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INTRODUCTION
Malaysia which is located in the tropical belt is no exception and it bless with
plentiful of this unique forest. Peat swamp forest is one of the most important
ecosystems that existed in waterfront area. There are the significant of peat swamp
forests such as the variety of benefits in the form of forestry and fisheries products,
energy, flood mitigation, water supply and groundwater recharge. It links between
the land and water, a transition zone where the flow of water, the cycling of nutrients
and the energy of the sun combine to produce a unique ecosystem of hydrology, soils
Peat swamp forest is also known as ‘Black Water Jewel’. Nearly 60 per cent of
Malaysia, or about 19.5 million hectares, is under forest cover of one type or another.
estimated 1.54 million hectares still remaining. More than 70 per cent of these peat
swamp forests are in Sarawak, less than 20 per cent in Peninsular Malaysia and the
remainder in Sabah. Large areas of peat swamp forest in Malaysia have already been
cleared and drained for agriculture, settlement and other human activities, but such
changes completely alter the landscapes and eliminate many of the specialized flora
1
1.1 Objectives
1.2.2 To review the silvicultural practice taken for the conservation of peat
swamp forest.
1.2.3 To know the economic importance and the conservation works for the
forest.
1.2.4 To know the management practices and the institutes involved and the
2
CHAPTER 2
It is estimated that forests covered at least 40 percent of the Earth's land surface as the
natural climax vegetation before humans begin clearing them. The types of forests vary
with the climate, latitude and soil conditions. There are numerous of the main
forest, savanna forest, etc but the broad divisions of the Malaysian forests are lowland
forest, upperhill forest, hill dipterocarp forest, heath forest, beach forest, mangrove
The name itself implies that the family of Dipterocarpaceae is dominant species in this
forest. Dipterocarpaceae is one of the major timber species in Malaysia and in South-
East Asia. The most common tree species found in this forests include; Anisoptera,
This type of forest is found on the higher hills between the approximate altitudinal limits
of 2,500 to 4,000 feet . The species are very different from those found in the hill
of the lowland dipterocarp and hill dipterocarp forests, is represented by only a few
3
species. The forest is often characterized by the presence of Shorea but Agathis and
These forests occur on the inland ranges between the approximate altitudinal limits of
1,000 and 2,500 ft. Aspect and site however are important factors and the forest have a
tendency to be found at lower limits on exposed ridges and at higher limits in the more
sheltered valleys. The main difference between lowland dipterocarp and hill dipterocarp
forest is a shift in the floristic composition of the dominants in the upper and main tree
storeys. Many of the common lowland forest species are still found in the hill forests,
but less frequently, while many species occur which are absent in the lowlands. The
most common large tree species of this type of forest is Shorea, Dipterocarpus and
Heath forest grows on soils which are high in silica, and therefore poor in nutrients, and
highly acidic. The stream draining heath forest are black, or tea-coloured when viewed
by transmitted light, are usually acid with low caution content. In Borneo the heath
forest is known as kerangas, and the trees are pole like and much shorter than in the
rainforest.
These forests form a very narrow strip of woodland,rarely more than twenty to forty
wide and frequently less, along the sandy or gravelly beaches of the sea coast, above the
4
level of highest tides. They occur for much of the length of the east coast and
comparatively rare along the more muddy shores of the west coast where the sandy and
gravelly beaches which do exist have been developed or greatly disturbed by man. The
Mangrove forests occur in muddy shores, lagoons and estuaries of tidal rivers. The most
common tree species are Rhizophora, Avicennia, Bruguiera, Sonneratia, Xylocarpus and
Nypa species. This is a community of trees and shrubs which grows in the tidal zones on
sheltered coasts in the tropics. The trees have evolved many unique features to
withstand the difficulties of their habitat, including stilt roots, pneumatophores (upward
growing roots which enable them to breathe in the mud), and salt-excreting leaves. This
forest composed of species of mangrove tree, generally along coasts in or near brackish
or salt water.
This forest type grows on low-lying land and is regularly to occasionally flooded with
minerals rich, fairly acidic water. It varies from a low scrub with scattered 20-30m tall
trees to a forest similar in structure to peat swamp forest. The ground level usually has a
lot of spiny pandans, rattans, and palms (Anon. c, 2007). Natural forests that composed
of trees with any mixtures of leaf, type and seasonality, but in which the predominant
5
2.18 Peat Swamp Forest
This unique forest of a peat swamp exists in waterfront area. The peat is formed from a
small accumulation of decayed growth. The peat exists in the layer of between 1 to 7 m
above the humus. The humus in turn formed on layers of silt or sand. The water in the
peat swamp is actually dark but clear. The highest canopy can reach 30 meters while the
growths underneath are sparse. Draining is poor and under story contains many pandans
(Anon. a, 2004). Major timber species found in this forest include; Gonystylus
uliginosa, etc.
