Uses and benefits of market research

The Benefits of Crafting Marketing Strategies based on research

The marketing research-based approach to crafting marketing programs serves the needs of marketing executive who no longer want to make plans based on: Market assumptions and incomplete informal feedback from the field and from other sources; What is known to have worked in the past, the circumstances of which may no longer apply to the present; or How a competitor previously succeeded in a similar situation, the key success factors of which may not hold true in this case. In short, being research-based eliminates the guesswork. Being marketing research-based in developing a marketing program reduces the risk of failure and gives the product a better chance of succeeding. There are several reasons for this. In a research-based marketing program: The marketing executives knowledge about the target market segment is current and complete. Target market segment may include: Awareness of brands Product usage practices Purchase habits Product and brand attitudes Product needs and wants Satisfaction of those needs and wants The knowledge about the competitions marketing failures and successes is based on facts, not on guesses or hearsay. It is also comprehensive and not limited to what is merely observable in the field.

With market research, the marketing executive can now scientifically project the effectiveness of his strategies for the following activities: Product positioning Product concept Branding Packaging Advertising Pricing Distribution and sales Consumer and trade promotion

With research-based knowledge, marketing executives can make confident, reality-tested decisions.

Guidelines on Writing a Market Research Brief

Writing a brief can often be a very challenging and time consuming process especially for first timers. However it is essential in order to get the best possible solution for your research needs. Below are some guidelines to help clients put together a great brief. A Great Brief: Possesses clarity Displays depth of thought Provides direction The bigger the scope of the project and the greater the importance of the outcome, the more time and energy you should invest in developing the brief. It is not about carrying out some research, but about achieving an outcome.

A brief should contain some, and ideally all, of the following information

1. Market and Strategic Overview

-This helps researchers understand where this project fits in the overall strategy, vision and values, and business objectives: Define the market and explain its dynamics Major players and key competitors Past and current activity Target markets Factors such as regulations, seasonality, distribution, pricing, communication, etc.

2. Background and Role of the Research

-This is the most important part of the brief because it specifies where the research fits in your marketing activity, and more specifically, the types of decisions and plans that will be made on the basis of the research: Reasons for the research Where does it fit into marketing programme development?

Which business units will the research impact and who is involved? Identification of any constraints on the action you can take as a result of the research

3. Objectives
There are usually two types of objectives that need to be explained:

Business objective - this is the objective of the marketing project the research is
for, it is the overall strategic objective.

Research objective - detailed objectives of what you need to know e.g.

attitudes, behaviour, usage expectations, perceptions. Is it to understand, evaluate of explore (more qualitative objectives) or is it to measure, record, or ascertain (more quantitative objectives)

4. Suggested Approach & Research Target(s)

Identify any preferences you might have: Are there any specific groups or subgroups you are interested in researching?

5. Reporting Requirements
Identify any requirements you might have: Topline or final report only Word report and/or PowerPoint Presentations and/or Workshops

6. Timing
Specify any real constraints that exist. Be realistic about whether your objectives can be met within that timeframe.

7. Budget
Any indication of budget is helpful, as it helps define the scale of the project, providing some financial guidelines to work within. It also helps researchers to work on providing the best solution within your means.

8. Existing research or other information

Look for any other relevant research or information. Often this helps refine how the research is done. It also means that covering old ground can be avoided, and this research builds on what is already known.

How to use the UAI (Usage-AttitudeImage) Study for Competitive Analysis, and Market Opportunity Search
Two designs of UAI study:
1) Traditional version Around 100 core questionnaire items Done every 2 or 3 years Sometimes done every year by others who has competitors with a frequent changing market. 2) Other versions Made only for a specific purpose Fewer questionnaire items(15 to 20) Cost much less Can be repeated two or four times during the year

The core data comprise the following (traditional version)

