report of Borehole not prepared for engineering purposes. Additional information is required when logging potentially contaminated soils. This information is of particular assistance during the selection of samples for laboratory analysis and may include a visual ranking of the apparent contamination and a description of any odours observed. Ranking A field assessment of the degree of contamination can be made based on visible evidence of contamination and odour using the ranking system outlined in Table 10. Table 10 - Ranking system for potentially contaminated soil VISIBLE CONTAMINATION Description No visible evidence of contamination Slight evidence of visible contamination (trace) Visible contamination (eg more than trace) Obviously contaminated (eg predominantly tar, slag, spent oxide, coke) ODOUR Description Natural odour only Slight odour Moderate odour Strong odour

Rank 0 1 2 3

Rank A B C D

The field ranking (i.e. 0A or 3D) should be recorded with the sample number on the field logging sheet. Odour A clear description of odours can be of great assistance when developing the analytical program. As odours are subjective the description to appear in the final log should be kept simple. For instance,
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hydrocarbon odour would be appropriate for petrol, diesel or kerosene. A second description may be included in brackets on the field log (ie. not to be included in the final log) if considered valuable. For instance (toilet cleaner odour) or (mothball odour). A list of some common odour types is given in Table 11.

Table 11 - Typical Odours ODOUR hydrocarbon tar solvent sweet chlorine sulphide ammonia putrescible MAY INDICATE BTEX OR TPH PAH or phenolics organic solvents volatile halogenated organics chlorine or chlorinated compounds sulphides or sulphates ammonia methane, bacteria, nutrients

If there is an odour present which does not fit into one of these categories then some comment must still be made such as non-soil odour or chemical odour and a description given in brackets. The odour description should appear on the field log sheet in the Additional Observations column.

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APPENDIX A USC & PLASTICITY CHARTS FIELD TESTS

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Plasticity Chart

PLASTICITY CHART Unified Classification Symbols for fine grained soils. Clay and silt are defined as plastic and non plastic respectively. Therefore a clay of liquid limit >50% is termed a high plasticity clay and classified as CH. A soil classified as MH would be termed a silt of high liquid limit. Field Tests

40 CH Plasticity Index (%) 30 CL MH 10 CL/ML 0 0 20 40 Liquid Lim it (%) 60 80 ML ML CI or CL

20

These procedures are to be performed on the minus 0.2 mm size particles. For field classification purposes, where screening is not intended, simply remove by hand the coarse particles that interfere with the tests. Dilatancy (reaction to shaking) (i) Prepare a pat of moist soil with a volume of about 10 cm3. Add enough water if necessary to make the soil soft but not sticky. Place the pat in the open palm of one hand and shake horizontally, striking vigorously against the other hand several times. A positive reaction consists of the appearance of water on the surface of the pat which changes to a livery consistency and becomes glossy. When the sample is squeezed between the fingers, the water and gloss disappear from the surface, the pat stiffens, and finally it cracks or crumbles. The rapidity of appearance of water during shaking and its disappearance during squeezing assists in identifying the character of the fines in the soil. Very fine clean sands give the quickest and most distinct reaction whereas a plastic clay has no reaction. Inorganic silts, such as typical rock flour, show a moderately quick reaction.

(ii)

(iii)

Dry Strength (crushing characteristics) (i) Mould a pat of soil to the consistency of putty, adding water if necessary. Allow the pat to dry completely by oven, sun, or air drying, and then test its strength by breaking and crumbling between the fingers. This strength is a measure of the character and quantity of the colloidal fraction contained in the soil. The dry strength increases with increasing plasticity.

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(ii)

High dry strength is characteristic of clays in the CH group. A typical inorganic silt possesses only very slight dry strength. Silty fine sands and silts have about the same slight dry strength but can be distinguished by feel when powdering the dry specimen. Fine sand feels gritty whereas a typical silt has the smooth feel of flour.

Toughness (consistency near plastic limit) (i) A specimen of soil, about 10 cm3 in size, is moulded to the consistency of putty. If too dry, water must be added and, if sticky, the specimen should be spread out in a thin layer and allowed to lose some moisture by evaporation. Then the specimen is rolled out by hand on a smooth surface or between the palms into a thread about 3 mm diameter. The thread is then folded and re-rolled repeatedly. During this manipulation the moisture content is gradually reduced and the specimen stiffens, finally loses its plasticity, and crumbles when the plastic limit is reached. After the thread crumbles, the pieces should be lumped together and a slight kneading action continued until the lump crumbles. The tougher the thread near the plastic limit and the stiffer the lump when it finally crumbles, the more potent is the colloidal clay fraction in the soil. Weakness of the thread at the plastic limit and quick loss of coherence of the lump below the plastic limit indicate either inorganic clay of low plasticity, or materials such as kaolin-type clays and organic clays which occur below the Aline. Highly organic clays have a very weak and spongy feel at the plastic limit.

(ii)

(iii)

(iv)

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APPENDIX B CHECK WITH OFFICE QUALITY MANAGER FOR CURRENT VERSION OF NOTES & TERMS INCLUDED WITH BOREHOLE AND TEST PIT LOG REPORTS

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APPENDIX C EXAMPLE LOGS

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