IPG - CarMaker Reference Manual

CarMaker ®
Cover
Reference Manual
Version 2.1
2
The information in this document is furnished for informational use only, may be revised
from time to time, and should not be construed as a commitment by IPG Automotive GmbH.
IPG Automotive GmbH assumes no responsibility or liability for any errors or inaccuracies
that may appear in this document.
This document contains proprietary and copyrighted information and may not be copied,
reproduced, translated, or reduced to any electronic medium without prior consent, in writ-
ing, from IPG Automotive GmbH.
© 1999 - 2006 by IPG Automotive GmbH – www.ipg-automotive.com
All rights reserved.
FailSafeTester, IPG-CAR, IPG-CONTROL, IPG-DRIVER, IPG-ENGINE, IPG-GRAPH, IPG-
KINEMATICS, IPG-LOCK, IPG-MOTORCYCLE, IPG-MOVIE, IPG-ROAD, IPG-ROADDA-
TA, IPG-TIRE, IPG-TRAILER, IPG-TRUCK are trademarks of IPG Automotive GmbH.
CarMaker, TruckMaker, MotorcycleMaker, MESA VERDE are
registered trademarks of IPG Automotive GmbH.
All other product names are trademarks of their respective companies.
CarMaker Reference Manual Version 2.1.6

1
Contents
1 Introduction 9
1.1 General Remarks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
1.2 CarMaker Axis Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
1.3 CarMaker Geometry Input . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
Conventions defining CarMaker Objects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
Guidelines defining CarMaker Objects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
1.4 CarMaker Naming Conventions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
CarMaker Subsystems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
Classification of Quantities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
Meaning of Abbreviations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
1.5 CarMaker Directory Structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
1.6 About Parameter Files and Datasets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
Database Syntax . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
FileIdent, Description and FileCreator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
Model Kind . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
CarMaker Configuration Files . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
1.7 ‘SimParameters’ File . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
Application Parameters of CarMaker/HIL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
CarMaker Environment Parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
Data Storage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
Maneuver Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
Start of test run . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26

2
End of test run . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26

1.8 ‘ECUParameters’ File . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
1.9 ‘OutputQuantities’ File . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
1.10 General Parameters for TestRun Files . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
1.11 Software Interfaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
2 Driving Maneuvers 32
2.1 Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
2.2 Longitudinal Dynamics Maneuvers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
Speed Control (VelControl) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
2.3 Lateral Dynamics Maneuvers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
2.4 Special Maneuvers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
The first Mini Maneuver (Duration 0 Seconds) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
The last Mini Maneuver (Duration 0 Seconds) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
2.5 User Accessible Quantities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
3 Vehicle Body 38
3.1 Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
Configuration of the vehicle model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
Finding the equilibrium state . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
Vehicle Interface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
Interaction with other modules . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
3.2 General Parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
3.3 Mass Geometry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
Parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
3.4 User Accessible Quantities for Vehicle Body . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
4 Suspension Force Elements 46

4.1 External Suspension Forces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
4.2 Springs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
4.3 Dampers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
4.4 Buffers / Bumpers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
4.5 Suspension Roll Stabilizer / Anti-Roll Bar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
5 Suspension Kinematics and Compliance 60

5.1 Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
Describing Kinematics with Generalized Coordinates . . . . . . . 65
Brief Introduction to the Measurement Procedure of K&C parameters

3
68
5.2 Kinematics and Compliance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
5.3 Kinematics Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
“Linear” and “Linear2D” . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
“MapNL” . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
“SetZero” . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
5.4 Compliance Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
“CoeffConstFr1” and “CoeffConstFr2” . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
“SetZero” . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
“CoeffLin1DFr1” and “CoeffLin1DFr2” . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
“DisplaceLinFr1” and “DisplaceLinFr2” . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
Example: Compliance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
6 Aerodynamics 84
6.1 Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
6.2 General Parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
6.3 Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
‘Coeff6x1’ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
7 Steering System 88
7.1 Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
Steer by Angle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
Steer by Torque . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
7.2 Steering System Parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
General Steering System Parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
Steering System ’Classic’ Parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
7.3 User Accessible Quantities for Steering Systems . . . . . . . . . . . 93
7.4 Steering System Software Interface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
8 PowerTrain 95
8.1 Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
Interface Powertrain – Vehicle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
PowerTrain Subsystems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
Interfaces of Powertrain Subsystems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
General Parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
8.2 Powertrain ’Generic’ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
General Parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
Model ‘Generic’ Differential Parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105

4
Model ‘Generic’ Coupling Parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108

8.3 Engine Torque . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
Engine Torque Model ‘Mapping’ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
Engine Torque Model ‘Linear’ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
Engine Torque Model ‘DVA’ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
Engine Model Software Interfaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
8.4 Clutch . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
Clutch Model ‘Manual’ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
Clutch Model ‘Converter’ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
Clutch Model ‘DVA’ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
8.5 Gear Box . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
GearBox Model ‘Manual’ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
GearBox Model ‘DVA’ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
8.6 User Accessible Quantities for PowerTrain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
8.7 Powertrain Software Interface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132
9 Brake System 135

9.1 Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
Brake Interface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136
9.2 Brake System Software Interface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137
9.3 General Brake System Parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138
9.4 User Accessible Quantities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
General User Accessible Quantities for Brake Systems . . . . 140
9.5 Brake System PresDistrib . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
Brake System PresDistrib Parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
9.6 Brake System HydESP . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144
Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144
Brake circuit configuration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
Brake booster . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149
Master Cylinder . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156
Wheel brakes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158
Volume elements in general . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160
Wheel brake cylinders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161
Low pressure accumulator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163
Attenuators (damper chambers) and line volumes . . . . . . . . . 164
Hydraulic pump (return pump) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
Valves and Connecting Lines in General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168
Solenoid valves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170

5
Proportional Solenoid Valves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172

Dynamic Solenoid Valves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174
Inlet Valves with check valve . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175
Pilot valve with check valve and pressure limiting valve . . . . . 179
Suction valve . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181
Check Valve of the Low Pressure Accumulator . . . . . . . . . . . 182
User Accessible Quantities for Brake Module ‘HydESP’ . . . . 186
10 Tire 188
10.1 Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188
Tire Interface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190
Tire load (normal force) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191
Tire Model Computations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192
10.2 General Tire Parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193
10.3 Tire Model RT-Tire . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194
Rolling Resistance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196
Importing Tire Measurements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196
10.4 Tire Model Magic Formula . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197
The basics of Magic Formula . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197
Tire Description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199
Scale factors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200
Effective tire rolling radius . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204
Slip computation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 206
Longitudinal force (pure longitudinal slip): . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207
Lateral force (pure side slip): . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 210
Aligning Torque (pure side slip) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213
Longitudinal Force (combined slip) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 218
Lateral force (combined slip) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 220
Aligning Torque (combined slip) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 223
Overturning Couple . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225
Rolling Resistance Moment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 226
Transient Behavior . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227
Gyroscopic couple . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 228
Friction coefficient . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 230
11 Trailer Model 232

11.1 Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 232
11.2 General Trailer Parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233
11.3 Mass Geometry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 234

6
Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 234
Parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235
11.4 Suspension Force Elements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237
Spring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237
Damper . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237
Stabilizer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 238
11.5 Suspension Kinematics and Compliance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239
Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239
Sleeve Axle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239
Crank Axle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 240
Semi Trailing Arm Axle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 241
General Suspension Model Parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 242
Additional Parameters for Suspension Model “Sleeve” . . . . . . 243
Additional Parameters for Suspension Model “Crank” . . . . . . 243
Additional Parameters for Suspension Model “SemiTrailingArm” . .
244
Compliance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 245
11.6 Hitch . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247
Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247
Additional Parameters for Hitch “Ball” . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 249
Additional Parameters for Hitch “Trapez” . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 249
Additional Parameters for Hitch “BallFric” . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 250
Additional Parameters for Hitch “BallDamp” . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 250
11.7 Brake System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 251
Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 251
Parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 251
Additional Parameters for Brake Model “Overrun” . . . . . . . . . 251
Additional Parameters for Brake Model “Overrun1” . . . . . . . . 252
11.8 Aerodynamics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 253
11.9 User Accessible Quantities for Trailer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 254
General User Accessible Quantities: Trailer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 254
12 User Accessible Quantities 257

12.1 General User Accessible Quantities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 258
User Accessible Quantities: Driving Maneuvers . . . . . . . . . . 259
12.2 User Accessible Quantities for Vehicle Body . . . . . . . . . . . . . 260
User Accessible Quantities: Vehicle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 260
User Accessible Quantities: Car (for unexperienced users) . . 261

7
User Accessible Quantities: Car . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 262

12.3 User Accessible Quantities: Power Train . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 268
User Accessible Quantities for PowerTrain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 268
User Accessible Quantities for PowerTrain ‘Generic’ . . . . . . . 268
User Accessible Quantities for Module ‘Engine’ . . . . . . . . . . . 269
User Accessible Quantities for Module ‘Clutch’ . . . . . . . . . . . 269
User Accessible Quantities for Module ‘GearBox’ . . . . . . . . . 270
12.4 User Accessible Quantities: Steering Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . 271
General User Accessible Quantities: Steering Systems . . . . 271
12.5 User Accessible Quantities: Brake System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 272
General User Accessible Quantities for Brake Systems . . . . 272
User Accessible Quantities for Brake Module ‘HydESP’ . . . . 274
12.6 User Accessible Quantities: Trailer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 275
General User Accessible Quantities: Trailer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 275
12.7 UAQ´s changed from CM 2.0 to CM 2.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 278
Appendix 281
A Mini-Maneuver Command Language 282

A.1 Syntax . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 282
A.2 Driving Maneuver Commands . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 284
A.3 Direct Variable Access Commands . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 285
A.4 Action Commands . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 287
A.5 Logging Commands . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 288
A.6 FailSafeTester Commands . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 290
B Traffic-Obstacles 291
B.1 Parameters and Quantities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 294
Motion of an Obstacle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 296
Output Quantities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 298
B.2 Functions, Types and Variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 299
Obsts_New() - create a new obstacle management . . . . . . 300
Obsts_ObstclNew() - create an new obstacle . . . . . . . . . . 300
Obsts_iGetObstcl() - get obstacle from infofile . . . . . . . . 300
Obsts_ObstclAdd() - add a new obstacle . . . . . . . . . . . . 300
Obsts_ObstclGetInfo()-getsinformationaboutdefinedobstacle
301
Obsts_ObstclDelete() - delete an obstacle . . . . . . . . . . . 301
Obsts_EndOfInput() - no additional obstacles . . . . . . . . 301
Obsts_ObstVecNew() - get a obstacle output vector . . . . . 302

8
Obsts_Calc() - calculate the obstacle module . . . . . . . . . . 303

Obsts_GetObstsAbs() - get absolute obstacle states . . . . 303
Obsts_GetObstsRel() - get relative obstacle states . . . . . 304
Obsts_ObstVecDelete() - free obstacle output vector . . . 304
Obsts_Delete() - free obstacle management . . . . . . . . . . 304
Example: Using Obstalces “by Hand” . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 305
B.3 CarMaker Interface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 306
Variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 306
Obstacles_Init() - initailizes obstacle module . . . . . . . . . 306
Obstacles_New() - create obstalces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 306
Obstacles_Calc () - calculate obstacles . . . . . . . . . . . . . 306
Obstacles_Delete () - delete obstacles . . . . . . . . . . . . . 306
Obstacles_Cleanup() - cleanup obstacle module . . . . . . 307
Examples: Using Obstacles by CarMaker . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 308
B.4 Obstacle Utility obstutil . . . . . . . . . . . . 309
C IPG-MOVIE 310
C.1 IPG-MOVIE-INFO – Meta Information in Geometry Files . . . . 310
D Start Conditions 312

D.1 Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 312
E Road-Obstacles and Markers 313

E.1 Description of Road-Obstacles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 313
Cylinders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 314
Beams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 315
Waves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 316
Cones . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 317
E.2 Description of Markers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 318
Pylons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 319
Velocity Signs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 320
SideWind . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 321
E.3 Description of Digitized Road . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 322

Introduction 9
General Remarks
Chapter 1
Introduction
This is the CarMaker Reference Manual. It contains definitive informations about the usage
of the different tools and modules bundled in the CarMaker software package.
1.1 General Remarks

CarMaker tries to keep as close as possible to conventions and naming of ISO 8855 1991,
modified (or US English DIN 70000).
This applies amongst other issues to axis systems, kinematics of the sprung mass, forces
and moments, suspension, vehicle response and wheels and tires.
All parameters and quantities are specified in SI-quantities unless otherwise stated:
Table 1.1: SI Units used with CarMaker
Quantity Name Symbol

Time second s
Length meter m
Angle radian (one turn = 2*π) rad
Mass kilogram kg
Inertia kilogram meter sqared kg*m2
Force newton N
Torque newton meter Nm
Stiffness newton per meter N/m
Rotational Stiffness newton meter per radian Nm/rad

Introduction 10
CarMaker Axis Systems
1.2 CarMaker Axis Systems

In the virtual world of CarMaker different axis systems for different purposes are used. They
are used to simplify calculation and parametrization for CarMaker objects (including signals
and variables) and to be able to represent different points of views for CarMaker objects.
z y
z
Fr1 Fr2
Mntrl y
f ( q 0, q 1 ) x
Mntrr
f (t)
f ( q 0, q 1 ) z
z Fr2
Fr2 f ( q 0, q 1 ) y
y
x
x Mntfl
x
z Mntfr
Fr2 f ( q 0, q 1 )
z y
y x
Fr0
x
Figure 1.1: CarMaker Coordinate systems
Frame Fr0
The CarMaker inertial axis system is called Fr0 (pronounced: frame zero). This is the earth
fixed origin of the ‘virtual world’.
Fr0 is defined as follows:
• (O) is the origin, (X), (Y), (Z) are the 3 axis.
• (O, X, Y) is the horizontal driving plane (road).
• (Z) is directed upwards (mathematically: ( X ) × ( Y ) ).
• The position of any point, if not mentioned explicitly otherwise, is expressed in Fr0.
Frame Fr1
Moving objects in the virtual world are based on their own accompanied axis system which
is called Fr1. This axis system is fixed to the moving object. This means that the axis system
performs all movements of the attached object like translations and rotations.
• (X) points in forward driving direction.
• (Y) points to the left.
• In case of a vehicle no part of the outer skin is situated behind the (O, Y, Z)-plane. At
least one point of the outer skin has a vanishing X-coordinate. (see section 1.3)

Introduction 11
CarMaker Axis Systems
• In case of a trailer no part of the outer skin is situated before the (O, Y, Z)-plane. (see
section 1.3)
Frame Fr2 (carrier axis system)

For every wheel there is a mountpoint (Mnt) defined within the Fr1 system. This is the center
of reference of a Fr2 axis system attached to this mount-point. Mount-points are pure trans-
lations (X,Y,Z) from the Fr1 axis system. They are fixed to the Fr1 system.
There are functional dependencies (suspension kinematics and compliance) how Fr2 is ori-
entated relatively to its mount-point. There are two generalized coordinates (q 0,q 1) for the
movement of each Fr2 axis system. Usually q 0 stands for compression and q 1 for steer
influence.
• Rules apply to any of the wheel carriers
• (O) is the center of the wheel. It is in the wheel plane.
• (X) points in forward driving direction.
• (Y) is along the wheel spin axis. Vector points to the left.
• Initially (all coordinates of Fr2 are zero) Fr2 is parallel to Fr1.
• (O, X, Z) is the wheel plane.
Frame FrX
The frame FrX (pronounced: cross frame) represents a road surface axis system. The (O,
X, Y) -plane approximately describes the current orientation of the road surface. Like Fr1
this is a accompanied axis system as well and moves uniformly to Fr1.
FrX is defined as follows:
• (O) is located in the middle between the two road surface contact points of the rear
wheels.
• (X) is orientated from (O) to the middle of the two road surface points of the front
wheels.
• (Y) is orientated along the connection from the rear left to the rear right road surface
contact point.
• (Z) is oriented upwards (mathematically: ( X ) × ( Y ) ).
Frame FrD
The FrD (pronounced: design-frame) is a parallel axis system to Fr1 with different origin. It
is used to specify geometry input coordinates which are based on a different origin than Fr1
without recomputing them. See section 1.3.2 ’Guidelines defining CarMaker Objects’ on
page 12.
FrD is defined as follows:
• (O) is arbitrary
• (X) is parallel to Fr1 (X) axis.
• (Y) is parallel to Fr1 (Y) axis.
• (Z) is parallel to Fr1 (Z) axis.

Introduction 12
CarMaker Geometry Input
1.3 CarMaker Geometry Input

To define new objects (vehicles, trailers) a good understanding of the CarMaker principles
and conventions is needed to obtain the expected results. The information provided in this
section is very useful for this task.
1.3.1 Conventions defining CarMaker Objects

As a convention CarMaker objects have to be defined with their origin of Fr1 at designated
positions. This is important because CarMaker assumes the origin at those designated
places for every object. The following table shows the conventions where the origin for
which objects has to be:.
Table 1.2: Origins of CarMaker Fr1 Objects
Type of Fr1 Origin

Vehicle Origin for the vehicles Fr1 is the hindmost point of the vehicle projected
on road level.
Trailer Origin for the trailers Fr1 is the hitch point (foremost point) of the trailer
projected on road level. (Trailer objects have negative X-coordinates).
1.3.2 Guidelines defining CarMaker Objects

To define a new CarMaker object geometry data has to be provided. Geometry data e. g. is
needed for body mass, mount-points for (carrier-)frames, and additional loads (inclusive
trimloads and engine mass).
loads engine
trimloads
Fr2FrontLeft
vehicle body
Fr2RearLeft
MntRearRight MntFrontRight
CoM
Fr2RearRight FrD
Fr2FrontRight
r1
in F
orig
Fr1
Fr0
Figure 1.2: CarMaker geometry input for a vehicle
The position and orientation of any point/frame is given in design configuration (‘drawing
sheet of the designer of the car’). As shown in Figure 1.2 the axis FrD (called design-frame)
is a parallel axis system to Fr1 with different origin.
The configurations specified in FrD must be linked to the Fr1 by a vector pointing to the origin
of Fr1 (expressed in FrD coordinates).

Introduction 13
CarMaker Geometry Input
In the special case where FrD ≡ Fr1 the link vector is the zero vector.
Design configuration not necessarily has to be equilibrium configuration!

Introduction 14
CarMaker Naming Conventions
1.4 CarMaker Naming Conventions

To ensure maximum readability, it is tried to keep the notation as consistent and self-explan-
atory as possible.
1.4.1 CarMaker Subsystems

The following rules to name CarMaker subsystems apply:
Model Abbrev. Description

Ambient Ambient constants
Brake Brake subsystem
Car Car subsystem
DM Maneuver control subsystem (DrivMan)
FST FailSaveTester
IO IO subsystem
Log Log subsystem
PT Powertrain subsystem
Sensor Vehicle body sensors
Steer Steering subsystem
TC Task commands (Minimaneuvers)
TCPU Monitoring of CPU time consumption
Time CarMaker timer
Tr Trailer subsystem
Vhcl Vehicle means subset of Car, Motorcycle, Truck subsystem

Introduction 15
1.4.2 Classification of Quantities

With the following classifications groups of quantities are denoted. Those groups denote
points of interests like the center of mass of components or single components and their
significant quantities.
The letters ... in general stand for

Aero Aerodynamic related quantities
Buffer, Buf Suspension buffer/bumper related quantities
C Carrier related quantities
Camber Camber (wheel) related quantities
Clutch Clutch related quantities
Con Quantities related to connected body: center of mass of the
rigid vehicle body including vehicle body, engine, trimloads
and loads
Damp Damper (shock absorber) related quantities
DL Driveline related quantities
Engine Engine related quantities
Fr0, Fr1, Fr2, Quantities related to this Frame (= axis system)
FrX
Gearbox Gearbox related quantities
Gen Quantities related to the generalized body: center of mass of
generalized body including all masses of the connected
body including masses of wheel carriers and wheels.
(“Car.Gen”, “Tr.Gen”)
Gen Powertrain Generic related quantities (“PT.Gen”)
Hitch Trailer hitch related quantities
HydESP HydESP brake model related quantities (“Brake.HydESP”)
Jack Jack related quantities
Load Extra loads of the vehicle
PoI Point of interest related quantities
Spring Suspension spring related quantities
Stabi Anti-Roll-Bar stabilisator related quantities
Steer Steer subsystem related quantities
Valve Brake hydraulic valves related quantities
Virtual Virtual forces and torques related quantities
W Wheel related quantities

Introduction 16
1.4.3 Meaning of Abbreviations

CarMaker uses the following abbreviations for the naming of quantities.

0, 1, 2, 3,.. Numbering
_0, _1, _2 Postfix for quantity expressed in Fr0, Fr1, Fr2
_ext External
_tot Total
a Acceleration
Align Aligning movement
Axle Suspension left, right, front, back
C Center
Diff Differential
Distance, Dist Distance
DL Driveline
F Front
FL, FR, RL, RR Front left, front right, rear left, rear right
Frc Force
Hori projection of a quantity to the O,X,Y plane
l Length
l Lateral
LongSlip Long slip (tangential) of wheel
Man Maneuver
MC Master brake cylinder
muRoad Friction coefficient
No Number
P Tire contact point with track
p Pressure
q Flow (hydraulic)
q, q0, q1 Generalized coordinates
r Rotation
R Rear
Radius Radius
Rate Angular velocity
res Resultant
rot Rotation angle
rotv Rotation angle velocity
Slip Slip (lateral) of wheel
Spd Speed
SS, SideSlip Side slip of vehicle
SW Switch
t Translation
T Tire

Introduction 17

T Temperature
T, Time Time
tau Angle of attack of wind
Trq Torque
v, vel Velocity
WB Wheel brake
x, y, z Coordinate directions

Introduction 18
CarMaker Directory Structure
1.5 CarMaker Directory Structure

Project Directory
Below is the directory structure of a typical project directory.
Listing 1.1:
<project directory path>

|
|-bin Real-time program, user specific
| GUIs, like e. g. Instruments
|
|-doc Online Docu to simulator
|
|-src Development environment
|-Data Data basis
| |
| |- Vehicle Vehicle data
| |- Chassis Kinematics and Compiance of axles
| |
| |-Config Configuration of the test bed: ECUParameters, SimParameters,
| | OutputQuantities
| |
| |-Misc Misc., e.g. parameters for the hydraulic
| |
| |-Pic Views of vehicles (for GUI)
| |-Road Measured road definitions (RoadData)
| |-TestScript ScriptControl test-scripts
| |-TestRun Test runs
| |-Tire Tire data
| |-Trailer Trailer data
|
|-Movie Animation, movie
| Vehicle and road geometry files
|
|-SimInput Data for Input_From_File
|-SimOutput Results of simulations
| |-Offline
| |-rt1
| | |-Log
| | |-YYYYMMDD
• The bin directory contains the CarMaker executable or executables. It might also con-
tain custom applications or tools that were created specifically for the project.
• The doc directory would contain documentation that would apply to the project.
CarMaker documentation, e.g this document, does not reside in the doc directory but is
included in the CarMaker installation directory along with library files and most of the
CIT applications.
• The src directory includes the C source files that can be modified by the user. By mak-
ing changes to the source files new CarMaker executables can be built that would
incorporate modifications and additional functionality needed for a particular project.
• The data directory includes all the vehicle parameter files, user and IPG defined
testruns, configuration data, and other data used by CarMaker.
• The movie directory includes files needed for IPG-MOVIE. For example, if a custom car
body is used in the animation then the file would be here.

Introduction 19
CarMaker Directory Structure
• The SimInput directory contains simulation data files that are used when CarMaker
runs by using file input.
• The SimOutput directory contains the simulation results that are optionally saved when
a testrun is performed.
Installation Directory
It also might be useful to show the CarMaker installation directory, i.e. where the CarMaker
tools have been installed, along with the CarMaker libraries and documentation. Shown
below is an example of the installation directory of the LynxOS or realtime version of
CarMaker, installed in the unix environment.
Listing 1.2:
<installation directory path>

|
|-bin Programs like Instruments,
| User interface HIL
|
|-doc Online documentation
|-Examples Example projects and files
|-GUI Graphical User Interface scripts, executables, etc.
|-include Include-files
|-lib Libraries
|-lynx_rt LynxOS runtime environment
|-Matlab Support package for Matlab/Simulink
|-Setup Template and definition files

Introduction 20
About Parameter Files and Datasets
1.6 About Parameter Files and Datasets

The CarMaker application needs parameter files and datasets. For this purpose CarMaker
uses keyword oriented parameter files called Infofiles. They are plain ascii text files but a
specific syntax is used.
1.6.1 Database Syntax

Infofiles use keywords which can be followed by
• a ‘=’ character and several values up to the end of line,
• a ‘:’ character and a multi line entry in the following lines. Each line must start with a
<tab> character.
1.6.2 FileIdent, Description and FileCreator

To recognize any changes and incompatibilities of parameters format and norm (e. g. using
a new CarMaker version with out of date datasets) a identification key for each file is used.
The identification key shows the model class, the submodel class and the current version.
This identification key is called “FileIdent” and has to be specified in the first line of a param-
eter file.
FileIdentt = CarMaker-KindString [ VersionId ]
Syntax CarMaker-<ModelClass>[-<Kind>] <Version ID>

<ModelClass> Tire, Brake, Car, TestRun,...
<Kind> Optional, for submodels with referenced parameters, e.g.
separate files for brake model parameters or engine
torque diagram.
<VersionID> Version of parameter file, whole-numbered, positive
Example FileIdent = CarMaker-PowerTrain.ET-4WD 2
Current FileIdents Currently Carmaker supports the following Fileidents:
Infofile FileIdent
TestRun CarMaker-TestRun <VersionID>
TestSeries CarMaker-TestSeries <VersionID>
Tire CarMaker-Tire-<Kind> <VersionID>
Car CarMaker-Car <VersionID>
Suspension (kinematics CarMaker-SuspMapping <VersionID>
and compliance)
Trailer CarMaker-Trailer <VersionID>
Brake CarMaker-Brake-<Kind> <VersionID>
ECUParameters CarMaker-ECUParameters <VersionID>
SimParameters CarMaker-SimParameters <VersionID>

Introduction 21
About Parameter Files and Datasets
Description : DescriptionText
Description, displayed in parameter browsers
FileCreator = String
This entry answers the question: Which tool creates this parameter set? How can it be char-
acterized?
1.6.3 Model Kind

The kind key is used to specify a submodel (e. g. a specific powertrain model).
Prefix.Kind = KindStr [ VersionId ]
KindStr is the characteristic name of submodel, or variation of submodel. VersionId is
optional. It is used to support different versions of parameter sets for the same model (com-
patibility, parameter convertion etc.).
Example PowerTrain.ET.Kind = Mapping 2
1.6.4 CarMaker Configuration Files

CarMaker knows the following configuration files:
File Purpose
SimParameters All parameters influencing the simulation flow.
ECUParameters Parameters and calibration settings for ECU´s used with a
test stand.
OutputQuantities Specifies list of quantities for saving results in CarMaker.
The files are searched in the sub directory Data/Config/<file>[.hostname].
Example Data/Config/SimParameters
Data/Config/ECUParameters.rt1
If a file with hostname matches it has priority over a file without a specific hostname.

Introduction 22
‘SimParameters’ File
1.7 ‘SimParameters’ File

In SimParameters all “global” (test run, vehicle, ... independent) simulation specific param-
eters are given in different subsections decribed below.
1.7.1 Application Parameters of CarMaker/HIL
Cycle.dtLimitHigh = DeltaT
Optional. Default 0.002 s.
Cycle.dtLimitLow = DeltaT
Cycle.tCTViolationWarn = DeltaT
Cycle.tCTViolationErr = DeltaT
Cycle.maxtCTViolation = DeltaT
Optional.

Introduction 23
1.7.2 CarMaker Environment Parameters
FirstInit.TestRun = TestRunName
Test-run to initialize the application the first time, before a test run is started. Default: ““ to
use internal defaults.
TestRunEnd.DVA_ReleaseAll = DoIt
At the end of a test run, all active direct variable write access can be closed.
Default: 0, don’t release all, keep write access active.
1.7.3 Data Storage
DStore.dtFile = deltaT
Optional. Time step between two data vectors for storage. Default 0.02 s.
DStore.OutQuantFName = OutQuantFilename
Optional, Configuration file for selecting quantities to be written to file. Filename relative to
Data/Config/<HostName>. Default “OutputQuantities”.
DStore.OutSubDir = DirectoryName
Optional. Directory to store simulation results. If DirectoryName is empty, the directory

name is created by current date, formatted as <year><month><day>. Default ““.
DStore.OutFNameWithTime = WithTime
Optional. Append simulation start time to the result file name. Default 1.
DStore.BufSize_kB = Size_in_kBytes
Size of data collecting buffer.

Introduction 24
1.7.4 Maneuver Control
DrivMan.Engine.AutoStart = AutoStart
Optional, default 1.
DrivMan.Engine.tWaitAfterEngineOn =deltaT
Optional, default 2.0 s, see also section ’PowerTrain.ET.tWaitAfterEngineOn = deltaT’.
Road.VhclStartPos_TrailerMin = MinStartPos_m
Optional, default 10 m. Minimal vehicle road start coordinat when driving with a trailer.
Get Idle DrivMan.GetIdle.Brake = Activation

DrivMan.GetIdle.Brake.d_dt = Velocity
Optional, default Activation=0, Velocity=1000.
DrivMan.GetIdle.BrakePark = Activation
DrivMan.GetIdle.BrakePark.d_dt = Velocity
DrivMan.GetIdle.BrakeLever = Activation
DrivMan.GetIdle.BrakeLever.d_dt = Velocity
DrivMan.GetIdle.Brake.vVhcl_BrakeEnd = MaxVhclVelocity
Optional, default 0.1 m/s. Vehicle velocity to end braking while state GetIdle.
DrivMan.GetIdle.dSteerAngledt = SteerAngleVelocity_deg/s
Optional, default 45 deg. Steer angle velocity to center steering system.

Introduction 25
DrivMan.GetIdle.SelectorCtrl = SelectorCtrl
Is Idle DrivMan.IsIdle.Brake = Activation
Optional, default 0.0.
DrivMan.IsIdle.BrakeLever = Activation
DrivMan.IsIdle.BrakePark = Activation
DrivMan.IsIdle.SelectorCtrl = Position
DrivMan.IsIdle.SetNeutral = SetNeutral
Optional, default 1. Set gear box to neutral position.
Shifting DrivMan.AutoShift.dtDontShift = delatT
Optional, default 0.2 s.
DrivMan.AutoShift.GasReduction = Reduction
DrivMan.AutoShift.dt_declutch = DeltaT
Optional, deafult 0.1 s.
DrivMan.AutoShift.dt_keepclutch = DeltaT

Introduction 26
DrivMan.AutoShift. dt_enclutch= DeltaT
DrivMan.VelCtrl.tClutchRelease = value
1.7.5 Start of test run
SimStart.TimeLimit = TimeLimit
Maximal duration of state SimStart. Default: 60 s
DrivMan.Start.ExtInp_SteerVel = SteerVelMax_deg
Used for external inputs maneuvers to build up the steering angle at start of input.
1.7.6 End of test run
GetIdle.TimeLimit = TimeLimit
Optional. Default 200 s.
GetIdle.Skip = Skip
Optional. Default: 0 for HIL, 1 for non-HIL.
GetIdle.Kl15Off = SwitchOff
Optional. Default: 0 for HIL, 1 for non-HIL.

Introduction 27
‘ECUParameters’ File
1.8 ‘ECUParameters’ File

In ECUParameters all Input/Output, hardware or ECU specific parameters are stored in this
parameter set:
• Signal conditioning
• FailSafeTester configuration, see Programmers Guide section 12.3 ’Configuring the
FailSafeTester’ on page 283
• et al.

Introduction 28
‘OutputQuantities’ File
1.9 ‘OutputQuantities’ File

This file keeps a simple list with all quantity names (one per line spelled like they can be
looked up in IPG Control). All quantities denoted in this file are stored by the CarMaker´s
Storage of Results functionality.
It is possible to use only one ‘*’ wildcard per pattern.
Example Brake.Trq_FL
Brake.Trq_*
Car.*FL

Introduction 29
General Parameters for TestRun Files
1.10 General Parameters for TestRun Files

These Parameters can be specified in a CarMaker TestRun file. They apply for all sub mod-
els.
Ambient.Temperature = Temperature_K
Optional. Ambient temperature in degree Kelvin. Default 293.15 K.
Ambient.AirDensity = value
Optional. Air density in kg/m3. Default 1.205
Ambient.AirPressure = value
Optional. Air pressure in bar. Default 1.024 bar.
Ambient.AirHumidity = value
Optional. Air humidity (no dimension 0..1). Default 0.2

Introduction 30
Software Interfaces
1.11 Software Interfaces

The vehicle model uses the model manager to “handle models”. This means:
For a submodel of the car – for example steering system, brake system, tire, engine, ... –
more than one implementation (or model) can be available in the simulation program. The
model to be used in a testrun is selected by an identifier string in a parameter file, for exam-
ple “Brake.Kind = HydESP” in the vehicle parameter set to select the brake model
“HydESP”.
1: int
2: Brake_Register_HydESP (void)
3: {
4: tModelClassDescr m;
5:
6: /* clear model class description structure */
7: memset (&m, 0, sizeof(m));
8:
9: /* assign model interface functions */
10: m.Brake.VersionId = ThisVersionId;
11: m.Brake.CompatVersionId = CompatVersionId;
12: m.Brake.New = Brake_HydESP_New;
13: m.Brake.Calc = Brake_HydESP_Calc;
14: m.Brake.Delete = Brake_HydESP_Delete;
15: m.Brake.DeclQuants = Brake_HydESP_DeclQuants;
16:
17: /* register the model, kind string and interface functions */
18: return Model_Register (ModelClass_Brake, "HydESP", &m);
19: }
Listing 1.3:
The model manager supports the following car submodels, called model classes:c
1: typedef enum {
2: ModelClass_PTEngine,
3: ModelClass_PTClutch,
4: ModelClass_PTGearBox,
5: ModelClass_PTDriveLine,
6: ModelClass_PowerTrain,
7: ModelClass_PTGenCoupling,
8: ModelClass_Steering,
9: ModelClass_Brake,
10: ModelClass_Tire,
11:
12: } tModelClass;
Listing 1.4: Model Classes
The model manager is initialized at program start with
1: int
2: Model_Init (void);
Models are registered at program start, before the first simulation starts with
3: int
4: Model_Register (
5: tModelClass ModelClass,
6: const char *KindStr,
7: tModelClassDescr *MD
8: );

Introduction 31
Software Interfaces
The model manager is cleaned up before program exits with
9: int
10: Model_Cleanup (void);
Example: Registration and usage of a brake model

The registration function for the brake model with kind key “HydESP” is called once at pro-
gram start.
What CarMaker does to start a submodel (example for a brake model):
• Look for a model with the corresponding kind string.
• If the model is found by Model_LookUp() the New() function is called to create an
initialized model.
• If the initialization was successful, the DelcQuants() function is called to update the
quantities in CarMaker´s data dictionary.
• The functions Calc() and Delete() are stored to calculate the model and to delete
the model parameters before create a new model at the beginning of next simulation
11: tModelClassDescr*md;
12: const char *ModelKind;
13:
14: ModelKind = iGetStr(Inf, KindKey);
15:
16: if ((md=Model_LookUp(ModelClass_Brake, ModelKind)) == NULL) {
17: LogErrF (EC_Init, "Brake: Unknown kind ’%s’",KindKey);
18: goto ErrorReturn;
19: }
20:
21: brake.param = md->Brake.New(inf, ““);
22: if (brake.param == NULL)
23: goto ErrorReturn;
24:
25: if (md->Brake.DeclQuants != NULL)
26: md->Brake.DeclQuants (brake.param);
27:
28:
29: brake.md.Brake.Calc = md->Brake.Calc;
30: brake.md.Brake.Delete = md->Brake.Delete;
31:

Driving Maneuvers 32
Overview
Chapter 2
Driving Maneuvers
2.1 Overview
The CarMaker testrun is build by one or more maneuver steps, called “mini maneuvers”.
The mini maneuver events are composed by
• longitudinal dynamics actions: accelerating, braking, gear shifting, ...
• lateral dynamics actions: steering
• additional actions, defined by a list of mini maneuver commands
Parameters
The driving maneuvers and driving behavior can be configured
• in the test run (test run specific)
• in the vehicle model parameter set (vehicle specific in)
• in the SimParameters parameter set (global).
A prefix is build up for each mini maneuver by the string “DrivMan.”, followed by the mini
maneuver number. The keys of all parameters for each maneuver starts with this prefix.
DrivMan..<xyz> ...
TestRun Data Set
DrivMan.nDMan = NumberOfMiniMan
This entry defines the number of minimaneuvers of this test run. The first maneuver is the
maneuver 0 (zero).

Overview
Vehicle Data Set
PowerTrain.ET.tWaitAfterEngineOn = deltaT
Optional. Overwrites parameter DrivMan.Engine.tWaitAfterEngineOn from file

SimParameters (see section ’DrivMan.Engine.tWaitAfterEngineOn = deltaT’).
DrivMan.nShift : GearNo_nUp_nDown_table
Optional. Configures the auto shifting module of the speed controller. Each line contains the
following values:
• Gear number GearNo, positive for forward, negative for backward gears
• engine speed to shift up, unit rpm.
• engine speed to shift down, unit rpm.

Longitudinal Dynamics Maneuvers
2.2 Longitudinal Dynamics Maneuvers

The following maneuvers are available:
• Drive with IPG-DRIVER
• Drive speed profile
• Manual Control: Gas, Brake, BrakeLever (motorcycle), BrakePark, Clutch, Gear
• Speed Control (VelControl)
2.2.1 Speed Control (VelControl)
Pre.Long = VelControl Vel_km/h TolVel_m/s Sensity PremEnd
Special Meaning! Pre.Long = VelControl StartVel_kmh GearNo
In case of
• first maneuver in the test run
• duration time is set to 0.0
this maneuver has a special meaning. It defines longitudinal starting conditions.
In the GUI: Entry fieled “Speed” gives vehicle starting speed, “Max. Deviation” gives the
gear number.

Lateral Dynamics Maneuvers
2.3 Lateral Dynamics Maneuvers

The following maneuvers are available:
• Drive the course with IPG-DRIVER
• Sinus steering
• Steer step
• Simple steer control
Steering Maneuvers
A smooth transition mode was added for Sinus and Steer Step. The mode can be enabled
with a checkbox in the CarMaker GUI’s Maneuver dialog, under Lateral Dynamics.
Steer Step Sinus
Steer Step Sinus

Smooth Smooth
Transition Transition
During a simulation, mini-maneuver commands can be changed on the fly. An example

application of this new feature would be to use ScriptControl (the corresponding SetMini-
ManCmd command is available with this release) to access the FailSafeTester with very
precise timing by using the appropriate mini-maneuver commands for FST control.

Special Maneuvers
2.4 Special Maneuvers

2.4.1 The first Mini Maneuver (Duration 0 Seconds)
If the first mini maneuver (number 0) has the duration 0 seconds, it has a special meaning:
Instead of defining a real driving maneuver it defines the test run starting conditions.
The following configuration is possible:
• Speed control (VelControl): start velocity, gear number (entry field “Max. Deviation”)
• Steer step: steering angle (entry field “Amplitude”)
2.4.2 The last Mini Maneuver (Duration 0 Seconds)

If the last mini maneuver has the duration 0 seconds, it has a special meaning:
This maneuver is called at the end of the test run even if the test run is stopped before (by
user, by an error, ...).

User Accessible Quantities
2.5 User Accessible Quantities

Please refer to section 12.1.1 ’User Accessible Quantities: Driving Maneuvers’.