A. Awareness data: brand and advertising 1. Brand awareness: first mention, second mention, and aided mention 2. Sources of first-mentioned brand awareness 3. Advertising awareness: first mention, second mention, and aided mention 4. Advertising recall: quality of awareness measure B. Product usage data 5. Product category use or non-use 6. Category form, variant and pack size used 7. How long the pack size lasts 8. When used and for what purposes 9. Who else in the household use the product category 10. Where used and with what 11. Brands ever used

12. Brand last used 13. Brand used previous and last 14. Brand used most often 15. Brands on hand C. Purchase Data 16. Where the last category purchase was made 17. Where category purchases are often/usually made 18. Frequency of category buying 19. Category pack size last bought 20. Quantity of category purchase 21. Price paid for last purchase 22. Brand had in mind during the last buying trip 23. If found brand in the store where last shopped 24. If not found, what did: bought any brand available, looked for brand in another store, postponed buying till brand had in mind became available, or other(specify) 25. What else bought with the product category in the last purchase D. Attitude Data 26. What looked for, what expected in product category 27. What not like in brand last bought 28. What liked in brand last bought E. Product and brand image data 29. Importance rating of product category attributes, product values 30. Rating of selected brands on each product attribute

The classification data comprise the following (traditional version)

Data are collected on respondent demographics Age Sex Civil status Number of children Educational attainment Household size Total monthly household income

 Home ownership Household possessions Economic class Data are collected on respondent sociographics (some companies) Religion practiced Leisure activities Parental and family background Community and social association membership Reference persons Media habits The UAI data can be used for many applications: To search for market and competitive opportunities that an existing or a new product can advantageously explore and maximize To determine the brands marketing health relative to competition, and to identify its correct marketing problems and the solutions to these To segment or to partition a total market for a product category, and then to describe and profile the different identified market segments by each segments brand awareness, category usage and purchase practices, category and brand attitudes, and category and brand images, as well as by its socio-demographics and psychographics.

Environment Analysis for Opportunity Search

Macro environmental is classified by the acronym P.E.S.T. Political and regulatory environment Economic environment Social environment Technological environment External environment include the consumer market responsible for the products sales performance and the competitive environment which contains the other brands that are trying to reach the same consumer market. Internal environment includes all those divisions of the company whose activities have a direct bearing on implementing the marketing program.

o o

Manufacturing division- on whose production capabilities and performance depend what and how much marketing can actually market. Distribution and sales division- on whose selling efforts and activities rely the trade and outlet placement and availability of the product.

1) Market Penetration Opportunities To measure the market penetration of a product, we use the use the UAI core data on product category use or non-use. Eg. Do you use mouthwash or not?, In this question, the respondents answering yes measures the product categorys size of market penetration, while the respondents answering no measures the product categorys size of market penetration opportunity. 2) Product Life Recycling and Extension Opportunities The UAI core data that can define the windows of opportunities are the following: Data on what occasions the product is used and for what purposes, which define possible new use opportunities. Data on who else in the household uses the product, which bring out new user opportunities. Data on what other purposes the product has, which point to possible more usage opportunities. 3) Market Size Opportunities Three UAI data are useful in deriving estimates of the unit market size for a given product pack size. The pertinent UAI data for each pack size are as follows: Percent product category and pack size user Number of days the pack size will last Average price paid for the last purchase of the pack size

The unit market size estimation per pack size

Unit market size

Target market segment population

% product category/pack size users

(365 days/days the pack size lasts)

Purchase Frequency Number of segment buyers Frequency of purchase

Spending amount x x

Total Market size =

Opportunities for Improving the Competitive Status of the Brand Three UAI questionnaire items that offer three different measures of a brands market share: The brand-last-used item The brand-used-most-often item The brands-on-hand-check item

The brand-last-used question must only get one answer from each respondent. When this is obtained, adding the resultant brand last used ratio to those of the rest of the other brands will equal 100%. Any UAI statistic that sums up to 100% suggests a share measure.