Peat swamp forests are waterlogged forests growing on a layer of dead leaves and
plant material up to 20 m thick. Peat forms when plant material, usually in marshy
areas, is inhibited from decaying fully by the acidic conditions and an absence of
microbial activity. For example, peat formation can occur along the inland edge of
mangroves where fine sediments and organic material become trapped in the
mangrove roots. Peat is mostly soil with more than 65 per cent organic matter that is
composed largely of vegetation including trees, grasses, mosses, fungi and various
(www.gefweb.org/wprogram/May99/Bio/Malaysia2.doc, 2009).
6
Peat formation occurs when the rate of accumulation of organic material exceeds the
depend principally on the local composition of the peat and the degree of water-
logging. Peat formed in very wet conditions accumulates considerably faster and is
less decomposed than peat accumulating in drier places. The peat acts as a natural
waterlogged already, with a very limited capacity to absorb additional heavy rainfall
during periods such as a tropical monsoon. Peat swamp forests develop on these
sites where dead vegetation has become waterlogged and is accumulating as peat.
swamps is generally high in humic substances (humus and humic acids) that give a
typically dark brown to black colour to the water. These conditions influence the
types of vegetation that thrive in the covering forests and that, in turn, contribute to
7
Figure 2.1 : Peat swamp forest
The three layers structure that encircled the emergent layer widely spaced trees 100 to
120 ft tall and with umbrella-shaped canopies extend above the general canopy of the
forest. This layer tends to have small leaves. Second layer are closed canopy of 80 ft
tall and light is readily available at the top of this layer. Third layer are closed canopy of
60 ft tall and there is little air movement in this zone and consequently humidity is
constantly high. Ground layer is the bottom layer in peat swamp structure which less that
1 percent of the light that strikes the top of the forest penetrates to the forest floor
(Whitemore, 1990).
8
Anderson (1964) recognizes six zones of phase of vegetation in peat swamp forest. This
setting is from the margin of the forest towards the center or dome of the peat swamps.
However, there are not definite separation or well define border off all the communities.
Further more, it is sometimes not possible to locate all species in the peat swamp plant
communities
Occurring on the peripheral zone of the swamp, the mixed swamp forests cover
extensive areas of mainly shallow peat near the coast. This is the most valuable forest
9
2.3.2 Alan Batu Forest
This forest, in its primary condition, is similar to that of the mixed swamp forest except
that it is dominated by large trees of Alan (Shorea albida). The total number of species
in this forest type is only slightly less than that in mixed swamp forest (Anderson, 1964).
The primary stands of Alan Bunga forest are dominated by an even canopy of Alan
(Shorea albida) which may reach a high volume. This forest type, generally, does not
have any middle storey. The lower storey, although moderately dense, is composed of
These communities are full of Litsea palustris, Parastemon spicatum and Tristaniopsis
spp.
A narrow zone, almost similar to the high pole zone but the trees are shorter and densely
distributed. One of the most abundant species recorded in this zone is Palaquim spp
Very open zone, common with herbs and other small trees. There are Cyperaceae,
Nepenthes spp and Pandanus spp, to name among other ground vegetation (Anderson,
1964).
CHAPTER 3
10
CONSERVATION OF PEAT SWAMP FOREST
The tropical peat swamp forests of Malaysia and the fauna and flora that inhabit these
habitats have global as well as national significance. Malaysia’s peat swamp forests not
only comprise unique ecosystems that are home to many endemic species but also
provide sanctuary for viable populations of more than 60 animal species listed as
Asian elephant, tiger, civet otter, storm’s stork and wrinkled hornbill. These moist forests
also serve as a natural gene bank of potentially useful plant species as well as providing
highly valuable forest products such as timber and food. Many unknown species still
remain to be discovered (Coulter, 1957). Conserving the forests is crucial not only to
ensure sustainable use of the country’s rich resources and protection of endangered
species, but also to maintain environmental stability. Peat swamp forests act as a carbon
sink, helping to slow global warming. It also plays a critical role in regulating water over
vast areas, supporting agriculture by reducing the impact of floods, revitalizing the soil
11
Figure 3.1 : Proboscus monkey
The areas of peat swamp covered approximately to 6% (809,000 hectares) from the total
area of Peninsular Malaysia (Coulter, 1957). It is estimated that 497,000 hectares from
the total area of peat swamp are forest areas (Wyatt-Smith, 1959). Since then, many of
peat swamp areas were cleared for agriculture, aquaculture, industries and residential
schemes.
Apart from being the logged for timber, peat swamp forest plays a critical role in
regulating water over vast areas and reducing the impact of floods. During droughts,
peat swamp forest revitalizes the soil and providing a limited source of water (Goodwin
& Niering, 1974). These are the reasons, peat swamp forest acts as hydrological buffer
12
Other than logging and agriculture, tin mining activities also take place in peat swamp
forest. For example, approximately 10,000 hectares of peat swamp areas are allocated
for tin mining in the north area of Selangor. The other mining that are taking place in
peat swamp forest is peat mining for fertile garden soil used in horticulture.
3.2.1 Peat swamp forests are unique habitats for flora and fauna that provide
3.2.2 Peat swamp forests store atmospheric carbon that is an agent of global
3.2.3 Coastal peat swamps act as a buffer between marine and freshwater
groundwater (www.gefweb.org/wprogram/May99/Bio/Malaysia2.doc,
2009).