Vehicle Body 38
Overview
Chapter 3
Vehicle Body
3.1 Overview
The simulated vehicle is a multi body system which is characterized through different bod-
ies. They are generated and optimized with MESA VERDE.
Description of the bodies:
Body Parts of the body

vehicle’s body All sprung masses beside engine, trimloads and vehicle loads.
engine Engine as a separate mass (easily changeable motorization).
trimloads Constant loads to be added up to vehicle’s curb load.
vehicle loads Additional loads to define a certain load case, e.g. measuring
equipment, luggage... (changeable from GUI).
wheel suspension All unsprung masses without the wheel, like
- front left link, wheel carrier, suspension leg, wishbone mount...
- front right
- rear left
- rear right
wheel All rotating masses, like
- front left tire, rim, bearing, brake drum/disc...
- front right
- rear left
- rear right
External and internal forces/torques and constraints are determined by:

• Suspension Force Elements
• Aerodynamics
• Kinematics and Compliance
• Tire forces/torques
• User defined virtual forces and torques

Vehicle Body 39
Overview
Additionally the vehicle model supports the feature to calculate body fixed sensors for
acceleration, velocity, rotational acceleration and rotational velocity.
3.1.1 Configuration of the vehicle model

To obtain the typical behavior of a certain type of vehicle the multi body system is extensive-
ly parameterizable. The parameters are selected in a way that all type of vehicles, from a
small compact car up to a big SUV can be simulated by only changing the set of parame-
ters. There is no need to change the structure of the multi body system (the underlying
equations).
3.1.2 Finding the equilibrium state

By pressing the start button and after initialization the vehicle starts at steady state. This is
called the start-off configuration. This means the vehicle is in equilibrium state respecting
all internal and external forces/torques (no acceleration, but nonzero velocities, in general).
Parameters for the vehicle configuration are given in design configuration. The expression
design configuration does not only refer to geometric quantities, but includes all other
design parameters (masses, spring-stiffnesses, ...) as specified by the car-manufacturer. A
design configuration usually is not a configuration of static equilibrium!
Procedure Design Configuration
mq-equilibrium
multiple steps
mq-equilibrium
Static equilibrium
mq-equilibrium Aerodynamics, VehicleLoads, TrimLoads
Steady state
Start-off configuration
Figure 3.1: Finding steady state for the vehicle model
For computation coordinates q and parameters p are distinguished. Parameters are time
invariant, coordinates are not. Parameters need not be geometrical, but also include mass-
es, stiffnesses, etc.
The design configuration has the coordinates and parameters ( q d, p d ) . To find the steady
state position of the vehicle a procedure called Modify-q-equilibrium (mq-equilibrium) is
used.
Mq-equilibrium modifies some of the coordinates q such that:
• Parameters p obtain prescribed values.
• The configuration is an equilibrium configuration.However, at this stage no additional
charges (trimloads, vehicle loads) are added to the system.
p = p0
( q d, p d ) ⇒ ( q e, p e ) (EQ 1)
modify q

Vehicle Body 40
Overview
The start-off configuration is a configuration that matches the initial conditions of a particu-
lar test-run. It differs from a nominal configuration (static equilibrium) by taking into account:
• Trim-loads, vehicle loads
• Start-off (or initial) driving velocity.
• Aerodynamics.
The start-off configuration is obtained from the nominal configuration by modifying q , keep-
ing p fixed:
keep p const
( q e, p e ) ⇒ ( q s, p s ) . (EQ 2)
modify q
3.1.3 Vehicle Interface

The vehicle body is the central model. It consists of the Mesa Verde multibody vehicle mod-
el along with predefined interfaces to other modules. The vehicle body interface is defined
in Vehicle.h. Alternative vehicle models have to fill this interface with life.
3.1.4 Interaction with other modules

The vehicle body module interferes with other modules from the vehicle library.
Brake System Powertrain
Vehicle Body
Steer System Trailer
Tire
Interface
Figure 3.2: Modules interfering with the vehicle body
Each module has an interface to the vehicle body module. By this interfaces parameters
and coordinates of the vehicle body are modified.

Vehicle Body 41
General Parameters
3.2 General Parameters
RefPointInputSystem = x y z
This parameter specifies the origin of the Fr1 (in FrD coordinates). The coordinates XYZ
point from the origin of FrD to the origin of Fr1. (see section 1.2 ’CarMaker Axis Systems’).
Example RefPointInputSystem = -2.0 0.0 0.0

This means that the origin of Fr1 is 2 m behind (in vehicles longitudinal direction) FrD.
Hitch.pos = x y z
Hitch (trailer coupling device) position at the vehicle expressed in FrD coordinates.
Example Hitch.pos = 0.0 0.0 0.3
Virtual.PoA = x y z
The virtual force/torque attacks the vehicle body in Virtual.PoA.

Virtual.PoA is decomposed in FrD.
Default position is the center of mass of vehicle body (see page 43).
Virtual.PoA_1 = x y z
Point of attack of the virtual force/torque.

Virtual.PoA_1 is decomposed in Fr1.
Virtual.PoA_1 overwrites Virtual.PoA.
Picture.PicFName = FName
File name of the Tcl/Tk Picture you see in the main HIL application. The file is searched in
the Data/Pic folder. Unimportant for simulation results.
Example Picture.PicFName = VW_NewBeetle.tcl
Movie.Skin.FName = FName
Example Picture.PicFName = VW_NewBeetle.obj

Vehicle Body 42
General Parameters
Vehicle.OuterSkin = rll.x rll.y rll.z fur.x fur.y fur.z
Vehicles outer skin box, defined by the points rear lower left (rll) and front upper right (fur).
Example Vehicle.OuterSkin =-0.1 0.85 0.2 4.05 -0.85 1.6
Jack.fl.pos = x y z
Jack.fr.pos = x y z
Jack.rl.pos = x y z
Jack.rr.pos = x y z
Optional. Jack positions at vehicle chassis.
SimParamFName = FName
Optional. Name of the file containing simulation parameters. File is searched in

<CMProjectDir>/Data/Config.
Default SimParameters or SimParameters.<hostname>.
The usage of the parameters ECUParamFName and SimParamFName may lead to incon-
sistencies with IO initialization. For experts only!
ECUParamFName = FName
Optional. Name of the file containing parameters of Electronic Control Units (ECU) IO-Sig-
nal calibrations. File is searched in <CMProjectDir>/Data/Config.
Default ECUParameters or ECUParameters.<hostname>.
The usage of the parameters ECUParamFName and SimParamFName may lead to incon-
sistencies with IO initialization. For experts only!

Vehicle Body 43
Mass Geometry
3.3 Mass Geometry

3.3.1 Overview
The representation of the distribution of mass in a material system is called mass geometry.
Inertia properties are associated with the vehicle-body, each of the four wheel carriers and
each wheels. Additional body loads are modeled via additional masses and inertias as well.
Three parameters have to be specified to define a mass element:
• The mass value of the body to define.
• The center of mass (CoM) of each body is defined. The center of mass is a geometrical
point. The three scalar quantities are the position vector of CoM decomposed relative to
the origin of the definition frame.
• The inertia tensor (= second moments of mass = moments of inertia) is a symmetric
second-order tensor, which is specified by six scalar quantities I = A B C D E F
(Frequently the off-diagonal elements (D, E, F) of the inertia tensor are neglected):
∫ ∫ ∫
2
( y + z 2 ) dm – xy dm – xz dm
Body Body Body
A F E
∫ ∫
2
F B D = symmetry ( z + x 2 ) dm – yz dm (EQ 3)
Body Body
E D C
∫
2
symmetry symmetry ( x + y 2 ) dm
Body
3.3.2 Parameters
Parameters The following parameters are required for this model:
Body.pos
Body.mass
Body.I
The vehicle body without engine. Its center of mass is placed in the design frame at
Body.Pos. The vehicle body has the mass Body.mass and the inertia tensor Body.I. The ele-
ments of the inertia tensor are given in the order A B C D E F. It is sufficient to give the
elements A B C (main diagonal elements) only.
A vehicle body with inertia A=360 kg*m2, B=800 kg*m2, C=1800 kg*m2:
Body.mass = 375.0
Body.Pos = 1.5 0.0 0.45
Body.I = 360 800 1800
Engine.pos
Engine.mass
Engine.I
The engine body. The engine is fixed on the Body of the vehicle. For details, see vehicle
body.

Vehicle Body 44
Mass Geometry
WheelCarrier.fl.pos
WheelCarrier.fl.mass
WheelCarrier.fl.I
Wheel carrier front left. Represents all unsprung mass in the suspension (except the
wheel).
WheelCarrier.fr.pos
WheelCarrier.fr.mass
WheelCarrier.fl.r
Wheel carrier front right. For details, see wheel carrier front left.
WheelCarrier.rl.pos
WheelCarrier.rl.mass
WheelCarrier.rl.I
Wheel carrier rear left. For details, see wheel carrier front left.
WheelCarrier.rr.pos
WheelCarrier.rr.mass
WheelCarrier.rr.I
Wheel carrier rear right. For details, see wheel carrier front left.
Wheel.fl.pos
Wheel.fl.mass
Wheel.fl.I
Wheel front left. The wheel and all other rotating components (parts of the brake, ...) .
Wheel.fr.pos
Wheel.fr.mass
Wheel.fl.r
Wheel front right. For details, see wheel front left.
Wheel.rl.pos
Wheel.rl.mass
Wheel.rl.I
Wheel rear left. For details, see wheel front left.

Vehicle Body 45
User Accessible Quantities for Vehicle Body
Wheel.rr.pos
Wheel.rr.mass
Wheel.rr.I
Wheel rear right. For details, see wheel front left.
TrimLoad..pos
TrimLoad..mass
TrimLoad..I
Bodies to trim mass contribution to that of a reference vehicle. Trim loads are fixed to vehicle
body. := 0, 1, 2, ...
Do not confuse TrimLoads with test run specific additional charges you may want to put on
your vehicle.
3.4 User Accessible Quantities for Vehicle Body

Please refer to section 12.2 ’User Accessible Quantities for Vehicle Body’.

Suspension Force Elements 46
Chapter 4
Suspension Force Elements
The contribution of each suspension force element results in the wheel contact force. Four
types of force elements are modeled:
• the suspension spring (Spring),
• the suspension damper (DampPull, DampPush),
• the suspension buffer (BufPull, BufPush) and
• the stabilizer or anti-roll bar or stabilizer bar (Stabi).
spring
damper
buffer push
wheel center
stabilizer
compression tz
z
x
y
buffer pull
Figure 4.1: Force elements shown at left wheel

External Suspension Forces
4.1 External Suspension Forces

External suspension forces are added to the forces generated by the CarMaker build in
models for spring/bumpers, damper and stabilizer:
F SpringTot = F Spring + F SpringExt (EQ 4)
F DampTot = F Damp + F DampExt
F StabiTot = F Stabi + F StabiExt
There is multiple usage for external suspension forces (according to (EQ 4)):
• Replace suspension forces by external forces. This is used when a custom suspension
model (e. g. simulink model) should replace the CarMaker built in model for some or all
suspension forces. The original forces have to be set to zero by the “amplify” parame-
ters (<Pre>.XXX.Amplify = 0).
• Add forces to forces calculated by the built in model. This can be used to simulate forc-
es from a active suspension device which are superpositioned to the conventional forc-
es.
ExtSuspFrcs.FName = FileName or
ExtSuspFrcs.Kind = ModelKind
The model is selected by the Kind entry ModelKind. Instead of using the Kind key, an exter-
nal parameter set can be referenced by its filename FileName. FileName is the path relative
to the miscellaneous directory.
General Remarks
• Suspension models has to be registered by CarMakers model management mecha-
nism. Each model needs
- a unique kind key to reference exactly this model from the pool of suspension mod-
els.
- interface functions to initialize, calculate and delete a model instance
• All parameters other than (*.FName and *.Kind) are model specific. Their keys has to
start with the prefix "ExtSuspFrcs."
• Known from earlier CarMaker version (before 2.1) the amplify parameters
*.Spring_ext.Amplify, *.Damp_ext.Amplify, *.Stabi_ext.Amplify doesn’t exist any longer.
If they are needed they have to be implemented in the suspension model itselfe.

Springs
4.2 Springs
This module simulates a conventional spring suspension. It calculates the spring compo-
nent force F Spring .
As shown in Figure 4.3 there is a relation between the deflection of the wheel and the
spring. There is a translation between the forces F z and F Spring and between the travel of
the wheel t z and the spring x∗ .
ng
pri
FS
x0
tz
FZ x*
Figure 4.3: Calculation of spring forces
When the suspension gets compressed the spring length x is decreasing and the resulting
spring force is increasing. To accommodate this the following calculation is applied:
*
F Spring = amp ⋅ f ( x )
. (EQ 5)
*
x = –( x – x0 )
The factor amp in (EQ 5) can be used to modify the the spring forces by a given factor. Usu-
ally this is for test purposes only and the factor should remain set to one.
The quantity x 0 is called relaxed (or unstretched) length of the spring. The resultant spring
force depends on the difference between the relaxed length x 0 and the actual length x . The
actual length is the current distance between lower and upper attachment point of the
spring.

Springs
According to (EQ 5) the calculation of x∗ needs the actual spring length x . It is obtained
from the suspension kinematics module according to Figure 4.4. q represents the general-
ized coordinates of the suspension.
suspension
kinematics spring
module component
q x
f (q)
F q, Spring F = f ( x∗ )
∂x F Spring
-----
∂q
Figure 4.4: Transformation of spring deflections and forces
If no spring length is parametrized, minus wheel compression tz is used.
Parameters
SuspF means front axle, SuspR means rear axle
*.Spring.Amplify = Factor
Spring amplification factor Factor.
*Spring.l0 = UnstrechedLength
Unstretched (i.e. force free) length UnstrechedLength of the spring.
*.Spring: DataTable
*
This characteristic translates compression ( x from (EQ 5)) to spring force.

Dampers
4.3 Dampers
This module simulates a suspension damper. It calculates the force F Damp .
The suspension dampers force F Damp depends on the velocity ẋ . Different characteristics
are taken into account by defining different functions for “pull” ( ẋ > 0 ) and “push” ( ẋ ≤ 0 ).
p
am
FD
tz ẋ
FZ
Figure 4.5: Calculation of damper forces
A increasing length x of the damper leads to a positive velocity ẋ .
F Damp ( ẋ ) = amp ⋅ F DampPull ( ẋ ) ẋ > 0

. (EQ 6)
F Damp ( ẋ ) = amp ⋅ F DampPush ( ẋ ) ẋ ≤ 0
The amp factor in (EQ 6) can be used to to modify the results of the calculation by a given
factor. Usually this is for test purposes only and the factor should remain set to one.
The dampers pull/push characteristics are defined seperately. Pull is when the damper is
getting longer, push is when the damper is getting shorter.

Dampers
The velocity ẋ is calculated by differentiation of the damper length x . It is obtained from the
suspension kinematics module according to Figure 4.6. q represents the generalized coor-
dinates of the suspension.
suspension
kinematics damper
module component
q ẋ
f (q) push or pull?
F q, Damp F = f ( ẋ )
∂x F Damp
-----
∂q
Figure 4.6: Transformation of damper deflections and forces
If no damper length is parametrized, minus wheel compression tz is used.
All characteristics have to be defined in first quadrant. CarMaker takes care of the correct
signs.
F
definition in
1st quadrant
ẋ
Figure 4.7: Definition of damper push and pull characteristics
Parameters
*.Damp_Push.Amplify = Factor
Damper push force amplification factor Factor (see (EQ 6)).

Dampers
*.Damp_Push: DataTable
This characteristic translates compression velocitiy ẋ to damper push force. It has to be

defined in first quadrant (positive velocities, positive forces). F Damp ( 0 ) = 0 should be
obeyed. The table has two columns, velocity in m/s in the first, the damper forces in N the
second.
Example SuspF.Damp_Push:
0 0
0.05 90
0.13 140
0.26 250
0.39 330
0.52 410
1.04 790
*.Damp_Push.Amplify = Factor
Damper push force amplification factor Factor (see (EQ 6)).
*.Damp_Push: DataTable
This characteristic translates extention velocitiy ẋ to damper pull force. It has to be defined
in first quadrant (positive velocities, positive forces). F Damp ( 0 ) = 0 should be obeyed. The
table has two columns, velocity in m/s in the first, the damper forces in N the second.

Buffers / Bumpers
4.4 Buffers / Bumpers

This module simulates suspension push/pull buffers. F BufPull is the force of the lower bump-
stop, F BufPush is the force of the upper bump-stop.
tz
x 0Push FBufPush
t z0Push buffer push
t z0Pull x 0Pull
FBufPull buffer pull
Figure 4.8: Buffer elements shown at left wheel
The suspension buffers forces F BufPull , F BufPush depend on the buffer compression x :
F BufPush = amp ⋅ f ( x∗ )
* *
x = x 0, Push – x x >0
(EQ 7)
*
F BufPush = 0 x <0
F BufPull = amp ⋅ ( – f ) ( x∗ )
* *
x = x – x 0, Pull x >0
. (EQ 8)
*
F BufPull = 0 x <0
x 0, Push , x 0, Pull are the relaxed (or unstretched) length of the upper/lower bump-stop.
For the calculation of the buffer forces according to (EQ 7) and (EQ 8) the actual buffer com-
pression x is needed. It is obtained from the suspension kinematics module according to
Figure 4.9. q represents the generalized coordinates of the suspension.
suspension
kinematics buffer
module component
q x
f (q) push or pull?
F q, Buf F = f ( x∗ )
∂x F Buf
-----
∂q
Figure 4.9: Transformation of buffers deflections and forces

Buffers / Bumpers
If no buffer length is parametrized, minus wheel compression tz is used.
The following figure illustrates the calculation of the buffer compression from the non-linear
kinematics file:
tz
max ( t z ) values not important for
calculation of buffers
Push buffer active
max ( x Pull )
t z0, Push
x 0, Pull
push buffer
compression
p u l l b u f fe r
x 0, Push
x
max ( x Push )
compression
t z0, Pull
Pull buffer active
min ( t z )
Figure 4.10: Calculating the buffer length out of kinematic data
The two paramters t z0, Push and t z0, Pull have correspponding buffer compression zero offset
values x 0, Push and x 0, Pull .The absolut values are unimportant since there is always the dif-
ference calculated from the current compression value to its zero offset.
Of importance is that the gradient of the compression curve is always negative, so that
according to (EQ 7) and (EQ 8) a positive buffer compression is calculated. Values given
between x 0, Push and x 0, Pull are ignored from CarMaker and therefore are not important.
The amp factor in (EQ 7) and (EQ 8) can be used to to modify the results of the calculation
function by a given factor. Usually this is for test purposes only and the factor should remain
set to one.
The buffers pull/push characteristics are defined seperately.
Parameters
SuspF.Buf_Push.Amplify
SuspR.Buf_Push.Amplify
Push Buffer amplification factor.
Example SuspF.Buf_Push.Amplify = 1.0

Buffers / Bumpers
SuspF.Buf_Push.tz0
SuspR.Buf_Push.tz0
Syntax
Susp<F|R>.Buf_Push.tz0 = val Unit: m
Push buffer position (defines ride clearance). According to (EQ 7) and Figure 4.8 the push
buffer only acts for vertical displacements tz (of wheel carrier) greater than tz0(=x0Push).
Example SuspF.Buf_Push.tz0 = 0.055

SuspR.Buf_Push.tz0 = 0.055
SuspF.Buf_Push
SuspR.Buf_Push
This characteristic translates buffer compression x to buffer push force. It has to be to be

defined in first quadrant.
Syntax Infofile table mapping with 2 columns

<compression [m]> <buffer force [N]>
Example SuspF.Buf_Pushl:
0.002 32.0
0.004 88.0
0.006 167.0
0.008 269.0
0.010 393.0
0.012 596.0
0.015 1085.0
SuspF.Buf_Pull.Amplify
SuspR.Buf_Pull.Amplify
Pull buffer amplification factor.
Example SuspF.Buf_Pull.Amplify = 1.0
SuspF.Buf_Pull.tz0
SuspR.Buf_Pull.tz0
Pull buffer mount position (defines rebound clearance). According to (EQ 8) and
Figure 4.10 the pull buffer only acts for vertical displacements tz (of wheel carrier) smaller
than tz0(=x0Pull).
Example SuspF.Buf_Pull.tz0 = -0.09

Buffers / Bumpers
SuspF.Buf_Pull
SuspR.Buf_Pull
This characteristic translates buffer compression x to buffer pull force. It has to be to be

defined in first quadrant..

<compression > <buffer force>
Example SuspF.Buf_Push:
0.002 32.0
0.004 88.0
0.006 167.0
0.008 269.0
0.010 393.0
0.012 596.0
0.015 1085.0

Suspension Roll Stabilizer / Anti-Roll Bar
4.5 Suspension Roll Stabilizer / Anti-Roll Bar

This module simulates a roll stabilizer (stabi). A force F Stabi acts if there is a difference
between the right t zr and the left t zl wheel compression.
F Stabi2Susp, r
tz
F Stabi, l
t zl
xl
αl
αr xr
stabilizer
F Stabi2Susp, l t zr
F Stabi, r
Figure 4.11: Roll stabilizer principal
In general, according to Figure 4.11, the wheel compression ratio is not equal to the stabi-
lizer deflection difference ( t∗ ≠ x∗ ).
The stabilizer deflection difference x∗ can be defined either by a deflection length difference
(EQ 9) or by a deflection angle difference (EQ 10):
t∗ = t zr – t zl
x∗ = x r – x l
, (EQ 9)
t∗ = t zr – t zl
x∗ = α r – α l
. (EQ 10)
The constant c Stabi has to fit to the selected definition of x∗ . The forces F Stabi,l,r calculate to:
F Stabi , l = amp ⋅ f ( x∗ ) = amp ⋅ c Stabi ⋅ x∗
F Stabi , r = – F Stabi , l
, (EQ 11)
with the amplification factor amp. Under normal circumstances the amplification factor
should be set to 1 (only for testing and scaling).

The forces are transformed in direction of the wheel deflection as follows:
∂x l
F Stabi2Susp, l = F Stabi , l ⋅ -------
∂q l
∂x r
F Stabi2Susp,r = F Stabi , r ⋅ -------
∂q r
. (EQ 12)
For the calculation of the stabilizer forces according to (EQ 11) the actual stabilizer deflec-
tion difference x∗ is needed. It is obtained from the suspension kinematics module accord-
ing to Figure 4.12. q represents the generalized coordinates of the suspension.
suspension
kinematics stabilizer
module component
q x zr , x zl or
f (q)
α zr, α zl
F q, Stabi, l F = f ( x∗ )
∂x F Stabi, l, F Stabi, r
-----
F q, Stabi, r ∂q
Figure 4.12: Transformation of stabilizers deflections and forces
If no stabi length is parametrized, minus wheel compression tz is used.
Parameters
SuspF.Stabi.Amplify = value
SuspR.Stabi.Amplify = value
Stabilizer amplification factor
Example SuspF.Stabi.Amplify = 1.0
SuspF.Stabi. = value
SuspR.Stabi = value
Stabilizer “spring” c Stabi rate (see (EQ 11)).

alt ∗
• In literature often a reciprocal compression with x = x r = x l is used for definition of
c Stabi . This definition deviates to the definition of x∗ in (EQ 9):
x∗
x∗ = ------ .
alt
(EQ 13)
2

alt
Stabilizer constants cStabi determined by this alternative definition have to be convert-
ed to the CarMaker definition of c Stabi :
alt
cStabi
c Stabi = --------------
- (EQ 14)
2
• Depending on the definition of x∗ (length difference (EQ 9) or angle difference (EQ 10))
the unit of c Stabi changes to:
x∗ defined as unit of c Stabi

length difference (EQ 9) N⁄m
angle difference (EQ 10) N ⁄ rad
Example SuspF.Stabi.c = 15000.0

In this case the unit is N ⁄ m .

Suspension Kinematics and Compliance 60
Overview
Chapter 5
Suspension Kinematics and Compliance
5.1 Overview
Kinematics describes the spacial movements of a wheel due to compression and steer
action. Two cases of kinematics are distinguished:
• Suspension kinematics (due to pure wheel compression).
• Steering kinematics (due to pure steer actions).
In reality a superposition of those two isolated cases exists.
Compliance describes the spacial movements of a wheel due to wheel forces which cause
elastic deformations of the wheel suspension. Because of the complex construction of a
vehicle suspension forces and torques can produce movements of the wheel in other direc-
tions than in their effective direction.
Movements are described through coordinates in a axis system. The center of this axis sys-
tem is the wheel center. Coordinates for translations and rotations of this axis system are
used.

Overview
Primary and Secondary Coordinates of the Suspension
kinematics compliance
primary coordinates secondary coordinates external forces
• Wheel compression • Toe angle • Side force

• Steering • Camber angle • Longitudinal force
• Spin angle • Aligning torque
• Wheel track • Camber torque
• Wheel base • Spin torque
• Wheel compression
Figure 5.1: Kinematics and Compliance
Figure 5.1 shows the context of kinematics and compliance. Wheel compression and steer
actions are called primary coordinates of a wheel. A change in the primary coordinates has
an effect on the secondary coordinates. Kinematics is defined as force free movements of
the wheel suspension and is measured as a function of the primary coordinates.
Contrary to the kinematics the compliance investigates in change of secondary coordinates
as a result of external forces act upon the wheel. External forces (and torques) can arise
from the wheel contact point the brakes and the power transmission. They are transferred
to the wheel carrier. These forces yield to changes of the secondary coordinates of the
wheel because of elasticities of the suspension.
To describe the position of the wheel usually terms from the vehicle dynamics vernacular
are used (like in the middle section of Figure 5.1). For parametrization of wheel suspen-
sions CarMaker uses more general, simulation technical terms.
The spacial movements of a wheel carrier in CarMaker is equal to the movements of the
wheel carrier axis system Fr2 (see section 2.2 ’CarMaker Axis Systems’).
The following figures explain the relations of the different viewpoints and their conversions:

Overview
Toe Angle / Rotation r z :
positive toe angle

+ +
–rz +r z
driving direction
x
+
rz
y
left wheel top view right wheel
Figure 5.2: Definition of the tow angle and rotation r z
A positive toe angle at the right wheel carrier equals a positive rotation r z of the Fr2
axis system.
Camber Angle / Rotation r x :
negative camber angle

- -
rear view
+r x –rx
z
+ rx
y
left wheel right wheel
Figure 5.3: Definition of camber angle and rotation r x
A positive camber angle at the right wheel carrier equals a positive rotation r x of the
Fr2 axis system.

Overview
Spin Angle / Rotation r y :
positive spin angle
+r y
z
+ ry
x
driving direction
Figure 5.4: Definition of spin angle rotation r y
A positive spin angle equals a positive rotation r y of the Fr2 axis system.
Translation t y :
+
y ty
+t y –ty
left wheel right wheel
Figure 5.5: Definition of wheel track and translation t y :
The translations t y of left and right wheel are parametrized independently. The change
of wheel track is a result of both, the change of the left and the right wheel.

Overview
Translation t x :
driving direction
+
x tx
wheel base
+t x –tx
front wheel back wheel
Figure 5.6: Definition of wheel base and translation t x
The translations t x of front and back wheel are parametrized independently. The
change of wheel base is a result of both, the change of the front and the back wheel.
Wheel compression / Translation t z :
+
positive compression tz
y
negative compression
Figure 5.7: Definition of wheel compression and translation t z
Positive wheel compression is defined in upward direction. Usually translation t z = 0

equals the wheel position in vehicles design configuration.

Overview
5.1.1 Describing Kinematics with Generalized Coordinates

CarMaker uses generalized coordinates to describe kinematic movements.
Basically generalized coordinates q i are independent coordinates to describe a system
with i degrees of freedom.
i = 6N – k (EQ 15)
N number of bodies
k number of holonomic constraints
Requirements for generalized coordinates are:
• All states of a system can be described with one set of generalized coordinates
respecting all holonomic constraints.
• No holonomic constraints exist for generalized coordinates.
The last statement especially means that one coordinate can have any value without affect-
ing the value of another coordinate.
Applied to the kinematics e. g. of a front axle this means that usually two generalized coor-
dinates exist to describe the kinematic movements of this axle. This is already implied in
Figure 5.1 as:
• A generalized coordinate q 0 to describe the degree of freedom for wheel compression.
• A generalized coordinate q 1 to describe the degree of freedom for the steer influence.
CarMaker gives no restrictions for the choice of the generalized coordinates q 0, q 1 . In other
words the user is responsible to choose generalized coordinates that fulfil the requirements
mentioned above.

Overview
Conceptual Overview of Kinematics Calculation

This section describes the internal procedure how CarMaker calculates kinematic move-
ments with the user defined kinematic characteristics.
q 0, q̇ 0 q 1, q̇ 1
parameters for suspension kinematics
determine values from given kinematics characteristics for q 0, q 1
transl.: p = x, y, z rot. angles: ϕ 1, ϕ 2, ϕ 3 comp. length: x Spring, x Damp, x Buf, x Stabi
joint definition (“Free ZXY”)

transform rotation angles ϕ 1, ϕ 2, ϕ 3 to transformation matrix A with specified rota-
tion sequence.
assignation of position / orientation and free direction of motion

∂p ∂A
t i = ------- r i = -------
∂q i ∂q i
calculation of generalized forces

∂x Spring ∂x Damp ∂x Buf ∂x Stabi
- + F Damp ---------------- + F Buif ------------ + F Stabi --------------
Q i = t i F Ext + r i T Ext + F Spring ----------------
∂q i ∂q i ∂q i ∂q i
Solver
M ⋅ q̇˙i = Q i + Q i∗ ( q i, q̇ i )
q 0, q̇ 0 q 1, q̇ 1
Figure 5.8: Kinematics calculation
The first box in Figure 5.8 shows the quantities acquired from the user defined characteris-
tics for the given generalized coordinates q 0, q 1 . The vector p represents the three transla-
tion offsets and the rotation angles ϕ 1, ϕ 2, ϕ 3 specify three cardan angles. Additionally the
component lengths of spring, damper, buffers and stabilizer are acquired.
With the second step the cardan angles ϕ 1, ϕ 2, ϕ 3 are transformed by the joint definition to
the transformation matrix A . A specific rotation sequence (e. g. ‘ZXY’) is provoked by the
joint definition.
For calculation of the generalized forces the free directions of motion in directions of q 0, q 1
are needed. This is done with the third step by partial differentiation of p and A .
In the fourth step for each generalized coordinate a generalized force is computed. External
forces and torques are respected in direction of the free direction of motion t i and r i for
each coordinate. External forces and torques result from tires, brakes, gravity, etc. Also the
internal forces of spring, damper, buffers and stabilizers are respected pro rata in the direc-
tion of the generalized coordinate.

Overview
As a final step the solver computes and integrates the generalized accelerations q̇˙0, q̇˙1 .
Beside the generalized forces Q i pseudo forces Q i∗ resulting from coriolis forces are taken
into account. These pseudo forces Q i∗ depend form q i, q̇ i instead from q̇˙i .
Choosing Generalized Coordinates

After dealing with the basics of kinematics definitions in CarMaker this section tries to give
practical hints about how to choose appropriate generalized coordinates.
Front Axle For a front axle a generalized coordinate q 0 is needed to describe the degree of freedom
for wheel compression and a generalized coordinate q 1 is needed to describe the degree
of freedom for the steer influence. A good recommendation is:
Generalized Coordinate Description

q0 Wheel compression t z, 0 for steer angle zero (driving direction
straight forward usually equals to q 1 = 0 ).
q1 The rack displacement.
The reason why q 0 is chosen as t z, 0 for steer angle zero is based on the fact that the steer
influence changes the compression of the two controlled wheels. This effect is called self-
alignment due to lift of the suspension subframe. Such a definition for q 0 is necessary
because of the self-alignment the wheel compression t z depends from both coordinates q 0
and q 1 . With the definition above the requirements for generalized coordinates are ful-
filled. Both coordinates are independent.
Rear Axle Two cases are distinguished for a rear axle:

• Dependent rear axle: The orientation of one wheel also depends on the compression of
the other wheel (e. g. twist-beam rear axle). Good choice:

q0 Wheel compression t z .
q1 Wheel compression t∗ z of the opposite wheel.
• Independent rear axle: The orientation of one wheel only depends on the compression
of this wheel. (e. g. independent rear suspension). Good choice:

q0 Wheel compression t z .

Overview
5.1.2 Brief Introduction to the Measurement Procedure of K&C

parameters
In practice often K&C test rigs or likewise simulations are used to measure the required
K&C parameters. This chapter gives a brief introduction how to measure a vehicle to obtain
data that suits to the CarMaker K&C data files.
The following table shows terms and abbreviations used to describe the measurement pro-
cedure.
Name Definition
Reference System As reference system a axis system similar to the CarMaker Fr0 axis
system is used (See section 1.2). The Vehicle is symmetrically
aligned, nose pointing to increasing values of the X-axis.
Static Equilibrium Means equilibrium position of the (empty) vehicle on even
Configuration (SEC) ground. The body is not fixed relative to the reference frame. The
suspension travel must be symmetrical (left/right). The SEC com-
pression can be measured.
Wheel Travel Translation of wheel center in Z-direction.
Compression Travel Travel from SEC to max. compression (wheel carrier near to body)
= up to metal-to metal position, in general
Rebound Travel Travel from SEC to max. decompression (wheel carrier far away
from body)
Wheel Load (Fz) Vertical force acting from environment onto wheel carrier, positive
if directed upwards. Forces are applied (point of attack) to the
wheel center or the tyre/road contact point (=tire patch). The
point of attack must be documented.
SWA Steering wheel angle
Deflection The expression deflection procedure is used synonymously for the
Procedure (DP) following test sequence:
• Start from SEC.
• Slowly increase Fz (= compress suspension) up to wheel load
max. value (e.g. 10000 N) = compression travel.
• Slowly decrease Fz (=decompress suspension, rebound) up to
wheel load min value (e.g. 100 N) = rebound travel.
• Go back to SEC.
• Compression and rebound speed should be slow and identical
in both direction (thereby eliminating velocity depended effects)
• Front axle: Keep steering rack fixed (eliminate them, if possible
effects coming from steering compliance, steering backlash,
...).
• No horizontal (Fx, Fy) force (ground to tyre) is transmitted.
• No torque (Mx, My, Mz) (ground to tyre) is transmitted.
• Wheels are rigidly fixed to wheel carrier (braking conditions).
Wheel Replacement Set of artificial wheels replacing real wheels during measure-
System ments.
Advantage: Higher forces (Fy, Fz) during elastokinematic mea-
surements (no slip). More exact, in general
Measurements are therefore preferably done with wheel replace-
ment system

Overview
The following lists describes two procedures to be accomplished to acquire the required
data for the CarMaker K&C characteristics:
Kinematics • Find static equilibrium configuration (SEC)

measurement • Determine absolute kinematic quantities (i.e. relative to Fr0) in SEC.
procedure
• Rigidly fix vehicle body in SEC relative to Fr0. Vehicle body remains clamped and
restrained during K&C measurements.
• For Front axles:
- Do DP (left & right symmetrical) keeping steering rack fixed, SWA = 0 (straightfor-
ward driving)
- Do DP (left & right asymmetrical), 50mm compression and rebound are sufficient,
SWA = 0 (straightforward driving)
- Do DP (left & right symmetrical) while changing SWA = min value, -200, -100, -60, -
40, -20, -10, 0, 10, 20, 40, 60, 100, 200, max value [deg]. In order to increase the
model quality: A finer SWA-graduation is possible/useful.
- Determine steering reduction ratio: Fix (relative to Fr0) Wheel Carrier in SEC. Start-
ing from min value, increase SWA in steps of 5[deg] (around zero position) and 10
[deg] (for steering wheel angles > 30[deg]) up to max. value (lock to lock steering).
Measure kinematic quantities.
• For independent rear axles: Do DP (left & right symmetrical)
• For Twist-beam rear axles (dependent rear axle):
- Fix rear right wheel carrier relative to Fr0 in SEC, do DP with rear-left wheel carrier
- Increase (up to max. compression) in steps of 5-25mm rear right wheel carrier and
fix it (relative to Fr0), do DP with rear left wheel carrier
- Decrease (up to max rebound) in steps of 5-25 mm rear right wheel carrier and fix it
(relative to Fr0), do DP with rear left wheel carrier
Elastokinematics • Fix vehicle body in SEC.

measurement • Block wheels (wheel carrier rigidly fixed to wheel)
procedure
(front & rear) • Longitudinal compliance (longitudinal acceleration and Braking compliance)
- Apply horizontal forces Fx = -6000N, - 5000N, -4000N, ... , 0N, 1000 N, .... , 6000 N
at front left and rear left wheel
- Measure kinematic quantities
- Forces are applied at wheel center or at ground-tyre contact point. The specific case
must be documented
• Lateral compliance:
- Apply horizontal forces Fy = -6000N, - 5000N, -4000N, ... , 0N, 1000 N, .... , 6000 N
at front left and rear left wheel
- Forces are applied at wheel center or at ground/tyre contact point. The specific case
must be documented
• Aligning torque compliance
- Apply vertical torque Mz = -200 Nm, -100 Nm, 0Nm, 100 Nm, 200 Nm at front left
and rear left wheel
- Torque is applied at wheel center or at ground/tyre contact point. The specific case
must be documented

Kinematics and Compliance
5.2 Kinematics and Compliance

The suspension is connected to the vehicle body by a translational and rotational kinematic
joint (rotation sequence: Z–X–Y ).
t =
r
∑
K in ( q 0, q 1 ) + ∑
Com ( q 0, q 1, F, … ) (EQ 16)
i j
The suspension kinematics and compliance can be defined by a number of models or
parameter sets, which are calculated in the order of there definition.
An additional outward shift of the wheel can be defined in the tire parameter set, see section
10.2 ’General Tire Parameters’.
Parameters The following parameters are required for suspension kinematics and suspension compli-
ance:
All model parameters have a prefix, depending on the corresponding suspension and the
number of the model definition. The prefix can be an empty string or a string, ending with a
dot ("SuspF.", "SuspF.Kin.3." for kinematics, "SuspR.Com.2." for compliance).
SuspKey.KnC.N = N
The kinematics or compliance definition consists of N superimposed models, see (EQ 16).
The suspension is selected by SuspKey which can be SuspF or SuspR. The string KnC is
Kin for kinematics or Com for compliance.
It is an optional entry, the default is 1.
SuspKey.KnC.i.FName = FileName or
SuspKey.KnC.i.Kind = ModelKind
The i-th model is selected by the Kind entry ModelKind. Instead of using the Kind key, an
external parameter set can be referenced by filename FileName. The reference to an exter-
nal parmeter set is supported only on toplevel and in case of only one model at toplevel, not
in a parameter set referenced iself. FileName is the path relative to the suspension kine-
matics directory.
SuspKey.KnC.i.ValidSide = ValidSide
The i-th model is valid for ValidSide. If suspension side and ValidSide doesn’t match, this
model is skipped for this suspension side.
ValidSide is exactly one of left, left+right and right. It’s an optional entry, the default is
left+right.
SuspKey.KnC.i.InputSide = InputSide
The i-th model is defined by parameters for the suspension on side ValidSide.

Kinematics and Compliance
The model parameters for the actual suspension side has to be deduced from the input
parameters for side InputSide.
InputSide is exactly one of left, left+right and right. It is an optional entry, the default is left.
SuspKey.KnC.i.L.param = ...
SuspKey.KnC.i.R.param = ...
Parameters for the left suspension starts with “L.”, for the right with “R.”.

Kinematics Models
5.3 Kinematics Models

5.3.1 “Linear” and “Linear2D”

Description Linear kinematics uses linear equations to describe the kinematic movements for transla-
tions and rotations of the wheel (-carrier). Depending on the number of generalized coordi-
nates the model ‘Linear’ is used for one or the model ‘Linear2D’ is used for two generalized
coordinates.
dk 1
dq 1 dk
c 1 = -------1-
c Off dq 1
q 0, q 1
dk 0
dq 0 dk
c 0 = -------0-
dq 0
Figure 5.9: Kinematics ‘linear2D’ for coordinates q 0, q 1
This means (steered) front axles use the model ‘Linear2D’ because they have two degrees
of freedom which influence the kinematics of the wheel carrier.
Independent rear suspensions use the model ’Linear’ because the kinematics only
depends on the wheel compression of the considered wheel carrier.
For instance, for a twist beam rear axle, where kinematics also depends on the compres-
sion of the opposite wheel carrier, the model ‘Linear2D’ has to be used.
A simple linear equation is used for each coordinate.
a ( q 0 ) = c Off + c 0 ⋅ q 0 (EQ 17)
The model ‘Linear2D’ uses a superposition of two linear equations one for each general-
ized coordinate.
a ( q 0, q 1 ) = c Off + c 0 ⋅ q 0 + c 1 ⋅ q 1 (EQ 18)
with:
a one of 3 translations ( t x, t y, t z ) in frame Fr1 or

3 cardan rotation angles ( r x, r y, r z ) with a rotation sequence Z–X–Y or
4 component lengths ( l Spring, l Damp, l Buf, l Stabi )
c Off offset for q 0, q 1 = 0

Kinematics Models
c0 gradient depending on compression q 0

c1 gradient depending on compression or steering coordinate q 1
Parameters The following parameters are required for this model. The asterix “*“ is an abbreviation for
the suspension, for kinematics or compliance, for the model number and the paramter side,
see section 5.2 ’Kinematics and Compliance’ on page 70.
All Kinematics parameters are optional. This means CarMaker will not complain about
missing parameters. Due to the fact that all defaults are zero CarMaker probably will com-
plain about a non functional vehicle.
*.tx = tx0 dtx/dq0 dtx/dq1

*.ty = ty0 dty/dq0 dty/dq1
*.tz = tz0 dtz/dq0 dtz/dq1
Optional. Wheel (-carrier) translations. Translation is calculated by the offset and two racios
dependending on the generalized coordinates of the suspensions (see (EQ 17)).
Defaults: 0 0 0 and for tz 0 1 0. Units: m m/q0 m/q1.
*.rx = rx0 drx/dq0 drx/dq1

*.ry = ry0 dry/dq0 dry/dq1
*.rz = rz0 drz/dq0 drz/dq1
Wheel (-carrier) rotations.