Formula for brand-used-most-often when there are multiple answers

Market Share of brand = No. of counts of brand/ No. of counts of all brands packages

To determine a brands competitive status using the relative share of market index

RSOM(Leader Brand) = Market share of leader brand/ market share of follower brand

Market leader champion status RSOM(Follower Brand) or = Market Share of Follower Brand/ Market Share of Leader Brand

Brands competitive status will be based on this: Market leader or champion status o Formidable o Dominant o Strong o Vulnerable Challenger Status o Threatening o Serious Contender Status o Major o Minor More than 1.00 More than 6.00 3.01-6.00 1.51-3.00 1.01-1.50 0.31-0.99 0.61-0.99 0.31-0.60 0.01-0.15 0.16-0.30 0.01-0.15

Opportunities for Determining the Brands Correct Competitors At times when the product a consumer is supposed to buy is unavailable, the question to be asked should be What are you buying instead?, not What brand are you buying instead? in order to give room to those who will switch not to another brand but to a product category or to a product type or form under a product category.

Product Category Category's different product forms or types Each form's or type's differing brands

Share of Mind A brands share of mind is the consumers top-of-mind awareness for it. We measure a brands share of mind as the percent of product category users who first mention the brand when asked open-endedly what brands come to their mind when thinking about the product category.

Brand Awareness No consumer response-be it attitude, image, motivation, or even purchase-can happen unless there is awareness. Awareness is the start of any sequence of consumer response and behavior. Three awareness concepts o First mentioned, top of mind o Total unaided awareness o Total awareness 1. % First mention = % share of mind 2. % total unaided awareness = (% first mention) + (% other mentions) 3. % grand total awareness = ( % total unaided awareness) + (% aided awareness)

Share of mind vs share of market Brands Share Indicators % share of mind % share of market Brand A 4 6 Brand B 38 42 Brand C 46 37 Brand D 12 15

How to Make Market Segmentation Decisions Using the U.A.I. & Psychographic Studies
The Market Segmentation Process & Decision The market segmentation process is both a marketer behavior and a consumer behavior. STP S - the first step referring to the act of segmenting the total market. T - the act of targeting a specific market segment from among the segments generated in the first step. P - the 3rd & final step refers to the marketers act of positioning the product

Growing segment is possible only if the consumer in that segment behave in either three ways: They increase buying frequency.

They are buying more amount per purchase occasion, New customers joined the segment concerned. The starting point is to bring in priority consumer values throughout all the three steps in the STP process. STP formulation means that consideration of consumer values must come in at the first step. The first step is to partition the total market. Second step is to profile the obtained or generated partitions and segments. This is now called as PPTP process.

The Market Partitioning Step

consists of cutting up the total market into partitions that are more popularly known as target segments. Four Segmentation Variables 1. Geographic 2. Socio-demographic 3. Psychographic 4. Behavioral

Geographic - regions, city, size, density and climate. Socio-demographic - age, gender, family size, total monthly household income, occupation, educational attainment, religion & SEC. Psychographic - family life cycle stages, lifestyle measures & personality profiles. Behavioral - user status, user rate, product attitude or predisposition indicators, usage purchase occasions.

Marketers ultimately want to generate differentially responsive market partitions or segments. To generate a set of segments that are maximally differentiated from one another in their respective product usage purchase habits and priority values.

The Socio-Economic Classes as Market Partitioning Variables Two Definitions of the SEC Social class is the horizontal stratification of a population by means of factors related to the economic life of the society such as wealth, income, occupation, status,consumption level, and family background. Socio-Economic classes are relatively homogeneous and enduring divisions of society, which are hierarchically ordered and whose members share similar values, interest, and behavior.

Socio-Economic Classes % of Total Population in Each Class according to:

Socio-Eco Classes

ACN

TNS

Class AB

5%

1%

Class C

21%

9%

Class D

52%

48%

Class E

22%

42%

Class A - rich class(upper-upper) Class B affluent class(lower-upper) Class upscale C -prosperous class(upper-middle)

Class broad C-average class(lower-middle) Class D - below par class(upper-Lower) Class E -poor class(lower-lower)

SEC Defining Indicators Survey Interview Observation Data

Criteria of Validity Discriminability criterion Temporal Stability Criterion Discriminability validity asks : To what extent are the SEC indicators able to discriminate or differentiate each of the four to six socio-eco classes from one another? While Validity Criterion of temporal stability asks: Will the socio-eco classification made by an SEC indicator remain relatively the same and will the primary SEC defining indicator remain a primary SEC indicator over an extended period o time? Temporal stability is the secondary significant validity criterion.