3.2.4 Peat swamp forests play an important part in stabilizing the ecosystem,
13
3.3 Potential Benefits of Peat Swamp Forest
Peat swamp forest can diminish peak flood flows by reducing water velocity and
/May99/Bio/Malaysia2.doc, 2009)
The water from floods held in peat swamps is released gradually over a long
period. Intact peat swamps can contribute to maintaining the water level in rivers
3.
rivers, peat swamps can prevent the intrusion of saline water up rivers and
Nutrients are often adsorbed onto the surfaces of suspended particles and
deposited along with them. These nutrients are likely to be incorporated into
14
3.3.5 Toxicant Removal
Peat is very effective in binding metals. This largely accounts for the
micronutrient deficiencies (such as copper) that are encountered when using peat
soils for agriculture. Other metals (such as mercury and arsenic) are often bound
in peat soils that are accumulated from waterborne and airborne sources over
long periods. Some such metals are toxic in large quantities and peat acts as a
2009).
Recognition of this function has gained in importance in recent years due to the
quantities of carbon are stored in tropical peat lands. Estimates suggest that 5,800
tonnes of carbon per hectare can be stored in a 10 m deep peat swamp compared
to 300-500 tonnes per hectare for other types of tropical forest. Tropical peat
lands, besides acting as stores of carbon, actively accumulate carbon in the form
peat swamps destroys this useful function and may contribute to global warming
15
CHAPTER 4
Sustainable use of wetlands aim to conserve the natural sources of a wetland while
allowing exploitation that does not irreversibly destroy the wetland’s functions or its
potential to support people and wildlife. The diversity of plant species in peat swamp
forests are less, compared to the dipterocarp forests that possess majority of peat swamp
forest species except Kempas (Koompassia malaccensis). Besides, there are a few
differences from the floristic side between the areas of peat swamp forest at the east and
west coast. Durian paya (Durio caranitus) is only found in east coast while Meranti
bakau (Shorea rugosa), Meranti paya (S. teysmanniana) and Bitis paya (Palaquium
ridleyi) are found in peat swamp forest at the coast side (Appanah, Chan & Khali, 1989).
From the forestry value side, peat swamp forests are special as they act as the high
quality log resource that must be managed to get the long run production. As we know
that Malaysia’s peat swamp forests are rich in commercial size species, so they must be
applied.
It was found that the increment existed in the growth of shorea species (Meranti),
Koompassia malaccensis (Kempas) and Calophyllum retusum (bintangor) after the last
felling operation occurs or when the surrounding areas of the forest are cleared for
agriculture. The effect is that the peat swamp area might be dry (Wyatt-Smith, 1959).
16
Now in Peninsular of Malaysia are not the forests treated by silviculture treatment
because of the logging operations are concentrated only at the area aimed for agriculture.
As there are still a large number of peat swamp forest reserves will be opened for
logging activities or for other aims, so the systematic management procedures need to be
set up that include the silviculture system, information collections of growth rate, death,
after-logging growth and other important ecology features to help planning the effective
resource and to optimize the logging activities in economic way and maintaining the
ecological stability and surrounding world quality as the priority. Productive Forest in
managed based on present Selective Management System. Under this system, felling
cycle is 30 years from the first felling. Felling limits for a particular felling regime
Management System, minimum total for every hectare of species at DBH of 30cm for
the total of 32 species must remain after the first felling. Felling must be done to 30 to
40 for every hectare (or 7 to 12 species in a hectare). The remained large log
expected to reach the mature level in about 25 to 30 years for the second felling (Thang,
1986).
17
4.2 Forest Problem
The general characteristics of the climate of equatorial countries like Malaysia are
determined by two factors ; latitudinal position and position relation to sea and land
surfaces. The important feature of equatorial climates is the small seasonal variation in
incoming solar radiation, both in its duration and intensity (Samsudin and Wan Shukri,
1998).
There are two main seasonal trade wind systems that characterized this area, the
northeast monsoon, which occur from December to the end of March’ southwest
monsoon occurring from May to September. Between the two monsoon season there are
wind direction and rainfall. There are main dry periods in Peninsular Malaysia, around
January to March and in June to July (Samsudin and Wan Shukri, 1998).
Under normal conditions and undisturbed tropical moist forests of Malaysia will not
catch fire easily and even if they do burn, the fire will not be widespread as the average
annual rainfall of about 2540mm and humidity exceeding 75 percent and the fire speed
rate is slow. Decomposition on the forest floor relatively fast, the climatic conditions are
generally humid and full build-up on the forest floor is minimal. Unless these conditions
are changed, there is very little chance of the forest catching fire (Anon., 1990).
Forest becomes more vulnerable to forest fire when the forest disturbed and degraded
with much debris available on the forest floor and canopy cover opened especially after
a prolonged dry spell. Although the peat swamp forest soil is always moist, the peat can
18
become completely dry when water is drained during development projects. When the
soil is in dry condition, it will be easily catch fire and will spread as well as stay burning
Fire is the release of energy in the form of heat and light when oxygen combines with a
burnable extremely high combination (Mohd Puad and Tengku Abdullah, 2000). Heat
and oxygen needed to produce fire fuel. When a fire has a large amount of heat and fuel
they can grow larger, in a forest fire shrubs are not really on fire, instead of burning the
fuel is being converted to gas. The burning is actually the gas fuel when heat is applied
Fire is divided into three types according to the pattern of spread and depends on the
types of fuel involved and intensity of a fuel (Samsudin and Wan Shukri, 1998).