Rotation depends on the generalized coordinates of the suspension (see (EQ 17)).
Defaults: 0 0 0. Units: rad rad/q0 rad/q1.
*.lSpring = lSpring0 dlSpring/dq0 dlSpring/dq1

*.lDamp = lDamp0 dlDamp/dq0 dlDamp/dq1
*.lBuf = lBuf0 dlBuf/dq0 dlBuf/dq1
*.lStabi = lStabi0 dlStabi/dq0 dlStabi/dq1
Deflection or length of the force elements spring, damper, buffer and roll stabilizer depend-
ing on generalized coordinates.
Remark: For the roll stabilizer the units of this coordinate and the units of the roll stiffness
has to fit together.
Defaults: 0 -1 0. Units: m m/q0 m/q0.

Kinematics Models
5.3.2 “MapNL”
Description Nonlinear 1-dimensional (1D) or 2-dimensional (2D) mapping, depending on suspension
DOFs.
t = c self ( q0 ) or
t = c self ( q0, q1 ) (EQ 19)
r self r self
High fidelity K&C uses lookup-tables to describe the spacial movements of the wheel. This
implies huge amounts of data for each degree of freedom.
Location and The K&C parameter files are stored under <CarMakerRoot>/Data/Chassis. The high
Activation fidelity K&C Parameters are activated in the vehicle file (see section 5.1 ’Overview’.
Units All quantities, if not explicitly mentioned otherwise are SI-Units. Particularly the following
quantities are used in the K&C parameter files.
Table 5.1: SI Units used with CarMaker High Fidelity K&C Parameters
Quantity Name Symbol

Time second s
Length meter m
Angle radian (one turn = 2*π) rad
Mass kilogram kg
Force newton N
Torque newton meter Nm
Stiffness newton per meter N/m
Rotational Stiffness newton meter per radian Nm/rad
Table Concept The characteristics for high fidelity kinematics are stored in a specific indexed table format.
Characteristics can be one or two dimensional depending on the number of generalized
quantities. The vectors Arg 0 ) and vector Arg 1 ) hold the values of all sample points for the
following two dimensional lookup table. Which values are given for each sample point is
specified in a list.
*.Arg = NameDoF0 [ NameDoF1 ]
Define the dimension of kinematics mapping, one keyword for 1D, two names for 2D.
The first name NameDoF0 can be “comp”. The second name NameDoF0 can be an empty
string (for 1D), “comp” or “steer”.
*.Arg0 = min ... max

*.Arg0.Fac2SI = Fac2SI
Values of first kinematics degree of freedom (DOF).

All values are multiplied with Fac2SI. Default is Fac2SI=1.0.

Kinematics Models

Values of second kinematics degree of freedom.

*.Data.Name = DataNameList
List of suspension coordinates to be modified by compliance effects.

The quantities are selected by the blank seperated list DataNameList of the keys tx, ty, tz,
rx, ry, rz, lSpring, lDamp, lBuf, lStabi. Unknown keys are skipped and the values from the
corresponding column in the data table are ignored. Typically unknown or commented out
keys should start with a "%" charscter.
*.Data.Offset = OffsetList
*.Data.dArg0 = dData_dArg0_List
*.Data.dArg1 = dData_dArg1_List
*.Data.Fac2SI = Fac2SI_List
Each data coordinate can have an offset, one or two linear gradients depending on the num-
ber of DOFs. All values are multiplied with their factor Fac2SI from Fac2SI_List. The calcu-
lation of a suspension coordinate is done by the formula:
dData dData
value = Data + Offset + ----------------- ⋅ Arg0 + ----------------- ⋅ Arg1 (EQ 20)
dArg0 dArg1
*.Data: TableWithValues
Values for the selected coordinates from DataNameList. Ordering: Each line contains the
number of values, which are defined in DataNameList. The first DOF is kept constant, the
second is varied first. Example: The compression is kept constant while steering is varied.
Than the same for the next compression and so on.

Kinematics Models
5.3.3 “SetZero”
Description Model to suppress previous displacements for selected quantities
t = 0 (EQ 21)
r
The suspension displacements by kinematics effects of the selected quantities are set to
zero. The quantities are selected by the blank seperated list DataNameList of the keys tx,
ty, tz, rx, ry, rz, lSpring, lDamp, lBuf, lStabi.

Compliance Models
5.4 Compliance Models

5.4.1 “CoeffConstFr1” and “CoeffConstFr2”

Description The compliance displacement is based on a linear, constant coefficients for the forces,
attacking the actual and the opposite suspension.
In model “CoeffConstFr1” the forces are decomposed in frame Fr1.
In model “CoeffConstFr2” the forces are decomposed in frame Fr2.
The model “CoeffConst” is for compatibility to CarMaker 2.0 only. It will be removed soon!
The frame in which the compliance forces are decomposed depends on a global configu-
ration parameter Car.SuspElastoKin_FrcTrqFr1 in SimParameters. The default is frame Fr2.
Changes relative to CarMaker 2.0: Parameter are now component orientated. This means
displacement for this suspension based on forces attacking the suspension itself, opposit
or elsewhere. In CarMaker 2.0 the parameters are force orientated.
´
t = c W ⋅ W self + c W ⋅ W opp (EQ 22)
self opp
r self
The suspension displacements by compliance effects of the selected quantities. The quan-
tities are selected by the blank seperated list DataNameList of the keys tx, ty, tz, rx, ry, rz.
Remark: Usually it is meaningful to leave out forces in z direction and tz movements.
*.Frc.x = Values
*.Frc.y = Values
*.Frc.z = Values
*.FrcOpp.x = Values
*.FrcOpp.y = Values
*.FrcOpp.z = Values
Compliance coefficients depending on forces (along x, y, z axis) to the actual (*.Frc.*) or the
opposite (*.FrcOpp.*) suspension. Point of attack is the wheel center.
*.Frc.Fac2SI = Fac2SI_List
*.Trq.Fac2SI = Fac2SI_List
All coefficients are multiplied by the factors from Fac2SI_List, from *.Frc.Fac2SI for forces
and from *.Trq.Fac2SI for torques.

Compliance Models
*.Trq.x = Values
*.Trq.y = Values
*.Trq.z = Values
*.TrqOpp.x = Values
*.TrqOpp.y = Values
*.TrqOpp.z = Values
Compliance coefficients depending on torques (arround x, y, z axis) to the actual (*.Frc.*)

or the opposite (*.FrcOpp.*) suspension. The torques each are reduced to the wheel center.
*.FrcDamp = Values
*.FrcOppDamp = Values
Compliance coefficients depending on the damper force to the actual (*.Frc.*) or the oppo-
site (*.FrcOpp.*) suspension.

Compliance Models
5.4.2 “SetZero”
Description Model to suppress previous displacements for selected quantities
t = 0 (EQ 23)
r self
*.Data.Names = DataNamesList
The suspension displacements by compliance effects of the selected quantities are set to
zero.
keys should start with a "%" charscter.

Compliance Models
5.4.3 “CoeffLin1DFr1” and “CoeffLin1DFr2”

Description The compliance displacement is based on a linear, compression depending coefficients for
the forces, attacking the actual and the opposite suspension.
In model “CoeffLin1DFr1” the forces are decomposed in frame Fr1.
In model “CoeffLin1DFr2” the forces are decomposed in frame Fr2.

Values of first degree of freedom (DOF), suspension compression.

All values are multiplied with Fac2SI. Default is Fac2SI = 1.0.
corresponding column in the data table are ignored. Unknown or commented out keys typ-
ically should start with a "%" charscter.
*.Frc.Fac2SI = Fac2SI_List
*.Trq.Fac2SI = Fac2SI_List
All coefficients are multiplied by the factors from Fac2SI_List, from *.Frc.Fac2SI for forces
and from *.Trq.Fac2SI for torques.
*.Frc.x.Data : TableWithValues
*.Frc.y.Data : TableWithValues
*.Frc.z.Data : TableWithValues
*.Trq.x.Data : TableWithValues
*.Trq.y.Data : TableWithValues
*.Trq.z.Data : TableWithValues
Compliance coefficients for the selected coordinates from DataNameList depending on

forces (along x, y, z axis) or torques (arround x, y, z axis) to the actual suspension. Point of
attack is the wheel center.
The table starts with values for the first element of Arg0 end ends with values for the last
one.
*.FrcDamp.Data : TableWithValues
Compliance coefficients depending on the damper force to the actual (*.Frc.*) suspension.

Compliance Models
5.4.4 “DisplaceLinFr1” and “DisplaceLinFr2”

Description The compliance displacement is described by displacement maps. The displacement maps
depends on the forces, attacking the actual suspension.
In model “DisplaceLinFr1” the forces are decomposed in frame Fr1.
In model “DisplaceLinFr2” the forces are decomposed in frame Fr2.
*.Arg = ArgName
The quantity, the displacement relationship depends on, is selected by ArgName. Known
keys are Frc.x, Frc.y, Frc.z, Trq.x, Trq.y, Trq,z, FrcDamp.
The forces (along x, y, z axis) or torques (arround x, y, z axis) attacks the actual suspension
in the wheel center.

Values of the function argument.

keys should start with a "%" character.
*.Data : TableWithValues
displacement values for the coordinates from DataNameList.

The table starts with values for the first element of Arg0 end ends with values for the last
one.
*.Data.Fac2SI = Fac2SI_List
All data columns are multiplied by the factors from Fac2SI_List.

Compliance Models
Example This parameter set is for the front axle and for the left suspension only. The compliance
depends on Frc.x, given in unit "kN". It defines compliance effects for suspension coordi-
nates ty and rz, both given in SI units.
SuspF.Com.0.Kind = "DisplaceLinFr1"
SuspF.Com.0.ValidSide = left
SuspF.Com.0.InputSide = left
SuspF.Com.0.L.Arg = Frc.x
SuspF.Com.0.L.Arg0 = 0.0 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 4.5 4.6 4.7
SuspF.Com.0.L.Arg0.Fac2SI = 1.0e3
SuspF.Com.0.L.Data.Name = ty rz
SuspF.Com.0.L.Data.Fac2SI = 1.0 1.32456
SuspF.Com.0.L.Data:
0.000 0.000
0.001 0.006
0.002 0.011
0.004 0.015
0.008 0.018
0.016 0.020
0.032 0.021
0.032 0.021

Compliance Models
5.4.5 Example: Compliance

SuspF.Com.N = 5
#--- "basic" compliance parameters by Model 0
SuspF.Com.0.Kind = CoeffconstFr1
SuspF.Com.0.ValidSide =left+right
SuspF.Com.0.InputSide =left
SuspF.Com.0.L.Data.Name =tx ty tz ry
SuspF.Com.0.....
#--- "extended", detailed parameters by Models 1, 2, ...

# parametrisation for right suspension based on parameters for
# a left suspension. Left parameters are "transfered" to right.
#
SuspF.Com.1.Kind = DisplaceLinFr1
SuspF.Com.1.ValidSide =left+right # Model 1 is used for left and right
SuspF.Com.1.InputSide =left # parameters are given only for left
# right by projection left->right
SuspF.Com.1.L.Arg = Frc.x
SuspF.Com.1.L.....
SuspF.Com.2.ValidSide =left
SuspF.Com.2.InputSide =left
SuspF.Com.2.L.Arg = Frc.y
SuspF.Com.2.L.....
SuspF.Com.3.ValidSide =right
SuspF.Com.3.InputSide =right
SuspF.Com.3.R.Arg = Frc.y
SuspF.Com.3.R.....
SuspF.Com.4.ValidSide =left+right
SuspF.Com.4.InputSide =left+right
SuspF.Com.4.L.Arg = Trq.z
SuspF.Com.4.L.....
SuspF.Com.4.R.Arg = Trq.z
SuspF.Com.4.R.....

Aerodynamics 84
Overview
Chapter 6
Aerodynamics
6.1 Overview
CarMaker takes into account forces and torques due to external wind loads. All data is con-
form with the SAE norm J1594.
L L
RM
PM
S y x D
z b/2 z l/2
b
l
y
S
YM
VF
τ x D
VS
V∞
Figure 6.1: CarMaker aerodynamics axis system based on SAE J1594

Aerodynamics 85
Overview
According to this norm the SAE Road Vehicle Aerodynamics commission defined the fol-
lowing frame (SAE-frame):
• X: positive forward
• Y: positive right
• Z: positive downward
• The origin of the SAE-frame usually in the wheel contact plane at the intersection point
of the symmetry lines of track base and wheel base (in design configuration).
Aerodynamic forces and torques depend on:
• Relative wind speed between wind and vehicle ( V ∞ ).
• Angle of attack of wind τ ( τ is given in degrees)
- τ = 0, if the wind is coming from front
- τ > 0, if the wind is slightly coming from front left.
CarMaker incorporates wind loads as 3 forces and 3 torques on the vehicle body:
ρ 2 ρ 2 ρ 2
F D = – F x = --- c D Av ∞ F S = F y = --- c Av ∞ F L = – F z = --- c Av ∞
2 2 S 2 L (EQ 24)
with
FD drag force (positive rearward)
cD drag coefficient (no dimension)
FS side force (positive to right)
cS side force coefficient (no dimension)
FL lift force (positive upward)
cL lift coefficient (no dimension)
ρ ambient air density
A vehicle reference area
v∞ relative wind speed
ρ 2 ρ 2 ρ 2
M RM = M x = --- c lAv ∞ M PM = M y = --- c lAv ∞ M YM = M z = --- c lAv ∞
2 RM 2 PM 2 YM
(EQ 25)
with
M RM rolling moment (positive right side down)
c RM rolling coefficient (no dimension)
M PM pitching moment (positive nose up)
c PM pitching coefficient (no dimension)
M YM yawing moment (positive nose right)
c YM yawing coefficient (no dimension)
l wheel base used as reference length
ρ ambient air density
A vehicle reference area
v∞ relative wind speed

Aerodynamics 86
General Parameters
6.2 General Parameters

The air density is a global parameter and not specified in this section.
AeroMarker.pos = x y z
This coordinate specified in FrD axis system (see section 1.2 ’CarMaker Axis Systems’)
determines the impact of external wind loads. This means when this virtual point reaches
the distance of a wind machine the wind takes effect.
Aero.Kind = KindStr
This parameter specifies the aerodynamic calculation model.
Example Aero.Kind = Coeff6x1

Aerodynamics 87
Models
6.3 Models
6.3.1 ‘Coeff6x1’
Aero.pos = x y z
Specifies the position of origin of the SAE-frame expressed in the FrD axis system (see
section 1.2 ’CarMaker Axis Systems’).
Aero.Ax = Area
The vehicle reference area Area [m^2] is the projected frontal area including tires and
underbody parts.
Aero.Coeff : TableWithValues
this characteristic specifies the 3 force coefficients (EQ 24) and the 3 torque coefficients
(EQ 25) depending on the angle of attack of the wind τ (given in degrees!).
The tau-mapping should cover the whole field of angles, ranging from tau = -180 [deg] to
tau = +180 [deg]..
Syntax Table mapping with 7 columns

<tau> c D cS cL c RM c PM c YM
Example Aero.mapping:
-180 -0.4 0.0 0.1 0.0 -0.01 0.0
-90 0.0 -1.7 0.9 -0.2 0.0 0.0
0 0.2 0.0 0.1 0.0 -0.03 0.0
90 0.0 1.7 0.9 0.2 0.0 0.0
180 -0.4 0.0 0.1 0.0 -0.01 0.0
Aero.lReference = Length
Optional reference length. The default value for cars is the wheel base, for trailers the hitch
length.

Steering System 88
Overview
Chapter 7
Steering System
7.1 Overview
The task of a steer system is to define the driver’s “steer influence” to the (front-) suspen-
sion. The steering system has an interface that serves two parts. One part is the designated
to the driving maneuver module (DrivMan simulates human interactions with the vehicle),
the other part interferes to the vehicles suspension module.
Driver
Vehicle (Suspension)
Steer Interface
Steer Interface
DrivMan
Steer Model
Figure 7.1: Interface of the steering system

Steering System 89
Overview
Basically steering systems for CarMaker are distinguished by the type of input (control) sig-
nals used. The control signal is the output of the driving maneuver module and is an input
requirement of the steer system.
Input requirement
Description
(Steer by...)
Angle The steering wheel angle is used as input to the steer model. No mass
dynamic effects are regarded. This means that the update to new val-
ues of steer angles happens infinitely fast (no differential equation).
Torque Input is the steering torque from the driving maneuver module. A
differential equation has to be used to calculate the steering wheel
angle. Mass dynamic effects should be regarded by the model. Infini-
tively fast changes of steering wheel angles are not possible.

Steering System 90
Overview
7.1.1 Steer by Angle
q L, q̇ L, ( q̇˙L ) Steer Model Angle q R, q̇ R, ( q̇˙R )

qL = qR = σH ⋅ iq → σ
H
q̇ L = q̇ R = σ̇ H ⋅ i q → σ
H
FL FR
q̇˙L = q̇˙R = σ̇˙ H ⋅ i q → σ
H
T H,S = i σ → q ⋅ ( F L + F R )
Vehicle Suspension Left
mL ( qL ) mR ( qR )
Vehicle Suspension Right

H
T H,S σ H, σ̇ H, σ̇˙ H
Figure 7.2: Principal of Steer by Angle Models
Figure 7.2 shows the basic functionality of a steer by angle model. The steering wheel
angle σ H and its derivatives are inputs to the steer model. The steering wheel angle is
translated to the generalized quantity q = q L = q R . The same way for the derivatives. The
translation is defined as follows:
1 q̇
i q → σ ( σ H ) = ------------------------------- = ------- (EQ 26)
H iσ → q ( σH ) σ̇ H
H
(EQ 26) clarifies that the translation might depend on the steering wheel angle. Such a vari-
able steer translation is commonly used with modern steer systems.
Because there is no differential equation calculated only the static steering wheel torque
T H, S is returned by the model. The inputs of the two masses are not regarded by the steer
model (they have no effect on the steer system).

Steering System 91
Overview
7.1.2 Steer by Torque
q L, q̇ L, ( q̇˙L ) Steer Model Torque q R, q̇ R, ( q̇˙R )
m ( L, H, R ) ⋅ q̇˙L = F ( L, H, R )
FL FR
m ( R, H, L ) ⋅ q̇˙R = F ( R, H, L )
m ( H, L, R ) ⋅ σ̇˙ H = F ( H, L, R )
Vehicle Suspension Left
mL ( qL ) mR ( qR )
Vehicle Suspension Right

σ H, σ̇ H, σ̇˙ H TH
Figure 7.3: Principal of Steer by Torque Models
A steer by torque model is characterized by the input of the steering wheel torque to the
steer model and that the steer angle and velocity and acceleration is returned by the steer
model. In this case differential equations as depicted in Figure 7.2 have to be calculated.
If a stiff rack steering system is modeled the generalized steer coordinates reduce to one
q Steer = q L = q R . Then the differential equations can be written as
( m L + m R + m H ) ⋅ q̇˙Steer = F L + F R + F H . (EQ 27)
The acceleration of the steering wheel is determined from
σ̇˙ H = i q → σH ⋅ q Steer . (EQ 28)
This simple approach of steer by torque model can be extended by detailed models with
steering boosters or with extra functionality like active steering mechanisms.

Steering System 92
Steering System Parameters
7.2 Steering System Parameters

7.2.1 General Steering System Parameters
Steering.Kind = KindStr
Specify the steering model to be used. The CarMaker steering model library provides the
following models:
Steering.Kind Description
Classic Standard steer by angle model.
Example Steering.Kind = Classic
7.2.2 Steering System ’Classic’ Parameters

The standard steering system of CarMaker is of the kind steer by angle (see section 7.1.1).
Suspension Left tie rods Suspension Right
q = qL = qR
σH rack
+
iσ → q ( σH )
H
Figure 7.5: Steer system classic
This model simulates a simple rack steering system. The whole steering system is
assumed to be stiff. The generalized coordinates on the left and the right side are equal
q Steer = q L = q R .
The rack position ( q Steer ) is calculated with the steering gear ratio:
σH
q Steer = --------------------------
- (EQ 29)
i σH → q ( σ H )
Steering.Rack2StWhl = value
Steering Gear Ratio: StWhlAngle [rad] = Rack2StWhl [rad/m] * RackTranslation [m].
Example Steering.Rack2StWhl = 100

Steering System 93
User Accessible Quantities for Steering Systems
7.3 User Accessible Quantities for Steering

Systems
Please refer to section 12.4 ’User Accessible Quantities: Steering Systems’.

Steering System 94
Steering System Software Interface
7.4 Steering System Software Interface

• Models can be registered to CarMaker with an individual identification string.
• To select and activate a model, its identification string is must to be specified in the
vehicle parameter set.
Inputs to the System

• SteerByAngle/SteerByTorque
• Steering wheel angle, angle velocity (if the model is steer by angle type)
• Steering wheel toque (not used by steer by angle models).
• Suspension forces to tie rod translation (left and right)
• Suspension inertias to tie rod translation (left and right)
Outputs of the System

• General steer coordinate (tie rod translation) and derivatives (left and right)
• Steering wheel torque required for static conditions (no accelerations).
• Steering wheel angle, angle velocity (if the model is steer by torque type)
Interface structure to the steering calculation function
typedef struct tSteerIF {

tSteerBy SteerBy;/* use position or angle(in) *
* as steer input /*
double Ang;/* steer angle (in/out)*/
double AngVel;
double AngAcc;
double Trq;/* steer torque(in) *
* acting on steering wheel */
double TrqStatic; /* steer torque, required for (out) *
* static conditions (no acceleration)*/
struct tSteerIFLR {
/*** Input Quantities: (Car/Driver to Steering) */
doubleFrc; /* force (external to steer system) */
doubleInert; /* inertia (external to steer system) */
/*** Output Ouantities: (Steering to Car/Driver) */

double q, qp, qpp;/* tie rod translation */
double iSteer2q;/* ratio (out) *

* steer rotation to rack translation */
} L, R; /* left, right */
} tSteerIF;
Calculation Function
int (*Eval) (void *MP, /* Modellparameter */

tSteerIF *IF, /* Interface structure */
double dt); /* time step */

PowerTrain 95
Overview
Chapter 8
PowerTrain
8.1 Overview
The powertrain which acts as a global system within the CarMaker VVE is divided into a
number of subsystems with well defined interfaces. In the following the basic concept of the
subsystems and interfaces is described.
8.1.1 Interface Powertrain – Vehicle

This interface is responsible for the global embedding of the whole powertrain within the
CarMaker VVE. As shown in Figure 8.1: the various subsystems can get input signals from
ECUs or from other CarMaker modules (e. g. interaction form virtual control elements of the
vehicle).
The interface of input/output quantities interacting with the Vehicle-Model is very compact.
The powertrain is not interchanging many signals.
ECU ECU ECU ECU

V e h i c l e
Signals Signals Signals Signals

T Support2Vehicle
q, q̇Wheel
P o w e r T r a i n
Engine Clutch Gearbox
T Brake2Wheel
T Tire2Wheel
Accelerator Pedal Clutch Pedal Gear Selector
Starter activated
Ignition on/off D r i v M a n
Figure 8.1: The Powertrain – Vehicle Interface

PowerTrain 96
Overview
To observe and to drive the vehicle, additional output signals like the engine speed are
needed and provided from the corresponding powertrain submodules.
8.1.2 PowerTrain Subsystems

The powertrain model determines the distribution of drive torque to the wheels. The power-
train module can be combined with several subsystems.
A Powertrain typically consists of the following subsystems:
Model Description
Engine The ‘‘origin of all motion´´
Clutch The agent between producer and consumer of driving energy
Gearbox The converter of drive torque
There are different ways to look at powertrain submodules. One is the structural view how
powertrain modules are configured and connected to a complete system. This is shown in
Figure 8.2.
PowerTrain
PowerTrain ‘Generic’ Model Library

Custom Custom
GenFront GenRear Gen2p2Front Gen2p2Rear Gen4WD
Model 1 Model 2
E C GB E C GB E C GB E C GB E C GB E C GB E C GB
PowerTrain
Components
E1 E2 C1 C2 GB1
Library
Custom Custom Custom Custom Custom

Engine 1 Engine 2 Clutch 2 Gearbox 1 Gearbox 2
Figure 8.2: PowerTrain structural view
The topmost layer is the selected powertrain model. Here a specific powertrain model is
selected which is the central computation unit for the whole powertrain. This means the
binding of all components and the interfacing to the Vehicle-Model and the DrivMan-Model
is done within this model. The driveline is computed with this central unit. A powertrain
library called powertrain ‘Generic’ is provided with CarMaker for the most common used
powertrain versions. But there is a possibility to add custom models for special needs to the
ones offered from the library.
The Powertrain models have interfaces to other components needed to obtain a complete
powertrain. There are interfaces to the components Engine, Clutch and Gearbox form the
next layer in Figure 8.2. Similar to the Powertrain models a library called PowerTrain Com-

PowerTrain 97
Overview
ponents Library is included with CarMaker and offers models for each individual compo-
nent. At this level it is also possible to add custom models to extend the library with
components for special needs.
As visible in Figure 8.2 the integration of custom models is seamless. As long as the spec-
ified interface of each module is regarded custom modules can be mixed with standard
modules as desired.
8.1.3 Interfaces of Powertrain Subsystems

The standard powertrains provided with the powertrain ‘Generic’ library are modeled as rig-
id systems with five degrees of freedom. There are four wheels and the engine potentially
rotating with different speeds. There has to be a differential equation for each degree of
freedom in such a model. In general rotation speeds are calculated by integration of the
moment-balance:
∑T
1
q̇˙x = ----------- x (EQ 30)
J Pro j˙
J Proj is the projected inertia of all connected parts reassessed by transmissions. These cal-
culations beside others are done in the Powertrain-Module which acts as a master unit for
all other powertrain submodules (see Figure 8.3).
Another way to look at powertrain submodules is concerned with the interfacing between
the powertrain modules themselves and the Vehicle-Model. Table 8.1: lists the types of
quantities being exchanged between powertrain subsystems and the Vehicle-Model.
Table 8.1: Notation
q rotation angle
q̇ angular velocity
T from → to torque from system <from> to system <to>
i transmission
Figure 8.3 shows each powertrain subsystem and describes the required quantities
exchanged between the different submodules:
ECU ECU ECU ECU

Signals Signals Signals Signals
T Support2Vehicle
T Clutch2Gearbox T Gearbox2DL
iGearbox q, q̇Wheel
T Engine
Powertrain-
Computation
q, q̇Engine q, q̇Gearbox T Brake
q, q̇Driveshaft
T Tire
Accelerator Pedal Clutch Pedal Gear Selector

Starter activated
Ignition on/off
Figure 8.3: The PowerTrain Module Interfaces

PowerTrain 98
Overview
Driveline Model
The driveline model transfers the torque from the gearbox output to all driven wheels. The
calculation of wheel speeds and other rotation speeds is done in the computation part of
this master module.
ECU
Signals
T Support2Vehicle
T GearBox2Driveline q, q̇Wheel
ΣT i Integration of
Gearbox Driveline
˙ rotation speeds
q i, q i
q, q̇Driveshaft T Brake
T Tire
Figure 8.4: Driveline Mode
8.1.4 General Parameters

Location Parameters for configuring a powertrain are found in the parameter file for a specific vehicle
under <CarMakerRoot>/Data/Vehicle/
The following parameters are used globally no matter which specific subsystem is selected.
They are mandatory for all configurations and therefore listed as global parameters.
PowerTrain.Kind = KindStr
With this parameter a powertrain model is selected. The powertrain library provides the fol-
lowing models:
PowerTrain.Kind Description
GenFront standard front drive vehicle
GenRear standard rear drive vehicle
Gen2p2Front front driven vehicle with rear axle hanged on
Gen2p2Rear rear driven vehicle with front axle hanged on
Gen4WD four wheel drive vehicle
...
Example PowerTrain.Kind = GenFront

PowerTrain.Kind = MyPowertrain

PowerTrain 99
Powertrain ’Generic’
8.2 Powertrain ’Generic’

8.2.1 Overview
This section describes the available powertrain modules provided with the ‘Generic’ library.
The models of this library are highly configurable and should meet the needs of the most
common configurations.
Supported configurations
Basically powertrain configurations are distinguished by the number of driven wheels and
in addition to this by the number of differential gears used. Figure 8.5 gives an overview of
the available configurations:
Front Drive:
GenFront Gen2p2Front
Rear Drive:
Gen4WD
GenRear Gen2p2Rear
Figure 8.5: Configurations overview
The standard front and rear drive configurations use one differential gear to distribute the
torque from the drive shaft to the wheels (either at the front or at the rear axle). The 4WD
configuration uses one differential gear for every axle and a center differential gear for dis-
tributing torque to the front and rear axle. The hanged on configurations also have differen-
tial gears for front and rear axle but use a coupling for transferring torque to the hanged on
axle. This means that with opened center coupling this configuration acts like a standard
front or rear drive.

PowerTrain 100
Supported coupling configurations

In addition to this there are several possibilities to add different types of couplings between
different shafts of the differential gears in the drive line:
left2right in2left in2right
Front:
i
Center: i
front2rear in2front in2rear hangon
Rear:
left2right in2left in2right

Figure 8.6: Configuration possibilities for powertrain couplings

PowerTrain 101
There are several types of couplings for different purposes available. They can be config-
ured for each individual coupling shown in Figure 8.6:
Visco Coupling As a matter of principle a visco coupling is only able to transfer torque if there is a rotation
speed difference between both sides of the coupling. This is because a fluid is used for
torque transmission like in a hydrodynamic torque converter (Föttinger-Coupling). This
means there is no state where a visco coupling is sticking, there has to be slip for torque
transmission.
For simulation purposes a torque characteristic as a function of rotating speed difference is
used. The coupling torque is calculated by:
T = f ( ∆ω̇ ) (EQ 31)
A typical characteristic may look like in Figure 8.7
T
transferred torque
0 ∆ω̇
rotation speed difference
Figure 8.7: Typical characteristic for a visco coupling
Torque Sensing The coupling torque (locking torque) depends on the torque difference between the two
Coupling coupled shafts.
The torque sensing coupling is only useful for the mount positions left2right and front2rear.
Figure 8.8 displays the mount position left2right.
TCage
TLow THigh
TLock
Figure 8.8: Principal torque sensing coupling

PowerTrain 102
With torque sensing couplings there are two common characteristic values. The torque bias
and locking ratio are defined as:
T High
TB = ------------
- (EQ 32)
T Low
T Lock
LR = ------------
- (EQ 33)
T Cage
1
If T Lock = 0 then T High = T Low = --- T Cage applies for a standard differential gear. If T Lock
2
exists the torques calculate to:
1
T Low = --- ( T Cage – T Lock )
2
1
T High = --- ( T Cage + T Lock )
2 (EQ 34)
With (EQ 32), (EQ 33) and (EQ 34) a relationship between torque bias and locking ratio can
be determined:
TB – 1
LR = ----------------- (EQ 35)
TB + 1
The CarMaker implementation of a torque sensing coupling uses a torque bias value as
input for each the driven ( T Cage ≥ 0 ) and undriven ( T Cage < 0 ) case.
Locked Coupling This is not a real coupling. It acts like a rigid connection between input and output shaft. It
is useful for simulating a locked differential or testing purposes. No matter which mount
position is chosen the differential is lock in either case. There are no parameters needed for
this coupling.
DVA Locked With this coupling the locking torque for the configured couplings can be given via modifi-
cation of DVA quantities.

PowerTrain 103
8.2.2 General Parameters
PowerTrain.Kind = KindStr
With this parameter a powertrain model is selected. The powertrain ‘Generic’ library pro-
vides the following models:
Example PowerTrain.Kind = GenRear
PowerTrain.ET.Kind = ETKindStr
PowerTrain.Clutch.Kind = ClutchKindStr
PowerTrain.GearBox.Kind = GearBoxKindStr
Selecting powertrain ’Generic’ sub models,

see section 8.3 ’Engine Torque’ on page 110,
see section 8.4 ’Clutch’ on page 120 and
see section 8.5 ’Gear Box’ on page 128.
Inertias
PowerTrain.Engine.I = value
PowerTrain.Clutch.I_in = value
All parts of the clutch which should be added up to the engine mass substitute.
PowerTrain.Clutch.I_out = value
All parts of the clutch which should be added up to the wheel mass substitute if the trans-
mission is in gear.

PowerTrain 104
PowerTrain.GearBox.I_in = value
All parts of the gearbox which are not added up to the wheel mass substitute. Measured
when transmission is in neutral.
PowerTrain.GearBox.I_out = value
All parts of the gearbox which are added up to the wheel mass substitute. Measured when
transmission is in neutral.
PowerTrain.DriveLine.I_in = value
Inertia of the rotating diveline elements like shafts and joints.

PowerTrain 105
8.2.3 Model ‘Generic’ Differential Parameters
Differential Models ‘Front’ or ‘Rear’

Depending on the powertrain configuration a differential gear is used either for front or rear
or both axles.
‘F’ means front, ‘R’ means rear.
PowerTrain.DL.FDiff.I_in = value
PowerTrain.DL.RDiff.I_in = value
Inertia of the input shaft
PowerTrain.DL.FDiff.I_out = value
PowerTrain.DL.RDiff.I_out = value
Inertia of the output shaft
PowerTrain.DL.FDiff.I_Cage = value
PowerTrain.DL.RDiff.I_Cage = value
Optional. Inertia of the differential cage. Default: 0
PowerTrain.DL.FDiff.i = value
PowerTrain.DL.RDiff.i = value
Transmission ratio from input shaft to cage.
Example PowerTrain.DL.FDiff.i = 3.5
PowerTrain.DL.FDiff.Cpl.Kind = KindStr
PowerTrain.DL.RDiff.Cpl.Kind= KindStr
Optional. Select a coupling model. Default: no coupling is used.

Possible values are: Visco, TrqSensing, Locked, DVA_Locked
PowerTrain.DL.FDiff.Cpl.Mounting = MountPos
PowerTrain.DL.RDiff.Cpl.Mounting= MountPos
Optional. Select mounting position.

Possible values are: left2right, in2left, in2right
Default: left2right.

PowerTrain 106
PowerTrain.DL.FDiff.Cpl.k
PowerTrain.DL.RDiff.Cpl.k
Optional. Stiffness used for numerical stability when switching from stick to slip. Default: 10
Differential Model ‘Central’
A center differential is only available for Model ‘Gen4WD’.
PowerTrain.DL.CDiff.I_in = value
PowerTrain.DL.CDiff.I_out_front = value
Inertia of the front output shaft
PowerTrain.DL.CDiff.I_out_rear = value
Inertia of the rear output shaft
PowerTrain.DL.CFDiff.I_Cage = value
Optional. Inertia of the differential cage. Default: 0
PowerTrain.DL.CDiff.i_in2cent = value
Transmission ratio from input shaft to cage of the center differential.
Example PowerTrain.DL.CDiff.i_in2cent = 1.0
PowerTrain.DL.CDiff.TrqRatio_front = value
Selects the torque distribution between front and rear axle. This paramter specifies how the
percentage of the input torque which is transfered to the front axle (the remaining torque
goes to the rear axle). The input range is from 0..1 excluding both extremal values.
Example PowerTrain.DL.CDiff.TrqRatio_front = 0.7

This means that 70% of the input torque is transfered to the front axle and 30 % to the rear
axle.

PowerTrain 107
PowerTrain.DL.CDiff.Cpl.Kind = KindStr
Select a coupling model.

Possible values are: Visco, TrqSensing, Locked, DVA_Locked
PowerTrain.DL.CDiff.Cpl.Mounting = MountPos
Optional. Select mounting position.

Possible values are: front2rear, in2rear, in2front
Default: front2rear.
PowerTrain.DL.CDiff.Cpl.k = value
Optional. Stiffness used for numerical stability when switching from stick to slip. Default: 10

PowerTrain 108
8.2.4 Model ‘Generic’ Coupling Parameters
Coupling Model ‘Visco’

‘F’ means front, ‘R’ means rear, ‘C’ means center.
PowerTrain.DL.FDiff.Cpl.Trq_Amplify = value
PowerTrain.DL.RDiff.Cpl.Trq_Amplify = value
PowerTrain.DL.CDiff.Cpl.Trq_Amplify = value
PowerTrain.DL.HangOn.Cpl.Trq_Amplify =value
Amplifies the determined value by a given factor
PowerTrain.DL.FDiff.Cpl.Trq_drotv = value
PowerTrain.DL.RDiff.Cpl.Trq_drotv = value
PowerTrain.DL.CDiff.Cpl.Trq_drotv = value
PowerTrain.DL.HangOn.Cpl.Trq_drotv = value
Characteristic for coupling torque as a function of the rotation speed difference:

T = f ( ∆ω̇ ) . !

<rotation velocity difference> <torque>
Coupling Model ‘Locked’

No parameters are necessary!
Coupling Model ‘TrqSensing’
PowerTrain.DL.FDiff.Cpl.TrqBias_Driven = value
PowerTrain.DL.RDiff.Cpl.TrqBias_Driven = value
PowerTrain.DL.CDiff.Cpl.TrqBias_Driven = value
Specify torque bias value for drive case driven. Value has to be >= 1.
Example PowerTrain.DL.FDiff.Cpl.TrqSensing.TrqBias_Driven = 1.3
PowerTrain.DL.FDiff.Cpl.TrqBias_Dragged = value
PowerTrain.DL.RDiff.Cpl.TrqBias_Dragged = value
PowerTrain.DL.CDiff.Cpl.TrqBias_Dragged = value
Specify torque bias value for drive case dragged. Value has to be >= 1.
Example PowerTrain.DL.FDiff.Cpl.TrqSensing.TrqBias_Dragged = 1.2

PowerTrain 109
Coupling Model ‘DVA_Locked’

No extra parameters needed for coupling model ‘DVA_Locked’! The coupling torque can be
set by accessing DVA variables (See section 12.3.2 on page 268).
Coupling Model for Configurations ’Gen2p2Front’ and ’Gen2p2Rear’

One axle is driven, the other one is hanged on. It is parametrized with basic parameters,
extended by a hang on coupling.
PowerTrain.DL.HangOn.I_in = value
PowerTrain.DL.HangOn.I_out = value
Inertia of the output shaft
PowerTrain.DL.HangOn.i = value
Transmission ratio between gearbox and hangon coupling
Example PowerTrain.DL.Hangon.i = 1.0
PowerTrain.DL.HangOn.Cpl.Kind = KindStr
Select a coupling model.

Possible values are: Visco, Locked, DVA_Locked
PowerTrain.DL.HangOn.rotv_open = value
Only for configuration Gen2p2Front! Optional. With this parameter it is possible to imple-
ment a disconnect unit for the rear axle. When the vehicle is dragged and the rotation speed
is above the specified value the disconnect unit applies. Default: 1e38 (this means no dis-
connect unit is installed)
Example PowerTrain.DL.HangOn.rotv_open = 100
PowerTrain.DL.HangOn.Cpl.k = value
Optional. Stiffness used for numerical stability when switching from stick to slip. Default: 10.

PowerTrain 110
Engine Torque
8.3 Engine Torque

Overview
The engine model is primarily concerned with engine torque. It provides the torque to the
clutch input. shaft. The engine rotation itself is calculated externally by the powertrain mod-
ule.
ECU
Signals
q, q̇ Engine T Engine
Engine Clutch
Accelerator Pedal
Starter activated
Ignition on/off
Figure 8.10: Engine Model
As shown in Figure 8.10 the main task of the engine model is to act as a torque source. The
output T Engine of the engine model can be calculated with different approaches. This is why
several subsystem types for the engine model are distinguished.
PowerTrain.ET.Kind = KindStr
Selection of the engine subsystem to use. The powertrain components library provides the
following engine torque models:
Engine Torque Model Description

Mapping Characteristics are used to determine the engine torque
Linear Simple engine torque model, independent from engine speed
DVA Engine torque is modified via DVA access
...
Example PowerTrain.ET.Kind = Mapping

PowerTrain 111
Engine Torque
8.3.1 Engine Torque Model ‘Mapping’

This engine torque model uses characteristics to describe the behavior of the engine torque
depending on engine speed and throttle position.
Guidelines for configuring the engine torque map

A measured standard engine torque map usually does not cover parts below minimal and
above maximal engine speed. For the usage with CarMaker it is essential that there are val-
ues given above and below those boundaries.
Figure 8.11 shows an engine torque map ‘prepared’ for the usage with CarMaker with
extended boundaries. The standard speed range of this engine is 500 to 7000 rpm. Above
7000 rpm usually the throttle cutoff applies. This is realized through ramping down the full
load characteristics to zero at 8000 rpm and extrapolating the drag load characteristic to
8000 rpm. Interim values for throttle positions should be equally spaced between full and
drag load.
200
torque [Nm]
150
100
50
-50
-100
0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000 7000 8000
rotation speed [rpm]

Gas Pedal: 0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% 70% 80% 90%
CarMaker
Engine Torque
Model Check
Wed May 26 11:58:32 AM CEST 2004, Page 1
Figure 8.11: Sample engine torque map

PowerTrain 112
Engine Torque
The engine idle speed is designated to be approximately 900 rpm. In reality the engine has
an idle speed controller to keep the engine running at the desired idle speed. To accomplish
this behavior with CarMaker the drag load characteristic should have an area of positive
torque values between 600 and 900 rpm.
TEngine / Nm
10
0
1000 nEngine / rpm
-10
Figure 8.12: Drag load characteristic to set up engine idle speed
Figure 8.12 shows a cutout of the engine idle speed characteristic to establish a idle speed
of approximately 900 rpm. Due to the zero crossing of the torque characteristics at 900 rpm
higher speeds are slowed down due to negative torque and lower speeds are increased by
the small amount of positive torque. Like in reality the engine stalls due to negative torque
below 600 rpm. For other throttle values a smooth fading should be used (like in
Figure 8.11).
Parameters
PowerTrain.ET.Mapping.Kind = KindStr
This model supports two subsystems to be selected.
PowerTrain.ET.Kind Description
linear2D A two dimensional engine characteristic map is used. Depends on
engine speed and (driver-)gas.
DragFullLoad Two characteristic lines are used. One for full throttle and one for
minimal throttle (depending from engine speed)
PowerTrain.ET.nIdle = value
Optional. If not defined the engine idle speed is determined out of the given characteristics.
This is only an informational parameter for the engine model. It is not determined to set the
engine idle speed. This is done by modifying the engine drag characteristic. See section on
page 110.