Product Positioning
A positioning strategy consists of 3 steps: to reveal possible competitive advantages to create a positioning, to select the right competitive advantages and to choose a comprehensive positioning strategy. Later, the company should provide effective communication and distribution to market regarding the selected position. Positioning strategies can be conceived and developed in a variety of ways. It can be derived from the object attributes, competition, application, the types of consumers involved, or the characteristics of the product class. All these attributes represent a different approach in

developing positioning strategies, even though all of them have the common objective of projecting a favorable image in the minds of the consumers or audience. There are seven approaches to positioning strategies: (1) Using Product characteristics or Customer Benefits as a positioning strategy. This strategy basically focuses upon the characteristics of the product or customer benefits. For example if I say Imported items it basically tell or illustrate a variety of product characteristics such as durability, economy or reliability etc. Lets take an example of motorbikes some are emphasizing on fuel economy, some on power, looks and others stress on their durability. Hero Cycles Ltd. positions first, emphasizing durability and style for its cycle. At time even you would have noticed that a product is positioned along two or more product characteristics at the same time. You would have seen this in the case of toothpaste market, most toothpaste insists on freshness and cavity fighter as the product characteristics. It is always tempting to try to position along several product characteristics, as it is frustrating to have some good characteristics that are not communicated. (2) Pricing as a positioning strategy - Quality Approach or Positioning by Price-Quality Lets take an example and understand this approach just suppose you have to go and buy a pair of jeans, as soon as you enter in the shop you will find different price rage jeans in the showroom say price ranging from 350 rupees to 2000 rupees. As soon as look at the jeans of 350 Rupees you say that it is not good in quality. Why? Basically because of perception, as most of us perceive that if a product is expensive will be a quality product where as product that is cheap is lower in quality. If we look at this Price quality approach it is important and is largely used in product positioning. In many product categories, there are brands that deliberately attempt to offer more in terms of service, features or performance. They charge more, partly to cover higher costs and partly to let the consumers believe that the product is, certainly of higher quality. (3) Positioning strategy based on Use or Application Lets understand this with the help of an example like Nescafe Coffee for many years positioned itself as a winter product and advertised mainly in winter but the introduction of cold coffee has developed a positioning strategy for the summer months also. Basically this type of positioning-by-use represents a second or third position for the brand, such type of positioning is done deliberately to expand the brands market. If you are introducing new uses of the product that will automatically expand the brands market.

(4) Positioning strategy based on Product Process Another positioning approach is to associate the product with its users or a class of users. Makes of casual clothing like jeans have introduced designer labels to develop a fashion image. In this case the expectation is that the model or personality will influence the products image by reflecting the characteristics and image of the model or personality communicated as a product user. Let s not forget that Johnson and Johnson repositioned its shampoo from one used for babies to one used by people who wash their hair frequently and therefore need a mild people who wash their hair frequently and therefore need a mild shampoo. This repositioning resulted in a market share. (5) Positioning strategy based on Product Class - In some product class we have to make sure critical positioning decisions For example, freeze dried coffee needed to positions itself with respect to regular and instant coffee and similarly in case of dried milk makers came out with instant breakfast positioned as a breakfast substitute and virtually identical product positioned as a dietary meal substitute. (6) Positioning strategy based on Cultural Symbols - In todays world many advertisers are using deeply entrenched cultural symbols to differentiate their brands from that of competitors. The essential task is to identify something that is very meaningful to people that other competitors are not using and associate this brand with that symbol. Air India uses maharaja as its logo, by this they are trying to show that we welcome guest and give them royal treatment with lot of respect and it also highlights Indian tradition. Using and popularizing trademarks generally follow this type of positioning. (7) Positioning strategy based on Competitors - In this type of positioning strategies, an implicit or explicit frame of reference is one or more competitors. In some cases, reference competitor(s) can be the dominant aspect of the positioning strategies of the firm, the firm either uses the same of similar positioning strategies as used by the competitors or the advertiser uses a new strategy taking the competitors strategy as the base. A good example of this would be Colgate and Pepsodent. Colgate when entered into the market focused on to family protection but when Pepsodent entered into the market with focus on 24 hour protection and basically for kids, Colgate changed its focus from family protection to kids teeth protection which was a positioning strategy adopted because of competition.