It burns surface fuel consisting of the dry layer of twigs, dead branches, grass and leave
on the soil surface. Surface fire moves quickly and spreads widely but seldom generates
Crown fire occurs on the top of the forest through the canopies. It destroys upper part of
trees and inflicts heavy damage upon the wildlife that depends on the forest for food and
shelter. It may results from ground fires that cause branches to fall and spread the fire
(Burton, 1999).
19
4.2.2.3 Ground Fire
Ground fires are the largest fire that is very intense blazes that destroy all vegetation and
organic manner, leaving only bare earth. These fire create their own winds and weather,
increasing the flow of oxygen and feeding the fire (Burton, 1999).
surrounding the affected areas is the major effect of forest fire. The haze and air
pollution were at a dangerous level and caused the increasing of respiratory ailment and
It is important to fully understand the effects of forest fire as it provides the economic
basis for fire control and is a key consideration in both public and private forest policy,
forest practices and overall forest management. It is also the essential prerequisites to
beneficial use of fire for land management purpose (Wexler and Harry, 1990).
A forest fire does several specific things. Firstly, and most obviously, it consumes woody
material. A side from physical removal of material from the forest, as in logging, fire is
the only means of quickly removing large quantities of wood and other vegetative
material. The use of fire is slash burning and in land clearing generally is direct
Secondly, it creates heat effects as a result of which living vegetation and animal life are
killed or damaged and the soil maybe altered. In most fires, much more is killed, injured,
20
or changed through heat effect than is consumed. Thirdly, it produces residual mineral
products that may cause chemical effects, which are mostly important in relation to the
A wide range of effects may result from these actions of fire. Some maybe immediate
and readily apparent, and some may be delayed and difficult to detect. Physical, biology
and chemical changes in the forest environment are always in involved (Wexler and
Harry, 1990).
21
CHAPTER 5
Malaysia is under a megadiversity region that protected its natural heritage within
national and marine parks, wildlife reserves and sanctuaries and permanent forest
convention was the first global agreement to recognize that conservation and sustainable
use of biological diversity are the concern of everyone and an integral part of the
development process in any country. Its objectives are the conservation of biological
diversity, the sustainable use of its components and the fair and equitable sharing of the
Committee was set up in 1994 to protect and manage Malaysia’ biological resource and
to ensure the fair and equitable sharing of biological resources and technology. In order
22
5.1.2 The RAMSAR Convention on Wetlands of International Importance
This is an intergovernmental treaty that provides the framework for national and
international cooperation for the conservation and wise use of wetlands and their
resources aiming to achieve sustainable development throughout the world. Tasek Bera
in Pahang was added to the list of protected areas specifically as a RAMSAR site. At
about the same time, during the Sixth Malaysia Plan period (1991-1995), the Sarawak
State Government designated 1.03 million hectares of pristine forest as protected area,
and established new national parks at Batang Ai, Loagan Bunut and Tanjung Datu. The
Sabah State Government approved two new conservation areas, Semporna Islands Park
In 1996, the Government of Malaysia launched its National Ecotourism Plan, followed
by the introduction of the National Biodiversity Policy in 1998 for the specific purpose
prepare a management plan for the first RAMSAR site was completed in 1999 and a
number of other wetland sites identified for conservation and as a showcase of wetlands
23
By the end of the twentieth century the natural resource management emphasis had
shifted from concerns mainly over timber production to the simultaneous sustainable
rattan, bamboo, medicinal plants, resins and dyes, as well as to the enhancement of the
beginning to be recognized as a popular attraction for local and foreign tourists and as a
valuable recreational option together with other natural resources such as waterfalls,
rapids, unique rock formations, flora, fauna, wetlands and scenic panoramas.
official activity during the period of the Eighth Malaysia Plan, 2001-2005. In 2001 and
NGOs joined forces to form the Malaysian Environmental NGOs (MENGOs) forum to
work on issues of common interest. These included dialogue with government agencies,
and projects such as participation in the drafting of management plans for several other
2009).
Council in 2001, to coordinate efforts at the federal and state levels to improve the
namely, Tanjung Piai, Pulau Kukup and Sungai Pulai (all in Johor) were designated
RAMSAR sites in 2003. These additions, together with the original RAMSAR site at
Tasek Bera, increased the total area of Malaysian wetlands recognized as being of
Development of these plans and policies is on-going. The National Wetlands Policy is
being formulated to protect and conserve wetlands generally, and to improve their
Sibuti Wetlands National Park in Sarawak which covers an area of 5,537 hectares. The
2009).
25
CHAPTER 6
In 1999, the Government of Malaysia initiated a project to conserve its rapidly depleting
peat swamp forests with support and funding from the United Nations Development
agencies amounted to US$8,385,000 plus over US$5 million in kind from the
Government. The official agreement was signed early in 2001 and the project
2009).