PowerTrain 113
Engine Torque
PowerTrain.ET.Starter.Trq = value
Optional. Default starter torque is 10Nm.
PowerTrain.ET.Starter.rotvOff = value
Optional. Turn off engine speed of the starter. If not given determined out of the given char-
acteristics.
PowerTrain.ET.TrqKl15Off = value
Optional. Engine drag with ignition off. Default -80Nm.

PowerTrain 114
Engine Torque
Additional Parameters for Mapping Kind ‘linear2D’

If linear2d is selected with PowerTrain.ET.Kind the following parameters have to be
specified:
PowerTrain.ET.Mapping.Amplify = value
Optional. Amplifies the output of the engine characteristic by a given factor. Default: 1.
PowerTrain.ET.Mapping.Data : value
Two dimensional characteristic for the engine torque mapping. Specifies blocks for equal
speed and vary gas from min to max.

<engine speed> <accelerator position> <engine torque>
Example PowerTrain.ET.Mapping.Data:
500 0.0 -90
500 0.5 -70
500 1 -50
.....
1000 0.0 0
1000 0.5 80
1000 1 150
....

PowerTrain 115
Engine Torque
Additional Parameters for Mapping Kind ‘DragFullLoad’

If DragFullLoad is selected with PowerTrain.ET.Kind the following parameters have
to be specified:
PowerTrain.ET.Exponent = value
Transition from full load to drag load characteristic with a exponential function depending on
throttle position.
• gas = 0 ... 1.0
• Exponent = 1 → linear
• Exponent > 1→ parabolic
• Exponent < 1 → root shaped
Exponent Exponent
x = TDrag ⋅ ( 1.0 – gas ) + TFull ⋅ gas
PowerTrain.ET.DragPower.Amplify =value
PowerTrain.ET.DragPower = value
Drag power characteristic.

<engine speed>[rpm] <engine torque> [Nm]
Example PowerTrain.ET.DragPower:
500.0 -10.0
600.0 0.0
700.0 5.0
800.0 0.0
1000.0 -10.0
2000.0 -20.0
3000.0 -30.0
4000.0 -40.0
5000.0 -50.0
6000.0 -60.0
7000.0 -70.0
8000.0 -80.0
PowerTrain.ET.FullLoadPower.Amplify = value

PowerTrain 116
Engine Torque
PowerTrain.ET.FullLoadPower
Full load power characteristic.

<engine speed>[rpm] <engine torque> [Nm]
Example PowerTrain.ET.FullLoadPower:
500.0 10.0
1000.0 140.0
2000.0 155.0
3000.0 165.0
4000.0 180.0
4500.0 185.0
5000.0 182.0
6000.0 168.0
7000.0 130.0
8000.0 0.0

PowerTrain 117
Engine Torque
8.3.2 Engine Torque Model ‘Linear’
PowerTrain.ET.nIdle = value
Optional. Default engine idle speed: 1200rpm
PowerTrain.ET.Starter.Trq = value
Optional. Default starter torque is 15Nm.
PowerTrain.ET.Starter.rotvOff = value
Optional. Turn off engine speed of the starter. If not given determined out of the given char-
acteristics.
PowerTrain.ET.SpeedRange = rotv_min rotv_max
Optional. Specifies the minimal and maximal Engine Speed. Below and above those
speeds the engine torque is regulated down. A ramp function is used.
Example PowerTrain.ET.SpeedRange = 500 8000
PowerTrain.ET.PowerRatio = value
This specifies the maximum engine torque with full throttle. It is independently of the engine
speed.
The engine speed is calculated by Trq = PowerRatio ⋅ Gas .
Example PowerTrain.ET.PowerRatio = 300

PowerTrain 118
Engine Torque
8.3.3 Engine Torque Model ‘DVA’

This is a simple engine torque model. The engine torque only depends on the gas pedal
position. There is no dependency on the rotation speed of the engine (as for a usual
engine).
Parameters
PowerTrain.ET.Trq_Ext2A = value
The engine output torque directly depends on the driver gas pedal position (standardized)
and is calculated by:
EngineTrq = PowerTrain.ET.Trq_Ext2A * Gas (EQ 36)
Default value: 100 Nm

The name of the UAQ you can overwrite by a DVA write is "PT.Engine.DVA.Trq_Ext2A".
Example PowerTrain.ET.Trq_Ext2A = 100

PowerTrain 119
Engine Torque
8.3.4 Engine Model Software Interfaces
Engine Controller
Usually vehicle dynamic controllers communicate with the engine controller. One reason is
to make modifications to the present engine torque in order to increase driving stability. In
an CarMaker/HIL approach without a having a real engine controller a functionality has to
be implemented as a model that simulates the intervention of the vehicle dynamic controller
to the engine torque.
This is realized in CarMaker with a user code function (usually in module User.c)
Listing 8.1: Usage of user code function EngineControl in User.c
1: tatic void EngineControl (void);

2:
3: int
4: User_TestRun_Start (void)
5: {
6: ...
7: /* activate an engine control software module */
8: Vehicle.EngineControl = EngineControl;
9: ...
10: }
11:
12: /*
13: ** EngineControl ()
14: **
15: ** Simulation model for an engine control ECU
16: ** Modify the engine torque (PowerTrain.Engine.Trq), in most cases
17: ** based on an static engine torque characteristic.
18: **
19: ** Call:
20: ** - called after EngineTrq model (PowerTrain.Engine.Trq is assigned
21: ** with the output of EngineTrq model)
22: ** - pay attention to realtime condition
23: */
24:
25: static void
26: EngineControl (void)
27: {
28: if (ConnectedIO == MyIO) {
29: ...
30: /* Modify engine torque */
31: ...
32: PowerTrain.Engine.Trq = MyModifiedTorque;
33: }
1:
Line 1 defines a static function EngineControl in module User.c . In order to make

CarMaker to call this function in every simulation step its pointer has to be liked to the vari-
able Vehicle.EngineControl. This is done in the function User_TestRun_Start. The finally
modified engine torque has to be assigned at the end of EngineControl to the variable
PowerTrain.Engine.Trq.

PowerTrain 120
Clutch
8.4 Clutch
Overview
The clutch calculates the torque transfer from the engine to the gearbox input shaft consid-
ering the clutch pedal or ECU signals.
ECU
Signals
T Engine T Clutch2GearBox

q, q̇Engine q, q̇Gearbox
Clutch Pedal
Figure 8.13: Clutch Model
PowerTrain.Clutch.Kind = KindStr
Selection of the clutch subsystem to use. The powertrain components library provides the
following submodels:
Powertrain.Clutch.Kind Description
Converter torque converter model usually used in combination with automatic
transmissions
Manual manual clutch model usually hand-operated by the driver
DVA Clutch torque is modified via DVA access
...
Example PowerTrain.Clutch.Kind = Manual

PowerTrain 121
Clutch
8.4.1 Clutch Model ‘Manual’

A manual clutch in reality consists of two plates a friction plate and a contact pressure plate.
The transmissible torque depends of the contact pressure and the speed difference
between the two plates. In a real time environment with fixed step integrators modeling a
technical system like a clutch is a challenging task. With conventional methods usually
problems occur when transiting from slip to the singularity stick and vice versa. For a better
computation stability the modeling approach of the clutch in this powertrain is sightly more
complex.
T ω, ω̇
friction plate
ω Fp, ω̇ Fp
input plate output plate
T In2Fp
ω In, ω̇ In ω Out, ω̇ Out
Engine Gearbox
⇒ T Fp2In
⇒
{
{Case: open Case: closed
Figure 8.14: Structure of Clutch Model Manual
Figure 8.14 shows the non physical approach of this model which uses three plates for
transmitting the torque from the engine to the gearbox. The plates form engine side to gear-
box side are called “input-”, “friction-” and “output-plate”. The “input-” and the “friction-plate”
form a system with pure friction which is used to cover the case clutch is opened respec-
tively is slipping. The remaining two plates form the counterpart for the closed clutch where
a spring loaded force element is added to the friction part.
Both parts of this clutch system contribute their moment to the resulting clutch moment
which is transmitted through the clutch:
T In2Out = T fIn2Fp + T kdFp2Out (EQ 37)
To determine how much every system is contributing (or which case applies the most at one
stage) a weighting function is used.
Internally a normalized pedal position within ConnectPos and DisconnectPos is used.
Below ConnectPos no torque is transmitted and above DisconnectPos the clutch is fully
closed.
PedalPos Norm = x ( PedalPos – ConnectPos ) (EQ 38)
The factor x in (EQ 38) is estimated so that the range [0 .. 1] is adhered. A simple weighting
function is derived from the normalized pedal position:
λ = PedalPos Norm (EQ 39)

PowerTrain 122
Clutch
• Calculation of the case “clutch open”:
∆ω̇ In2Fp = ω̇ Fp – ω̇ In (EQ 40)
T fmax = ( 1.0 – λ ) ⋅ Trq_max_fric (EQ 41)
T fmax is the maximum transmittable torque for the case clutch open. The real transmit-
ted torque calculates to:
T fIn2FP = min ( T fmax , d_fric ⋅ – ω̇ In2Fp ) (EQ 42)
• Calculation of the case “clutch closed”:

This case makes the assumption that the speed of the “input-” and the “friction plate”
are equal ω̇ Fp ≡ ω̇ In . This also means that following (EQ 40) and (EQ 42) T fIn2Fp calcu-
lates to zero and only this part is contributing the torque transmission.
∆ω̇ Fp2Out = ω̇ Out – ω̇ In (EQ 43)
∆ω Fp2Out = ω Out – ω Fp (EQ 44)
With
T kdmax = ( 1.0 – λ ) ⋅ Trq_max (EQ 45)
the transmitted torque calculates to:
T kdFp2Out = min ( T kdmax , k_FP ⋅ – ω FP2Out + d_FP ⋅ – ω̇ Fp2Out ) (EQ 46)
Parameters
PowerTrain.Clutch.ConnectPos = value
Optional. At this clutch pedal position the clutch starts transferring torque. Default: 0.3 [0 ..
1].
Example PowerTrain.Clutch.ConnectPos = 0.3
PowerTrain.Clutch.DisconnectPos = value
Optional. At this clutch pedal position the clutch starts slipping when opening. Default: 0.7
[0 .. 1]
Example PowerTrain.Clutch.DisconnectPos = 0.7
PowerTrain.Clutch.Trq_max = value
Optional. Sets maximum transmissible torque equally for both cases, clutch is slipping and
clutch is closed
Example PowerTrain.Clutch.Trq_max = 300

PowerTrain 123
Clutch
Alternatively the maximum transmissible torque can be set independently with the following
two parameters.
PowerTrain.Clutch.Trq_max_fric = value
Optional. Maximum transmissible torque when clutch is slipping.Default: 300.
Example PowerTrain.Clutch.Trq_max_fric = 300
PowerTrain.Clutch.Trq_max_kd = value
Syntax PowerTrain.Clutch.Trq_max_kd = val [Nm]

optional, default 300 Nm
Maximum transmissible torque when clutch is closed.
Example PowerTrain.Clutch.Trq_max_kd = 300
PowerTrain.Clutch.d_fric = value
Syntax PowerTrain.Clutch.d_fric = val [–]

Info optional, default 0.0175
Optional, unit: Nm/deg. Friction coefficient for the case clutch is slipping.
Example PowerTrain.Clutch.d_fric = 0.0175
PowerTrain.Clutch.k_FP = value
Optional, unit: Nm/deg; default: 1.6667 Nm/deg.

Spring constant for the case clutch is closed.
Example PowerTrain.Clutch.k_FP = 1.6667
PowerTrain.Clutch.d_FP = value
Optional, unit: Nm s/deg. Friction coefficient for the case clutch is closed. Default: 0.1167
Example PowerTrain.Clutch.d_FP = 0.1167

PowerTrain 124
Clutch
8.4.2 Clutch Model ‘Converter’

A hydrodynamic torque converter or Föttinger-Converter is able to reduce rotation speed
and translate torque.
The input and output torque TIn,Out of the converter is calculated with the speed ratio depen-
dent converter factors kIn, kOut and the input speed ωIn.
2
T In = k In ω In ω Out
k In, k Out = f ( s ) mit s = -----------
-
2
ω In
T Out = k Out ω Out
(EQ 47)
The relation between the converter output- and the input-torque is often described with the
torque ratio µ.
T Out k Out
µ = ----------
- = ---------- (EQ 48)
T In k In
So, two characteristics kIn (s) and µ (s) respectively kOut(s) are used to represent the trans-
mission behavior of the converter.
Those characteristics use the following parameter names in CarMaker input files:
kIn PowerTrain.Clutch.k_E
µ PowerTrain.Clutch.mue
Figure 8.15 shows a typical gradient of the converter factor kIn over the speed ratio nOut/nIn:
1.7 e-3
converter factor kIn (Nms2)
1 e-4
0 1
rotation speed ratio nOut /nIn 0.98
Figure 8.15: converter factor kIn as a function of the rotation speed ratio

PowerTrain 125
Clutch
As depicted in Figure 8.16 the maximum torque ratio (usually 1.9 to 2.5) for the driveway
reduces with increasing rotation speed ratios. Above a certain speed ratio the torque ratio
remains constantly shortly below 1 (because of losses). This case is called clutch mode.
2.3
torque ratio m = Tout/Tin
0.98
0 0.88 1
rotation speed ratio nout/nin
Figure 8.16: torque ratio as a function of the rotation speed ratio
Parameters
PowerTrain.Clutch.Adjust = value
For principal adaption of converter characteristics. This factor is multiplied with

PowerTrain.Clutch.k_E.
This parameter needs to be 1 to obtain the given characteristic! Otherwise the characteristic
for PowerTrain.Clutch.k_E is altered by this factor
Example PowerTrain.Clutch.Adjust = 1.0
PowerTrain.Clutch.k_E = Table
Characteristic for the input torque conversion factor.!

<nout/nin> <k_E>
Example PowerTrain.Clutch.k_E:
0.0 3.3e-4
0.3 3.2e-4
0.6 3.0e-4
0.9 2.2e-4
0.95 1.8e-4
0.975 1.2e-4
0.995 1.7e-5
1.0 0

PowerTrain 126
Clutch
PowerTrain.Clutch.mue : = Table
Torque ratio characteristic.

<nout/nin> <mue>
Example PowerTrain.Clutch.mue:
0.0 2.1
0.8 0.98
0.9 0.98
1.0 0.98

PowerTrain 127
Clutch
8.4.3 Clutch Model ‘DVA’

This model is not a conventional clutch model. The transmissible torque is not determined
by the rotations speed difference of the clutches input and output shaft and the pedal actu-
ation.
T Clutch2Gearbox
PT.Clutch.DVA.Trq_A2B
DVA Clutch Gearbox
q, q̇Gerarbox
Figure 8.17: Clutch Model DVA
The user can specify a torque by modifying a DVA variable.
T Clutch2Gerbox = PT.Clutch.DVA.Trq_A2B (EQ 49)
This model decouples the engine model since only the user specified torque is transferred
to the gearbox input shaft.
Parameters
This model has no parameters.

PowerTrain 128
Gear Box
8.5 Gear Box

Overview
The primarily task of the gearbox subsystem is the transmission of rotation speed and
torque from the input- to the output-shaft according to Figure 8.18.
ECU
Signals
T Gearbox2DL
T Clutch2GearBox iGearBox
Clutch Gearbox Driveline

q, q̇Gearbox q, q̇Driveshaft
Gear Selector
Figure 8.18: Gearbox Model
PowerTrain.GearBox.Kind = KindStr
Selection of the gearbox subsystem to use. The powertrain components library provides the
following gearbox models:
Powertrain.GearBox.Kind Description
Manual currently only a manual transmission is available
DVA Transmission ratio is modified via DVA access
...
Example PowerTrain.GearBox.Kind = Manual

PowerTrain 129
Gear Box
8.5.1 GearBox Model ‘Manual’

The selection of the gear ratio with the manual transmission model is done by user require-
ments or the driver model (IPG-DRIVER).
The transmission of torque is calculated by this simple approach:
T Out = i G ⋅ M In (EQ 50)
The change from one gear ratio to another has to proceed in a certain time period because
it is impossible to accelerate the transmission input inertia unlimited. This synchronization
process is modeled through a constant gear change duration (parameterizable). The trans-
mission rate is adjusted continuously during this procedure.
PowerTrain.GearBox.iForwardGears = GearRatioList
State the transmission ratio for every single forward gear.
Example PowerTrain.GearBox.iForwardGears = 3.4 1.9 1.35 1.05 0.8
PowerTrain.GearBox.iBackwardGears = GearRatioList
State the transmission ratio for every single backward gear.
Example PowerTrain.GearBox.iBackwardGears = -4.0
PowerTrain.GearBox.nFit = value
OPtional. This defines the number of cycle times (or milliseconds) used for the synchroni-
zation process. Default: 50
Example PowerTrain.GearBox.nFit = 50

PowerTrain 130
Gear Box
8.5.2 GearBox Model ‘DVA’

This model is not a conventional gearbox model. The transmission is not determined by the
selected gear ratio.
PT.GearBox.DVA.i
T Gearbox2DL
T Clutch2Gearbox iGearbox
Clutch Gearbox Driveline

q, q̇Gearbox q, q̇Driveshaft
Figure 8.19: Gearbox Model DVA
The user can specify a transmission ratio by modifying a DVA variable:
T Clutch2Gerbox = PT.GearBox.DVA.i (EQ 51)
Parameters
This model has no parameters.

PowerTrain 131
User Accessible Quantities for PowerTrain
8.6 User Accessible Quantities for PowerTrain

Please refer to section 12.3 ’User Accessible Quantities: Power Train’

PowerTrain 132
Powertrain Software Interface
8.7 Powertrain Software Interface

The powertrain uses the global data structure PowerTrain to exchange signals form one
subsystem to the other and to enable the user to observe the powertrain. Figure 8.20: gives
a structural overview for the exchanged quantities. Inputs needed come from subsystems
DrivMan (simulation of the vehicles virtual control elements), Car and Brake.
Inputs Outputs
DrivMan Engine
DrivMan.Gas PowerTrain.Engine_on
DrivMan.Clutch PowerTrain.Engine_rotv
DrivMan.GearNo
DrivMan.StarterCtrl GearBox
DrivMan.Ignition PowerTrain.GearBox_rotv_in
Car Wheel
Car.Trq_T2W PowerTrain.W.rotv
PowerTrain PowerTrain.W.rot
PowerTrain.W.Trq_B2W
PowerTrain
PowerTrain.Trq2Bdy1
Brake
Brake.Trq_
Legend
=FL/FR/RL/RR
Figure 8.20: Inputs and Outputs of the Power Train

PowerTrain 133
Powertrain Software Interface
Listing 2.3 shows the framework of the powertrain data structure from header file Power-
Train.h. For further details please refer to this file.
Listing 8.2: Interface Data Structure
struct tPowerTrain {
struct tPTEngine {
} Engine;
struct tPTClutch {
} Clutch;
struct tPTGearBox {
} GearBox;
struct tPTDriveLine {
} DriveLine;
struct tPTWheel {
} WFL, WFR, WRL, WRR;
double Trq_Supp2Bdy1[3];
};
struct tPowerTrain PowerTrain;

Brake System 135
Overview
Chapter 9
Brake System
9.1 Overview
CarMaker offers for every purpose an appropriate brake system model. There are different
interests for using a specific brake system model.
A simple brake model is sufficient if the main interest of investigation is not concerned with
the brake system and no electronic brake controller is used. It is good for driving maneuvers
with simple braking tasks.
If the interest is based on the brake system itself or if a brake ECU has to be satisfied there
is a high resolution brake model available which is exclusively parameterizable. The aim is
to represent the real braking system as closely as possible in combination with real time
computing constraints.

Brake System 136
Overview
9.1.1 Brake Interface

Internally CarMaker uses an interface structure for exchanging signals with the brake mod-
el. Inputs from different CarMaker modules are grouped in the interface structure (for details
see header file Brake.h or section 9.2 on page 137). Figure 9.1 shows the input quantities
to the interface structure.
DrivMan.Brake
Trq[4]
DrivMan.BrakePark
Brake Interface Struct

Brake Interface Struct
pWB[4]
Brake Model
(Output-Quantities)
IO.HydValve[12] Calculation
(Input-Quantities)
IO.PumpIsOn The user selected
Brake Model is calcu-
IO.BooSignal lated with this func- Pump
tion return volt.
ExtInp_IF.PactUnit.Value
Ambient.Temperature
Figure 9.1: Structure of Brake Interface
The box in the middle shows the changeable brake model which can be a simple or a high
resolution brake model from the CarMaker brake library or any customer specific brake
model which satisfies the brake interface structure.
The input from the interaction controls of the brake system are provided from the DrivMan
module and displayed DrivMan.x quantities.
For a brake ECU in the Loop the information about valve positions and other output of the
brake ECU is needed as input into the brake model. Those signals are acquired from the
CarMaker IO module and shown as the IO.x input signals in Figure 9.1
For special purposes, e. g. control the master cylinder pressure with data records from an
external input file, there is a separate input for the pressure of the master cylinder
(ExtInp_IF.PactUnit.Value).
For several reasons the environment temperature is needed for some calculations within
brake models. this is why there is a separate input for the ambient temperature
(Ambient.Temperature).
In terms of embedding the brake model within the CarMaker vehicle environment only the
estimated brake torque for each wheel are needed as output values. But there are a number
of other output quantities as indicated by the arrows characterizing the output quantities (for
details see header fileBrake.h or section 9.2 on page 137). Depending on the brake model
used not all output quantities are calculated and therefore not updated.

Brake System 137
Brake System Software Interface
9.2 Brake System Software Interface

Listing 9.1: Interface structure to the brake system calculation function
2: /*** Brake Interface: Interface to the brake calculation function */

3:
4: typedef struct tBrakeIF {
5:
6: /*** Input Quantities: */
7: int Use_pMCInput; /* use pressure input instead of force */
8:
9: double Pedal;/* brake pedal actuation */
10: double Park;/* park brake actuation */
11: double pMC_in; /* optional input: Master cylinder pressure */
12:
13: double V[16]; /* relative Valve signals [0..1] *
14: * 0-3: Inlet FL/FR/RL/RR, opened if 0 *
15: * 4-7: Outlet FL/FR/RL/RR, closed if 0 *
16: * 8: Pilot Valve FR/RL, opened if 0 *
17: * 9: Pilot Valve FL/RR, opened if 0 *
18: * 10: Suction Valve FR/RL, closed if 0 *
19: * 11: Suction Valve FL/RR, closed if 0 */
20: int PumpIsOn; /* hydraulic pump */
21: double BooSignal; /* booster input signal */
22:
23: double T_env; /* Temperature of the environment [K] */
24:
25: /*** Output Ouantities: */
26: double pMC; /* pressure actuation unit (master cylinder) [bar] */
27: double pWB[4]; /* pressures wheel brakes FL/FR/RL/RR [bar] */
28: double Trq_WB[4]; /* wheel brake torques FL/FR/RL/RR [Nm] */
29: double Trq_PB[4]; /* parking brake torques */
30: double Trq_ext[4]; /* external (or additional) brake torques */
31: double Trq_tot[4]; /* total brake toques (used for wheel rotation) */
32:
33: int Rel_SW; /* booster release switch */
34: double PuRetVolt; /* induced voltage of the hydraulic pump */
35:
36: double PedFrc; /* force on the brake pedal */
37: double PedTravel; /* travel of the brake pedal [mm] */
38: double PistTravel; /* travel of the master cylinder [mm] */
39: double DiaphTravel; /* travel of the booster diaphragm */
40:
41: /*** Optional Input/Output Quantities: */
42: double OptDblIO[8];/* HydESP: [0] := pump pwm control */
43: long OptLngIO[4];
44: void *OptPtrIO;
45:
46: } tBrakeIF;
47:
Calculation Function
int (*Eval) (void *BP, /* Modellparameter/Instanzpointer */
tBrakeIF *IF, /* Interface structure */
double dt); /* time step */

Brake System 138
General Brake System Parameters
9.3 General Brake System Parameters

The parameters explained here apply for all brake models and are stored in the vehicle data
file.
Selection of the Brake Model
Brake.Kind = KindStr
Specifies which brake model is used. Used if brake parameters are specified in the Vehicle
Data File.
Possible values are:
Brake.Kind Description
PresDistrib simple brake model, for details see section 9.5 on page 142
HydESP high resolution brake model, for details see section 9.6 on page 144
Example Brake.Kind = HydESP
Brake.FName = FName
This references a brake model from a file including all other (not listed here) brake param-
eters. The file is read from the subdirectory Data/Misc. The model type is determined from
the FileIdent parameter (should be the first line in the external file). Currently this is only
available for the model HydESP (FileIdent = CarMaker-Brake-HydESP 3).
If Brake.FName is specified the parameter Brake.Kind is not taken into account.
Example Brake.FName = HydESP_DemoParam
Brake.Torque.Amplify = ValueList
Multiplies the specific brake torque of the wheel, which has been calculated by the brake
model with this factor [-]. Four factors in the order front left, front right, rear left, rear right.
Example Brake.TorqueAmplify = 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0

Brake System 139
General Brake System Parameters
Parking Brake
CarMaker distinguishes between brake and parking brake. The parking brake model is not
contained in the changeable brake module selected with Brake.Kind or Brake.FName and
remains for all models the same. It is implemented as a fixed system within the CarMakers
car model.
Brake.Park.Trq_max = ValueList
Maximum parking brake torque at each wheel [Nm]. Four values in the order front left, front
right, rear left, rear right.
Example Brake.HandTorque.Value = 0 0 1000 1000

In this example the parking brake acts only on the rear wheels.

Brake System 140
9.4 User Accessible Quantities

9.4.1 General User Accessible Quantities for Brake Systems
Name Unit Info

Brake.BooSignal Booster activation signal (0..1)
Brake.DiaphTravel m Travel of the booster diaphragm
Brake.Pedal Brake pedal actuation (0..1)

Brake.PedFrc N Force applied on brake pedal
Brake.PedTravel m Brake pedal travel
Brake.PistTravel m Travel of brake piston
Brake.Park Park brake actuation (0..1)
Brake.pMC bar Master cylinder pressure

Brake.pMC_in bar Input of master cylinder pressure to hydraulic mod-
el if input mode ‘Use_pMCInput’ ist selected in the
brake interface.
Brake.PumpIsOn Hydraulic pump activated
Brake.PuRetVolt V Hydraulic pump return voltage
Brake.pWB_FL bar Brake pressure front left

Brake.pWB_FR bar Brake pressure front right
Brake.pWB_RL bar Brake pressure rear left
Brake.pWB_RR bar Brake pressure rear right
Brake.Rel_SW Brake booster release switch actuated
Brake.T_env K Environment temperature for brake
Brake.Trq_FL Nm Brake torque front left

Brake.Trq_FR Nm Brake torque front right
Brake.Trq_RL Nm Brake torque rear left
Brake.Trq_RR Nm Brake torque rear right
Brake.Trq_PB_FL Nm Brake torque of park brake front left
Brake.Trq_PB_FR Nm Brake torque of park brake front right
Brake.Trq_PB_RL Nm Brake torque of park brake rear left
Brake.Trq_PB_RR Nm Brake torque of park brake rear right
Brake.Trq_FL_ext Nm External brake torque front left
Brake.Trq_FR_ext Nm External brake torque front right
Brake.Trq_RL_ext Nm External brake torque rear left
Brake.Trq_RR _ext Nm External brake torque rear right

Brake System 141
Name Unit Info

Brake.Trq_FL_tot Nm Total brake torque (trq+trq_park+ trq_ext) front left
Brake.Trq_FR_tot Nm Total brake torque (trq+trq_park+ trq_ext) front
right
Brake.Trq_RL_tot Nm Total brake torque rear left
(trq+trq_park+ trq_ext)
Brake.Trq_RR _tot Nm Total brake torque rear right
Brake.Valve_In_FL Valve activity for inlet valve front left (0..1)

Brake.Valve_In_FR Valve activity for inlet valve front right (0..1)
Brake.Valve_In_RL Valve activity for inlet valve rear left (0..1)
Brake.Valve_In_RR Valve activity for inlet valve rear right (0..1)
Brake.Valve_Out_FL Valve activity for outlet valve front left (0..1)
Brake.Valve_Out_FR Valve activity for outlet valve front right (0..1)
Brake.Valve_Out_RL Valve activity for outlet valve rear left (0..1)
Brake.Valve_Out_RR Valve activity for outlet valve rear right (0..1)
Brake.Valve_PV_0 Valve activity for pilot valve 0
Brake.Valve_SV_0 Valve activity for suction valve 0

142
Brake System PresDistrib
9.5 Brake System PresDistrib

9.5.1 Overview
This is a simple brake model which acts like a conventional one circuit brake.
master-
brake- brake
Tfr cylinder pedal Trr
force
or
pMC
position
Tfl Trl
Figure 9.2: principle of brake model ‘PresDistrib
A master brake pressure is build proportional to the input value of the brake pedal.
p MC = PF2pMC ⋅ F ped (EQ 52)
or
p MC = PP2pMC ⋅ x ped (EQ 53)
The braking torque for each individual wheel is calculated by
T i = p MC ⋅ pWB2Trq i with i = fl, fr, rl, rr (EQ 54)
p MC pressure of master brake cylinder

F ped brake pedal force
x ped brake pedal position
Ti brake torque at wheel i
PF2pMC conversion factor from brake pedal force
to master brake cylinder pressure
PP2pMC conversion factor from brake pedal posi-
tion to master brake cylinder pressure
pWB2Trq i conversion factor from master brake cyl-
inder pressure to wheel brake torque

143
Brake System PresDistrib
9.5.2 Brake System PresDistrib Parameters
Brake.pMC_based_on
This parameter specifies how the master brake pressure is determined.
Brake.pMC_Based_on Description
PedalPos Master brake pressure depends on brake pedal position (Default).
PedalForce Master brake pressure depends on brake pedal force.
The Brake pressure in the master cylinder is proportional to either pedal position or pedal
force.
Example Brake.pMC_based_on = PedalPos
Brake.PedalPos2pMC
This parameter is valid if ‘PedalPos’ is selected with Brake.pMC_Based_on. This factor deter-
mines the master brake cylinder pressure according to (EQ 53) [bar].
Brake.PedalForce2pMC
This parameter is valid if ‘PedalForce’ is selected with Brake.pMC_Based_on. This factor

determines the master brake cylinder pressure according to (EQ 52) [bar].
Brake.pWB2Trq
Ratio wheel pressure to brake torque, see (EQ 54) [-]. Specify 4 values for fl, fr, rl, rr wheel.
Example Brake.pWB2Trq = 16.0 16.0 7.0 7.0

144
Brake System HydESP
9.6 Brake System HydESP

9.6.1 Overview
Structure of the braking system

A standard car braking system consists of two brake circuits, each one applying two wheel
brakes. Also this model can be used with two different brake-circuit configurations:
In the diagonal (X-pattern) system, each brake circuit applies on a front wheel brake and a
rear wheel brake on the opposite side. In the system with separate circuits for the front and
rear axle (II-pattern), each circuit applies the brakes on one axle.
The two circuits are called primary and secondary circuit. In reality as well as in the model
the two circuits are identical.
The following picture shows a brake system with ESP. Only the primary circuit and only one
wheel brake is shown.
brake booster
drive signal
brake booster master cylinder
to secondary circuit brake

pedal
pilot valve
suction valve
hydraulic pump
line attenuator
or
volume line volume
low pressure
accumulator
outlet inlet
valve valve
from outlet valve

second wheel brake to inlet valve
second wheel
brake
wheel brake cylinder

Figure 9.3: ESP Braking System

145
Brake System HydESP
Interface of the model

The HydESP model has interfaces to signals of the driver, the brake ECU and the vehicle.
The following lists name the input and output used and generated by the brake model.
Inputs • normalized brake pedal actuation [0..1]

• drive signals for the solenoid valves: digital or analog [0..1]
• pump on/off (digital)
• brake booster drive signal
Outputs • pressure master cylinder

• pressures wheel brake cylinders
• brake torques
• return voltage of the hydraulic pump
• state of the booster release switch
• travel of the master cylinder piston
• travel of the brake pedal
Functional Description
Figure 9.3 shows the simplified model of a ESP controlled brake system. The following is a
brief description of such a system and how it features are modeled.
The brake force applied to the brake pedal by the driver is mechanically transformed into a
input force of the brake booster. The brake booster itself amplifies the input force and pass-
es its output to the pistons of the master brake cylinder. There the piston rod force is trans-
lated into a master cylinder pressure.
The master cylinder has two hydraulic connectors one for each brake circuit. It is assumed
that the master cylinder pressure is equal for both brake circuits.
The hydraulic part is modeled as a system of alternating volume and connection elements
(connecting lines including valves, hydraulic pumps, etc.). This means that from every vol-
ume element there is a flow of brake fluid through connection elements to another volume
element (depicted in Figure 9.4).
Volume Element 1 Volume Element 2

p 1, V 1 p 2, V 2
Volume Element 3
p 3, V 3
Figure 9.4: Hydraulic model with alternating volume and connection elements
Each volume element is characterized with the state variables pressure and volume. The
system tries to equalize pressure differences with a flow from the high pressure to the low
pressure volume element. The flow rate is limited by the hydraulic resistance which is a
attribute of the connection element. The hydraulic resistance is a combination of the resis-

146
Brake System HydESP
tance of the connecting line and the current resistance of the valves (which often is a func-
tion of time and/or pressure difference). In case of a hydraulic pump this is reversed and the
pump transports fluid from the low pressure side to the high pressure side.
As a counterpart to the master brake cylinder the wheel brake cylinder transforms its cur-
rent pressure into a brake lining force. This force is transformed into a brake torque by the
wheel brake itself.
The goal of the system of valves, pumps, connection lines and volume elements in case of
a ESP system is to control the brake torque of each single wheel by regulating the pressure
of its wheel brake cylinder. This is done by opening and closing the inlet and outlet valves
for a certain amount of time to increase or decrease the brake pressure. To hold the current
pressure inlet and outlet valves remain closed at the same time.
The hydraulic pump is used to pump fluid back from the low pressure accumulator (where
brake fluid is temporarily stored) to the reservoir of the master brake cylinder. In special
operation modes of the system when the driver is not actuating the brake pedal the pump
is used to generate pressure for autonomous brake interventions. For those operation
modes of a ESP system two more controlled valves are needed for each brake circuit
(named suction and pilot valves in Figure 9.3). See technical literature for more information
how the suction and pilot valves are used and how specific actions are operated.
ABS systems have basically the same structure as ESP systems but the suction and pilot
valves are omitted. They are not needed because ABS systems do not perform autono-
mous brake interventions.

147
Brake System HydESP
9.6.2 Brake circuit configuration
CircuitConfig
Optional. This parameter specifies the brake circuit configuration X- vs. II-pattern. (X-pat-
tern = diagonal split, II-pattern = one circuit for one axle). Default: X-pattern.
Brake Circuit
CircuitConfig Brake Circuit Description
Index
X 0 FR/RL Diagonal split.
1 FL/RR
II 0 FL/FR Parallel (front/rear) split.
1 RL/RR
Example CircuitConfig = X
Brake pedal
The brake force applied to the brake pedal by the driver is mechanically transformed into a
piston rod input force of the brake booster.
piston travel
F BooIn l1
l2
brake pedal F Pedal PedalActuation

Pedal2PedalFrc
[ 0..1 ]
pedal travel
Figure 9.5: Mechanical amplification of drivers brake force
F BooIn = ratio ⋅ F Pedal (EQ 55)
Pedal.ratio
The pedal ratio amplifies the force of the brake pedal [-]. The resulting force is the input of
the brake system.
Example Pedal.ratio = 3.0

148
Brake System HydESP
Brake.Pedal2PedalFrc
Optional. This parameters defines the relation between driver brake pedal actuation and
brake pedal force F Pedal . Therefore a linear equation is used:
F Pedal = PedalActuation ⋅ Pedal2PedalFrc (EQ 56)
The force [N] defines the maximum brake force with full pedal actuation [1]. Default: 300 N.
Example Brake.Pedal2PedalFrc = 500

149
Brake System HydESP
9.6.3 Brake booster

The brake booster amplifies the input force at the piston rod proportionally up to a certain
limit. Above this limit there is no more amplification of force.
F BooOut F BooIn
p MC p MC
master cylinder brake booster

Figure 9.6: Amplification of brake actuation force by the brake booster.
The output force of the brake booster F BooOut equals a pressure of the master cylinder. This
relation can be calculated with (EQ 60) of the master brake cylinder.
Many parameters of the brake booster expect master cylinder pressures as input values
instead of booster output forces. See the particular description of these parameters.
Figure 9.7 shows the relation between the input force of the brake booster and the corre-
sponding master cylinder pressure. Before any pressure is build up the precharge force F 0
of the springs in the master cylinder has to be overcome. The following straight is the ampli-
fication range of the brake booster:
F BooOut = ratio ⋅ F BooIn (EQ 57)
The amplification ratio is higher than one.

When a specific output force (or an corresponding master cylinder) is exceeded the ampli-
fication ratio becomes one for any further increase of input force. This pressure is called the
booster run out pressure. The corresponding force can be calculated with (EQ 60).
p MC
p runout no amplification of force (ratio=1)
amplification of force (ratio>1)
F0 F runout F BooIn
Figure 9.7: Brake booster output pressure characteristic
The following brake booster types are provided with this hydraulic model:

150
Brake System HydESP
Boo.type
Optional. Boo.type determines the type of booster or precharge pump used. Some brake
systems additionally use an electric drive of the booster in order to create a brake pressure
even if there is no pedal force (e.g. brake assist, ACC). See booster models TargetPressure
and PressureGradient.
Boo.type Description
none Default: No brake booster is used. (Amplification ratio is always
one).
Mechanical Classic mechanical brake booster.
TargetPressure Booster with pressure proportional to input signal or precharge pump.
PressureGradient Booster with pressure gradient dp/dt = f(input signal)

151
Brake System HydESP
Brake Booster “Mechanical”

See Figure 9.7: for explanation of this booster model.
Boo.ampli
Amplification ratio when the brake booster is in amplification range [-]. See (EQ 57).
Example Boo.ampli = 7
Boo.runOut
Specifies the booster run-out pressure [bar]. Above the run-out pressure the booster ampli-
fication is one (no amplification).
Example Boo.runOut = 90

152
Brake System HydESP
Brake Booster “TargetPressure”

“TargetPressure” is a model of a controlled system consisting of the mechanical booster
and the simulated dynamic behavior of a booster-ECU. Internally this model distinguishes
two forces:
• A “interactive” booster force by amplification of the drivers input force like the booster
model “mechanical”.
• A “automatic” booster force which is initiated by the standardized drive signal. The drive
signal which is a input quantity of the HydESP brake interface has to be controlled by
user code (can be a simulated or real ECU). The output force is proportional to the
drive signal (0..1) without any driver interaction necessary for this.
The dynamic behavior is calculated within this model. The dynamics of the force
increase is modeled by a delay and a exponential saturation function.
Additionally a force threshold value for the release switch must be given. The release
switch is operated when the piston rod force (driver interaction) exceeds the given
threshold force.
The effective booster force calculates as follows:
F BooOut = max ( F Boo interactive, F Boo automatic ) (EQ 58)
For the “interactive” case see Figure 9.7: , the “automatic” case is shown in the following
illustration:
[p, 0..1]
booster activation signal
p T arg et
booster pressure
t
Boo.Delay Boo.63Prcnt
Figure 9.8: Pressure rise controlled by booster ECU (case “automatic” booster force)
Boo.ampli

153
Brake System HydESP
Boo.runOut
Boo.delay
Delay between signal and pressure rise [s].
Example Boo.delay = 0.01
Boo.63Prcnt
Time constant for pressure rise [s]. After t = Boo.Delay + Boo.63Pcnt , booster pressure has
reached 63% of the target value.
Example Boo.63Prcnt = 0.01
Boo.sign2press
This parameter determines the output (target) pressure when booster ECU is active [bar/
1]. The range of the drive signal is 0..1.
p T arg et = Boo.sign2press ⋅ DriveSignal
Example Boo.sign2press = 1
Boo.relF
Pedal force applied by driver to open the release switch [N].
Example Boo.relF = 10

154
Brake System HydESP
Brake Booster “PressureGradient”

“PressureGradient” is a booster model similar to the model “Target Pressure”. The differ-
ence is that the drive signal is interpreted in a different way. Like the booster model “Target
Pressure” two forces are distinguished:
• A “interactive” booster force by amplification of the drivers input force like the booster
model “mechanical”.
• A “automatic” booster force is initiated by the standardized drive signal of the booster
ECU which is a input quantity of the HydESP brake interface.
Here the gradient of pressure increase/decrease is a function of the activation signal.