Product Positioning and Differentiation Strategy

In a competitive business world, companies should constantly examine their products and services to better serve customers. What worked and yielded profits last year may not work as well this year. Product differentiation and positioning are key parts of a company's marketing strategy and are necessary to keep ahead of competition. They also require an innovative spirit coupled with careful analysis. Product Differentiation Product differentiation is the incorporation of attributes, such as quality or price, into a product to encourage the intended customers to perceive it as different and desirable. For example, if your company sells seat belts to automotive manufacturers, perhaps your unique value is never-fail, on-time delivery with no rejected belts. If other seat belt manufacturers are not meeting these desired goals, you will have a unique advantage against your competition, and will have differentiated your seat belts from those of your competitors. Product Positioning Positioning is how you provide your product or service brand identification as you go to market. It is the next step after you have determined how to differentiate your product or service. In the seat belt example, the seat belt manufacturer can market itself on the premise that it does not miss delivery times and that its products are free of flaws. The product is positioned against those of competitors on the basis of timely delivery and excellence in manufacturing. All of the seat belt manufacturer's major marketing efforts should emphasize this positioning in the marketplace. Positioning Statement A positioning statement is a short sentence or phrase that conveys the essence of the differentiation and positioning strategies and is developed after these have been set. This statement is used as a marketing tool by which to judge all marketing materials to see if they are in keeping with the strategies. A positioning statement for the seat belt manufacturer might be, "On-time delivery and flawless manufacturing." This statement can, though it does not have to, appear in all of the seat belt manufacturer's marketing materials. Rather, it is often used as a check to make sure all marketing materials produced convey the essence of how the product is differentiated and positioned against competitors. Relationships among the Three Product differentiation, positioning and positioning statements go together one after the other. Once you have decided how best to differentiate your product based on customer needs and wants, the next step is to determine how to position it in the marketplace. The positioning statement then follows the positioning strategy. The Importance of Imagination Successful differentiation and positioning strategies depend on an imaginative approach to the marketplace. For example, if you are a tennis racket manufacturer making high-performance rackets for the serious tennis player, you might consider opening up an entirely new market segment. This might be the creation of high-performance rackets for the average player, who can then benefit from the technology previously only offered to pros.

There are five basic points for brand strategies: a. It is a process which makes marketing functions easy. b. Both macro and micro level marketing can be applied c. The perceived position for a particular product by consumer can be based on the products real and physical character, or on image created by the company having no physical presence. d. Positioning should be oriented to the consumer. e. Positioning will be successful only if it is based on good research. On research, consumer needs to be detected, it should start with the attitudes and the way consumers use products, and must end with revealing how consumers react to a certain position. Positioning is a form of expression how a certain product or brand is perceived by customers. It is not how products are presented or what is presented.

TEN MAJOR RULES IN PRODUCT POSITIONING a. Establish a definition of positioning, b. Keep it simple, c. Make it unique, d. Excavate product benefits and market needs, e. Construct a credible position, f. Ensure strong support by starting early, g. Follow the market dynamics, h. Make positioning visible in all communications, i. Quantitatively test alternative positioning options,

j. Do not test the positioning statement itself.