The project’s primary objective is to develop and implement plans that will strongly
contribute to the conservation and sustainable use of these globally significant forests.
To achieve the project objectives a number of project outputs were formulated. The
Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment is the Executing Agency and the Forest
Research Institute Malaysia is the Implementing Agency for the project. Extending over
five years to 2007, the project aims to promote the conservation and sustainable use of
demonstrate how this can be achieved at three sites: the Loagan Bunut National Park
26
(LBNP) in Sarawak, the Klias Peninsula in Sabah, and the South-East Pahang Peat
The project is being undertaken by the Government to safeguard the valuable resources
of its peat swamp forests which have been reduced significantly by increasing pressure
management plans for these sites, introducing procedures that ensure the conservation of
peat swamp forests throughout Malaysia and the wider South-East Asian region.
(www.gefweb.org/wprogram/May99/Bio/Malaysia2.doc, 2009).
When the project was designed in the late 1990s it was designated a GEF Coastal,
Marine and Freshwater Ecosystems project in the biodiversity focal area. Subsequently
Management. This would have been more suitable because these peat swamp forest
habitats are much more strongly affected by activities in surrounding areas than other
lowland tropical ecosystems. Equally important, the areas in Malaysia designated Forest
Reserves or protected areas do not incorporate entire peat domes or systems but exclude
sectors cleared of forest and converted to agriculture while often including other
local communities and non-governmental organizations, the project aims to develop and
27
• Efficient monitoring, data collection and information management systems for
improved decision making and management planning that take account of the
• Fire prevention
• Ecotourism
(www.gefweb.org/wprogram/May99/Bio/Malaysia2.doc, 2009)
agencies on order to encourage the efficient and sustainable use of peat swamp
forest resources;
28
6.1.3 Anticipated Outcomes
(www.gefweb.org/wprogram/May99/Bio/Malaysia2.doc, 2009).
• Establish planning procedures that integrate the social and biophysical elements.
29
• Implement zonation and formulate appropriate conservation and sustainable use
• Establish local and regional networks with appropriate institutions and other
6.1.5 Challenges
In the context of the conservation and sustainable use project the major challenges to
peat swamp forest conservation efforts derive largely from unregulated human
timber extraction and land conversion. Draining leads to lowering of groundwater levels
30
and irreversible drying out of the peat. In combination with the large amounts of
combustible material left by logging operations and the damage caused by the opening
up of the canopy, these degraded peat areas become very susceptible to fire and, once
burnt, experience permanent loss of their biologically diverse peat swamp vegetation.
Urgent measures are required to prevent the total loss of these habitats.
(www.gefweb.org/wprogram/May99/Bio/Malaysia2.doc, 2009).
The approach taken by the project by UNDP/GEF has been to develop plans promoting
sites. Three peat swamp forest sites have been chosen in those Malaysian states with the
largest remaining areas of this habitat type in the country. They are: the Loagan Bunut
National Park in Sarawak, the Klias Peninsula in Sabah, and the South-East Pahang Peat
Loagan Bunut National Park, gazetted in 1990, extends over an area of 10,736 hectares
of which 650 hectares comprise the large lake that gives the park its name. The lake is
fed by the Tinjar and Baram Rivers but water flows fluctuate during the year and when
the flow from these rivers drops sufficiently the flow in the Bunut River is reversed and
the lake begins to drain. Commonly during a prolonged drought the lake dries up
forests, the park supports the only freshwater floodplain in Sarawak, an oxbow lake,
There are a few villages within and surrounding the park but no permanent human
populations or settlements exist within the core zone, and only a small population,
including two longhouses of poor Iban migrants on the fringe of the park, lives in the
buffer zone. They all depend on catching fish, gathering forest produce and growing
crops within the park. Oil palm plantations at varying stages of growth have replaced the
forest that once surrounded the park especially on the east and southeastern perimeters.
Towards the southwest corner of the park is a log pond covering about 10 hectares that
has restricted uses associated with it, and there is a petrol station adjacent to the pond.
(www.gefweb.org/wprogram/May99/Bio/Malaysia2.doc, 2009).
Under the National Parks Ordinance, the Berawan residents of Rumah Kajan Sigeh in
Long Teru were the only local people accorded the right to fish, hunt and gatherforest
products in the park when it was established in 1990. Being indigenous to the area they
are also allowed to continue farming on the land to which they have customary rights.
2009).
6.2.1.3 Challenges
Oil palm plantations at different stages of growth have replaced the cutover forest
surrounding the park. Two private resort operators are located within the lake area and
they feature fishing as one of the attractions in their advertising for the tourist market.
However, several native fish species are at risk from competition with introduced species
(cultivated in fish ponds) released into waterways. Lake reptiles have also proved to be
at risk from drowning in fish nets and the over-fishing of food resources. In addition to
violating the exclusive fishing rights of the Berawans, the private resorts discharge
untreated waste into the lake. Land development activities contribute to accelerated
deposition of sediment in the lake, and agrochemicals such as fertilizers, herbicides and
Figure 6.1 : The Scene From Loagan Bunut National Park, Sarawak.