The pressure can not exceed a maximum pressure.
In this booster model the release switch is operated when the “interactive” pedal force
exceeds the force generated by the “automatic” booster force.
In case of an autonomous intervention parallel to a pedal force, the resulting pressure is the
maximum of the two pressures:
F Booster = max (F Booster manual,F Booster ECU) (EQ 59)
[p, 0..1] Input signal

Boo.PMax
pressure fall
Booster Pressure
pressure rise
t
Figure 9.9: Pressure rise with booster model PressureGradient
Boo.ampli
Boo.runOut

155
Brake System HydESP
Boo.pMax
Maximum pressure difference the booster is able to produce in “automatic” mode (this
means booster pressure is controlled by the ECU) [bar].
Example Boo.pMax = 90
Boo.pGrad.mapping
Relation of booster activation signal [0..1] to gradient of pressure rise/fall [bar/s]. .

<Act.-Signal> <Pressure rise/fall>
Example Boo.pGrad.mapping:
0.0 -1000.0
0.15 -1000.0
0.3 0.0
0.4 0.0
0.8 400.0
1.0 400.0
1.1 400.0

156
Brake System HydESP
9.6.4 Master Cylinder

The master cylinder transforms the output force of the brake booster to a brake pressure.
Reservoir
Compensation Bores Spring
p MC p MC F BooOut
Brake Circuit 2 Brake Circuit 1
Figure 9.10: Master Brake Cylinder
F BooOut – F MC, 0 – c MC ⋅ x MC
- for x MC > x CompBore
p MC = ----------------------------------------------------------------- (EQ 60)
A MC
with
p MC Master cylinder pressure
F BooOut Brake booster output force
A MC Area of master cylinder.
F MC, 0 Precharge of the springs in MC.
c MC Spring constant of the MC springs.
x MC Piston travel.
x CompBore Piston travel to close compensation bore.
The pressure generated in the primary circuit is equal to the one in the secondary circuit.
When the force is zero, the piston is at the backside stop. The compensation bores are open
in this position and lead to a pressure equalization with the compensating reservoir (=atmo-
spheric pressure). Once the force becomes superior to the precharge of the springs, the
piston moves forward and closes the compensation bores. The whole brake system is now
a closed system and the further movements of the piston are determined by the system’s
elasticity.
MC.area
Area of the piston [cm2]
Example MC.area = 4.5

157
Brake System HydESP
MC.xCompBore
Piston travel to close compensation bore [mm]
Example MC.xCompBore = 2
MC.springConst
df N
------ of the spring(s) ---- .
dx m
Example MC.springConst = 1000
MC.springLoad
Precharge of the spring(s) [N].
Example MC.springLoad = 100

158
Brake System HydESP
9.6.5 Wheel brakes

The following calculation can be applied to disk or drum brakes because it is very general.
Figure 9.11: explains the requested parameters.
brake lining
F Brake
r Brake
T Brake
disk or drum brake
Figure 9.11: Schematic view of wheel brakes
The pressure in the brake cylinder is transformed into a brake torque as follows:
T Brake = F Brake ⋅ r Brake = p Brake ⋅ A BC ⋅ a Brake lining ⋅ r Brake (EQ 61)
with
p Brake Brake pressure
T Brake Brake torque.
A BC Area of brake cylinder.
a Brake lining Brake lining ratio.
F Brake Brake force acting at the brake linings.
r Brake Effective brake radius transforming force
into torque.
The brake lining ratio describes the relation between brake pressure and resulting wheel
brake torque. For disc brakes, its value usually is the coulomb number multiplied by 2. (fac-
tor 2 because there are brake linings on both sides of the disc).
Optionally, a characteristic can be given:
a Brake lining = f ( p Brake ) (EQ 62)
The given pairs of values are interpolated linearly.

The brake radius is the effective radius to calculate the brake torque out of the brake force.
For the following parameters applies: ‘f’ means front or ‘r’ means rear.
Pist_f.area
Pist_r.area
Total effective area of the ensemble of brake cylinders of one side (outboard or inboard) of
brake pistons of a single brake [cm2].
Example Pist_f.area = 23.0

159
Brake System HydESP
Pist_f.rBrake
Pist_r.rBrake
Effective brake radius (Brake Force -> Brake Torque) [m].
Example Pist_f.rBrake = 0.1

For the following parameters applies: ‘fl’, ‘fr’ means front left/right, or ‘rl’, ‘rr’ means rear left/
right.
Pist_fl.ratio
Pist_fr.ratio
Pist_rl.ratio
Pist_rr.ratio
Ratio of braking force to actuating force [-]. This parameter takes into account the influence
of the internal transmission ratio of the brake as well as the Coulomb friction coefficient. Fre-
quently: 2*Coulomb (factor 2 comes from inboard + outboard brake linings)
The ratio must be given for each brake of the four brakes.
Example Pist_fl.ratio = 0.7
Pist_fl.ratio.mapping
Pist_fr.ratio.mapping
Pist_rl.ratio.mapping
Pist_rr.ratio.mapping
Optional, instead of Pist_.ratio. Ratio [-] of braking force to actuating force as a func-
tion of the applied brake pressure [bar]. .

<Brake pressure> <ratio>
Example Pist_fl.ratio.mapping:
0 0.7
50 0.71
100 0.72
150 0.74
200 0.8

160
Brake System HydESP
9.6.6 Volume elements in general

Volume elements have inputs and outputs. The resulting liquid volume leads to a certain
pressure in the volume element. This relation is described by a function:
p = f ( absorbed liquid volume ) . (EQ 63)
By definition, the liquid volume of the filled elements at athmospheric pressure is equal to
zero.

161
Brake System HydESP
9.6.7 Wheel brake cylinders

The brake cylinders are modeled by the relationship:
p = f ( liquid volume ) . (EQ 64)
The parameters given must describe the sum of the elasticity of the brake cylinder itself as
well as of the line between inlet/outlet valve and brake.
The characteristic is parametrized by 3 to 20 points (p, V) as shown in the following diagram.
Above and below the given points, the curve is extrapolated linearly.
p3
p2
p1
p0
v0 v1 v2 v3 V
Figure 9.12: Pressure Volume Characteristic
Cyl_f.pv.mapping
Cyl_r.pv.mapping
Vector of pressure values [bar] corresponding to volume values [cm3]. It is the volume of
brake fluid absorbed by the cylinder at a given pressure. It is crucial that the supporting
points for the pressure rise strictly monotonic. .

<Pressure> <Volume>
Example Cyl_f.pv.mapping:
0 0.00
5 0.20
10 0.39
15 0.56
20 0.72
25 0.87
40 1.28
60 1.75
80 2.15
80 2.15
200 3.84

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Brake System HydESP
Example Cyl_f.pv.mapping:
0 0.00
Cyl_r.pv.mapping:
0 0.00
5 0.09
10 0.16
15 0.25
20 0.31
25 0.38
40 0.55
60 0.75
80 0.91
200 1.69

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Brake System HydESP
9.6.8 Low pressure accumulator

The low pressure accumulator accumulates the liquid coming out of the outlet valves before
it is pumped back in the brake circuit.
It usually consists of a cylinder with a piston loaded by a spring.
The relation between the absorbed liquid and the resulting pressure is modeled by the fol-
lowing characteristic (the gradients below pMin and above pMax are hard-coded).
pMax
pMin
vMax v
Figure 9.13: Pressures in low pressure accumulator
LPA.vMax
Maximum Volume of pressure accumulator [cm3].
Example LPA.vMax = 5.0
LPA.pMin
Pressure below which the volume is minimal [bar].
Example LPA.pMin = 1.0
LPA.pMax
Pressure above which the volume is maximal [bar].
Example LPA.pMax = 5.0

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Brake System HydESP
9.6.9 Attenuators (damper chambers) and line volumes

The discrete modeling of the hydraulic system makes it necessary to alternate between
apertures (flow elements) and volume elements.
Therefore volume elements are positioned between pilot valve, inlet valve and the high
pressure side of the pump as well as between low pressure accumulator check valve, suc-
tion valve and suction side of the pump. Those elements represent line volumes or attenu-
ator chambers.
They are modeled by proportional characteristics:
dp2dv
v
Figure 9.14: Proportional characteristics of attenuators and line volumes
In real brake systems, those line volumes are very small. Nonetheless for numerical rea-
sons, those elements should not be parametrized too stiff, even if the value given doesn’t
represent the real physical value.
Att.dp2dv
The attenuator is situated at the high pressure side of the pump. For numerical reasons, its
value should not be too high [bar/cm3].
p = dp2dv ⋅ v (EQ 65)
Example Att.dp2dv = 300.0
SuppL.dp2dv
The suction line volume is situated at the low pressure side of the hydraulic pump. For
numerical reasons, the value given should not be too high [bar/cm3].
p = dp2dv ⋅ v (EQ 66)
Example SuppL.dp2dv = 50.0

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Brake System HydESP
9.6.10 Hydraulic pump (return pump)

The pumps for both circuits are driven by the same motor. The static and dynamic charac-
teristic of the pump can be parametrized.
• Static characteristic:
- The flow is proportional to the rotational velocity. The rotational velocity of the pump
decreases with increasing pressure differences. This leads to the following relation:
q ( ∆p ) = q max – c loss ⋅ ∆p (EQ 67)
Alternatively a flow-characteristic can be specified.
q ( ∆p ) = f (∆p,pump activation) (EQ 68)
- Cavitation on the suction side. If the relative pressure on the suction side of the
pump approaches -1 bar (absolute pressure 0 bar), the flow approaches to zero.
This relation is modeled by a exponential saturation function starting at a limit "edge"
pressure and a second pressure at which 63% of the full flow are reached:
p –p
 edge
-
-----------------------

q∗ = q 1 – e
p 63 – p edge
 
(EQ 69)
 
• Dynamic characteristic:
t
– --
n q τ
---------- = ---------- = 1 – e (EQ 70)
n max q max
When the pump is switched on, the full rotational speed (as well as the full flow) is not
reached immediately, but it increases with an exponential saturation function. This
function can be parametrized by the time constant τ Full at which 63% of the full flow is
reached.
After switching off the pump, the rotational speed (as well as the flow) decreases expo-
nentially with a time constant τ Zero to be given.
The rotation speed of the hydraulic pump is a relative speed because it is meassured from
the voltage ratio of the pump ( current voltage ⁄ maximal voltage ). It is not possible for the hyrdau-
lic model to calculate a absolut pump speed.
Usually brake ECUs measure the return voltage generated by the pump to detect pump
engine faults. As the pump is a volumetric pump, its rotational speed is approximately pro-
portional to the flow (which is evaluated by the equation or tables above). The model eval-
uates this voltage as follows:
q
U Ret = ----------U genVmax (EQ 71)
q max
with
U genVmax Maximum generated return voltage of the pump (at a pressure
difference of 0 bar with no cavitation on the suction side).
q max Flow at pressure difference 0 bar.
Alternatively a characteristic can be specified.

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Brake System HydESP
All Paramaters specified for the hydraulic pump apply to a single brake cricuit (e. g. q max
applies per cirquit and is not the total flow of both cirquits). But both cirquits are parametized
with the same parameter (they are symetrical).
Pump.qMax
Optional instead of Pump.Flow.mapping. Maximum delivery of pump. At 0 bar pressure

3
difference [ cm ⁄ ( s ⋅ bar ) ] .
Example Pump.qMax = 5.0
Pump.cLoss
Optional instead of Pump.Flow.mapping. Loss Coefficient of pump. With increase of ∆p

delivery efficiency will decrease. Small Pump.cLoss values are equivalent to a high efficiency
3
characteristic of the pump [ cm ⁄ ( s ⋅ bar ) ] .
Example Pump.cLoss = 0.01
Pump.Flow.mapping.Kind
Optional. Determines the type of input for the characteristic Pump.Flow.mapping.:
Pump.Flow.mapping.Kind Description
Standard Default. One dimensional input characteristic depending on
activation signal expected.
PressureSignal Two dimensional input characteristic depending an activation
signal and pressure difference expected.
Example Pump.Flow.mapping.Kind = PressureSignal
To obtain reasonable results for a hydraulic pump (flow depends on activation signal/supply
voltage and pressure difference) the parameter Pump.Flow.mapping.Kind should be set to
‘PressureSignal’.
Pump.Flow.mapping
Optional instead of Pump.qMax and Pump.cLoss. This characteristic holds lines with the pres-
sure difference at the hydraulic pump [bar] the activation of the pump [0..1] and the resulting
3
delivery flow [ cm ⁄ s ] of the pump. It is assumed that Pump.Flow.mapping.Kind is set to ‘Pres-
sureSignal’! .

<Pressure-Diff.> <Activation-Signal> <Delivery-Flow>

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Brake System HydESP
Example Pump.Flow.mapping:
0.0 0.0 0.0

0.0 0.25 6.4
0.0 0.5 6.8
0.0 1.0 7.0
50.0 0.0 0.0
50.0 0.25 5.3
50.0 0.5 6.1
50.0 1.0 6.6
100.0 0.0 0.0
100.0 0.25 4.0
100.0 0.5 5.3
100.0 1.0 6.3
200.0 0.0 0.0
200.0 0.25 1.8
200.0 0.5 3.6
200.0 1.0 5.1
Pump.Full
Time constant τ Full when Pump is accelerating [s]. See (EQ 70).
Example Pump.Full = 0.1
Pump.Zero
Time constant τ Zero when pump is deccelerating [s]. See (EQ 70).
Example Pump.Zero = 0.1
Pump.pEdge
Only for pressures higher than p edge the Hydraulic pump works. Below p edge no fluid is
pumped [bar].
Example Pump.pEdge = -0.8
Pump.p63Prcnt
At this pressure the pump operates at 63% of its full delivery capacity [bar].
Example Pump.p63Prcnt = -0.5

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Brake System HydESP
Pump.genVmax
Optional. Generated voltage of the pump at maximum rotational speed [V], see (EQ 71).
Default: 8.0 V.
Example Pump.genVmax = 8.0
9.6.11 Valves and Connecting Lines in General
Pipe Valve Pipe
p1, V1 dPipe p2, V2

dValve
Q Q
Figure 9.15: Modeling of hydraulic valves and connecting lines
Applied to this model is that a valve with its corresponding pipe is always situated between
two hydraulic reservoirs with the state variables pressure and volume. The pressure differ-
ence
∆p = p 1 – p 2 (EQ 72)
is tried to be equalized by a flow
Q = Q Pipe = Q Valve = f (∆p,...) (EQ 73)
through the pipe and the valve aperture.

The complete pressure difference ∆p calculates to:
∆p = ∆p Valve + ∆p Pipe (EQ 74)
To solve this equation relations for the pressure portions of the flow of ∆p Valve and ∆p Pipe
are needed:
It is assumed that the flow through the pipe is always laminar and through the valve aperture
always turbulent.
• Laminar flow through a pipe:
2
Ad Pipe
Q Pipe = ---------------- ∆p = q Pipe ∆p (EQ 75)
32lρν
with
∆p pressure gradient (= pin- pout)
A cross section area of the pipe
d diameter pipe
ρ density
ν kinematic viscosity
q Pipe flow coefficient pipe

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Brake System HydESP
q Pipe can be calculated out of geometrical data using the following equation:
4
πd Pipe
q Pipe = -----------------
- (EQ 76)
128lρν
The value of the parameter q Pipe has to be specified in:
3 3
cm –6 m
[ q Pipe ] = --------------- = 10 ⋅ --------------- (EQ 77)
s ⋅ bar s ⋅ bar
• Turbulent flow through a valve:
2
Q Valve = αA --- ∆p ⋅ sgn ∆p = q Valve ∆p ⋅ sgn ∆p (EQ 78)
ρ
with
∆p pressure gradient (= pin- pout)
α coefficient depending on the geometry of the aperture
A aperture area
ρ density
q Valve flow coefficient valve aperture
q Valve can be calculated out of geometrical data using the following equation:
2
πd Valve 2
q Valve = α ----------------- --- (EQ 79)
4 ρ
The value of the parameter q Valve has to be specified in:
3 3
cm –6 m
[ q Valve ] = --------------- = 10 ⋅ --------------- (EQ 80)
s bar s bar
Combining (EQ 73), (EQ 74), (EQ 75) and (EQ 78) leads to:
∆p ( Q ) =  -------------- + -----------
Q 2 Q
(EQ 81)
 q Valve q Pipe
This relation between pressure difference and flow is valid for all modeled valves. Variations
are characterized through q Valve and q Pipe .

170
Brake System HydESP
9.6.12 Solenoid valves

The solenoid valves are controlled by the power of the magnetic field through the magnetic
coils. Basically two different kind of solenoid valves are distinguished:
• Digital valves have activation signals that normally either completely open (full activa-
tion) or completely close (zero activation) a valve.
• Proportional valves also have activation signals other than zero or full activation. An
activation between zero and full may lead to intermediate opening states of the valve.
Signal- Signal- HydESP

Acquisition Conditioning Hydraulic Model
analog
Raw- Measure- Target Valve Flow Rate
Signal Signal Valve Dynamics through
Position ⇒ actual Valve
CAL valve pos.
HydESP Brake Interface

t➞∞
f (act,∆p) f ( ∆p ) f (∆p,...)
Sensor
Measure- Activa-
Signal tion
Signal
Mag-
netic
or ∆p: Pressure Difference at Valve

p1 = f ( V 1 )
p2 = f ( V 2 ) ∆p = p 1 – p 2
digital
Integration of Flow
Activation Signal
(0 or 1) V 1 = V 1 – ∫ Q ( 1 ⇒ 2 ) dt
V 2 = V 2 + ∫ Q ( 1 ⇒ 2 ) dt
Figure 9.16: From detection to calculation of a hydraulic valve
The interface between the ECU and the simulated hydraulic block is at the magnetic coil.
Figure 9.16 shows the process from sensing the valve position up to the calculation of the
volume transferred through the valve and the connected pipe.
There are two possibilities for the acquisition of the valve activation signals. For proportion-
al valves the acquiring method has to be analog in order to capture intermediate valve posi-
tions. A raw signal captured from the sensor is converted by a calibration function into the
measure signal (typically it is the voltage output signal of a hall sensor). After that the mea-
sure signal has to be converted into a standardized valve activation signal. This is the input
signal for each solenoid valve to the brake interface.
The same standardized activation signal is delivered from the digital valve acquisition. It is
the digital signal itself which is characterized by the states zero and one. An alternative
method for capturing digital valves is to use the analog signal acquisition. The signal con-
ditioning part is used to define a threshold for valve activity.
After the activation signal of each valve is stored in the brake interface structure the calcu-
lation process within the brake model can be initiated. The intermediate state (without
dynamics, t ➞ ∞) of a proportional valve is a function of the activation signal and the pres-
sure difference of the valve. This is called the target valve position. Because there is no
pressure dependency for digital valves this function is a one to one relation of the activation
signal.

171
Brake System HydESP
The time response (so to speak when the target valve position is reached) is calculated by
the valve dynamics function. The opening time and closing time for the valve can be spec-
ified. As well, the opening/closing times are functions of the pressure difference. The result
is the standardized actual valve position.
The actual valve position is input for the flow rate calculation of the valve/pipe system. In
this context it is considered as a relative valve opening. The relative valve opening αrel [0..1]
is defined as:
q valve
α rel = --------------------
- (EQ 82)
q valve, max
q valve, max is the maximum flow rate which is reached with a fully opened valve (actual valve
position = 1). The calculation of the flow is done by (EQ 81) considering (EQ 82).
With the knowledge of the actual flow through the valve/pipe system the volume change of
the two bounding reservoirs can be calculated by integration of flow. This is shown in
Figure 9.16 at the lower part of the HydESP section.
The pressure difference of the valve is a central part for the calculation. It can be positive
or negative. Here, the pressure difference is defined to be positive if the input pressure is
higher than the output pressure, with the following definitions of inputs and outputs:
valve input side output side

inlet valve pressure side pump wheel brake
outlet valve wheel brake low pressure accumulator
pilot valve pressure side pump master cylinder
suction valve master cylinder suction side pump

172
Brake System HydESP
9.6.13 Proportional Solenoid Valves

All solenoid valves can be proportional or digital valves. For the proportional valves a trans-
fer mapping characteristic has to be specified to obtain the relative opening of the valve
depending on the activation signal and the current pressure difference at the valve.
A relative opening of 1 means that the valve is completely opened, 0 means completely
closed. This is important because there are valves that are closed when activated (activa-
tion signal 1 results in a relative opening of 0), or opened when activated (activation signal
1 results in a relative opening of 1)

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Brake System HydESP
Inlet_f.transfer.mapping.Kind
Inlet_r.transfer.mapping.Kind
Outlet_f.transfer.mapping.Kind
Outlet_r.transfer.mapping.Kind
PV.transfer.mapping.Kind
SV.transfer.mapping.Kind
Optional. Determines the type of input fo r the characteristic

Inlet_<f|r>.transfer.mapping.:
.transfer.mapping.Kind Description
Standard Default. One dimensional input characteristic depending on
activation signal expected.
PressureSignal Two dimensional input characteristic depending an activation
signal and pressure difference expected.
Inlet_f.transfer.mapping:
Inlet_r.transfer.mapping:
Outlet_f.transfer.mapping:
Outlet_r.transfer.mapping:
PV.transfer.mapping:
SV.transfer.mapping:
Optional. Used to calculate the target valve position of the valve. See Figure 9.16.
Syntax depending on Inlet_<f|r>.transfer.mapping.Kind (see above):
• Standard:
Characteristic specifying values for relative valve opening [0..1] depending on valve activa-
tion signal [0..1]..

<Act.-Signal> <Rel. Opening>
Example Inlet_<f|r>.transfer.mapping:
0.0 1.0
0.5 0.6
1.0 1.0
• PressureSignal:
Characteristic specifying values for relative valve opening [0..1] depending on pressure
difference [bar] and valve activation signal [0..1].

<Delta_p> <Act.-Signal> <Rel. Opening>
Example Inlet_f.transfer.mapping.Kind = PressureSignal

Inlet_f.transfer.mapping:
0.0 0.3 1.0
0.0 0.5 0.0
100 0.5 1.0
100 0.8 0.0

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Brake System HydESP
9.6.14 Dynamic Solenoid Valves

All solenoid valves no matter if they are proportional or digital can have a different dynamic
behavior depending on the current pressure difference at the valve. At higher pressures
valves usually open faster and close slower. This behavior is specified with the following
parameters:
Inlet_f.deltaT.mapping:
Inlet_r.deltaT.mapping:
Outlet_f.deltaT.mapping:
Outlet_r.deltaT.mapping:
PV.deltaT.mapping:
SV.deltaT.mapping:
Optional. Used to calculate valve dynamics and the actual valve position. Characteristic
specifying values for opening time [s] and closing time [s] of the valve depending on the
pressure difference at the valve [bar]. The durations specify the time for open a completely
closed valve and vice versa.

<Delta_p> <Opening Time> <Closing Time>
Example IInlet_f.deltaT.mapping:
100 0.002 0.01
200 0.001 0.01
0 0.01 0.01

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Brake System HydESP
9.6.15 Inlet Valves with check valve

The inlet valve (or supply valve) is situated before the wheel brake. A check valve is posi-
tioned parallel to the inlet valve. It is opened if the pressure in the wheel brake becomes
higher than on the inlet side. When not driven, inlet valves are opened (flow through valve
is possible).
Usually, inlet valves are digital or proportional 2/2-valves. But there are also systems with
valves that have a variable aperture. Those valves have a small and a big aperture, the
switching between them is done by a mechanical system depending on the pressure differ-
ence:
aperture
size lower threshold upper threshold
big
small
p Sm2Gr p Gr2Sm ∆p
Figure 9.17: Switching between different aperture sizes
pressure difference switch to

lower than lower threshold big aperture
higher than upper threshold small aperture

176
Brake System HydESP
For valves with unswitched apertures:
Inlet_f.qOri
Inlet_r.qOri
Flow coefficient of valve without switched apertures (‘Ori’ = Orifice = Aperture)

3
[ cm ⁄ ( s ⋅ bar ) ] .
Example Inlet_f.qOri = 4.0
For valves with switched apertures:
Inlet_f.qOriGr
Inlet_r.qOriGr
Flow coefficient of valve when switched to big aperture (‘Ori’ = Orifice = Aperture)
3
[ cm ⁄ ( s ⋅ bar ) ] .
Example Inlet_f.qOriGr = 4.0
Inlet_f.qOriSm
Inlet_r.qOriSm
Flow coefficient of valve when switched to small aperture (‘Ori’ = Orifice = Aperture)
3
[ cm ⁄ ( s ⋅ bar ) ] .
Example Inlet_f.qOriGr = 2.8
Inlet_f.pSm2Gr
Inlet_r.pSm2Gr
Limit pressure below which valve switches from “small” to “big” aperture [bar].
See Figure 9.17.
Example Inlet_f.pSm2Gr = 14.0
Inlet_f.pGr2Sm
Inlet_r.pGr2Sm
Limit pressure above which valve switches from “big” to “small” aperture [bar].
See Figure 9.17.
Example Inlet_f.pGr2Sm = 18.0

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Brake System HydESP
For all inlet valves:
Inlet_f.qPipe
Inlet_r.qPipe
3
Optional. Overall flow coefficient of pipe in front and behind the valve [ cm ⁄ ( s ⋅ bar ) ] . Default:
106.
Example Inlet_f.qPipe = 10000
Inlet check valves:
InCheckV_f.qOri
InCheckV_r.qOri
Flow coefficient of check valve situated beside inlet valve (‘Ori’ = Orifice = Aperture)
3
[ cm ⁄ ( s ⋅ bar ) ] .
Example InCheckV_f.qOri = 6.0
InCheckV_f.qPipe
InCheckV_r.qPipe
3
Optional. Overall flow coefficient of pipe of check valve [ cm ⁄ ( s ⋅ bar ) ] . Usually this is the
same as Inlet_<f|r>.qPipe. Default: 106.
Example InCheckV_f.qPipe = 20000
Outlet Valves
The outlet valves (or: discharge valves) are situated behind the wheel brake. When not driv-
en, the outlet valves are closed.
Outlet_f.qOri
Outlet_r.qOri
3
Flow coefficient of outlet valve (‘Ori’ = Orifice = Aperture) [ cm ⁄ ( s ⋅ bar ) ] .
Example Outlet_f.qOri = 4.0

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Brake System HydESP
Outlet_f.qPipe
Outlet_r.qPipe
3
Optional. Overall flow coefficient of pipe before and after the outlet valve [ cm ⁄ ( s ⋅ bar ) ] .
Default: 106.
Example Outlet_f.qPipe = 100000

179
Brake System HydESP
9.6.16 Pilot valve with check valve and pressure limiting valve
The pilot valves are used to separate the brake circuit from the master cylinder. This allows
the system autonomously to generate a brake pressure in the circuit. When not driven, the
pilot valves are open.
A check valve is positioned parallel to the pilot valve. It opens if the pressure in the master
cylinder is higher than the one in the circuit.
A pressure limiting valve is positioned parallel to the pilot valve as well. It opens if the pres-
sure in the brake circuit is higher than the pressure limit. In this case, the flow is calculated
as follows:
Q PLim = q PLimValve ⋅ ∆p – p Limit ⋅ sgn ∆p (EQ 83)
The pressure limiting valve is then modeled by the relationship
∆p ( Q PLim ) = p Open +  ------------------------ + ----------------------

Q 2 Q
(EQ 84)
 q PLimValve q PLimPipe
Pure ABS systems don’t have pilot valves. For ABS systems use a relatively high value for
the flow coefficient. Be careful with too high values and check numerical stability.
PV.qOri
3
Flow coefficient of pilot valve (‘Ori’ = Orifice = Aperture) [ cm ⁄ ( s ⋅ bar ) ] .
Example PV.qOri = 5.0
PV.qPipe
3
Optional. Overall flow coefficient of pipe before and after the pilot valve [ cm ⁄ ( s ⋅ bar ) ] .
Default: 106.
Example PV.qPipe = 20000
PLim.qOri
3
Flow coefficient of pressure limiting valve (‘Ori’ = Orifice = Aperture) [ cm ⁄ ( s ⋅ bar ) ] .
Example PLim.qOri = 5.0
PLim.qPipe
Optional. Overall flow coefficient of pipe before and after the pressure limiting valve
3
[ cm ⁄ ( s ⋅ bar ) ] . Usually set to the same value as PV.qPipe. Default: 106.
Example PLim.qPipe = 20000

180
Brake System HydESP
PLim.pOpen
At a pressure difference superior to PLim.pOpen, the pressure limiting valve opens [bar].
Example PLim.pOpen = 180.0
PVcheckV.qOri
3
Flow coefficient of check valve (‘Ori’ = Orifice = Aperture) [ cm ⁄ ( s ⋅ bar ) ] .
Example PVcheckV.qOri = 5.0
PVcheckV.qPipe
3
Optional. Overall flow coefficient of pipe before and after the check valve [ cm ⁄ ( s ⋅ bar ) ] .
Usually set to the same value as PV.qPipe. Default:106.
Example PVcheckV.qPipe = 20000

181
Brake System HydESP
9.6.17 Suction valve

In case of an autonomous brake pressure generation, this valve enables the hydraulic pump
to take liquid out of the master cylinder. When not driven, they are closed. The suction valve
is situated between the master cylinder and the low pressure side of the hydraulic pump.
Pure ABS systems don have suction valves. For ABS systems use a relatively high value
for the flow coefficient. Be careful with too high values and check numerical stability.
SV.qOri
3
Flow coefficient of suction valve (‘Ori’ = Orifice = Aperture) [ cm ⁄ ( s ⋅ bar ) ] .
Example SV.qOri = 10.0
SV.qPipe
3
Optional. Overall flow coefficient of pipe before and after the suction valve [ cm ⁄ ( s ⋅ bar ) ] .
Default: 106.
Example SV.qPipe = 20000

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Brake System HydESP
9.6.18 Check Valve of the Low Pressure Accumulator

This valve is situated between the low pressure accumulator and the low pressure side of
the hydraulic pump. The purpose of this valve is to inhibit the flow trough the suction valve
to the low pressure accumulator. It opens when the pressure on the low pressure accumu-
lator side is higher then the one on the hydraulic pump side.
LPAcheckV.qOri
Flow coefficient of low pressure accumulator check valve (‘Ori’ = Orifice = Aperture)
3
[ cm ⁄ ( s ⋅ bar ) ] .
Example LPAcheckV.qOri = 6.0

LPAcheckV.qPipe
Optional. Overall flow coefficient of pipe before and after the low pressure accumulator
3
check valve [ cm ⁄ ( s ⋅ bar ) ] . Default: 106.
Example LPAcheckV.qPipe = 20000
Temperature of the Brake Fluid

In consequence of a temperature change of the hydraulic fluid the mass density ρ and the
kinematic viscosity ν of the fluid change as well. Apparently the equations (EQ 75) and (EQ
78) show the following relations:
1 1
q valve ∼ ------- and q pipe ∼ ------ . (EQ 85)
ρ ρν
This means that parameter values for q valve and q pipe specified in the hydraulic dataset are
only valid for a specific reference temperature T Ref which usually equals the ’normal’ oper-
ation temperature.

183
Brake System HydESP
Investigations about the significance of the relations ρ ( T ) and ν ( T ) point out clearly that
there is a negligible temperature influence of the mass density and a significant tempera-
ture dependence of the kinematic viscosity. This means that a change of temperature is
only relevant for the flow coefficients of the hydraulic pipes.
Figure 9.19: Change of kinematic viscosity and mass density of hydraulic fluid as a function of temperature
The flow parameters of the lines are specified by the user for a specific reference tempera-
ture. If the brake should operate at a temperature that differs from the reference tempera-
ture, the operating temperature can be changed to an alternative value (input from brake
interface). The flow characteristics are then adapted automatically by the brake model with
the given characteristics for the hydraulic fluid.
In order to parametrize the properties of the brake fluid, kinematic viscosities for two differ-
ent temperatures have to be given. Those two points are then used by the model to deter-
mine the coefficients in its viscosity function.
The hydraulic model uses the following approach to scale the flow coefficients to the spe-
cific operating temperature. A factor
ν Ref
nf = --------
- (EQ 86)
νT
with
nf Scaling factor,
v Ref Kinematic viscosity of brake fluid at reference temperature,
νT Kinematic viscosity of brake fluid at the specified operating tem-
perature of the brake,

184
Brake System HydESP
is used to recalculate the flow coefficients to
ν Ref
q pipe, T = nf ⋅ q pipe = --------- ⋅ q pipe (EQ 87)
νT
To calculate the kinematic viscosities the following approach is used,
log ( log ν ) = c ⋅ T + k , (EQ 88)
with the coefficients c, k of the linear equation on the right side:
( log ( log ν 2 ) ) – ( log ( log ν 1 ) )

c = -----------------------------------------------------------------------
- k = ( log ( log ν 1 ) ) – c ⋅ T 1
T2 – T1
. (EQ 89)
The reference kinematic viscosity is the viscosity according to (EQ 88) for the temperature
T Ref :
c ⋅ T Ref + k
10
ν Ref = 10 . (EQ 90)
Fluid.Ref.Temp
Optional. Reference temperature. Temperature of the hydraulic fluid at which the specified
flow coefficients are valid. Dimension: K. Default: no default value, temperature dependen-
cy of the brake fluid is switched on by specifying this parameter.
Fluid.Ref.Temp = 293
If the parameter Fluid.Ref.Temp is specified the following 4 parameters are mandatory.
The viscosity of the brake liquid has to be indicated for two temperatures:
Fluid.P1.Temp
Temperature T 1 to determine linear equation according to (EQ 88) [K].
Example Fluid.P1.Temp = 233
Fluid.P1.nue
Viscosity ν 1 to determine linear equation according to (EQ 88) [mm2/s].
Example Fluid.P1.nue = 1150

185
Brake System HydESP
Fluid.P2.Temp
Temperature T 2 to determine linear equation according to (EQ 88) [K].
Example Fluid.P2.Temp = 273
Fluid.P2.nue
Viscosity ν 2 to determine linear equation according to (EQ 88) [mm2/s].
Example Fluid.P2.nue = 40

186
Brake System HydESP
9.6.19 User Accessible Quantities for Brake Module ‘HydESP’
Name Unit Info

Brake.HydESP.Att_0.p bar Pressure of Attenuator 0
Brake.HydESP.LPA_0.p bar Pressure of low pressure accumulator 0

Brake.HydESP.SuppL_0.p bar Pressure of supply line 0
Brake.HydESP.Cyl_p_FL bar Pressure of brake cylinder front left

Brake.HydESP.Cyl_p_FR bar Pressure of brake cylinder front right
Brake.HydESP.Cyl_p_RL bar Pressure of brake cylinder rear left
Brake.HydESP.Cyl_p_RR bar Pressure of brake cylinder rear right
3
Brake.HydESP.Cyl_v_FL m Volume of brake cylinder front left
3
Brake.HydESP.Cyl_v_FR m Volume of brake cylinder front righ
3
Brake.HydESP.Cyl_v_RL m Volume of brake cylinder rear left
3
Brake.HydESP.Cyl_v_RR m Volume of brake cylinder rear right
Brake.HydESP.nPump 1/s Rotation speed of hydraulic pump engine
3
Brake.HydESP.qIN_FL m ⁄s Volume flow through inlet valve front left
3
Brake.HydESP.qIN_FR m ⁄s Volume flow through inlet valve front right
3
Brake.HydESP.qIN_RL m ⁄s Volume flow through inlet valve rear left
3
Brake.HydESP.qIN_RR m ⁄s Volume flow through inlet valve rear right
3
Brake.HydESP.qOUT_FL m ⁄s Volume flow through outlet valve front left
3
Brake.HydESP.qOUT_FR m ⁄s Volume flow through outlet valve front right
3
Brake.HydESP.qOUT_RL m ⁄s Volume flow through outlet valve rear left
3
Brake.HydESP.qOUT_RR m ⁄s Volume flow through outlet valve rear right
3
Brake.HydESP.qPV_0 m ⁄s Volume flow through pilot valve 0
see section ’CircuitConfig’
3
3
Brake.HydESP.qPu_0 m ⁄s Volume flow through hydraulic pump 0
3
3
Brake.HydESP.qSV_0 m ⁄s Volume flow through suction valve 0
3

187
Brake System HydESP

Tire 188
Overview
Chapter 10
Tire
10.1 Overview
The quality of a vehicle dynamics simulation is heavily influenced by the capabilities of the
tire model. This chapter describes the basic outline of tire models used with CarMaker.
Axis system for the tire-road contact point
z
x
y
C
Fr2
z
x
z
y x
P
y
FrH
Fr0
Fz
Figure 10.1: Tire Axis system FrH

Tire 189
Overview
There are two points of interest concerning a tire model, the wheel center C and the tire-
road contact point P. The axis system Fr2 which origins in C is explained in section 1.2
’CarMaker Axis Systems’. Furthermore there is a axis system FrH which has its origin in the
tire-road contact point. FrH is defined as follows:
• Rules apply to any tire of the vehicle
• (O) is located on the intersecting line of the tire vertical plane and the tangential plane
of the road. It is defined as the point of the shortest distance min ( CP ) on the intersect-
ing line.
• (X) points in forward direction of the intersecting line between tire vertical plane and
tangential plane of the road.
• (Y) points to the left side rectangular to (X) in the tangential plane of the road.
• (Z) points in direction of the normal vector of the tangential plane of the road (mathe-
matically: ( X ) × ( Y ) ).
CarMaker supports tire models formulated for the tire-road contact point. The duty of the
tire model is to calculate the tire response forces and torques. Basically the tire forces and
torques are functions of:
F, T = f ( F z, α, s, γ , µ, ... ) (EQ 91)
with
Fz Normal force in tire contact point
α Side slip angle
s Longitudinal slip
γ Camber angle
µ Friction coefficient between tire and road

Tire 190
Overview
10.1.1 Tire Interface

Inputs all parameters are related to FrH Outputs
(P)
v
v Belt (P)
F
(P)
Fz
Tire Model
(P)
γ T
(P)
µ
Figure 10.2: Structure of Tire Interface
A CarMaker tire model is provided from the vehicle model with the inputs depicted in
Figure 10.2. Beside the ones explained with Figure 10.1 they are:
(P)
v Velocity vector in the tire-road contact
point
v Belt Velocity of the tire belt in the tire-road
contact point
The outputs of the tire model are according to Figure 10.1:

(P)
F Tire forces in the tire-road contact point
(P)
T Torques in the tire-road contact point

Tire 191
Overview
10.1.2 Tire load (normal force)

The tire load is calculated by the vehicle model and is direct input to the tire model. This
section explains how the tire normal force is calculated.
vertical damping
C(t) vertical stiffness
CP ( t )
R0
l(t) Fz P ( t )
P0
Figure 10.3: Calculation of tire normal load

Tire 192
Overview
10.1.3 Tire Model Computations

The job of the tire model is to deduce the parameters of (EQ 91) out of the inputs of the tire
interface. This means that the parameters side slip angle and longitudinal slip, which are
not specified directly, have to be calculated by the tire model.This has to be done by a rela-
tion:
(P)
α, s = f ( v , v Belt ) (EQ 92)
The computation of internal models is explained in the sections below corresponding to the
tire models offered by CarMaker.

Tire 193
General Tire Parameters
10.2 General Tire Parameters

The parameters explained here apply to (various) tire models. All tire parameters are stored
in a separate tire date file.
General FileIdent = CarMaker-Tire-*
The first parameter has to be the FileIdent parameters which specifies the type and version
of tire model to be used. See chapter 1.6.2 for details.
FileIdent Version Description

RTTire 2,3 RealTime version of IPG-TIRE
MF52 3 Pacejka’s Magic Formula
Example CarMaker-Tire-RTTire 3
FileCreator = Comment
Optional. String containing formless informations about the file creator.
Description: Text
Description contains formal informations of tire details, e. g. tire dimensions, inflation pres-
sure, conditions of measurement, etc.
Carrier.mass = Mass
Carrier.I = InertiaTensor
Optional. Part in wheel carrier mass.

The support for this parameters depends on the vehicle model.
The place of this body is taken from the vehicle parameter set.
Wheel.mass = Mass
Wheel.I = InertiaTensor
Optional. Part in wheel mass.

The support for this parameters depends on the vehicle model.
The place of this body is taken from the vehicle parameter set.