Positioning characteristics The goal of product positioning is to keep your product on t op of your customers mind when theyre considering a purchase. To be successful, product positioning must achieve three objectives: Differentiate your product from the competitions Address important customer buying criteria Articulate key product (or company) characteristics Marketing messages and positioning have a lot in common During the process of generating product positioning strategies, periodically review each one against the following list of characteristics. Is your product positioning strategy: Single-mindeddoes it convey one primary message at a time? Meaningfulwill it connect with the target audience? Differentiatingdoes it contrast your strengths against the competition? Importantis it pertinent and significant to the target audience? Sustainablewill it resonate with the target audience well into the future? Believablewill it ring true with the target audience? Crediblecan you clearly substantiate your claims?
Perceptual Mapping

Perceptual mapping is a tool used to discover how consumers differentiate products or organizations. The perceptual map on the following page was developed using data from a market research study.

Relationships are visually portrayed by the relative position of points on a two-dimensional map. The distance between the points represents the degree of relationship between the variables. Points that cluster together reveal characteristics that are closely related.

The following example is derived from actual research. However, the names have been changed to protect confidential information.

---Second American Bank is most preferred by lower-income, non-white, urban residents. Verbatim comments collected during the survey interview indicated that the bank is perceived as doing the most to finance mortgages in the inner city.

---First Security is most favored by older, middle-income adults. This bank was the city's only financial institution not to renege on payments during the Great Depression.

---Middle-aged, white males tend to favor National Trust, while younger females prefer Guardian Bank. The verbatim responses did not provide clear-cut explanations for these preferences.

---Federal Trust is most associated with upper-income suburban residents, largely because their office locations are targeted for this market.

If Federal Trust were interested in attracting new customers, the most logical segments to target would be the females and younger adults, rather than city residents or lower income individuals.

Decision-Tree Analysis

Decision-tree analysis uses cross-tabulations to examine results of a particular survey question based on sub-segments of the survey population.

For example, the output of a question that asks, "What brand of automobile do you own?" can be

analyzed by looking only at the results for individuals in one particular income category, say those who have a household income of $25,000 or less.

Determining the specific categories of cross-tabulations that reveal differences among respondents can be very complex. Thousands of combinations can be generated even with a small survey. The analysis must identify as many potentially important combinations as is practical.

After the relationships have been isolated, a statistical test is necessary to reasonably ensure that the data conveys real insight rather than just a reflection of sampling variability. This process, if conducted manually, can be partitioned.

The example below illustrates the type of business most likely to be responsive to a training program called, "Applying Internet Technology To Business Marketing."

The research measured interest level in various training opportunities by using a 5-point scale where "1" indicated "not at all interested" and "5" indicated "very interested".

USING THE FGD (FOCUS GROUP DISCUSSION) Focus Group Discussion

The focus group discussion (FGD) is a rapid assessment, semistructured data gathering method in which a purposively selected set of participants gather to discuss issues and concerns based on a list of key themes drawn up by the researcher/facilitator (Kumar 1987). This qualitative research technique was originally developed to give marketing researchers a better understanding of the data from quantitative consumer surveys. As an indispensable tool for marketing researchers (Krueger 1988), the focus group discussion has become extremely popular because it provides a fast way to learn from the target audience (Debus 1988; US Department of Health and Human Services 1980). Marketing and media studies have shown that the focus group discussion is a costeffective technique for eliciting views and opinions of prospective clients, customers and endusers. In agriculture, focus groups have been used to obtain insights into target audience perceptions, needs, problems, beliefs, and reasons for certain practices.

Focus group discussion guide To keep the session on track while allowing respondents to talk freely and spontaneously,the facilitator uses a discussion guide that lists the main topics or themes to be covered in the session. It serves as a road map that guides the facilitator in covering the list of topics and keeping the discussion on track. The number of items in the guide is generally kept to a minimum to leave enough time for indepth discussion. It should focus only on relevant research issues. The sequence of topics in the guide usually moves from general to specific (see Box 1 for sample FGD guide). The following steps are suggested for developing the focus group discussion guide: 1. Specify the objectives and information needs of the focus group discussion. Example To understand how extension and plant protection officials make decisions in response of pest outbreaks. 2. Break down the major topics into discussion points or themes. Example a) Reporting of pest outbreaks b) Management procedure for dealing with pest outbreaks c) Worries and concerns about the BPH/virus outbreak 3. Prepare probe questions. Example 1. Lets talk about reporting of the BPH/virus disease outbreak that hit the Mekong Delta recently How are outbreaks reported?2 What is the flow of outbreak information from the field upwards? And usually how long will this take to reach province directors? How do provincial directors act on reports of outbreaks?