33
6.2.2 Klias Peninsula, Sabah, East Malaysia
In the past, there were over 100,000 hectares of peat swamp in Sabah and almost two-
thirds of it was concentrated on the Klias Peninsula (See Map 5), but a large proportion
has been degraded by repeated fires. The neighbouring Binsuluk Forest Reserve in
particular has been severely ravaged by fire, leaving only the Klias Forest Reserve
relatively intact. Currently it is estimated that less than 40,000 hectares of peat swamp
forest remain as a result of habitat loss through fires and land conversion. The Klias peat
deposit is dome shaped, one of the few accessible examples in the whole of South-East
Asia. This means that the central part of the peat deposit is elevated compared to the
edges of the swamp which gives it distinctive hydrological characteristics. The entire
Klias peat swamp deposit is estimated to have been at least 7,400 hectares, much of it
now lost. Just 3,630 hectares, some of it also recently affected by fire, is protected within
the Klias Forest Reserve but this forms an integral part of a much larger natural
This comprises 130,000 hectares of flat coastal plains that support extensive wetland
mangroves, nipah swamps, freshwater swamp forests, open marshes, kerangas (tropical
34
6.2.2.1 The Core and Buffer Zones
The natural vegetation of the Peninsula comprises several diverse wetland habitats
ranging from dense stands of mangroves lining the coast, open marshes and nipah
swamp, to unique mixed peat swamp forests further upstream. The outstanding
examples of peat swamp forest are unique in the state and possibly in the whole of
Borneo. Because of its domed shape, rainfall is the only source of water input to the
Klias peat swamp forest. However, rainfall is irregular from year to year and from
locality to locality. Water is lost via the processes of evapotranspiration from vegetation
and lateral groundwater movement. The water table within the peat exhibits the same
dome shape as the peat deposits themselves and this prevents outside groundwater from
entering the swamp. Originally the peat swamp forests extended right across the peat
dome deposits but today the forests are largely concentrated in the more confined area of
the Klias Forest Reserve. Although no commercial logging has taken place within the
Klias peat swamp boundaries since its designation as a forest reserve, selective logging
occurred during the 1960s and the forest is therefore most appropriately regarded as still
Nevertheless, the Klias Forest Reserve maintains an unusual assemblage of plants and
animals compared with other freshwater swamps in Malaysia, due to the depth of the
peat and the inaccessibility of the mineral soil. Nutrients available for plant growth are
available only from internal recycling and inputs from rainfall. This scarcity of nutrients,
the acidity of the environment and the waterlogged conditions require adaptation by
some flora and most fauna existing in this ecosystem. In addition, the peat dome is
35
drained from several localities by black water streams that support specialized fauna and
flora.
threatening further habitat degradation, especially in the Bukau-Api Api area where
proximity of villages and the partial reliance of the local communities on forested areas
are exerting pressure. Areas in the north of the Klias Forest Reserve have not been
spared the occurrence of fire and extensive conversion to agriculture, and further plans
for alienation of areas within the forest reserve have been proposed. Forest conversion
activities within the fragmented alienated lands abutting the northern fringes of the Klias
Forest Reserve have been proceeding rapidly in recent years as they are cleared for
agricultural use, and an extensive network of drainage canals has been dug for
6.2.2.3 Challenges
The peat swamps of the Klias Peninsula are fragile environments. Changes in the
underlying hydrology can initiate the process of peat decay. When peat has been
exposed, or where the water table has been significantly reduced due to manmade
canals, the risk of peat forest fires is high. This risk is especially serious during periods
of drought which may occur almost every year and is particularly severe during El Niño
events. The smoke and dust from peat fires not only poses a severe health hazard to the
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local communities but usually develops into more widespread haze with enormous
2009). Haze episodes in the last decade have demonstrated that citizens suffer illnesses
from air pollution and that tourism arrivals plummet, with impacts on the overall
economy. The larger coastal landscape, of which the Klias Peninsula Peat Swamp Forest
is just a small part, is the main attraction for tourism in Sabah and may be regarded as
the key component behind the economic development of the state’s tourism sector.
Sandy coastlines and mangrove fringes provide aesthetic, recreational and ecotourism
proboscis monkey and many other small mammals and birds. Reported cases of
poaching and fires are evidence of negative forces at work. Actively protecting and
maintaining the natural ecological processes and managing the physical conditions that
support the lifecycle of species occurring in this region are therefore of fundamental
importance.