Tire 194
Tire Model RT-Tire
10.3 Tire Model RT-Tire

Tire Model RT-Tire is a modified version of IPG-TIRE. This version is optimized for compu-
tation speed and designed for using in realtime systems.
Visualization AspectRatio
Optional. Represents ratio between rim radius and witdth [-].
NomWidth
Optional. Nomimal width of the tire [m].
NomRadius
Optional. Nominal radius of tire used for the animation tool IPG-MOVIE [m].
RimRadius
Optional. Nominal radius of rim used for the animation tool IPG-MOVIE [m].
FLoadMax
Optional. Maximum animated load force of tire. Used to scale the tire force vectors in the
animation tool IPG-MOVIE [N].
Model Ident muRoad
Friction conditions during tire measurement [-].
BinFName
File name with relative path to Data/Tire directory. Tire force and torque mappings may be
stored in a binary file located in this directory.
Kinematics and KinRollRadius

Load Force
Kinematic tire radius (also known as static tire radius) [m].
Radial.Stiffness
Radial/vertical stiffness of tire [N/m].

Tire 195
Tire Model RT-Tire
Radial.Damping
Radial/vertical damping coefficient of tire [N/m/s].
Dynamics LongFrc.Length
SideFrc.Length
AlignTrq.Length
Relaxation lengths. [m]
Stand Still vMinSlip

vMinAlpha
Optional. Boundary for switching between stand still model and normal computation [m/s].
StandStill.cLong = Stiffness
StandStill.cSide = Stiffness
Optional. Stiffness for stand stil model [-].
Additional LongFrc.Stiffness = Factor

Internal SideFrc.Stiffness = Factor
Parameters AlignTrq.Stiffness = Factor
Optional. Scaling factors[-].
InclinAngle2Alpha
Optional. Camber influence to side slip angle. The actual camber value multiplied by this
factor is added to the side slip angle value [-].

Tire 196
Tire Model RT-Tire
10.3.1 Rolling Resistance

Roll Resistance RollResist.Kind = KindStr
The following roll resistance models are known: Torque of force influence based on Load or
velocity.There KindStr are:
KindStr Description
TrqLoad A torque along wheel spin axis, against rotation based on
load force.
TrqVelocity A torque along wheel spin axis, against rotation based on
translation velocity.
FLoad A force along FrH x axis, against translation based on load
force.
FVelocity A force along FrH x axis, against translation based on trans-
lation velocity.
To disable roll resistance write none or an empty string.
RollResist.Factor
Kind dependent Factor. Input is scaled by Factor to get the roll resistance output [-].
10.3.2 Importing Tire Measurements

The supported input file format is the Tydex format. The Tydex file can be imported by
tireutil TydexFileName.tdx
The following Tydex model parameters are supported:
ITVS = RadialTireStiffness_N/m
ITVD = RadialDamping_N/m/s
ITRLLO = RelaxationLengthLong_m
ITRLLA = RelaxationLengthLateral_m
ITSSCLO = StandStillCoeffLong
ITSSCLA = StandStillCoeffLateral
ITRORETL = RollResistFactor_Trq/Load

Tire 197
Tire Model Magic Formula
10.4 Tire Model Magic Formula

10.4.1 The basics of Magic Formula
When possible “original” Pacejka’s variable and parameter names are used. For back-
ground information, you can use publications on Pacjeka tire modeling, magic formula or in
Hans B. Pacejka book “Tyre and Vehicle Dynamics” published in november 2002.
The general form of the formula reads:
y ( x ) = D sin [ C atan { Bx – E ( Bx – atan Bx ) } ] (EQ 93)
with
Y ( X ) = y ( x ) + SV
x = X + SH
where:
Y ( X ) : could be either F x or F y or possibly M z (in this case the sine function is replaced by
a cosine function.
The variables represents as follows:
B : stiffness factor
C : shape factor
D : peak value
E : curvature factor
S H : horizontal shift
S V : vertical shift
y Y
xm
SH
D
ya
x
SV X
atan(BCD)
Figure 10.4: Curve produced by the original sine version of the Magic Formula

Tire 198
The Magic Formula y ( x ) typically produces a curve that passes through the origin
x = y = 0 , reaches a maximum and tends to a horizontal asymptote. To allow the curve to
have an offset with respect to origin, two parameters for shifting ( S H and S V )have been
introduced
The MagicFormula model equation contains non-dimensional parameters p , q , r and s and
additional scaling factors λ . These parameters are used to parametrize a special tire
behavior.
The effect of having a tire with different nominal load can be approximated by using a scal-
ing factor:
′
F zo = λ Fzo F zo (EQ 94)
Further, we introduce the normalized change in vertical load
′
F z – F zo
d f z = ------------------
′
- (EQ 95)
F zo

Tire 199
10.4.2 Tire Description

General AdamsPropertyFile = PropertyFile
Optional. Link to an ADAMS® tire property file. Its path is relative to directory Data/Tire.
Supported Formats: MF_05

Caution.
All parameters listed below can be used to redefine a tire property. This means parameters
from AdamsPropertyFile have lower priority than or will be overwritten by parameters given
in the tire data set directly. This feature is very useful if you are tuning a measured tire data
set.
Dimensions and Range.FZMAX

Visualization
Optional. Maximum load force of tire. Used to scale the tire force vectors in the animation
tool IPG-MOVIE. If this parameter is missing the value from 2*Vertical.FNOMIN is used [N].
Dim.UNLOADED_RADIUS
Free tire radius also used for the animation tool IPG-MOVIE [m].
Dim.WIDTH
Tire width also used for the animation tool IPG-MOVIE [m].
Dim.RIM_RADIUS
Rim radius also used for the animation tool IPG-MOVIE [m].
Dim.RIM_WIDTH
Rim width also used for the animation tool IPG-MOVIE [m].
Vertical.VERTICAL_STIFFNESS
Radial/vertical stiffness of tire [N/m].
Vertical.VERTICAL_DAMPING
Radial/vertical damping coefficient of tire [N/m/s].

Tire 200
10.4.3 Scale factors

Scale Scale.LFZ0
Optional. Scale factor of nominal load [-]. Default: 1.
Scale.LCX
Optional. Scale factor of F x shape factor [-]. Default: 1.
Scale.LMUX
Optional. Scale factor of F x peak friction coefficient [-]. Default: 1.
Scale.LEX
Optional. Scale factor of F x curvature factor [-]. Default: 1.
Scale.LKX
Optional. Scale factor of F x slip stiffness [-]. Default: 1.
Scale.LHX
Optional. Scale factor of F x horizontal shift [-]. Default: 1.
Scale.LVX
Optional. Scale factor of F x vertical shift [-]. Default: 1.
Scale.LGAX
Optional. Scale factor of camber for F x [-].Default: 1.
Scale.LCY
Optional. Scale factor of F y shape factor [-]. Default: 1.

Tire 201
Scale.LMUY
Optional. Scale factor of F y peak friction coefficient [-]. Default: 1.
Scale.LEY
Optional. Scale factor of F y curvature factor [-]. Default: 1.
Scale.LKY
Optional. Scale factor of F y cornering stiffness [-]. Default: 1.
Scale.LHY
Optional. Scale factor of F y horizontal shift [-]. Default: 1.
Scale.LVY
Optional. Scale factor of F y vertical shift [-]. Default: 1.
Scale.LGAY
Optional. Scale factor of camber for F y [-].Default: 1.
Scale.LTR
Optional. Scale factor of peak of pneumatic trail [-]. Default: 1.
Scale.LRES
Optional. Scale factor for offset of residual torque [-]. Default: 1.
Scale.LGAZ
Optional. Scale factor of camber for M z [-].Default: 1.

Tire 202
Scale.LMX
Optional. Scale factor of overturning couple [-]. Default: 1.
Scale.LVMX
Optional. Scale factor of M x vertical shift [-]. Default: 1.
Scale.LMY
Optional. Scale factor of rolling resistance torque [-]. Default: 1.
Scale.LXAL
Optional. Scale factor of α influence on F x [-]. Default: 1.
Scale.LYKA
Optional. Scale factor of κ influence on F y [-]. Default: 1.
Scale.LVYKA
Optional. Scale factor of κ induced F y [-]. Default: 1.
Scale.LS
Optional. Scale factor of moment arm of F x [-]. Default: 1.
Scale.LSGKP
Optional. Scale factor of relaxation length of F x [-]. Default: 1.
Scale.LSGAL
Optional. Scale factor of relaxation length of F y [-]. Default: 1.

Tire 203
Scale.LGYR
Optional. Scale factor of gyroscopic torque [-]. Default: 1.
Example A l l p a ra m e t e r s a r e t a ke n f r o m t h e r e fe r e n c e d A DA M S ® t i r e p r o p e r t y f i l e
DT_Pacejca.tir, in the directory Data/Tire/Pacejka.
The vertical stiffness from the referenced file is overwritten: The value 400000 N/m is used
instead.
FileIdent =CarMaker-Tire-MF52 2
Description:
ADAMS Pacejka parameter set
AdamsPropertyFile =Pacejka/DT_Pacejka.tir
Vertical.VERTICAL_STIFFNESS = 400000

Tire 204
10.4.4 Effective tire rolling radius

The effective rolling radius is defined for a wheel the tire of which is uniform and rolls freely
at constant speed over an even horizontal surface.It reads:
V
R e = ------x (EQ 96)
Ω
R0
Ω
Vx
Re C
Figure 10.5: Effective rolling radius
In general the effective rolling radius will change with tire deflection ρ . Assuming the tire
has a constant vertical stiffness C z , the deflection is calculated with:
F
ρ = -----z- (EQ 97)
Cz
The effective rolling radius is estimated by the Magic Formula (A3.7) which reads:
R e = R 0 – ρ Fz0 ( Fρ d + D atan ( Bρ d ) ) (EQ 98)
F z0
ρ Fz0 = ------- (EQ 99)
Cz
ρ
ρ d = --------- (EQ 100)
ρ Fz0
Effective rolling Vertical.BREFF

radius
Low load stiffness of effective rolling radius [-].

Tire 205
Vertical.DREFF
Peak value of effective rolling radius [-].
Vertical.FREFF
High load stiffness of effective rolling radius [-].
Vertical.FNOMIN
Nominal wheel load [N].

Tire 206
10.4.5 Slip computation
VCx Vsx
VCy α
Vsy
V VS
Figure 10.6: Slip computation
The longitudinal slip speed is defined as:
V sx = V Cx – ΩR e (EQ 101)
which results in a definition of longitudinal slip:
V sx
κ = – --------- (EQ 102)
V Cx
The lateral slip speed is defined as:
V sy = V y (EQ 103)
which results in a definition of lateral slip:
V sy
tan α = ------------ (EQ 104)
V Cx
and a definition of side slip angle:
V sy
α = atan ------------ (EQ 105)
V Cx
The rolling speed becomes:
V r = Re Ω (EQ 106)
In case the complete model including transient properties is used, the transient tire quanti-
′ ′
ties κ and α (see (EQ 194), (EQ 195)) are used instead of the wheel slip quantities κ and
α.

Tire 207
10.4.6 Longitudinal force (pure longitudinal slip):

F xo = D x sin [ C x atan { B x κ x – E x ( B x κ x – atan ( B x κ x ) ) } ] + S Vx (EQ 107)
κ x = κ + S Hx (EQ 108)
C x = p Cx1 ⋅ λ Cx ( > 0) (EQ 109)
Dx = µx ⋅ Fz ⋅ ζ1 ( > 0) (EQ 110)
*
µ x = ( p Dx1 + p Dx2 d f z ) ⋅ λ µx ( > 0) (EQ 111)
E x = ( p Ex1 + p Ex2 d f z + p Ex3 d f z ) ⋅ { 1 – p Ex4 sgn ( κ x ) } ⋅ λ Ex ( ≤ 1 )

2
(EQ 112)
K xκ = F z ⋅ ( p Kx1 + p Kx2 d f z ) ⋅ exp ( p Kx3 d f z ) ⋅ λ Kxκ (EQ 113)
K xk
B x = ----------------------------- (EQ 114)
( Cx Dx + εx )
S Hx = ( p Hx1 + p Hx2 d f z ) ⋅ λ Hx (EQ 115)
′
S Vx = F z ⋅ ( p Vx1 + p Vx2 d f z ) ⋅ λ Vx ⋅ λ µx ⋅ ζ 1 (EQ 116)
At the request of several customers, who claim conformity to ADAMS implementation of MF

TIRE 5.2, the tire model includes minor differences to the formulae above:
• The (EQ 111) changes to
2
µ x = ( p Dx1 + p Dx2 d f z ) ⋅ ( 1 – p Dx3 γ x ) ⋅ λ µx ( > 0 ) (EQ 117)
with
γ x = γ ⋅ λ γx (EQ 118)
′
• In (EQ 116) λ µx instead of λ µx used.
• in (EQ 110) and (EQ 116) ζ 1 is set to one.
Longitudinal Long.PCX1
(pure slip)
Shape factor for longitudinal force [-].
Long.PDX1
Longitudinal friction µ x at F znom [-].

Tire 208
Long.PDX2
Variation of friction µ x with load [-].
Long.PDX3
Variation of friction µ x with camber [-].
Long.PEX1
Longitudinal curvature at F znom [-].
Long.PEX2
Variation of curvature with load [-].
Long.PEX3
Variation of curvature with load squared [-].
Long.PEX4
Factor in curvature while driving [-].
Long.PKX1
Longitudinal slip stiffness at F znom [-].
Long.PKX2
Variation of slip stiffness with load [-].
Long.PKX3
Exponent in slip stiffness with load [-].

Tire 209
Long.PHX1
Horizontal shift at F znom [-].
Long.PHX2
Variation of shift with load [-].
Long.PVX1
Vertical shift at F znom [-].
Long.PVX2

Tire 210
10.4.7 Lateral force (pure side slip):

F yo = D y sin [ C y atan { B y α y – E y ( B y α y – atan ( B y α y ) ) } ] + S Vy (EQ 119)
*
α y = α + S Hy (EQ 120)
C y = p Cy1 ⋅ λ Cy (EQ 121)
Dy = µy ⋅ Fz ⋅ ζ2 (EQ 122)
*2 *
µ y = ( p Dy1 + p Dy2 d f z ) ⋅ ( 1 – p Dy3 γ ) ⋅ λ µy (EQ 123)
*
E y = ( p Ey1 + p Ey2 d f z ) ⋅ { 1 – ( p Ey3 + p Ey4 γ ) sgn ( α y ) } ⋅ λ Ey ( ≤ 1) (EQ 124)
′   Fz  
K yαo = p Ky1 F zo sin  2 atan  ------------------
′ 
⋅ λ Kyα (EQ 125)
  p Ky2 F zo  
2
*
K yα = K yαo ⋅ ( 1 – p Ky3 γ ) ⋅ ζ 3 (EQ 126)
K yα
B y = -----------------------------
- (EQ 127)
( Cy Dy + εy )
S Hy = ( p Hy1 + p Hy2 d f z ) ⋅ λ Hy + p Hy3 γ y ⋅ λ Kyγ ⋅ ζ 0 + ζ 4 – 1 (EQ 128)
* ′
S Vy = F z ⋅ { ( p Vy1 + p Vy2 d f z ) ⋅ λ Vy + ( p Vy3 + p Vy4 d f z )γ ⋅ λ Kyγ } ⋅ λ µy ⋅ ζ 2 (EQ 129)

* *
• In (EQ 120) α instead of α used. α shall be used only in case of very large slip
angles (normally never measured).
*
• In (EQ 123), (EQ 124) and (EQ 129) γ y instead of γ used.
• In (EQ 122), (EQ 126), (EQ 128) and (EQ 129) ζ 0 , ζ 2 , ζ 3 , ζ 4 and λ Kyγ are set to one.
• The equation (EQ 126) changes to
′   Fz  
K yα = p Ky1 F zo sin  2 atan  ------------------
′ 
⋅ ( 1 – p Ky3 γ y ) ⋅ λ Kyα . (EQ 130)
  p Ky2 F zo  
with
γ y = γ ⋅ λ γy (EQ 131)
*
• In (EQ 123) λ µy instead of λ µy used.
′
• In (EQ 129) λ µy instead of λ µx used and

Tire 211
• The equation(EQ 128) changes to
S Hy = ( p Hy1 + p Hy2 df ) ⋅ λ Hy + p Hy3 γ y (EQ 132)
Lateral Lat.PCY1
(pure slip)
Shape factor for lateral forces [-].
Lat.PDY1
Lateral friction µ y [-].
Lat.PDY2
Variation of friction µ y with load [-].
Lat.PDY3
Variation of friction µ y with squared camber [-].
Lat.PEY1
Lateral curvature at Fznom F znom [-].
Lat.PEY2
Lat.PEY3
Zero order camber dependency of curvature [-].
Lat.PEY4
Variation of curvature with camber [-].
Lat.PKY1
Maximum value of stiffness at F znom [-].

Tire 212
Lat.PKY2
Load at which K fy reaches maximum value [-].
Lat.PKY3
K fy
Variation of -----------
- with camber [-].
Fz
nom
Lat.PHY1
Horizontal shift at F znom [-].
Lat.PHY2
Variation of horizontal shift with load [-].
Lat.PHY3
Variation of horizontal shift with camber [-].
Lat.PVY1
Vertical shift at F znom .
Lat.PVY2
Variation of vertical shift with load [-].
Lat.PVY3
Variation of vertical shift with camber [-].
Lat.PVY4
Variation of vertical shift with camber and load [-].

Tire 213
10.4.8 Aligning Torque (pure side slip)

′
M zo = M zo + M zro (EQ 133)
′
M zo = – t o ⋅ F yo (EQ 134)
′
t o = t ( α t ) = D t cos ( [ C t atan { B t α t – E t ( B t α t – atan ( B t α t ) ) } ] ⋅ cos α ) (EQ 135)
*
α t = α + S Ht (EQ 136)
*
S Ht = q Hz1 + q Hz2 d f z + ( q Hz3 + q Hz4 d f z )γ (EQ 137)
M zro = M zr ( α r ) = D r cos [ C r atan ( B r α r ) ] (EQ 138)
*
α r = α + S Hf ( = α f ) (EQ 139)
S Vy
S Hf = S Hy + --------
′
- (EQ 140)
K yα
′
K yα = K yα + ε K (EQ 141)
2 * *
2 λ Kyα
B t = ( q Bz1 + q Bz2 d f z + q Bz3 d f z ) ⋅ ( 1 + q Bz5 γ + q Bz6 γ ) ⋅ ----------
*
- (EQ 142)
λ µy
C t = q Cz1 (EQ 143)
 Ro 
D to = F z ⋅  ------
- ⋅ ( q Dz1 + q dz2 df ) ⋅ λ t ⋅ sgn V cx
′ 
(EQ 144)
 F zo
2
* *
D t = D to ⋅ ( 1 + q Dz3 γ + q Dz4 γ ) ⋅ ζ 5 (EQ 145)
2  * 2 
E t = ( q Ez1 + q Ez2 d f z + q Ez3 d f z )  1 + ( q Ez4 + q Ez5 γ ) --- atan ( B t C t α t )  ( ≤ 1) (EQ 146)
 π 
 λ Ky 
B r =  q Bz9 ⋅ -------
- + q Bz10 B y C y ⋅ ζ 6 (EQ 147)
 λ µy
*

*
D r = F z R o { ( q BDz6 + q Dz7 d f z )λ Mr ζ 2 + ( q Dz8 + q Dz9 d f z )γ λ Kzy ζ 0 } (EQ 148)
′ *
cos α ⋅ λ µy sgn V cx + ζ8 – 1

′Cx ′ V
• In (EQ 135) cos α instead of cos α used. cos α = ---------
- shall be used
VC
only in case of very large slip angles (normally never measured).
* *
• In (EQ 136) and (EQ 139) α instead of α used. α shall be used only in case of very
large slip angles (normally never measured)

Tire 214
• The (EQ 138) changes to:
M zro = M zr ( α r ) = D r cos [ atan ( B r α r ) ] cos ( α ) (EQ 149)
• The equation (EQ 142) changes to:
2 λ Kyα
B t = ( q Bz1 + q Bz2 d f z + q Bz3 d f z ) ⋅ ( 1 + q Bz4 γ z + q Bz5 γ z ) ⋅ ----------- (EQ 150)
λ µy
with
γ z = γ ⋅ λ γz (EQ 151)
2
D t = D to ⋅ ( 1 + q Dz3 γ z + q Dz4 γ ) ⋅ ζ 5 (EQ 152)
D r = F z R o ( { ( q Dz6 + q Dz7 d f z )λ Mr ζ 2 + ( q Dz8 + q Dz9 d f z )γ z λ Kzy ζ 0 } ⋅ λ µy ) (EQ 153)

*
• In (EQ 137) and (EQ 142)and (EQ 145) and (EQ 146) γ z instead of γ used
• In (EQ 144) sgn V Cx not used in the simulation.
*
• In (EQ 145) γ z instead of γ used.
*
• In (EQ 142) and (EQ 147) λ µx instead of λ µy used.
• In (EQ 152), (EQ 147) and (EQ 153) ζ 5 , ζ 6 , ζ 2 , ζ 8 and λ Kzy ,are set to one.
Aligning torque Align.QBZ1

(pure slip)
Trail slope factor for trail at F znom [-].
Align.QBZ2
Variation of slope with load [-].
Align.QBZ3
Variation of slope with load squared [-].
Align.QBZ4
Variation of slope with camber [-].
Align.QBZ5
Variation of slope with absolute camber [-].

Tire 215
Align.QBZ9
Slope factor of residual torque [-].
Align.QBZ10
Slope factor of residual torque [-].
Align.QCZ1
Shape factor for pneumatic trail [-].
Align.QDZ1
Peak trail [-].
Align.QDZ2
Variation of peak trail with load [-].
Align.QDZ3
Variation of peak trail with camber [-].
Align.QDZ4
Variation of peak trail with camber squared [-].
Align.QDZ6
Peak residual torque [-].
Align.QDZ7
Variation of peak residual torque factor with load [-].

Tire 216
Align.QDZ8
Variation of peak residual torque factor with camber [-].
Align.QDZ9
Variation of peak residual torque factor with camber and load [-].
Align.QEZ1
Trail curvature at F znom [-].
Align.QEZ2
Align.QEZ3
Variation of curvature with load squared [-].
Align.QEZ4
Variation of curvature with sgn ( α t ) [-].
Align.QEZ5
Variation of curvature with camber and sgn ( α t ) [-].
Align.QHZ1
Trail horizontal shift at F znom [-].
Align.QHZ2

Tire 217
Align.QHZ3
Variation of shift with camber [-]-
Align.QHZ4
Variation of shift with camber and load [-].

Tire 218
10.4.9 Longitudinal Force (combined slip)

F x = G xα ⋅ F xo (EQ 154)
cos [ C xα atan { B xα α S – E xα ( B xα α S – atan ( B xα α S ) ) } ]

G xα = ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
- ( > 0) (EQ 155)
G xαo
G xαo = cos [ C xα atan { B xα S Hxα – E xα ( B xα S Hxα – atan ( B xα S Hxα ) ) } ] (EQ 156)
*
α S = α + S Hxα (EQ 157)
B xα = r Bx1 cos ( [ atan ( r Bx2 κ ) ] ⋅ λ xα ) (EQ 158)
C xα = r Cx1 (EQ 159)
E xα = r Ex1 + r Ex2 d f z (EQ 160)
S Hxα = r Hx1 (EQ 161)

* *
• In (EQ 120) α instead of α used. α shall be used only in case of very large slip
angles (normally never measured)
Longitudinal Long.RBX1
(combine)
Slope factor for combined slip reduction [-].
Long.RBX2
Variation of slope F x reduction with κ [-].
Long.RCX1
Shape factor for combined slip F x reduction [-].
Long.REX1
Optional. Curvature factor of combined F x [-]. Default: 0.
Long.PEX2
Optional. Curvature factor of combined F x with load [-].Default: 0.

Tire 219
Long.PHX1
Shift factor for combined slip F x reduction.

Tire 220
10.4.10 Lateral force (combined slip)

F y = G yκ ⋅ F yo + S Vyκ (EQ 162)
cos [ C yκ atan { B yκ κ S – E yκ ( B yκ κ S – atan ( B yκ κ S ) ) } ]

G xκ = ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- (EQ 163)
G yκo
G yκo = cos [ C yκ atan { B yκ S Hyκ – E yκ ( B yκ S Hyκ – atan ( B yκ S Hyκ ) ) } ] (EQ 164)
κ S = κ + S Hyκ (EQ 165)
*
B yκ = r By1 cos [ atan { r By2 ( α – r By3 ) } ] ⋅ λ yκ (EQ 166)
C yκ = r Cy1 (EQ 167)
E yκ = r Ey1 + r Ey2 d f z ( ≥ 1) (EQ 168)
S Hyκ = r Hy1 + r Hy2 d f z (EQ 169)
S Vyκ = D Vyκ sin [ r Vy5 atan ( r Vy6 κ ) ] (EQ 170)
* *
D Vyκ = µ y F z ⋅ ( r Vy1 + r Vy2 d f z + r Vy3 γ ) ⋅ cos ( [ atan ( r Vy4 α ) ] ⋅ ζ 2 ) (EQ 171)

* *
• In (EQ 166) and (EQ 171) α instead of α used i. α shall be used only in case of very
large slip angles (normally never measured)
*
• (EQ 170) changes to
S Vyκ = D Vyκ sin [ r Vy5 atan ( r Vy6 κ ) ]λ Vyκ (EQ 172)
• In (EQ 171) ζ 2 and is set to one.
Lateral Lat.RBY1
(combined slip)
Slope factor for combined F y reduction [-].
Lat.RBY2
Variation of slope F y reduction with alpha [-].
Lat.RBY3
Shift term for alpha in slope F y reduction [-].

Tire 221
Lat.RCY1
Shape factor for combined F y reduction [-].
Lat.REY1
Optional. Curvature factor of combined F y [-]. Default: 0.
Lat.REY2
Optional. Curvature factor of combined F y with load [-].Default: 0.
Lat.RHY1
Shift factor for combined F y reduction [-].
Lat.RHY2
Optional. Shift factor for combined F y reduction with load [-]. Default: 0.
Lat.RVY1
κ induced side force at F z [-].

nom
Lat.RVY2
Variation of κ induced side force with load [-].
Lat.RVY3
Variation of κ induced side force with camber [-].
Lat.RVY4
Variation of κ induced side force with α [-].

Tire 222
Lat.RVY5
Variation of κ induced side force with κ [-].
Lat.RVY6
Variation of κ induced side force with atan ( κ ) [-].

Tire 223
10.4.11 Aligning Torque (combined slip)

′
M z = M z + M zr + s ⋅ F x (EQ 173)
′ ′
Mz = –( t ⋅ Fy ) (EQ 174)
′
t = t ( α t, eq ) = D t cos ( [ C t atan { B t α t, eq – E t ( B t α t, eq – atan ( B t α t, eq ) ) } ] ⋅ cos α ) (EQ 175)
′
F y = F y – S Vyκ (EQ 176)
M zr = M zr ( α r, eq ) = D r cos [ C r atan ( B r α r, eq ) ] (EQ 177)
  Fy  *
s = R o ⋅  s sz1 + s sz2  ------
- + ( s sz3 + s sz4 d f z )γ  ⋅ λ s
′ 
(EQ 178)
  F zo 
2  K xκ 2 2
α t, eg = α t +  --------
′ 
- κ ⋅ sgn ( α t ) (EQ 179)
 K yα
2  K xκ 2 2
α r, eg = α r +  --------
′ 
- κ ⋅ sgn ( α r ) (EQ 180)
 K yα

M zr = M zr ( α r, eq ) = D r cos [ atan ( B r α r, eq ) ] ⋅ cos α (EQ 181)
′ Cx ′ V
• In (EQ 175) cos ( α ) instead of cos α used. cos α = ---------
- shall be used only in case of
VC
very large slip angles (normally never measured)
*
• The (EQ 179) and (EQ 180) change to
2  K xκ 2 2
′ 
- + κ ⋅ sgn ( α t )
α t, eg = atan tan α t +  -------- (EQ 182)
 K yα
2  K xκ 2 2
′ 
- + κ ⋅ sgn ( α r )
α r, eg = atan tan α r +  -------- (EQ 183)
 K yα
Aligning Torque Align.SSZ1

(combined slip)
s
Nominal value of ------ effect of F x on M z [-].
Ro

Tire 224
Align.SSZ2
s Fy
Variation of distance ------ with -----------
- [-].
Ro Fz
nom
Align.SSZ3
s
Variation of distance ------ with camber [-].
Ro
Align.SSZ4
s
Variation of distance ------ with load and camber [-].
Ro

Tire 225
10.4.12 Overturning Couple

 * Fy 
M x = F z R o ⋅  q sx1 – q Sx2 γ + q sx3 ------
- ⋅ λ Mx
′ 
(EQ 184)
 F zo

  Fy  
- λ
M x = F z R o  q sx1 λ VMx +  – q Sx2 γ + q sx3 ------
′  Mx
(EQ 185)
  F zo 
Overturning OverTurn.QSX1
Couple
Lateral force induced overturning couple [-].
OverTurn.QSX2
Camber induced overturning couple [-].
OverTurn.QSX3
F y induced overturning couple [-].
(EQ 186)

Tire 226
10.4.13 Rolling Resistance Moment

 Vr Fx 
M y = – F z R o ⋅  q sy1 atan  ------ + q sy2 ------
- ⋅ λ My
′ 
(EQ 187)
 V o
 F zo 
At the request of several customers to claim conformity to ADAMS implementation of MF

TIRE 5.2, the tire model includes minor differences to the formula above:
 Fx Vx 4 
+ q Sy4  ----------  ⋅ λ My
Vx
M y = – F z R o ⋅  q sy1 + q 2sy ------- + q Sy3 ---------
- (EQ 188)
F zo  V ref 
 V ref 
where V ref means measurement speed.

If q sy1 and q sy2 are both zero, then the following formula is used:
M y = R o ( S Vx + K x ⋅ S Hx ) (EQ 189)
Roll Resistance Roll.QSY1

Moment
Rolling resistance torque coefficient [-].
Roll.QSY2
Rolling resistance torque depending on F x [-].
Roll.QSY3
Optional. Rolling resistance torque depending on speed [-].Default: 0.
Roll.QSY4
4
Optional. Rolling resistance torque depending on speed [-]. Default: 0.
Roll.LONGVL
Optional. Measurement speed. Default:10 [m/s].

Tire 227
10.4.14 Transient Behavior

For transient effects slip speeds instead of α and κ are used. First-order lags for tire lon-
gitudinal and lateral deformations u and v are introduced through relaxation length σ k and
κa :
du
σ κ ------ + V Cx u = – σ κ V Sx (EQ 190)
dt
dv
σ α ------ + V Cx v = σ α V Sy (EQ 191)
dt
These differential equations are based on the assumption that the contact point is not slid-
ding.The relaxation lengths are only functions of vertical load and camber angle:
Ro
σ κ = F z ⋅ ( p Tx1 + p Tx2 d f z ) ⋅ exp ( – p Tx3 d f z ) ⋅ ------
′
- ⋅ λ σκ (EQ 192)
F zo
 Fz 
σ α = p Ty1 sin 2 atan  -----------------
- ⋅ ( 1 – p Ky3 γ ) ⋅ R o λ Fzo λ σα
′ 
(EQ 193)
 p Ty2 F zo 
′ ′
The practical tire deformation quantities κ and α are subsequently used instead of argu-
ments κ and α in the equations (EQ 154), (EQ 162), (EQ 173), (EQ 185) and (EQ
188).They are defined as follows:
′ u
κ = ------ sgn ( V Cx ) (EQ 194)
σκ
′ v
tan α = ------ (EQ 195)
σα
Starting from (EQ 190) and (EQ 191) the transient behavior could be described with a low
pass filter. The time constant reads:
σκ
T = --------- (EQ 196)
Vx
for the longitudinal action and
σα
T = --------- (EQ 197)
Vx
for lateral action.

Tire 228
10.4.15 Gyroscopic couple

Due to the tire inertia acting about the vertical axis an offset is added to the aligning torque
computed with equation (EQ 173):
dv
M z, gyr = c gyr m Belt V rl ------ cos [ atan ( B r α r, eq ) ] (EQ 198)
dt
with parameter
c gyr = q Tz1 ⋅ λ gyr (EQ 199)
and
cos [ atan ( B r α r, eq ) ] = 1 (EQ 200)
for pure cornering condition.

The total aligning torque becomes now:
′
M z = M z + M z, gyr (EQ 201)
Gyroscopic Align.PTX1
couple
Relaxation length at F znom [-].
Align.PTX2
Variation of relaxation length with load [-].
Align.PTX3
Variation of relaxation length with exponent of load [-].
Align.TY1
Peak value of relaxation length [-].
Align.TY2
Shape factor for relaxation length [-].
Align.QTZ1
Gyroscopic torque constant [-].

Tire 229
Align.MBELT
Belt mass of the wheel [Kg].

Tire 230
10.4.16 Friction coefficient

If the tire parameters have been detemined at friction conditions which differ from the actual
friction condition at road, an effective friction coefficient will be used for the tire computation.
For normal conditions the friction coefficient is assumed to be one at measurement condi-
tions. If not, the exact conditions could be specified with the scale factors λ µx and λ µy .With
the actual friction condition for the road patch the effective friction value used for the com-
putation reads:
µ Road
µ eff x, y = ------------
- (EQ 202)
λ µx, y
This value is used instead of λ µx respectivelly λ µy in (EQ 116), (EQ 117), (EQ 123), (EQ
129), (EQ 148), (EQ 150) and (EQ 153).

Trailer Model 232
Overview
Chapter 11
Trailer Model
11.1 Overview
Like the vehicle model the trailer model is a MESA VERDE multi body model consisting of
the vehicle body, 2 or 4 wheel carriers, 2 or 4 wheels and a additional load mass. This trailer
model suits passenger towing vehicles and therefore only supports trailers with single or
twin axle.
h COM, v h COM, t
hh
lf lr x COM, t
l lo l db
Figure 11.1: Common measures for a vehicle with trailer
Relevant quantities are:

h COM, v height of towing vehicles COM
h COM, t height of trailers COM
hh height of hitch
l wheel base of towing vehicle
lf distance between COM and front axle
lr distance between COM and rear axle
lo hitch overhang
l db drawbar length
x COM, t distance between COM and axle

Trailer Model 233
General Trailer Parameters
11.2 General Trailer Parameters
RefPointInputSystem = x y z
This parameter specifies the origin of the Fr1 (in FrD coordinates). The coordinates XYZ
point from the origin of FrD to the origin of Fr1. (see section 1.2 ’CarMaker Axis Systems’).
BucklingAngle_max = Angle
Optional. This parameter specifies the maximum buckling angle Angle [deg] which is tol-
erated without issuing an error message. Higher angles lead to an abortion of the current
testrun.
nAxle = NumberOfAxles
Number of trailer axles. Possible values: 1, 2
Tire. = TireParameterSet
Specifies the parameters of tire to use for wheel front left (i=0), front right (i=1), rear left (i=2)
and rear right (i=3). TireParameterSet is the name of a tire parameter set out of directory
Data/Tire.

Trailer Model 234
Mass Geometry
11.3 Mass Geometry

11.3.1 Overview
The representation of the distribution of mass in a material system is called mass geometry.
Inertia properties are associated with the trailer-body, each of the two/four wheel carriers
and each wheel. Additional body loads are modeled via additional masses and inertias as
well. Three parameters have to be specified to define a mass element:
• The mass value of the body to define.
• The center of mass (CoM) of each body is defined. The center of mass is a geometrical
point. The three scalar quantities are the position vector of CoM decomposed relative to
the origin of the definition frame.
• The inertia tensor (= second moments of mass = moments of inertia) is a symmetric
second-order tensor, which is specified by six scalar quantities I = A B C D E F
(Frequently the off-diagonal elements (D, E, F) of the inertia tensor are neglected):
∫ ∫ ∫
2
( y + z 2 ) dm – xy dm – xz dm
Body Body Body
A F E
∫ ∫
2
F B D = symmetry ( z + x 2 ) dm – yz dm (EQ 203)
Body Body
E D C
∫
2
symmetry symmetry ( x + y 2 ) dm
Body

Trailer Model 235
Mass Geometry
11.3.2 Parameters
Body.pos = x y z
Body.mass = Mass
Body.I = ...
Trailer body with total mass Body.mass [kg].

Position of the center of mass (CoM) Body.pos is given in FrD (design configuration axis
system). Inertia tensor Body.I at the CoM decomposed in the basis of the FrD.
The elements of the inertia tensor (section 3.1 ’Overview’)
TrimLoad..pos = x y z
TrimLoad..mass = Mass
TrimLoad..I = ...
Bodies to trim mass contribution to that of a reference vehicle. Trim loads are fixed to vehicle
body. := 0, 1, 2, ...
Do not confuse TrimLoads with test run specific additional charges you may want to put on
your vehicle.
WheelCarrier.fl.pos
WheelCarrier.fl.mass
WheelCarrier.fl.I
Wheel carrier front left. Represents all unsprung mass in the suspension (except the
wheel).
WheelCarrier.fr.pos
WheelCarrier.fr.mass
WheelCarrier.fl.r
Wheel carrier front right. For details, see wheel carrier front left.
WheelCarrier.rl.pos
WheelCarrier.rl.mass
WheelCarrier.rl.I
Wheel carrier rear left. For details, see wheel carrier front left.

Trailer Model 236
Mass Geometry
WheelCarrier.rr.pos
WheelCarrier.rr.mass
WheelCarrier.rr.I
Wheel carrier rear right. For details, see wheel carrier front left.
Wheel.fl.pos
Wheel.fl.mass
Wheel.fl.I
Wheel front left. The wheel and all other rotating components (parts of the brake, ...) .
Wheel.fr.pos
Wheel.fr.mass
Wheel.fl.r
Wheel front right. For details, see wheel front left.
Wheel.rl.pos
Wheel.rl.mass
Wheel.rl.I
Wheel rear left. For details, see wheel front left.
Wheel.rr.pos
Wheel.rr.mass
Wheel.rr.I
Wheel rear right. For details, see wheel front left.

Trailer Model 237
11.4 Suspension Force Elements

SuspF means front axle, SuspR means rear axle.
With a single axle the parameters for SuspR can be omitted.
11.4.1 Spring
SuspF.cAmplify = factor
SuspR.cAmplify = factor
Spring amplification factor. Values given by the spring force model is multiplied with this fac-
tor (output value).
SuspPos.c = dFrc/dq
Spring constant [N/m] of specified wheel.
11.4.2 Damper
SuspF.kAmplify = factor
SuspR.kAmplify = factor
Damper amplification factor factor. Values given by the damper force model (compression
and rebound) is multiplied with this factor (output value).
SuspF.kPush = dFrc/dqp
SuspR.kPush = dFrc/dqp
Damper constant for compression damping. Dimension: Ns/m.
SuspF.kPull = dFrc/dqp
SuspR.kPull = dFrc/dqp
Damper constant dFrc/dqp [Ns/m]for rebound damping.

Trailer Model 238
11.4.3 Stabilizer
SuspF.cStAmplify = factor
SuspR.cStAmplify = factor
Stabilizer amplification factor factor. Values given by the stabilizer force model is multiplied
with this factor (output value).
SuspF.cSt = dFrc/dq
SuspR.cSt = dFrc/dq
Stabilizer constant dFrc/dq for specified axle.

Trailer Model 239
11.5 Suspension Kinematics and Compliance

11.5.1 Overview
Three types of common trailer suspensions can be selected:
• Sleeve axle
• Crank axle
• Semi-Trailing Arm axle
Additional to the suspension kinematics, suspension force elements (spring, damper and
stabilizer) and a simple nonlinear compliance is supported.
11.5.2 Sleeve Axle

The simplest model of a suspension is the sleeve axle.
x y
Figure 11.4: Model of a sleeve axle
It is characterized through a straight translation of the wheel carrier. In Figure 11.4 the
translation in z coordinate direction is shown. There is no modification of toe or camber
whilst compression.

Trailer Model 240
11.5.3 Crank Axle

The most commonly used suspension for passenger cars trailers is the crank axle.
The crank axle has a rotating axis of the crank arms perpendicular to the trailers roll axis.
The wheel carriers are connected at the end of the crank arms. The COM of the wheel car-
riers moves on a orbit around the y axis of Figure 11.6.
x y
ry
Figure 11.6: Principal of a crank axle

Trailer Model 241
11.5.4 Semi Trailing Arm Axle

The semi trailing arm axle uses the same principal as the crank axle. The difference is that
the rotating axis is not along the y-axis like depicted in Figure 11.8. Through this different
orientation the wheel practises a camber change.
y
x
ry
Figure 11.8: Principal of a semi trailing axle

Trailer Model 242
11.5.5 General Suspension Model Parameters

Susp.Kind = SuspensionKind
Type SuspensionKind of suspension (for both axles). Possible options are:
Susp.Kind Description
Sleeve Kinematics of a sleeve axle is used
Crank Kinematics of a crank axle is used
SemiTrailingArm Kinematics of a semi trailing arm axle is used
z z
definition of positive x x
camber angle
definition of positive
toe angle
y y y y
Figure 11.10: Sign conventions for camber- and toe-angle
SuspF.InclinationL = InclinAngle
SuspR.InclinationL = InclinAngle
Camber angle InclinAngle [rad] of left wheel in design configuration FrD. Positive sign
means the distance on the upper side of the wheel is longer then on the bottom side.
SuspF.InclinationR = InclinAngle
SuspR.InclinationR = InclinAngle
Camber angle InclinAngle [rad] of left wheel in design configuration FrD.