 Are reports of outbreaks from the field communicated upwards to the central offices or contained within the province? 2. What is PPDs management procedure for dealing with a pest outbreak? What about the Peoples Committee? During the BPH/virus outbreak last season, what do you think was expected of you as an extension official? As a Peoples Committee vice chairman? What steps did PPD take to manage the BPH/virus problem last season? What about the Peoples Committee in the area? What virus disease management options were preferred and recommended by PPD? (Chemical, escape strategy, etc.) Why was that option chosen? 4. Review the guide and eliminate any irrelevant questions. Box 1. Sample FGD Guide Rice Planthopper Outbreaks 1. How are outbreaks reported? 2. What is the flow of outbreak information from the field upwards? 3. And usually how long will this take to reach province directors? 4. How do provincial directors act on reports of outbreaks? 5. Are reports of outbreaks from the field communicated upwards to the central offices or contained within the province? 6. What is PPDs management procedure for dealing with a pest outbreak? What about the Peoples Committee? 7. During the BPH/virus outbreak last season, what do you think was expected of you as an extension official? As a Peoples Committee vice chairman?

8. What steps did PPD take to manage the BPH/virus problem last season? What about the Peoples Committee in the area? 9. What virus disease management options were preferred and recommended by PPD? (Chemical, escape strategy, etc.) Why was that option chosen? 10. What were your worries about the BPH/virus outbreak? 11. What were your worries about the disease management option you have chosen and recommended to farmers? 12. How much was the budget allocation for virus disease control? How was this amount determined? What was the basis for the budget allocation? 13. How was the budget allocation decided in PPD? 14. Who decides the budget allocation for pest outbreaks? 15. What extension mechanisms were used to communicate to farmers about virus disease control? Asking questions during focus groups. The quality of questions asked in a focus group can make a large difference in the kind of information obtained. Krueger (1988) gives some tips on how to handle openended and dichotomous questions in these discussions: Openended questions are most appropriate at the start of the discussion because they allow participants to answer from different angles. As the possible responses are not preconceived, openended questions give the participants opportunities to express their thoughts and feelings based on their specific situations. what extent, or how much. Dichotomous questions are ones that can be answered by a yes or no or other similar twoalternative items. As yesno questions are deadends, they usually do not trigger the desired group discussion. They also tend to elicit vague responses that do not lead to an understanding of the key issues being discussed (Moulton and Roberts 1993). How to conduct a focus group discussion Facilitator Krueger warns that some questions may appear to be openended but are really closedended because they include phrases such as satisfied, to

In selecting a person to moderate a focus group, it is important that this person havethese qualities: familiarity with the discussion topic ability to speak the language spoken of the area cultural sensitivity, including not acting as a judge, a teacher, does not looking down on respondents, not agreeing or disagreeing with what is said, and notputting words in the participants mouths. genuine interest in people sensitivity to men and women politeness empathy respect for participants Steps in conducting the session Before the focus group discussion begins, the facilitator should obtain the background information of participants such as their age, crops grown, farm size, and other pertinent information. The type of information to collect depends on the FGD topic. Once this is done, this sequence of steps is carried out: 1. After a brief introduction, the purpose and scope of the discussion are explained. 2. Participants are asked to give their names and short background information about themselves. 4. The discussion is structured around the key themes using the probe questions prepared in advance. 4 5. During the discussion, all participants are given the opportunity to participate. 5. Use a variety of moderating tactics to facilitate the group. Among these tactics that the moderator can use include: Stimulate the participants to talk to each other, not necessarily to the moderator.