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6.2.3 South-East Pahang Peat Swamp Forest, Peninsular Malaysia
The South-East Pahang Peat Swamp Forest (SEPPSF) is believed to be mainland Asia’s
largest and least disturbed peat swamp forest remaining in a single virtually contiguous
complex. The SEPPSF lies within the administrative boundaries of the Pekan District
and forms a broad band stretching down the eastern littoral of the Peninsula for about 70
discontinuous, broken into three major blocks, bordered and dissected by major rivers
including the Sungai Pahang, Sungai Bebar and Sungai Merchong. The strong
hydrological links of the major river basins exert a dominating influence on the
SEPPSF comprises about 200,000 hectares or about 60 per cent of the surviving peat
swamp cover in Peninsular Malaysia. Over 40 per cent of this area (about 87,000
hectares) is located within four designated Permanent Reserve Forests: Pekan, Nenasi,
Kedondong and Resak and comprises the project study area. Stateland areas outside the
reserve forests of the SEPPSF have either already been or are in the process of being
cleared for agricultural land use. Timber extraction from within the forest reserves has
started only recently with about 4,500 hectares being selectively logged in the northern
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6.2.3.1 The Core and Buffer Zones
This site is being managed with a view to demonstrating methods for ensuring
sustainable uses of peat swamp forest biodiversity, including logging and nontimber
forest products, within a forest reserve management system. Designated areas with high
conservation value are being established in the core zones, although the entire forest
reserve is being managed as a single, strict biodiversity protection unit. Species that are
restricted to peat swamp and specialist species have all been recorded on the site
together with species that are endemic to Pahang State and the Malay Peninsula. Its
importance nationally has been recognized by the Malaysian Government, under the
draft National Physical Plan developed by the Department of Town and Country
Planning Malaysia, where the SEPPSF has been identified as one of the most critical
Environmentally Sensitive Areas in Peninsular Malaysia. The SEPPSF has also been
listed as an Important Bird Area for Malaysia through a Birdlife International initiative.
This distinctive set of features was the basis for the complex’s selection for the five-year
The SEPPSF complex has been the subject of global conservation interest as it contains
Observed in context, the SEPPSF is ecologically diverse and includes not just peat
swamp forest but the full spectrum of habitats from shallow coastal waters to the mosaic
of wetland and dryland habitats inland. These include forest types that belong to the
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climatic climax formations (e.g., lowland dipterocarp forest), edaphic climax formations
(e.g., mangroves, peat swamp forest, beach forest, freshwater swamp forest, riparian
fringes) and unstable forest formations (padang vegetation). The variety of habitats
provides a wide range of benefits that support different ecological niches. For example,
• important food input to the river ecosystem, especially where the canopy
• leaves and woody material that are the driving force for the detritus-based food
• insects and fruits that fall from the trees as a direct food source for invertebrates
• an intact riverine strip that also filters out sediments and nutrients flowing into
M A L A Y SE A T S W A M P F O R E S T S – C O N S E R V A T I O N A N D S
Peat swamp habitats represent an extreme habitat for native biota and it is hardly
surprising that numerous species are confined to their peat swamp habitats or are found
only in local islands in peat swamp complexes. Other species characteristic of the
extreme lowlands may also be present and are of considerable conservation interest due
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6.2.3.3 Population Access
The Jakuns are the main indigenous people living along the waterways and surrounding
forests of the SEPPSF. They are a Proto-Malay tribe concentrated largely in South
Pahang and North Johor speaking a dialect that branches from the same Austronesian
family as Malay. Contact with other groups, historical factors and geographical location
have resulted in modifications to their dialects and social organization which is generally
informal and loose knit. The majority of Jakuns practise animism. Shifting cultivators by
tradition, many of them discarded their nomadic lifestyles when they were relocated to
The Jakuns were hunters and gatherers obtaining the bulk of their food requirements
from hunting, fishing and trapping of land and aquatic animals as well as collecting
forest produce such as rattan and medicinal plants. These days, many of these activities
are still pursued but less intensively. Although their lifestyle has now been substantially
modified, the Jakuns are a true wetland people who use the natural resources of the peat
swamp forests andother riverine areas for household purposes, house construction,
subsistence and dietary needs. Non-timber forest products for traditional use include a
wide range of animals, fish, insects, plants and tree products that are utilized for food,
raw materials and medicine. Fish are an important source of dietary protein for this
Orang Asli community living on the fringes of the peat swamp forest and its associated
waterways. Most household members, including elders, women and children, still
actively engage in fishing. This close interdependence of the Jakuns and the SEPPSE
and its associated wetlands is a crucial factor for their survival. Affordable and readily
available alternatives are seldom available to these indigenous people. Wetland products
41
provide an income supplement during difficult times and sometimes make the difference
between survival and failure for these poor rural populations. Despite the substantial
change in life style for many families, the wetlands still hold important cultural and
religious significance, often with large areas designated as spiritual or ancestral forests.
6.2.3.4 Challenges
Major concerns relate to the impact of changing land use in areas adjacent to the forest
pressure to open or convert forest reserves and stateland on the periphery of the reserves
either for logging or for agriculture. Agricultural schemes such as planting of oil palm,
result in total loss of the forest cover, reduction in peat soil and extensive drainage of
peat water. This affects the hydrology of the adjacent reserves and threatens the integrity
management of the schemes as evidenced in intensive use and runoff of fertilizers and
agrochemicals, severe soil erosion and release of soil leachates. But such activities are
perceived as sources of economic benefit through the timber trade, land conversion
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6.2.3.4.2 Unsustainable logging.