Trailer Model 243
SuspF.ToeL = ToeAngle
SuspR.ToeL = ToeAngle
Toe angle ToeAngle [rad] of left wheel carrier in design configuration FrD. Positive sign
means toe-in, negative sign means toe-out.
SuspF.ToeR = ToeAngle
SuspR.ToeR = ToeAngle
Toe angle ToeAngle [rad] of right wheel carrier in design configuration FrD.
Positive sign means toe-in, negative sign means toe-out.
11.5.6 Additional Parameters for Suspension Model “Sleeve”

No additional parameters are needed.
11.5.7 Additional Parameters for Suspension Model “Crank”

SuspF.lCrank = length
SuspR.lCrank = length
Crank length [m].

Trailer Model 244
11.5.8 Additional Parameters for Suspension Model

“SemiTrailingArm”
Two points specify the rotation axle of each wheel carrier. The points must not be identical.
The FrD axis system is used (see section 1.2 ’CarMaker Axis Systems’).
SuspF means front axle, SuspR means rear axle, L means left, R means right.
SuspF.AxlePosL.1 = x y z
SuspF.AxlePosR.1 = x y z
SuspR.AxlePosL.1 = x y z
SuspR.AxlePosR.1 = x y z
First point for wheel carrier rotation axle.
SuspF.AxlePosL.2 = x y z
SuspF.AxlePosR.2 = x y z
SuspR.AxlePosL.2 = x y z
SuspR.AxlePosR.2 = x y z
Second point for wheel carrier rotation axle.

Trailer Model 245
11.5.9 Compliance
ty x rx
z
rz
x
Tz Tx F T Tz F T
Fy T y y y y y
y y y
Fx Fz Fx
Tx Tz Tx
Figure 11.12: Trailer compliance
Susp.ElastoActive = active
Use compliance (elasto kinematics) for trailer. To activate compliance kinematics use
active=1, to deactivate use active=0.
Elasto.FrontLeft.ty = dty/dFx dty/dFy dty/dFz dty/dTx dty/dTy dty/dTz

Elasto.FrontRight.ty = ...
Elasto.RearLeft.ty = ...
Elasto.RearRight.ty = ...
This parameter specifies the compliance vector for the wheel travel direction t y . The six
coefficients of this vector form elasticities of six forces and torques acting on the wheel car-
rier. Usually there is no compliance beside the wheel compression for a force F z . Therefore
m m
this parameter usually is set to zero. Dimensions: ---- for forces, --------- for torques.
N Nm
Remark: The acting forces are decomposed in carrier frame Fr2.
Elasto.FrontLeft.rx = drx/dFx drx/dFy drx/dFz drx/dTx drx/drx drx/dTz

Elasto.FrontRight.rx = ...
Elasto.RearLeft.rx = ...
Elasto.RearRight.rx = ...
This parameter specifies the compliance vector for the wheel rotation r x . The six coeffi-
cients of this vector form elasticities of six forces and torques acting on the wheel carrier.
Usually there is no compliance beside the wheel compression for a force F z . Therefore this
rad rad
parameter usually is set to zero. Dimensions: -------- for forces, --------- for torques.
N Nm

Trailer Model 246
Elasto.FrontLeft.rz = drz/dFx drz/dFy drz/dFz drz/dTx drz/drz drz/dTz

Elasto.FrontRight.rz = ...
Elasto.RearLeft.rz = ...
Elasto.RearRight.rz = ...
This parameter specifies the compliance vector for the wheel rotation r z . The six coeffi-
cients of this vector form elasticities of six forces and torques acting on the wheel carrier.
Usually there is no compliance beside the wheel compression for a force F z . Therefore this
rad rad
parameter usually is set to zero. Dimensions: -------- for forces, --------- for torques.
N Nm

Trailer Model 247
Hitch
11.6 Hitch
11.6.1 Overview
The trailer model is connected to the towing vehicle by a virtual spring-damper-system. The
point of contact is in the middle of the coupling device. The parameters are determined
automatically depending on the masses of the vehicles. The parameters are chosen in a
way that even with huge coupling forces the relative travel of the coupling contact points is
about a few millimeters and numerical stability is ensured.
To ensure stabilization of the trailer different hitch improvements have been developed. The
CarMaker trailer model supports the following hitch types:
• No stabilization, normal ball joint
• Four joint hitch
• Ball joint hitch with friction damper
• Ball joint with buckling angle dependent hydraulic damping
Parameters
Hitch.Kind = KindStr
Specifies the type of hitch stabilization model to use. Possible values are:
Hitch.Kind Description
Ball no stabilization, normal ball joint
Trapez four joint hitch
BallFric ball joint hitch with friction damper
BallDamp ball joint with buckling angle dependent hydraulic damping
Example Hitch.Kind = BallFric
Hitch.pos = x y z
Center position of the trailers hitch. Coordinates are specified in trailers FrD axis system.
Hitch.c = dFrc/dq
Optional. Overwrite the internally computed spring constant for trailer hitch. With this
parameter not real values for the trailers hitch spring constant should be used rather then
values that ensure numerical stability. Default: a default is computed internally by the mass-
es of towing vehicle and trailer.

Trailer Model 248
Hitch
Hitch.k = dFrc/dqp
Optional. Overwrite the internally computed damper constant for trailer hitch. With this
parameter not real values for the trailers hitch damper constant should be used rather then
values that ensure numerical stability. Default: a default is computed internally by a ratio of
spring constant to damper constant.

Trailer Model 249
Hitch
11.6.2 Additional Parameters for Hitch “Ball”

No additional parameters needed.
11.6.3 Additional Parameters for Hitch “Trapez”
δ
A
ab
a
a0
d x b2
b1
y
b B
b0
Figure 11.14: Trapetz hitch
Hitch.Trapez.ab = length
Length of the trapezoid in direction of vehicles roll axle. See Figure 11.14.
Hitch.Trapez.b1 = length
Short width of trapez. See Figure 11.14.
Hitch.Trapez.b2 = length
Long width of trapez. See Figure 11.14.

Trailer Model 250
Hitch
11.6.4 Additional Parameters for Hitch “BallFric”
Hitch.Fric.Adjust = factor
Adaption parameter for calculation of stick-slip behavior. For this calculation trailer mass is
altered by this factor. Use 1.0 as standard parameter.
Example Hitch.Fric.Adjust = 1.0
Hitch.Fric.myH = mu
Static friction coefficient between ball-shaped hitch head and frictions elements.
Hitch.Fric.myG = mu
Sliding friction coefficient between ball-shaped hitch head and frictions elements.
Hitch.Fric.FNorm = FrcNorm
Normal force preloading the frictions elements against ball-shaped head.
Example Hitch.Fric.FNorm = 2000
11.6.5 Additional Parameters for Hitch “BallDamp”
Hitch.DampKonst = dFrc/dqp
Damper constant dFrc/dqp [Ns/rad] (equal in all directions of space).
Example Hitch.DampKonst = 50

Trailer Model 251
Brake System
11.7 Brake System

11.7.1 Overview
The brake system of a passenger cars trailer consists of a overrun device, a transmission
device and the wheel brakes.
11.7.2 Parameters
Brake.Kind = KindStr
Type of brake system used. Possible options:
Brake.Kind Description
““ Trailer without brake system
Overrun Overrun brake, brake torque proportional to drawbar force
Overrun1 Overrun brake, brake torque based on friction
Brake.Ratio
Ratio of the sum of all brake forces on all wheels to the force of the trailer hitch.
In EWG directive 71/320 “brake systems” a ratio of 5 is compulsory.
Example Brake.Ratio = 5
Brake.Fmin = value
Operating threshold of the overrun brake. Dimension: N
Example Brake.Fmin = 200
11.7.3 Additional Parameters for Brake Model “Overrun”
Brake.Delay = value
Time delay for brake force rise. A first order delay element is used. Too small values may
lead to instabilities, too high values are not realistic. Dimension: s.
Example Brake.Delay = 0.4

Trailer Model 252
Brake System
11.7.4 Additional Parameters for Brake Model “Overrun1”
Brake.Fric.Adjust = value
Adaption parameter for calculation of stick-slip behavior. For this calculation trailer mass is
altered by this factor. Use 1.0 as standard parameter.
Brake.Fric.myH = value
Static friction coefficient between brake pads and brake drum (brake disk).
Example Brake.Fric.myH = 0.55
Brake.Fric.myG = value
Sliding friction coefficient between brake pads and brake drum (brake disk).
Example Brake.Fric.myG = 0.45

Trailer Model 253
Aerodynamics
11.8 Aerodynamics
The trailer uses the same aerodynamic model as the towing vehicle. For general description
see section 6.3.1 ’‘Coeff6x1’’.

Trailer Model 254
User Accessible Quantities for Trailer
11.9 User Accessible Quantities for Trailer

11.9.1 General User Accessible Quantities: Trailer
Name Frame Unit Info

Tr.Active True (1) if trailermodel is active (driving with trailer)
Tr.Aero.Frc_1.x Fr1 m Aerodynamic force acting on trailer
Tr.Aero.Frc_1.y
Tr.Aero.Frc_1.z
Tr.Aero.Trq_1.x Fr1 Aerodynamic torque
Tr.Aero.Trq_1.y
Tr.Aero.Trq_1.z
Tr.Aero.tau_1 Fr1 rad Angle of incidence
Tr.Aero.tau2_1 Fr1 rad Angle of incidence (shifted by 2π)
Tr.Aero.vres_1.x Fr1 m/s Wind velocity
Tr.Aero.vres_1.y
Tr.Aero.vres_1.z
Tr.C<pos>.tx Fr1 m Translation carrier reference point front left
Tr.C<pos>.ty (used for animation)
Tr.C<pos>.tz <pos> = FL, FR, RL, RR
Tr.C<pos>.rx rad Rotation carrier front left
Tr.C<pos>.ry (used for animation)
Tr.C<pos>.rz <pos> = FL, FR, RL, RR
Tr.C<pos>.C.t_0.x Fr0 m wheel center C
Tr.C<pos>.C.t_0.y
Tr.C<pos>.C.t_0.z
Tr.C<pos>.P.t_0.x Fr0 m wheel road contact point P
Tr.C<pos>.P.t_0.y
Tr.C<pos>.P.t_0.z
Tr.Con.ax Fr0 m/s^2 Center of mass, translational acceleration
Tr.Con.ay
Tr.Con.az
Tr.Con.ax_1 Fr1 m/s^2 Center of mass, translational acceleration
Tr.Con.ay_1
Tr.Con.az_1
Tr.Con.tx Fr0 m Center of mass, translational position
Tr.Con.ty
Tr.Con.tz
Tr.Con.vx Fr0 m/s Center of mass, translational velocity
Tr.Con.vy
Tr.Con.vz
Tr.CoM.vx_1 Fr1 m/s Center of mass, translational velocity
Tr.CoM.vy_1
Tr.CoM.vz_1
Tr.Fr1.ax Fr0 m/s^2 Translational acceleration
Tr.Fr1.ay
Tr.Fr1.az
Tr.Fr1.rx Trailer rotation angles, Cardan angles, whereby
Tr.Fr1.ry Tr.rz = Tr.Yaw.ry = Car.Pitch and
Tr.Fr1.rz Car.rz = Car.Roll (DIN 70000, 2.2.1.1 - 3)

Trailer Model 255

Tr.Fr1.tx Fr0 m Translational position
Tr.Fr1.ty
Tr.Fr1.tz
Tr.Fr1.vx Fr0 m/s Translational velocity
Tr.Fr1.vy
Tr.Fr1.vz
Tr.Fx<pos> FrH N longitudinal, lateral and vertical ground reaction force
Tr.Fy<pos> at wheel/road contact point
Tr.Fz<pos>
Tr.Hitch.Frc2Tr.x Fr0 Hitch force from external (car) to trailer
Tr.Hitch.Frc2Tr.y
Tr.Hitch.Frc2Tr.z
Tr.Hitch.Frc2Tr.x_1 Fr1 Hitch force from external (car) to trailer
Tr.Hitch.Frc2Tr.y_1
Tr.Hitch.Frc2Tr.z_1
Tr.Hitch.Trq2Tr.x Fr0 Hitch torque from external (car) to trailer
Tr.Hitch.Trq2Tr.y
Tr.Hitch.Trq2Tr.z
Tr.Hitch.Trq2Tr.x_1 Fr1 Hitch torque from external (car) to trailer
Tr.Hitch.Trq2Tr.y_1
Tr.Hitch.Trq2Tr.z_1
Tr.Hitch.tx Fr0 Hitch translational position
Tr.Hitch.ty
Tr.Hitch.tz
Tr.Hitch.vx Fr0 Hitch translational velocity
Tr.Hitch.vy
Tr.Hitch.vz
Tr.Load..mass kg Mass of load, := 0, 1, 2
Tr.Load..tx Fr1 m Position of i-th load, i= 0..2
Tr.Load..ty
Tr.Load..tz
Tr.LongSlip<pos> – Longitudinal slip
Tr.Pitch rad Trailer pitch angle (DIN 70000, 2.2.1.1)
Positive, if front goes down and rear of trailer
comes up.
Tr.Roll rad Trailer roll angle (DIN 70000, 2.2.1.3)
Positive, if right side goes down and left side
comes up.
Tr.SideSlipAngle rad Sideslip angle (DIN 70000, 2.2.1.4)
Tr.SideSlipAngle2 rad Sideslip angle with an offset of 2*PI
Tr.SideSlipAngleVel rad/s Sideslip angle velocity (DIN 70000, 2.2.1.4)
Tr.SimPhase simulation phase
Tr.TrqBrake<pos> Nm Brake torque o
Tr.Virtual.Frc_0.x Fr0 N Virtual force acting to trailer body from external
Tr.Virtual.Frc_0.y
Tr.Virtual.Frc_0.z
Tr.Virtual.Frc_1.y
Tr.Virtual.Frc_1.z
Tr.Virtual.Trq_0.x Fr0 Nm Virtual torque acting to trailer body from external
Tr.Virtual.Trq_0.y
Tr.Virtual.Trq_0.z

Trailer Model 256

Tr.Virtual.Trq_1.y
Tr.Virtual.Trq_1.z
Tr.W<pos>.rot rad Wheel rotation angle around wheel spin axis
Tr.WheelSpd_<pos> rad/s Rotational wheel velocity
Tr.Yaw rad yaw angle (DIN 70000, 2.2.1.1) Angle between X-
axis of trailer and X-axis of earth fixed system.
Positive for positive rotation around Z-axis.
Tr.YawVel rad/s yaw angle velocity (DIN 70000, 2.2.2.1)
Tr.alHori m/s^2 horizontal lateral acceleration
Tr.atHori m/s^2 horizontal tangential acceleration
Tr.ax Fr1 m/s^2 acceleration
Tr.ay
Tr.az
Tr.dr_z_0 rad Yaw angle difference between trailer and tractor
Tr.drv_z_0 rad/s Yaw angle velocity difference between trailer and
tractor
Tr.sRoad m Trailer road coordinate
Tr.tx Fr0 m
Tr.ty
Tr.tz
Tr.v<pos> m/s Wheel velocity (based on wheel rotation and wheel
radius)
Tr.vx Fr1 m/s
Tr.vy
Tr.vz

User Accessible Quantities 257
Chapter 12V
For a better understanding of the naming conventions of UAQ´s please refer to section 1.4
’CarMaker Naming Conventions’.

General User Accessible Quantities
12.1 General User Accessible Quantities
Name Unit Info

Ambient.AirDensity kg/m3 Air density of the environment.
Ambient.AirHumidity - Air humidity of the environment.
Ambient.AirPressure bar Air pressure of the environment.
Ambient.Temperature K Temperature of the environment.
Ambient.WindVel_ext.x m/s Global wind direction vector of the environment.
Ambient.WindVel_ext.y
Ambient.WindVel_ext.z
CycleNo - Number of calculation cycle from the start of the

application.
DeltaT s Complete duration of calculation cycle
Time s Simulation-time of the current testrun. Time
starts after initialization process is finished.
This time may be accelerated or delayed during
non-realtime simulations.
Time.Global s Simulation-time since start of the application.
This time may be accelerated or delayed during
non-realtime simulations.
Time.WC s “Wall-clock-time”. This is the real elapsed time
during the start of the application. In non-realti-
me simulations this time may differ from
Time.Global
TCPU.AposEvalSend s Time-consumption for function AposEvalSend of
the current calculation cycle.
TCPU.AposPoll s Time-consumption for function AposPoll of the
current calculation cycle.
TCPU.Brake s Time-consumption for calculation of the Brake
module during the current calculation cycle.
TCPU.DrivMan s Time-consumption for calculation of the
DrivMan module during the current calculation
cycle.
TCPU.In s Time-consumption for calculation of the IO_In
TCPU.Out s Time-consumption for calculation of the IO_Out
TCPU.PowerTrain s Time-consumption for calculation of the
PowerTrain module during the current calcula-
tion cycle.
TCPU.Total s Total time-consumption for calculation of the
current cycle. This should not be confused with
DeltaT
TCPU.Trailer s Time-consumption for calculation of the
Trailer module during the current calculation
cycle.
TCPU.User s Time-consumption for calculation of the User

General User Accessible Quantities
Name Unit Info

TCPU.Vehicle s Time-consumption for calculation of the
Vehicle module during the current calculation
cycle.
TC.Clock s
TC.Count s
12.1.1 User Accessible Quantities: Driving Maneuvers
Name Unit Info

DM.Brake brake/decelerator activity (0..1)
DM.BrakePark park brake activity (0..1)
DM.BrakeLever brake lever activity (0..1), (only for motorcycles)
DM.Clutch clutch activity (0..1)
DM.Gas gas/throttle/accelrator activity (0..1)
DM.GearNo gear number
DM.GearNo.Trgt
DM.Handbrake outdated name for DM.BrakePark
DM.LaneOffset m lateral lane offset for IPG-DRIVER
DM.Lap.No lap number (racing mode)
DM.Lap.Time s lap time (racing mode)
DM.ManDist m mini maneuver distance
DM.ManNo mini maneuver number
DM.ManTime s mini maneuver time
DM.SelectorCtrl
DM.Shifting active gear shift
DM.SpeedTrap.Dist m
DM.SpeedTrap.Id
DM.SpeedTrap.Time s
DM.StarterCtrl
DM.Steer.Ang rad steering angle
DM.Steer.AngAcc rad/s^2 steering angle acceleration
DM.Steer.AngVel rad/s steering angle velocity
DM.Steer.Trq Nm steering torque
DM.SteerBy
DM.ax.Trgt m/s^2 target acceleration
DM.v.Trgt m/s target velocity
DM.vdelta.Trgt m/s target velocity deviation

12.2 User Accessible Quantities for Vehicle Body

12.2.1 User Accessible Quantities: Vehicle

Vhcl.Distance m Distance the vehicle (center of mass) trav-
eled since start of simulation50
Vhcl.Engine.on - Flag gets true (1) when engine is running.
Vhcl.Engine.rotv rad/s Engine speed.
Vhcl.GearBox.rotv_in rad/s Input speed of gearbox.
Vhcl.Hitch.x m Hitch position.
Vhcl.Hitch.y
Vhcl.Hitch.z
Vhcl.LongSlip<pos> -
Vhcl.PoI.ax_1 Fr1 m/s^2 Point of Interest??
Vhcl.PoI.ay_1
Vhcl.PoI.az_1
Vhcl.PoI.vx Fr0 m/s Velocity vector for PoI
Vhcl.PoI.vy
Vhcl.PoI.vz
Vhcl.PoI.vx_1 Fr1 m/s Velocity vector for PoI
Vhcl.PoI.vy_1
Vhcl.PoI.vz_1
Vhcl.PoI.x m
Vhcl.PoI.y
Vhcl.PoI.z
Vhcl.Roll rad
Vhcl.RollAcc rad/s^2
Vhcl.RollVel rad/s
Vhcl.SideSlip<pos> rad
Vhcl.Steer.Acc rad/s^2
Vhcl.Steer.Ang rad
Vhcl.Steer.Vel rad/s
Vhcl.Wind.vx m/s
Vhcl.Wind.vy
Vhcl.Wind.vz
Vhcl.Yaw rad
Vhcl.YawAcc rad/s^2
Vhcl.YawRate rad/s
Vhcl.sRoad m
Vhcl.sRoadAero m

12.2.2 User Accessible Quantities: Car (for unexperienced users)

Car.tx Fr0 m Translational position of vehicles connected
Car.ty body.
Car.tz
Car.vx Fr1 m/s Translational velocity of vehicle connected
Car.vy body.
Car.vz
Car.ax Fr1 m/s^2 Translational acceleration of vehicle con-
Car.ay nected body.
Car.az
Car.v m/s Velocity
Car.alHori m/s^2 Centripetal acceleration (in horizontal
plane), Car.alHori is perpendicular to Car.v
and to Z-axis (DIN 70000, 2.1.2.4).
Car.atHori m/s^2 Tangential acceleration (in horizontal
plane), Car.atHori is parallel to Car.v and
per pendicular to Z-axis (DIN 70000,
2.1.2.5).
these are aliases for “Car.Con....”

12.2.3 User Accessible Quantities: Car

<pos> := FL, FR, RL, RR
Car.Aero.Frc_1.x Fr1 N aerodynamics forces
Car.Aero.Frc_1.y
Car.Aero.Frc_1.z
Car.Aero.tau2_1 Fr1 Car.Aero.tau_1 + pi
Car.Aero.tau_1 Fr1 rad angle of wind direction
– Car.Aero.vyres
Car.Aero.tau = atan -------------------------------------------
– Car.Aero.vxres
Car.Aero.Trq_1.x Fr1 Nm aerodynamics torques at Car.Aero.Pos

Car.Aero.Trq_1.y
Car.Aero.Trq_1.z
Car.Aero.vres_1.x Fr1 m/s horizontal components of resultant wind
Car.Aero.vres_1.y flow between vehicle and surroundings
Car.Aero.vres_1.z
Car.Buffer<pos>.Frc N buffer force
Car.Buffer<pos>.l Fr1 m buffer length
Car.C<pos>.C.t_0.x m
Car.C<pos>.C.t_0.y
Car.C<pos>.C.t_0.z
Car.C<pos>.C.v_0.x m/s
Car.C<pos>.C.v_0.y
Car.C<pos>.C.v_0.z
Car.C<pos>.GenFrc0 N
Car.C<pos>.GenFrc1 N
Car.C<pos>.GenInert0 kg
Car.C<pos>.GenInert1 kg
Car.C<pos>.P.t_0.x
Car.C<pos>.P.t_0.y
Car.C<pos>.P.t_0.z
Car.C<pos>.a_0.x Fr0 m/s^2
Car.C<pos>.a_0.y
Car.C<pos>.a_0.z
Car.C<pos>_rx Fr1 rad rotation carrier front left

Car.C<pos>_ry [ZXY] (used for animation)
Car.C<pos>_rz
Car.C<pos>_tx Fr1 m translation carrier reference point front
Car.C<pos>_ty left
Car.C<pos>_tz (used for animation)
Car.C<pos>.rx_kin Fr1 rad by kinematics
Car.C<pos>.ry_kin [ZXY]
Car.C<pos>.rz_kin
Car.C<pos>.tx_kin m by kinematics
Car.C<pos>.ty_kin
Car.C<pos>.tz_kin


Car.C<pos>.rx_com Fr1 rad by compliance
Car.C<pos>.ry_com [ZXY]
Car.C<pos>.rz_com
Car.C<pos>.tx_com m by compliance
Car.C<pos>.ty_com
Car.C<pos>.tz_com
Car.C<pos>.rx_ext Fr1 rad extra, offset
Car.C<pos>.ry_ext [ZXY]
Car.C<pos>.rz_ext
Car.C<pos>.tx_ext m extra, offset
Car.C<pos>.ty_ext
Car.C<pos>.tz_ext
Car.Camber<pos> rad camber angle (DIN 70000, 4.1.4)
Inclination of the wheel plane towards
the vehicle’s longitudinal plane. Positive,
if the top of the wheel is inclined towards
the outside of the vehicle
Car.Con.alHori m/s^2 centripetal acceleration (in horizontal
plane), Car.alHori is perpendicular to
Car.v and to Z-axis (DIN 70000, 2.1.2.4)
Car.Con.atHori m/s^2 tangential acceleration (in horizontal
plane), Car.atHori is parallel to Car.v and
perpendicular to Z-axis (DIN 70000,
2.1.2.5)
Car.Con.ax Fr0 translational acceleration of vehicle con-
Car.Con.ax nected body
Car.Con.ax
Car.Con.ax_1 Fr1 translational acceleration of vehicle con-
Car.Con.ay_1 nected body
Car.Con.az_1
Car.Con.tx Fr0 m translational position of vehicle connect-
Car.Con.tx ed body
Car.Con.tx
Car.Con.v m/s velocity
Car.Con.vHori m/s horizontal vehicle velocity (DIN 70000,
2.1.1.4)
2 2
Car.vHori = Car.vx + Car.vy
Car.Con.vx_1 Fr1 m/s translational velocity of vehicle connect-

Car.Con.vy_1 ed body
Car.Con.vz_1
Car.Damp<pos>.Frc N damper force, internal, external, total
Car.Damp<pos>.Frc_ext
Car.Damp<pos>.Frc_tot
Car.Damp<pos>.l m damper length
Car.Damp<pos>.v m/s damper velocity
Car.Distance Fr0 m driving distance since last test run start)
Car.Distance = ∫ Car.v dt
t


Car.Fr1.ax Fr0 m/s^2 vehicle acceleration
Car.Fr1.ay
Car.Fr1.az
Car.Fr1.rx Fr0 rad vehicle rotation angles, Cardan angles
Car.Fr1.ry [Z-X- (DIN 70000, 2.2.1.1 - 3)
Car.Fr1.rz Y]
Car.Fr1.tx Fr0 m vehicle position
Car.Fr1.ty
Car.Fr1.tz
Car.Fr1.vx Fr0 m/s translational velocity of vehicle reference
Car.Fr1.vy point
Car.Fr1.vz
Car.Fx<pos> FrH N longitudinal, lateral and vertical ground
Car.Fy<pos> reaction force at wheel/road contact
Car.Fz<pos> point
Car.Gen.ax Fr0 m/s^2 acceleration of generalized vehicle body
Car.Gen.ay
Car.Gen.az
Car.Gen.ax_1 Fr1 m/s^2 acceleration of generalized vehicle body
Car.Gen.ay_1
Car.Gen.az_1
Car.Gen.tx Fr0 m position of generalized vehicle body
Car.Gen.ty
Car.Gen.tz
Car.Gen.vx_1 Fr1 m/s velocity of generalized vehicle body
Car.Gen.vy_1
Car.Gen.vz_1
Car.Hitch.Frc2Car.x Fr0 trailer hitch force and torque acting on
Car.Hitch.Frc2Car.y car
Car.Hitch.Frc2Car.z
Car.Hitch.Trq2Car.x trailer hitch force and torque acting on
Car.Hitch.Trq2Car.y car
Car.Hitch.Trq2Car.z
Car.Hitch.tx Fr0 m trailer hitch position (hitch center refer-
Car.Hitch.ty ence point)
Car.Hitch.tz
Car.Hitch.vx Fr0 m/s trailer hitch velocity (hitch center refer-
Car.Hitch.vy ence point)
Car.Hitch.vz
Car.InclinAngle<pos> Fr1 rad inclination angle
Angle between Z-axis and wheel plane.
Positive for positive rotation around X-
axis of the wheel.
Car.Jack.Fz<pos> N
Car.Jack.tz<pos m
Car.Load..mass kg mass of car load, := 0, 1, 2
Car.Load..tx Fr1 m position of i-th car load, i= 0..2
Car.Load..ty
Car.Load..tz


Car.LongSlip<pos> – Longitudinal slip. Definition depends on
tire model.
Car.muRoad<pos> – road friction coefficient
Car.Pitch rad vehicle pitch angle (DIN 70000, 2.2.1.2)
Positive, if front goes down and rear of
the car comes up.
Car.PitchVel rad/s
Car.RoadCoord m vehicle road coordinate (carrier front left)
Car.RoadDist<pos> m road (center line) coordinate of belong-
ing wheel
Car.Roll rad vehicle roll angle (DIN 70000, 2.2.1.3)
Positive, if right side goes down and left
side comes up.
Car.RollVel rad/s roll rotation velocity
Car.SideSlipAngle rad sideslip angle (DIN 70000, 2.2.1.4)
Angle between X-axis of the car and
direction of Car.vHori
Car.vy
Car.SideSlipAngle = atan -----------------
Car.vx
Car.SideSlipAngle = 0 if Car.vx = Car.vy = 0
value range -pi .. +pi

Car.SideSlipAngle2 sideslip angle, value range 0 ... 2 pi
Car.SideSlipAngleVel sideslip angle velocity (DIN 70000,
2.2.1.4)
Car.SimPhase – car simulation phase
Car.SlipAngle<pos> rad slip angle (DIN 70000, 7.1.2)
Angle between X-axis of the wheel and
the tangent of the trajectory of the center
of tire contact. Positive for positive rota-
tion around Z-axis.
Car.vyFL
Car.SlipAngleFL = atan ------------------------
Car.vxFL
Car.SlipAngleFL = 0 if Car.vxFL = Car.vyFL = 0
Car.SpinAngle<pos> rad angle arround wheel spin axis,

3. angle (DIN 70000, 4.1.3.1)
Car.Spring<pos>.Frc N spring force, internal, external, total
Car.Spring<pos>.Frc_ext
Car.Spring<pos>.Frc_tot
Car.Spring<pos>.l m spring length


Car.SSAngle rad sensor signal of sideslip angle
Car.Stabi<pos>.Frc N stabilizer force, internal, external, total
Car.Stabi<pos>.Frc_ext
Car.Stabi<pos>.Frc_tot
Car.Stabi<pos>.l m stabilizer length
Car.T<pos>.Trq.y Nm tire torque around wheel spin axis
Car.Toe<pos> rad toe angle (DIN 70000, 4.1.5.1)
The toe angle is positive if the front sec-
tion of the wheel is turned toward the
vehicle’s longitudinal center plane and is
negative (toe-out) if the front section is
turned away from this plane.
Car.TrackCurv 1/m curvature of trajectory (DIN 70000,
2.3.3)
Car.TrackCurv = 1 / Car.TrackRadius
Car.TrackCurv = 0 if Car.TrackRadius =
∞
Car.TrackCurv = ∞ if Car.TrackRadius =
0
Car.TrackRadius m radius of path / trajectory (DIN 70000,
2.3.2)
Distance between a point of the trajecto-
ry and the belonging instantaneous cen-
ter.
2
( Car.vHori )
Car.TrackRadius = ---------------------------------
Car.alHori
Car.TrackRadius = ∞ if Car.alHori = 0
Car.TrqAlign<pos> Nm aligning torque (DIN 70000, 7.3.2.3)

Component of the ground reaction
moment. Positive for positive direction
around Z-axis
Car.Trq_T2W<pos> Nm tire torque around wheel spin axis
Car.v<pos> m/s wheel velocity (based on wheel rotation
and wheel radius)
Car.vFL = Car.WheelSpd_FL
⋅ Car.WFL_KinRollRadius
Car.Virtual.Frc_0.x Fr0 N virtual force, defined in Fr0

Car.Virtual.Frc_0.y
Car.Virtual.Frc_0.z
Car.Virtual.Frc_1.x Fr1 N virtual force, defined in Fr1
Car.Virtual.Frc_1.y
Car.Virtual.Frc_1.z
Car.Virtual.Trq_0.x Fr0 Nm virtual torque, defined in Fr0
Car.Virtual.Trq_0.y
Car.Virtual.Trq_0.z


Car.Virtual.Trq_1.x Fr1 Nm virtual torque, defined in Fr1
Car.Virtual.Trq_1.y
Car.Virtual.Trq_1.z
Car.vx<pos> m/s longitudinal wheel velocity
Car.vy<pos> m/s lateral wheel velocity
Car.W<pos>.Radius m actual wheel radius (distance road to
wheel center)
Car.W<pos>.rot rad wheel rotation angle
Car.WheelSpd_<pos> rad/s rotational wheel velocity
Car.Yaw rad vehicle yaw angle (DIN 70000, 2.2.1.1)
Angle between X-axis of the car and X-
axis of earth fixed system. Positive for
positive rotation around Z-axis.
Car.YawAcc rad/s^2 vehicle yaw acceleration
Car.YawRate rad/s vehicle yaw velocity (DIN 70000, 2.2.2.1)

User Accessible Quantities: Power Train
12.3 User Accessible Quantities: Power Train

12.3.1 User Accessible Quantities for PowerTrain
Name Unit Info

<pos> := FL, FR, RL, RR
PT.Trq_Sup2Bdy1.y Nm
PT.W<pos>.rot rad rotation angle of wheel
PT.W<pos>.rotv rad/s rotation speed of wheel
PT.W<pos>.TrqDrive Nm drive torque of wheel
PT.W<pos>.Trq_B2W Nm torque acting from brake to wheel
12.3.2 User Accessible Quantities for PowerTrain ‘Generic’
Name Unit Info

PT.Gen.DL.FDiff.Trq_ext2in Nm torque to differential input shaft
PT.Gen.DL.FDiff.Trq_Cpl2B Nm torque from coupling model to shaft B
PT.Gen.DL.FDiff.rotv_in rad/sec rotation speed, input shaft
PT.Gen.DL.FDiff.DVA.Trq_A2B Nm used for coupling model ‘DVA’
PT.Gen.DL.RDiff.Trq_ext2in Nm torque to differential input shaft

PT.Gen.DL.RDiff.Trq_Cpl2B Nm torque from coupling model to shaft B
PT.Gen.DL.RDiff.rotv_in rad/sec rotation speed, input shaft
PT.Gen.DL.RDiff.DVA.Trq_A2B Nm used for coupling model ‘DVA’
PT.Gen.DL.CDiff.Trq_ext2in Nm torque to differential input shaft

PT.Gen.DL.CDiff.Trq_Cpl2B Nm torque from coupling model to shaft B
PT.Gen.DL.CDiff.rotv_in rad/sec rotation speed, input shaft
PT.Gen.DL.CDiff.DVA.Trq_A2B Nm used for coupling model ‘DVA’
PT.Gen.DL.HangOn.Trq_Cpl2B Nm torque from coupling model to shaft B (output)

PT.Gen.DL.HangOn.drotv_Diff2o rad/sec delta rotation speed (HangOn - DiffIn)
PT.Gen.DL.HangOn.DVA.Trq_A2B Nm used for coupling model ‘DVA’

12.3.3 User Accessible Quantities for Module ‘Engine’
Name Unit Info

PT.Engine.rot rad rotation angle
PT.Engine.rotv rad/s rotation speed
PT.Engine.Trq Nm effective engine output torque
PT.Engine.Starter engine starter currently active

PT.Engine.on engine is running
PT.Engine.DVA.Trq.Amplify Nm used for engine model ‘DVA’
12.3.4 User Accessible Quantities for Module ‘Clutch’
Name Unit Info

PT.Clutch.rot_in rad rotation angle, input shaft
PT.Clutch.rot_out rad rotation angle, output shaft
PT.Clutch.rotv_in rad/s rotation speed, input shaft
PT.Clutch.rotv_out rad/s rotation speed, output shaft
PT.Clutch.Trq_E2C Nm torque transferred from engine to clutch

(input torque)
PT.Clutch.Trq_C2GB Nm torque transferred from clutch to gearbox
(output torque)
PT.Clutch.DVA.Trq_A2B Nm used for clutch model ‘DVA’

12.3.5 User Accessible Quantities for Module ‘GearBox’
Name Unit Info

PT.GearBox.rot_in rad rotation angle, input shaft
PT.GearBox.rot_out rad rotation angle, output shaft
PT.GearBox.rotv_in rad/s rotation speed, input shaft
PT.GearBox.rotv_out rad/s rotation speed, output shaft
PT.GearBox.Trq_C2GB Nm torque transferred from clutch to gearbox

(input torque)
PT.GearBox.Trq_ext2GBout Nm torque transferred from external to gearbox out-
put and driveline.
This torque is contained in quantity Trq_GB2DL
(output torque)
PT.GearBox.Trq_GB2DL Nm torque transferred from gearbox to driveline
(output torque)
PT.GearBox.i current transmission ratio

PT.GearBox.GearNo gear number currently used
PT.GearBox.DVA.i used for gearbox model ‘DVA’

User Accessible Quantities: Steering Systems
12.4 User Accessible Quantities: Steering Systems

12.4.1 General User Accessible Quantities: Steering Systems
Name Unit Info

Steer.L.Frc N External force from left suspension to steer
system.
Steer.L.Inert kg Inertia (mass) from left suspension which is
considered in differential equations of the
steer system.
Steer.L.iSteer2q m/rad Translation steering wheel angle to general-
ized steer coordinate on left side.
Steer.L.q m Generalized steer coordinate for the left
suspension.
Steer.L.qp m/s Generalized steer velocity for the left sus-
pension.
Steer.L.qpp m/s^2 Generalized steer acceleration for the left
suspension.
Steer.R.Frc N External force from right suspension to steer
system.
Steer.R.Inert kg Inertia (mass) from right suspension which
is considered in differential equations of the
steer system.
Steer.R.iSteer2q m/rad Translation steering wheel angle to general-
ized steer coordinate on right side.
Steer.R.q m Generalized steer coordinate for the right
suspension.
Steer.R.qp m/s Generalized steer velocity for the right sus-
pension.
Steer.R.qpp m/s^2 Generalized steer acceleration for the right
suspension.
Steer.SteerBy [0..2] Type of steering mode.
1 Steer by Angle,
2 Steer by Torque.
Steer.WhlAng rad Steering wheel angle.
Steer.WhlVel rad/s Steering wheel velocity.
Steer.WhlAcc rad/s^2 Steering wheel acceleration.
Steer.WhlTrq Nm Steering wheel torque.
Steer.WhlTrqStatic Nm Steering wheel torque required for static
conditions (no accelerations).