 Encourage shy participants to speak. Discourage dominant participants through verbal and nonverbal cues. The following may be used when the situation permits: Call on other participants Politely intervene by saying, Maybe we can discuss that in another occasion... Look in another direction Take advantage of a pause and suggest that the subject can be discussed in detail in another session Pay close attention to what is said in order to encourage that behavior in other participants. Use indepth probing without leading the participant. Guidelines in conducting focus group discussion (FGD) 1. The FGD is an opportunity for the research team to listen and learn, and not to lecture or provide team members interpretation of the local biophysical and social system. 2. The team members agree on various task assignments including: a) facilitator/ interpreter , b) rapporteur, c) logistics incharge. 3. Each team member must have a copy of the FGD guide. The list of themes to be discussed may be written on the board to serve as guide for FGD participants on the scope and progress of the discussion. 4. Familiarize yourself with local terminologies/names to avoid misunderstanding of what farmers say. 5. Keep an open mind and listen more. Do not push your own agenda (e.g. a new variety you have developed which you think will solve farmers problems). 6. Avoid questions that yield Yes or No answers. 7. Avoid leading questions. Examples: Dont you think that variety X is an excellent

variety? 8. Be sensitive to local norms and customs.5 9. Remember that farmers time is valuable to them. Strive to complete the FGD within the time period that you mentioned to participants. 10. Dont forget to thank participants and local leaders after the conduct of the FGD. Logistical arrangements for FGD Invitations Participants are contacted in advance, at least one to two weeks before the session. A letter of invitation may be sent to each participant, taking into consideration the prevailing practices in the area. Participants are also reminded about the focus group

discussion one day before the session. Group composition The choice of participants depends on the topic of the focus group. Often, the people who are included are those knowledgeable about the topic but at the same time, it is also wise to gather the views of certain groups in the target population. The optimal number of participants is 8 10. If a group is too small, one person in the group may dominate it; if it is too big, then it may be difficult to control. Group members should be representative of the intended target population. Transportation To ensure attendance, transportation is usually arranged for the participants from their residence to the focus group venue. In rural areas where farm families may reside in distant villages, participants could be asked to converge at a central location to facilitate pickup. Venue Focus group discussions can be conducted in a place where 8 10 persons can be seated and assured of some privacy. In the rural areas, the most readily available sites are school buildings, health and community centers and churches. An appropriate venue is a neutral place that is free from distractions and where participants can talk openly. Seating arrangements A semicircular seating arrangement facilitates interaction among participants because it allows them to freely see and hear each other. Timing The timing of the meeting should be convenient to all participants. While waiting for other participants to arrive, the focus group discussion team can use the time to break the ice by

getting information about their backgrounds. To minimize boredom, focus group discussions are generally not stretched beyond two hours. Name tags It is best to remember the names of the participants. arrangement will facilitate identifying each one. Often, a seating

If the culture permits, providing nametags to

participants is useful because it enables facilitators to call on those who may be too shy to express their opinions.6 Recording A trained rapporteur should capture the discussion in writing and note the participants nonverbal expressions. Situations may occur where the discussion needs to be taperecorded, but facilitators should weigh the advantages and disadvantages. Refreshments When resources permit, serving refreshments after the session is a small gesture of appreciation to the participants for having taken time off their work to participate. Writing the FGD report After conducting the focus group discussion, the key findings are described, analyzed and written up in a report (see Box 2 for sample FGD report) . Debus (1988) suggests some useful guidelines for analyzing data: 1. Develop a plan for analysis consisting of: background of the research objectives methods discussion details focus group discussion guide 2. Analyze the content of the group discussion by reviewing the notes from the focus group listening again to the cassettes from the session (if tape recorded) grouping research findings according to key themes

 identifying the different positions that emerged under each key theme summarizing each of the different positions and assess the extent to which each position was held by participants pulling out verbatim phrases that represent each position. 2. Synthesize the group discussion by: reviewing the notes of each discussion made by the moderator identifying the recurrent ideas that came out during the discussion interpreting these recurrent ideas based upon other findings that emerged in the groups.