Valuable commercial timber species occur in the SEPPSF forest reserves as well as in
the stateland forests surrounding them. The timber trade contributes revenue to the state
and provides opportunities for economic development. Although there are strict
guidelines for selective logging within forest reserves, clear felling is practised in
stateland forests. Unsustainable logging practices in the state owned forests that fringe
the permanent forest reserves are also a major threat to the overall integrity of the
ecosystem, destroying natural habitats, degrading the peat substrate and altering the peat
• Deliberate fire.
Another hazard relates to fires, especially those deliberately lit to clear land. This
ecosystem. Setting fires is a dangerous activity within the peat land environment
as it poses a direct destructive impact on natural areas and can develop into a
gates, usually in relation to irrigation projects for agriculture or road, rail and
electricity transmission, and gas or oil pipeline networks. Issues relating to water
43
pollution from human waste and coastal-release effluents close to estuaries also
The spread of exotic species in the landscape and waterways poses a threat to the
integrity of the local ecosystems and can undermine efforts for conservation and
The project’s immediate objectives at each of the three selected sites are to develop and
implement plans and encourage processes that ensure conservation and sustainable use
sustainable peat swamp forest management. The primary purposes of the management
and documented problems affecting each of the project sites and provided an initial
multidisciplinary outlook for the development of further activities and the management
44
plan. The management plans will incorporate provisions for continuing the monitoring
By the time of the mid-term project review in 2005, substantial progress had been made
enhancement of the integrity of the peat swamp forests by consolidation of existing areas
and, where feasible, the preservation of the connecting areas between peat swamp
have been leading to the decline of peat swamp forest biodiversity are being slowed or
halted and mechanisms for addressing the morecritical issues have been developed. In
Steering Committees and Management Plan Core Teams) and regional planners are
plans and strategies and address future challenges; and key government agencies have
significant amount of information and generated by the project and will be consolidated
have been established in the three states and, while initially servicing the three sub-
projects only, are in the process of being institutionalized for continued integrated
management of wetlands and wetland issues. The subprojects and publicity relating to
their activities have raised public awareness of peat swamp forest issues, particularly in
each of the three states directly concerned. Capacity has been developed at various
45
levels for staff (focusing on management), support staff (in field activities) and local
Achievements of Management Plan Core Teams (MPCTs) at the mid-term stage of the
project have been substantial despite unavoidable delays and the difficult task of
The MPCT in Sarawak has produced the outline of an integrated management plan
focusing on the processes of the Lake Loagan Bunut ecosystem and the serious threats
2009). Additional appraisals have been initiated to address socio-economic issues and
biodiversity. MPCT membership has been expanded to include the Sarawak Forestry
Corporation, and further consultation is planned with bodies such as the Special Parks
Committee that represents local communities and nearby oil palm estate owners.
The Sabah MPCT has completed a first draft of the Klias Conservation Plan which is a
section of the main plan. Other plans being developed include the Ecosystem Protection
Plan and a Biodiversity Conservation Master Plan. The MPCT has analyzed the key
46
ecological attributes and the critical threats to peat swamp areas. Key conservation
2009). Following feedback from state agencies there will be further stakeholder
consultation with others such as plantation owners located adjacent to the core zone
protected areas.
In Pahang, the MPCT has prepared an initial draft of the integrated management plan
and is promoting the SEPPSF and its environs as Environmentally Sensitive Areas under
the Town and Country Planning Act in an attempt to protect the integrity of the broader
adjacent statelands; a series of buffer zones has been proposed on outer margins and
rivers; and acquisition of fragmented peat swamp areas for rehabilitation has been
recommended. Incorporation of elements of the draft management plan into the Pekan
District Structural Plan was a major step towards institutionalizing peat swamp
owners, land contractors and loggers is on-going and new inputs to hydrological findings
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CHAPTER 7
CONCLUSION
The rate of exploitation nowadays gives sign that not much left to be seen and enjoyed
by the next generation. Because of that, it is important to let our forests as the natural
world resource that is not used widely to get yield for the short run production.
Conversely, we should think forward that our forests have and keep giving us prosperity
and peace to the universal lives. Though the development process is still on progress in
this country, it should not affect the patch system of lives sourced to the available forest
yield. The stabilized needs and systematic action in exploiting forest heritage should be
we should have the commitment to the forest values as well as protect them for the sake
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Journal of Tropical Geography, 18: 7-16.
Anon.1998, Various Annual Report of the Forest Department Peninsular Malaysia, from
http://www.agf.gov.be.ca/resmgmt/fpps/htm.
49
Coulter, J.K. (1956). Development of peat soil in Malaysia. Malayan Agricultural
Journal XL: 188-189
Goodwin, R.H. & Niering, W.A. (1974). Inland wetlands: Their ecological role and
environmental status. Bulletin of the ecological Society of America, 55: 2-6.
http://www.gefweb.org/wprogram/May99/Bio/Malaysia2.doc
J.Wya
tt-Smith, (1999) Pocket Check List of Timber Trees, Forest Research Institute Malaysia.
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hitemore,1990. Tropical Rain Forests. University Oxford Press Ins., New York.
Samsudin and Wan Shukri. 91998), The state of the forest (Research Report): World
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