User Accessible Quantities: Brake System
12.5 User Accessible Quantities: Brake System

12.5.1 General User Accessible Quantities for Brake Systems
Name Unit Info

Brake.BooSignal Booster activation signal (0..1)
Brake.DiaphTravel m Travel of the booster diaphragm
Brake.Pedal Brake pedal actuation (0..1)

Brake.PedFrc N Force applied on brake pedal
Brake.PedTravel m Brake pedal travel
Brake.PistTravel m Travel of brake piston
Brake.Park Park brake actuation (0..1)
Brake.pMC bar Master cylinder pressure

Brake.pMC_in bar Input of master cylinder pressure to hydraulic mod-
el if input mode ‘Use_pMCInput’ ist selected in the
brake interface.
Brake.PumpIsOn Hydraulic pump activated
Brake.PuRetVolt V Hydraulic pump return voltage
Brake.pWB_FL bar Brake pressure front left

Brake.pWB_FR bar Brake pressure front right
Brake.pWB_RL bar Brake pressure rear left
Brake.pWB_RR bar Brake pressure rear right
Brake.Rel_SW Brake booster release switch actuated
Brake.T_env K Environment temperature for brake
Brake.Trq_FL Nm Brake torque front left

Brake.Trq_FR Nm Brake torque front right
Brake.Trq_RL Nm Brake torque rear left
Brake.Trq_RR Nm Brake torque rear right
Brake.Trq_PB_FL Nm Brake torque of park brake front left
Brake.Trq_PB_FR Nm Brake torque of park brake front right
Brake.Trq_PB_RL Nm Brake torque of park brake rear left
Brake.Trq_PB_RR Nm Brake torque of park brake rear right
Brake.Trq_FL_ext Nm External brake torque front left
Brake.Trq_FR_ext Nm External brake torque front right
Brake.Trq_RL_ext Nm External brake torque rear left
Brake.Trq_RR _ext Nm External brake torque rear right

Name Unit Info

Brake.Trq_FL_tot Nm Total brake torque (trq+trq_park+ trq_ext) front left
Brake.Trq_FR_tot Nm Total brake torque (trq+trq_park+ trq_ext) front
right
Brake.Trq_RL_tot Nm Total brake torque rear left
Brake.Trq_RR _tot Nm Total brake torque rear right
Brake.Valve_In_FL Valve activity for inlet valve front left (0..1)

Brake.Valve_In_FR Valve activity for inlet valve front right (0..1)
Brake.Valve_In_RL Valve activity for inlet valve rear left (0..1)
Brake.Valve_In_RR Valve activity for inlet valve rear right (0..1)
Brake.Valve_Out_FL Valve activity for outlet valve front left (0..1)
Brake.Valve_Out_FR Valve activity for outlet valve front right (0..1)
Brake.Valve_Out_RL Valve activity for outlet valve rear left (0..1)
Brake.Valve_Out_RR Valve activity for outlet valve rear right (0..1)

12.5.2 User Accessible Quantities for Brake Module ‘HydESP’
Name Unit Info


Brake.HydESP.Cyl_p_FL bar Pressure of brake cylinder front left

Brake.HydESP.Cyl_p_FR bar Pressure of brake cylinder front right
Brake.HydESP.Cyl_p_RL bar Pressure of brake cylinder rear left
Brake.HydESP.Cyl_p_RR bar Pressure of brake cylinder rear right
3
Brake.HydESP.Cyl_v_FL m Volume of brake cylinder front left
3
Brake.HydESP.Cyl_v_FR m Volume of brake cylinder front righ
3
Brake.HydESP.Cyl_v_RL m Volume of brake cylinder rear left
3
Brake.HydESP.Cyl_v_RR m Volume of brake cylinder rear right
Brake.HydESP.nPump 1/s Rotation speed of hydraulic pump engine
3
Brake.HydESP.qIN_FL m ⁄s Volume flow through inlet valve front left
3
Brake.HydESP.qIN_FR m ⁄s Volume flow through inlet valve front right
3
Brake.HydESP.qIN_RL m ⁄s Volume flow through inlet valve rear left
3
Brake.HydESP.qIN_RR m ⁄s Volume flow through inlet valve rear right
3
Brake.HydESP.qOUT_FL m ⁄s Volume flow through outlet valve front left
3
Brake.HydESP.qOUT_FR m ⁄s Volume flow through outlet valve front right
3
Brake.HydESP.qOUT_RL m ⁄s Volume flow through outlet valve rear left
3
Brake.HydESP.qOUT_RR m ⁄s Volume flow through outlet valve rear right
3
3
3
3
3
3

User Accessible Quantities: Trailer
12.6 User Accessible Quantities: Trailer

12.6.1 General User Accessible Quantities: Trailer

Tr.Active True (1) if trailermodel is active (driving with trailer)
Tr.Aero.Frc_1.x Fr1 m Aerodynamic force acting on trailer
Tr.Aero.Frc_1.y
Tr.Aero.Frc_1.z
Tr.Aero.Trq_1.x Fr1 Aerodynamic torque
Tr.Aero.Trq_1.y
Tr.Aero.Trq_1.z
Tr.Aero.tau_1 Fr1 rad Angle of incidence
Tr.Aero.tau2_1 Fr1 rad Angle of incidence (shifted by 2π)
Tr.Aero.vres_1.x Fr1 m/s Wind velocity
Tr.Aero.vres_1.y
Tr.Aero.vres_1.z
Tr.C<pos>.tx Fr1 m Translation carrier reference point front left
Tr.C<pos>.ty (used for animation)
Tr.C<pos>.tz <pos> = FL, FR, RL, RR
Tr.C<pos>.rx rad Rotation carrier front left
Tr.C<pos>.ry (used for animation)
Tr.C<pos>.rz <pos> = FL, FR, RL, RR
Tr.C<pos>.C.t_0.x Fr0 m wheel center C
Tr.C<pos>.C.t_0.y
Tr.C<pos>.C.t_0.z
Tr.C<pos>.P.t_0.x Fr0 m wheel road contact point P
Tr.C<pos>.P.t_0.y
Tr.C<pos>.P.t_0.z
Tr.Con.ax Fr0 m/s^2 Center of mass, translational acceleration
Tr.Con.ay
Tr.Con.az
Tr.Con.ax_1 Fr1 m/s^2 Center of mass, translational acceleration
Tr.Con.ay_1
Tr.Con.az_1
Tr.Con.tx Fr0 m Center of mass, translational position
Tr.Con.ty
Tr.Con.tz
Tr.Con.vx Fr0 m/s Center of mass, translational velocity
Tr.Con.vy
Tr.Con.vz
Tr.CoM.vx_1 Fr1 m/s Center of mass, translational velocity
Tr.CoM.vy_1
Tr.CoM.vz_1
Tr.Fr1.ax Fr0 m/s^2 Translational acceleration
Tr.Fr1.ay
Tr.Fr1.az
Tr.Fr1.rx Trailer rotation angles, Cardan angles, whereby
Tr.Fr1.ry Tr.rz = Tr.Yaw.ry = Car.Pitch and
Tr.Fr1.rz Car.rz = Car.Roll (DIN 70000, 2.2.1.1 - 3)


Tr.Fr1.tx Fr0 m Translational position
Tr.Fr1.ty
Tr.Fr1.tz
Tr.Fr1.vx Fr0 m/s Translational velocity
Tr.Fr1.vy
Tr.Fr1.vz
Tr.Fx<pos> FrH N longitudinal, lateral and vertical ground reaction force
Tr.Fy<pos> at wheel/road contact point
Tr.Fz<pos>
Tr.Hitch.Frc2Tr.x Fr0 Hitch force from external (car) to trailer
Tr.Hitch.Frc2Tr.y
Tr.Hitch.Frc2Tr.z
Tr.Hitch.Frc2Tr.x_1 Fr1 Hitch force from external (car) to trailer
Tr.Hitch.Frc2Tr.y_1
Tr.Hitch.Frc2Tr.z_1
Tr.Hitch.Trq2Tr.x Fr0 Hitch torque from external (car) to trailer
Tr.Hitch.Trq2Tr.y
Tr.Hitch.Trq2Tr.z
Tr.Hitch.Trq2Tr.x_1 Fr1 Hitch torque from external (car) to trailer
Tr.Hitch.Trq2Tr.y_1
Tr.Hitch.Trq2Tr.z_1
Tr.Hitch.tx Fr0 Hitch translational position
Tr.Hitch.ty
Tr.Hitch.tz
Tr.Hitch.vx Fr0 Hitch translational velocity
Tr.Hitch.vy
Tr.Hitch.vz
Tr.Load..mass kg Mass of load, := 0, 1, 2
Tr.Load..tx Fr1 m Position of i-th load, i= 0..2
Tr.Load..ty
Tr.Load..tz
Tr.LongSlip<pos> – Longitudinal slip
Tr.Pitch rad Trailer pitch angle (DIN 70000, 2.2.1.1)
Positive, if front goes down and rear of trailer
comes up.
Tr.Roll rad Trailer roll angle (DIN 70000, 2.2.1.3)
Positive, if right side goes down and left side
comes up.
Tr.SideSlipAngle rad Sideslip angle (DIN 70000, 2.2.1.4)
Tr.SideSlipAngle2 rad Sideslip angle with an offset of 2*PI
Tr.SideSlipAngleVel rad/s Sideslip angle velocity (DIN 70000, 2.2.1.4)
Tr.SimPhase simulation phase
Tr.TrqBrake<pos> Nm Brake torque o
Tr.Virtual.Frc_0.y
Tr.Virtual.Frc_0.z
Tr.Virtual.Frc_1.y
Tr.Virtual.Frc_1.z
Tr.Virtual.Trq_0.y
Tr.Virtual.Trq_0.z


Tr.Virtual.Trq_1.y
Tr.Virtual.Trq_1.z
Tr.W<pos>.rot rad Wheel rotation angle around wheel spin axis
Tr.WheelSpd_<pos> rad/s Rotational wheel velocity
Tr.Yaw rad yaw angle (DIN 70000, 2.2.1.1) Angle between X-
axis of trailer and X-axis of earth fixed system.
Positive for positive rotation around Z-axis.
Tr.YawVel rad/s yaw angle velocity (DIN 70000, 2.2.2.1)
Tr.alHori m/s^2 horizontal lateral acceleration
Tr.atHori m/s^2 horizontal tangential acceleration
Tr.ax Fr1 m/s^2 acceleration
Tr.ay
Tr.az
Tr.dr_z_0 rad Yaw angle difference between trailer and tractor
Tr.drv_z_0 rad/s Yaw angle velocity difference between trailer and
tractor
Tr.sRoad m Trailer road coordinate
Tr.tx Fr0 m
Tr.ty
Tr.tz
Tr.v<pos> m/s Wheel velocity (based on wheel rotation and wheel
radius)
Tr.vx Fr1 m/s
Tr.vy
Tr.vz

UAQ´s changed from CM 2.0 to CM 2.1
12.7 UAQ´s changed from CM 2.0 to CM 2.1

✘ means this quantity does not exist (any more)
Table 12.1: Changed or Renamed UAQ´s from CarMaker 2.0 to CarMaker 2.1
Old UAQ (CM2.0) New UAQ (CM2.1)

✘ Ambient.AirDensity
✘ Ambient.AirPressure
✘ Ambient.AirHumidity
✘ Ambient.WindVel_ext.<xyz>
Brake.FPedal ✘
✘ Brake.HydESP.In_<FL>
✘ Brake.HydESP.Out_<FL>
✘ Brake.HydESP.PV_<0|1>
✘ Brake.HydESP.SV_<0|1>
✘ Brake.Park
✘ Brake.PedFrc
✘ Brake.Pedal
✘ Brake.Trq_<FL>_ext
Brake.Trq_<FL> Brake.Trq_<FL>_tot
✘ Brake.Trq_PB_<FL>
✘ Brake.Trq_WB_<FL>
Car.Con.v<xyz> ✘
Car.Gen.v<xyz> ✘
Car.SpinAngle<FL> ✘
Car.Axle<FL>.Frc ✘
Car.Camera_<r|t><xyz> ✘
Car.C<FL>.CoM_0.t.<xyz> Car.C<FL>.C.t_0.<xyz>
car.C<FL>.CoM_0.v.<xyz> Car.C<FL>.C.v_0.<xyz>
Car.C<FL>.P_0.<xyz> Car.C<FL>.P.t_0.<xyz>
✘ Car.C<FL>.P.v01_H.<xyz>
Car.C<FL>.a_0.z Car.C<FL>.a_0.<xyz>
✘ Car.vz<FL>
✘ Car.C<FL>.t<xyz>_ext (extra)
✘ Car.C<FL>.r<xyz>_comp (compliance)
✘ Car.C<FL>.t<xyz>_comp
✘ Car.Aero.vres_1.z
✘ Car.Buffer<FL>.l_ext
✘ Car.Spring<FL>.l_ext
✘ Car.Stabi<FL>.l_ext
DM.BrakeLever ✘
DM.FBrake ✘
DM.BrakePedal ✘


DM.BrakePedalFrc ✘
✘ DM.Brake
DM.HandBrake DM.BrakePark
✘ DM.ExtInp.Mode
✘ DM.SpeedTrap.Dist
✘ DM.SpeedTrap.Id
✘ DM.SpeedTrap.Time
✘ DVA.nQuants
SC.HeapSize ✘
SC.HeapSizeModifiedNo ✘
✘ SC.RunCtrl
✘ SC.DStore.State
✘ DStore.Status
✘ DStore.FileNo
✘ DStore.SavedSize
✘ PT.Clutch.DVA.Trq_A2B
✘ PT.GB.DVA.i
PT.Gen.DL.CDiff.DVA.Trq_A2B ✘
PT.Gen.DL.FDiff.DVA.Trq_A2B ✘
PT.Gen.DL.RDiff.DVA.Trq_A2B ✘
Sensor.One.Acc.<xyz>_1 ✘
✘ Tr.Aero.vres_1.z
✘ Tr.C<FL>.P_0.<xyz>
✘ Tr.C<FL>.C_0.<xyz>
✘ Tr.Con.a<xyz>
✘ Tr.Con.a<xyz>_1
✘ Tr.Con.t<xyz>
✘ Tr.Con.v
✘ Tr.Con.vHori
✘ Tr.Con.v<xyz>
✘ Tr.Con.v<xyz>_1
✘ Tr.Hitch.Frc2Tr.<xyz>_1
✘ Tr.a<l|t>Hori
✘ Tr.a<xyz>
✘ Tr.t<xyz>
✘ Tr.v<xyz>
Tr.CoM.a<xyz> ✘
Tr.CoM.a<xyz>_1 ✘
Tr.CoM.v<xyz> ✘
Tr.CoM.v<xyz>_1 ✘
Tr.CoM.v ✘


Tr.CoM.t<xyz> ✘
✘ Vhcl.Roll
✘ Vhcl.RollAcc
✘ Vhcl.RollVel

281
Appendix

282
Appendix A
Mini-Maneuver Command Language
This section explain the mini-maneuver command language.

The mini-maneuver command language is a small group of commands that can be added
directly to the CarMaker maneuver dialog window and that will be executed during a mini-
maneuver.
There are commands that change parameter files, operate the FailSafeTester and com-
mands that perform a number of other useful operations.
Mini maneuver commands are stored in the testrun file as an text entry with the mini maneu-
ver prefix <MMPre> followed by “Cmds”.
A.1 Syntax
Comment lines start with a ‘#’ character and are ignored by the interpreter. All other lines
are interpreted as commands.
The execution of minimaneuver commands can be defined by conditions. When the condi-
tion gets true the following command is executed. A condition is notated in front of a com-
mand. If no condition is specified the command is executed at the beginning of the
minimaneuver.
[Time=TimeVal] [Dist=DistVal] CmdStr
Argument Description
TimeVal Specifies the time offset from the beginning of the minimaneuver when
the succeeding commands should execute.
DistVal Specifies the distance the vehicle traveled from the beginning of the
minimaneuver when the succeeding commands should execute.
CmdStr the mini maneuver command string
Specify time and/or distance statement to trigger the start of evaluation of succeeding com-
mands.

283
When specifying Time and Dist in conjunction the succeeding commands are executed
when one of the two conditions gets true.
Example Time=0.5 Dist=50 DMjmpn 2

The succeeding command (jump to minimaneuver 2) is executed 0.5 seconds after the
beginning of the minimaneuver or 50 meters measured from the beginning of the minima-
neuver depending which case happens first.

284
A.2 Driving Maneuver Commands

With the driving maneuver commands it is possible to influence the standard top down exe-
cution order of minimaneuvers. Additionally it is possible to manipulate the starting point of
the external inputs from file functionality.
Driving Maneuver Label

Label LabelStr
Define a label with the name LabelStr. A jump to this minimaneuver can be realized by ref-
erencing this label (see next command).
Driving Maneuver Jump

DMjmp LabelStr
DMjmpn LabelNo
Jump to mini maneuver with the label <LabelStr>. The label has to be set in the desired
minimaneuver with the Label command. Alternatively the identifier number <LabelNo> of
the minimaneuver can be specified directly without defining a label.
Driving Maneuver External Inputs from File

ExtInp file ModeStr
Modify the CarMaker standard behavior of reading inputs from file from the beginning of a
simulation. With this command is possible to define the point when to start input from file.
This can either be at the beginning of a minimaneuver or in combination with the Time and
Dist conditions somewhere during a minimaneuver.
The parameter ModeStr specifies the following actions:
ModeStr Description
enable Enable input from file. If this is the first instance of this command the
input from file starts at this place.
disable Disable input from file. This can be used as a interrupt function. The
internal time used for input from file continues to count up but the
values are not updated in CarMaker. Any further ’enable’ commands
make sure that the values are updated in CarMaker again.
restart With this parameter it is possible to rewind the timeline of the input
from file module. Behavior is like the first start of input from file then.

285
A.3 Direct Variable Access Commands

DVA makes it possible to access all quantities of the CarMaker data dictionary. The follow-
ing commands provide DVA functionality within a minimaneuver.
Write Access – DVAwr

DVAwr <QuantName> <Mode> <AccessPoint> <nCycles> <Val1> [Val2] [nCyclesRamp]
Argument Description
<QuantName> Name of the quantity to access via DVA
<Mode> Abs, Off, Fac, FacOff, AbsRamp, OffRamp, FacRamp,
FacOffRamp
<AccessPoint> IO_In, IO_Out, DM
<nCycles> Number of cycles the selected quantity should be overwritten
<Val1> Value to be used for DVA
<Val2> Used to specify offset or ramp in some modes
<nCyclesRamp> Used to specify number of cycles used for the ramp
This command can be used to overwrite quantities via DVA access.

• There can be several modes used for modification of DVA quotients:
Mode Description
Abs <Val1> specifies the absolute value to overwrite the quantity.
Off <Val1> specifies an offset which is added to the current value of the
quantity.
Fac <Val1> specifies a factor the current value of the quantity is multiplied
with.
FacOff Combination of the cases ’factor’ and ’offset’ above. <Val1> specifies
the factor, <Val2> specifies the offset.
AbsRamp Specifies absolute value in <Val1> and the number of cycles
<nCyclesRamp> to be used to fade to this value.
OffRamp Specifies the offset value to be added to the current value of the
selected quantity in <Val1> and the number of cycles
<nCyclesRamp> to be used to reach the given offset.
FacRamp Specifies the factor the current value of the selected quantity is multi-
plied with in <Val1> and the number of cycles <nCyclesRamp> to be
used to fade to reach the given factor.
FacOffRamp Specifies the offset value to be added to the current value of the
selected quantity in <Val1>, the factor the current value of the selected
quantity is multiplied with in <Val2> and the number of cycles
<nCyclesRamp> to be used to reach the given factor and offset.

286
• Beside the mode the access point of the DVA write command has to be specified:
Access Point Description

IO_In The quantity is overwritten by DVA after execution of the IO_In func-
tion (read input from hardware modules).
IO_Out The quantity is overwritten by DVA before execution of the IO_Out
function (write input to hardware modules).
DM The quantity is overwritten by DVA after execution of the DM func-
tion (Driving Manager).
• The number of cycles <nCycles> selects how long the quantity should be overwritten. If
a mode type ’ramp’ is specified <nCycles> has priority over <nCyclesRamp>.

287
A.4 Action Commands

Beside the modification of CarMaker quantities via DVA it is possible to perform certain per-
vasive actions with special commands.
Kl15
Kl15=<0/1>
Switch Kl15 (ignition) on or off.
Example Kl15=1
Switch ignition on.
Kl50
Kl50=<0/1>
Switch Kl50/StarterControl on or off. If in the first minimaneuver a KL50=0 command is

specified the automatic start of the engine is disabled. The user is responsible for turning
on the ignition and then activate the starter (Kl50) for a while until the engine idles stable.
After that Kl50 should be set to 0 again.
Example Kl50=1
Switch ignition on.

288
A.5 Logging Commands

The mini command language provides basic functionality to issue messages to the
CarMaker session log.
Log
Log <Msg>
LogWrnS <Msg>
LogErrS <Msg>
This command issues messages (string embedded in quotes) to the session log. The fol-
lowing types of messages are distinguished:
Type Description
Log Issue a log message. The message is specified in [Msg].
LogWrnS Issue a warning message. The message is specified in [Msg].
LogErrS Issue a error message. The message is specified in [Msg].
Example Log “This is my own logging message”
The class of warning and error messages is always EC_General.

289

290
A.6 FailSafeTester Commands

The Mini-Maneuver Command Language provides access to the FailSafeTester. This
enables the user to apply a specific (failsafe-)test with precise timings and conditions eval-
uated in the realtime context of the simulation.
The Mini-Maneuver FailSaveTester commands can be found in the Users Guide in section
12.6.2 ’FailSafeTester Commands with Mini-Maneuvers’ on page 105.

291
Appendix B
Traffic-Obstacles
In this section, the module traffic-obstacle is discussed (not to be confused with road-
obstacles).
It is a module to define, handle and calculate obstacles of traffic, a module to do traffic flow
simulation in the environment of vehicle dynamics simulation.
In many applications, it is convenient to consider the motion of an individual obstacle being
composed of two parts: first, the nominal motion, second the — in general small — per-
turbed motion. Several options might be considered in characterizing the gross motion.
The gross motion of the obstacle is described most naturally by the motion of a frame mov-
ing along the mid-line of the road with variable velocity v . This frame also performs angular
motion with a certain angular velocity to maintain it’s orientation with respect to the road in
form of the latter curves.
t4
t3
t2
t1
An obstacle
• is a three dimensional box with width, height, length, position and orientation,

292
• can move or be fixed (driving or parking cars, motorcycles, roadworks)

• exists only for a period of time
• can randomly appear and disappear,
• has the following motion attributes
- maximal velocity
- maximal longitudinal acceleration and deceleration
- maximal lateral acceleration
The motion of an obstacle is defined along the course coordinate. It consists of a nominal,
basic motion, superimposed with a lateral motion and of time dependent perturbed offsets
in both directions.
v Road
nominal
t Road
s perturbed
IPG-ROAD
t Road
s RoadCoord
The longitudinal motion is typically defined by a velocity table. The default for lateral behav-
ior is to keep the initial lateral position. That means that the obstacle has always the same
lateral distance to the middle of the lane. The superposed longitudinal and lateral behavior
can be created by random, sinus or square functions.
The obstacle module interacts directly with IPG-ROAD to get the corresponding absolute
position and orientation.

293
The obstacle module provides the absolute state of all defined obstacles. In a second step,
RelVel
RelAcc
Vel Sensor
Acc
dist
ance
s RoadCoord
s obst
s PoI
relative quantities are calculated. For example, an Adaptive Cruise Control (ACC) controller
needs the distance, the direction from the sensor to and the relative velocity and accelera-
tion of the obstacle are needed.
Restrictions in this program version

• An obstacle can move through another obstacle. It doesn’t stop in front of or pass the
other obstacle.
• Obstacles don’t reduce there velocity in curves to stay in the allowed range of lateral
acceleration.
• Hill tops or fog between the obstacle and the sensor are ignored. The sensor can
always see the obstacle.
• The angle between sensor direction and the obstacle is related to the center of the
obstacle. Its dimension is ignored.

294
B.1 Parameters and Quantities

Units in this module
distance m meter
angle rad radiant
time s seconds
velocity m⁄s meters per second
2
acceleration m⁄s meters per second squared
Input file
The obstacles and their maneuvers are defined in an ascii text-file with infofile syntax.
Infofile syntax means keyword orientated, string or numeric values are separated from the
key by “=”, text values by “:”. The hash character "#" in the first column introduces a com-
ment line. For more details, look in the infofile documentation.
If you want to use your own input syntax, you can write your own input function instead of
the default Obsts_iGetObstcl().
Properties of an obstacle
All the following parameters have the prefix Obstacles.<No>
The obstacles lower border lies parallel to the road surface. The vertical offset is z Road .
y obstacle l
y Road s Road
h
z Road
s0 s Road
y Road s0
rear plane
birds view 3d view
Parameters .Info = InfoText

Comment, additional information
.Color = Red Green Blue

Color of the obstacle in RGB values. Example: for a red obstacle, say 1.0 0.0 0.0.
.Kind = ObstacleKind
The obstacle is of the kind ObstacleKind. This predefines basic characteristics like dimen-
sions. Known kinds are: LowPerfPassCar, HighPerfPassCar, HeavySnglUnitTruck, Trai-
lerTruck, Bus, Motorcycle.
Table 12.2: Obstacle Classes (date: 2005-07-05)
Obstacle Class Length Width Height zOffset
HighPerfPassCar 4.8 1.8 1.2 0.2
Motorcycle 2.0 0.6 1.0 0.2

295
Table 12.2: Obstacle Classes (date: 2005-07-05)
Obstacle Class Length Width Height zOffset
TrailerTruck 18.0 2.5 3.2 0.3
Bus 12.0 2.5 3.4 0.2
HeavySnglUnitTruck 6.8 2.5 3.2 0.3
LowPerfPassCar 4.1 1.7 1.2 0.2
.Basics.Offset = Off z Off x
Off z = 0 means obstacle lies on the road surface. Positive values shift upwards.
Off x = 0 means the reflection plane is the rear plane. Positive values shifts the reflection
plane forwards into the obstacle. The default is 0.
.Basics.Dimension = l w h
Dimensions of obstacles. overall length l , overall width w and overall height h .
.Init.Road = s Road y Road
Initial longitudinal s Road and lateral y Road road position of obstacles rear plane. y Road is
optional. Default: s Road = 0.0 m, y Road = 0.0 m.
.Init.v = Velocity
Longitudinal initial velocity Velocity. Default is 0.0 m/s.
.Init.Orientation = rx ry rz
Rotation angles rx , ry , rz for a z–y–x rotation sequence. Unit is degree.
.DrvLaps = LapDriving
Lap driving LapDriving=1 means, if an obstacle reaches at the end of the road it disap-
pears and reappears at the beginning of the road at s Road = 0.0m . This behaviour can be
deactivated by LapDriving=0 .

296
B.1.1 Motion of an Obstacle

The motion of an obstacle is defined by a list of column orientated mini maneuver steps.
Obstacle.2.Man:
t=50s v=20m/s - - - -
t=40s v=30m/s - - - -
t=55s v=20m/s - - - -
t=200s v=20m/s - - - -
A mini maneuver consists of
• column 1: maneuver limitation
• column 2: longitudinal nominal motion
• column 3: lateral nominal motion
• column 4: longitudinal superimposed motion
• column 5: lateral superimposed motion
Each maneuver step line must start with a tabulator character at first position.
Limitation
t=<xx>s length of <xx> seconds
t_abs=<xx>s until absolute time reaches <xx> seconds
s=<xx>m length of <xx> meters
s_abs=<xx>m until obstacle reaches absolute road distance of <xx> meters
The kind of limitation influences the defined superimposed motion. If the maneuver step is
limited by time, the superimposed period refers to the maneuver time, otherwise to dis-
tance.
Nominal longitudinal motion

- nothing defined
v=<xx>m/s end velocity of <xx> m/s
a=<xx>m/s^2 constant acceleration of <xx> m/s^2
s=<xx>m distance of <xx> meters, reached at the end of the maneuver step
s_abs=<xx>m absolute road position of <xx> meters, reached at the end of the
maneuver step
Nominal lateral motion

- nothing defined
y=<xx>m road lateral position of <xx> meters

297
Superimposed longitudinal motion

- nothing defined
off immediately switch off the offset created by earlier maneuvers
cont continue with definition of previous maneuver
sinus=<A>,<T> sinus with amplitude <A> and period <T>.

sinus=0,<T> sinus with amplitude <A> from last maneuver and period time <T>.
The amplitude is reduced linear during this maneuver
triangle=<A>,<T> triangle with amplitude

<A> at <T>,
-<A> at 3 * <T> and
0 at 4 * <T>
triangle=<A0>,<T0>,<A1>,<T1>,<T2>
triangle with amplitude
<A0> at <T0>,
<A1> at <T1> and
0 at <T2>
Superimposed lateral motion

- nothing defined
off immediately switch off the offset created by earlier maneuvers
cont continue with definition of previous maneuver
sinus=<A>,<T> sinus with amplitude <A> and period time <T>

sinus=0,<T> sinus with amplitude <A> from last maneuver and period time
<T>.
The amplitude is reduced linear during this maneuver
triangle=<A>,<T> triangle with amplitude

<A> at t= <T>,
-<A> at t= 3 * <T> and
0 at t= 4 * <T>
triangle=<A0>,<T0>,<A1>,<T1>,<T2>
triangle with amplitude
<A0> at t= <T0>,
<A1> at t= <T1> and
0 at t= <T2>

298
B.1.2 Output Quantities

The output quantities are components of the structure tObstVec
isActive set to “1” as long as obstacle exists
set to “0” if life time of obstacle is expired
Obstacle life time is defined in the driving maneuver of the obstacle
sRoad road (center line) coordinate
yRoad lateral road position
LongVel longitudinal velocity

LongAcc longitudinal acceleration
Pos[3] absolute position (inertial system)

Rot[3] rotation angles (zyx-joint)
TraMat[3][3] transformation matrix (transforms the obstacle frame to the inertial
frame, zyx-joint)
Vel[3] absolute velocity
Acc[3] absolute acceleration
Relative outputs (additional calculation!):

RelPos[3] Relative position obstacle to sensor, sensor frame
RelVel[3] Relative velocity, obstacle to sensor, sensor frame
RelAcc[3] Relative acceleration, obstacle to sensor, sensor frame

299
B.2 Functions, Types and Variables

Data type for defining a single obstacle
typedef struct tObstcl {
struct {
int Kind;
double LongAccMax;
double LongDecMax;
double LatAccMax;
double VelMax;
double w, h, l; /* overall dimensions */
double zOff;
double lOff;
} Basics;
struct {
double sRoad;
double yRoad;
double v;
double rx, ry, rz;
} Init;
int DriveEndless;
int nMan;
tObstMan *Man;
char Info[64];
} tObstcl;
Data type for the output structure of an obstacle

typedef struct tObstVec {
char isActive;
double sRoad; /* absolute quantities */
double yRoad;
double LongVel;
double LongAcc;
double t_0[3];
double Rot[3];
double Tr2Fr0[3][3];
double v_0[3];
double a_0[3];
double dt_S[3]; /*relative quantities */

double dv_S[3];
double da_S[3];
} tObstVec;
Sensor Interface
typedef struct tObstSensIF {
double sRoad; /* sensor road coordinate (estimate) */
double t_0[3]; /* sensor position Fr0 */
double v_0[3]; /* sensor velocity Fr0 */
double a_0[3]; /* sensor acceleration Fr0 */
double omega[3]; /* sensor rotational velocity Fr0 */
double alpha[3]; /* sensor rotational acceleration Fr0 */
double Tr2Fr0[3][3]; /* sensor orientation/transformation matrix “sensor to Fr0” */
} tObstSensIF;
Handle to the obstacle management

typedef struct tObsts tObsts;

300
B.2.1 Obsts_New() - create a new obstacle management

Synopsis #include <Obstacles.h>
tObsts *Obsts_New (void)
Description Creates a new handle to an obstacle management. A new data structure for obstacle man-
agement is created and initialized.
• Call once per simulation, before any other operation with obstacles is done.
Return values
NULL Error
!= NULL O.k.
B.2.2 Obsts_ObstclNew() - create an new obstacle

tObstcl *Obsts_ObstacleNew {void)
Description Creates a new obstacle structure and initializes it with default values. The properties of this
obstacle must be defined before it is added to the actual set of obstacles (obstacle man-
agement) by calling the function Obsts_ObstclAdd().
Return values
NULL Error (nearly impossible!)
!= NULL handle to an obstacle
B.2.3 Obsts_iGetObstcl() - get obstacle from infofile

tObstcl *Obst_iGetObstcl (
const tInfos *Inf,
const char *key
)
Description Initialize a new obstacle from an infofile. The parameters with the prefix, defined by the
string key are used to define the properties of the obstacle.
The returned obstacle can be added to the set of obstacles by calling the function
Obsts_ObstclAdd().
Return values
NULL Error
!= NULL handle to an obstacle
B.2.4 Obsts_ObstclAdd() - add a new obstacle


301
int Obsts_ObstclAdd (
tObsts *Obsts,
const tObstcl *Obst
)
Description Add the obstacle Obst to the set of obstacles (obstacle management) pointed to by Obsts.
After having added an obstacle to the obstacle management, his own data structure is no
longer needed and can be freed by calling Obsts_ObstclDelete().
Return values
-1 Error
>= 0 O.k., obstacle added
number of the added obstacle
B.2.5 Obsts_ObstclGetInfo() - gets information about defined

obstacle
int Obsts_ObstclGetInfo (
tObsts *Obsts,
int No,
tObstcl *Obst
)
Description Returns parameters of obstacle number No.

Attention: Information about the driving maneuvers is not returned! Always Obst.nMan is
set to 0 and Obst.Man to NULL.
Return values
-1 Error
0 O.k., desired obstacle exits, information is assigned to Obst
B.2.6 Obsts_ObstclDelete() - delete an obstacle

void Obsts_ObstacleDelete {
tObstcl *Obst
)
Description Frees all memory associated by the obstacle Obst.

This has nothing to do with the obstacle management!
B.2.7 Obsts_EndOfInput() - no additional obstacles

int Obsts_EndOfInput (
const tObsts *Obsts
struct tRoad *road
)

302
Description Stops adding new obstacles to the obstacle management. After that time, the number of
obstacles is constant. Nothing can be added or changed.
Creates all internals for defined obstacles.
Prepares Obst_Calc()
• Call only once per simulation.
• Call before simulation loop starts.
Return values
-3 Licence expired for Obstacles/ACC module
-2 No road defined
-1 Error
>= 0 O.k.
number of defined obstacles
B.2.8 Obsts_ObstVecNew() - get a obstacle output vector

int Obst_ObstVecNew (
const tObsts *Obsts,
tObstVec **ObstVec
)
Description To get any information of the actual state of all obstacles, an obstacle output vector is need-
ed.
• Call once after Obsts_EndOfInput()
• Call before simulation loop starts
Return values
-1 Error
>= 0 Number of defined obstacles
dimension of obstacle output vector

303
B.2.9 Obsts_Calc() - calculate the obstacle module

int Obsts_Calc (
const tObsts *Obsts,
/*const*/ struct tRoad *road
/*const*/ double T
/*const*/ double SsRoad
)
Description Calculate the absolute state of all obstacles for time T and road position SsRoad of the sen-
sor:
• appearance/visibility
• position and orientation
• velocity, acceleration
SsRoad is ignored if negative.
Return values
-1 Error
0 O.k.
B.2.10 Obsts_GetObstsAbs() - get absolute obstacle states

int Obsts_GetObstsAbs (
tObst *Obsts,
tObstVec *ObstVec,
)
Description Calculates the absolute values of the obstacle output vector ObstVec. The relative values
can be calculated by Obsts_GetObstsRel() after that.
• Call after Obsts_Calc()
• Call each simulation step
Return values
-1 Error
0 O.k.

304
B.2.11 Obsts_GetObstsRel() - get relative obstacle states

int Obst_CalcObstsRel (
tObst *Obsts,
tObstVec *ObstVec,
tObstSensIF *IF
)
Description Calculates the relative values of the obstacle output vector ObstVec respective to the given
state (position, velocity, acceleration, orientation).
The transformation matrix TraMat is the matrix to transform a vector defined in a local
frame to the inertial system (inertial. = TraMat * local).
• Call after Obsts_Calc().
• Call each simulation step
Return values
-1 Error
0 O.k.
B.2.12 Obsts_ObstVecDelete() - free obstacle output vector

void Obst_ObstVecDelete (
const tObstVec *ObstVec
)
Description Frees all memory allocated by Obsts_ObstVecNew(), referenced by the pointer

ObstVec.
• Call once after Obsts_EndOfInput()
• Call before simulation loop starts
Return values
NULL Error
!= NULL handle to an output vector with an element for each defined obstacle
B.2.13 Obsts_Delete() - free obstacle management

void Obsts_Delete (
const tObst *Obsts
)
Description Frees all memory allocated for the obstacle management, referenced by the pointer Obsts.
The set of obstacles doesn’t exist any longer.
• Call only once per simulation, after the simulation loop is finished.

305
B.2.14 Example: Using Obstalces “by Hand”
#include “infoc.h”
#include “Obstacles.h”
tErrorMsg *perrors;
extern VehicleAbsSensor();
extern tRoad *Road; /* initialized external! */
int i, nObstacles = 0;
tObsts *Obsts = NULL;
tObstVec *ObstVec = NULL;
tInfos *inf = InfoNew();
struct Sens { double Pos[3], Vel[3], Acc[3];
doubel Omega[3], Alpha[3], TraMat[3][3];
} Sens;
/*** initialisation */
InfoRead (&perrors, inf, “obstacles.info”);
nObstacles = iGetLong(inf, “nObstacles”);
Obsts = Obsts_New();
for (i=0; i < nObstacles; i++) {
tObstcl *obst; char key[32];
sprintf (key, “Obstacle.%d“, i);
obst = Obsts_iGetObstcl(inf, key);
if (obst == NULL) continue;
Obsts_ObstclAdd (Obsts, obst);
Obsts_ObstclDelete (obst);
}
InfoDelete (inf);
nObstacles = Obsts_EndOfInput(Obsts,Road);
i = Obsts_ObstVecNew(Obsts, &ObstVec);
/*** simulation loop */
for (t=0; t<tEnd; t+=dt) {
/* calculate the new states of all obstacles */
Obsts_Calc (Obsts, Road, t, -1.0);
/* absolute sensor position */

VehicleAbsSensor (Obsts, Time,
Sens.Pos, Sens.Vel, Sens.Acc,
Sens.Rot, Sens.Omega, Sens.Alpha, Sens.TraMat);
/* get the absolute values for all obstacles */

Obsts_GetObstsAbs (Obsts, ObstVec);
/* get the relative values referring to Sensor */

Obsts_GetObstsRel (Obsts, ObstVec,
Sens.Pos, Sens.Vel, Sens.Acc, Sens.Omega, Sens.Alpha, Sens.TraMat);
/* do something with this informaitons */

....
}
/*** finishing */
Obsts_ObstVecDelete (ObstVec);
Obsts_Delete (Obsts);

306
B.3 CarMaker Interface

B.3.1 Variables
CarMaker Obstacle Interface
typedef enum {
ObstaclesState_Unknown ,
ObstaclesState_Inactive ,
ObstaclesState_Start ,
ObstaclesState_Simulate ,
ObstaclesState_End ,
ObstaclesState_ShutDown ,
ObstaclesState_NumStates
} tObstaclesState;
typedef struct tObstacles {

tObstaclesState State; /* state of obstacles module */
int nObjs;
struct tObstVec *ObstVec;
} tObstacles;
extern struct tObstacles Obstacles;
B.3.2 Obstacles_Init() - initailizes obstacle module

Description Initializes the obstacle module. Called once at application start.
B.3.3 Obstacles_New() - create obstalces

void Obstacles_New (
struct tInfos *Inf,
struct tRoad *Road
);
Description Set up all obstacles of a simulation.

Called once at simulation start.
B.3.4 Obstacles_Calc () - calculate obstacles

void Obstacles_Calc (double dt, tObstSensIF *IF);
Description Calculates obstacle module
B.3.5 Obstacles_Delete () - delete obstacles

void Obstacles_Delete (void);

307
Description
B.3.6 Obstacles_Cleanup() - cleanup obstacle module

void Obstacles_Delete (void);
Description Frees all memory allocated for the obstacle module. Call only once just before application
ends.

308
B.3.7 Examples: Using Obstacles by CarMaker
App_TestRun_Start ()
{ ...
Obstacles_New (SimCore.TestRun.Inf, Ambient.Road);
...
}
App_TestRun_Calc ()
{
...
Obstacles_Calc (dt, &Obstacles.SensIF);
...
}
App_TestRun_End ()
{
...
Obstacles_Delete ();
...
}
App_Cleanup ()
{
...
Obstacles_Cleanup ();
...
}
User_Calc (double dt)

{
...
if (Obstacles.State == ObstaclesState_Simulate) {
/* absolute sensor position */
VehicleAbsSensor (Time, &Obstacles.SensIF);
/* get the relative values referring to Sensor */

Obsts_GetObstsRel ( Obstacles.Obsts,
Obstacles.ObstVec,
&Obstacles.SensIF);
/* do something with this informaitons */

...
}
...
}

309
B.4 Obstacle Utility obstutil

The stand alone program obstutil can simulate the defined maneuvers. The results are
saved to disk.
obstutil can generate the geometry definition for IPG-MOVIE for the defined obstacles.
Usage
obstutil [options...] <infile>
<infile> obstacle definition file (infofile syntax)
-movie <fn> generate the geometry object definition for IPG-MOVIE. No simu-
lation is done after generation object definition!
-deltat <x> simulation time step (in seconds)
-tend <x> end time of simulation (in seconds)
-deltatfile <x> output time step (in seconds)
-of <fn> output file name. An file extension is added, depending on the
selected file type
-filetype <s> output file type. Possible values are “fortran” or “ascii”. Default is
“fortran” binary.
-road <fn> road segment file
-roaddigi <fn> road digit points file
Examples
• The obstacle maneuver is defined in file example.info. The maneuver end after 100
seconds. The road is defined in the same file.
obstutil -tend 100 example.info
• Obstacle maneuvers on a digitized road
obstutil -tend 100 \
-road couse.road -roaddig course.dig \
example.info

310
Appendix C
IPG-MOVIE
This section explain IPG-MOVIE features.
C.1 IPG-MOVIE-INFO – Meta Information in

Geometry Files
Starting with IPG-MOVIE 3.2, additional information specific to IPG-MOVIE may be placed
in a geometry file. This information is not part of the geometry file format and will be ignored
by other programs.
In human-readable ASCII based formats (.geo, .roadgeo, .obj and .tclobj files) the informa-
tion can be found in a comment block at the beginning of the file.
In binary 3ds files this information can be appended to the end of the file (e.g. with "cat
info.txt >> geo.3ds"). If necessary the information can be changed later using an editor
capable of editing binary files.
Two special lines "### BEGIN IPG-MOVIE-INFO" and "### END IPG-MOVIE-INFO" enclose the
comment block. All lines inbetween have to start with a hash character (#) marking a com-
ment line.
Example:
### BEGIN IPG-MOVIE-INFO
# Translate 2.05 0 0.61
# Scale 0.0258 0.0262 0.0256
# Rotate 90 0 0 1
# Rotate 90 1 0 0
# Include front.obj
### END IPG-MOVIE-INFO
This information is evaluated only by IPG-MOVIE and will be ignored by other programs. In
most cases, after editing the geometry data with another program the extra information will
be lost.
Possible statements in the IPG-MOVIE-INFO block (always used with a leading "#"):

311
Scale sx sy sz
Scaling of the x/y/z axis by sx, sy, sz.
Translate x y z
Translation (offset) by x, y, z.
Rotate alpha x y z
Rotation by an angle alpha around a vector x, y, z.
TwoSided
Modifies the behavior of the lightning model, so the back sides of all facets are illumi-
nated the same way as the front sides.
This may help if the orientation of some parts of your geometry is the wrong way. Most
often these parts appear too dark and without diffuse/specular lights. The prefered way
to correct this is to switch the orientation of the concerned normals/facets. Use this
option only if this is not possible.
The option was introduced in IPG-MOVIE 3.2.6 (CarMaker 2.1.6).
NumPlate name x y z ry rz wi he
Inserts a special "number plate" geometry object named name at position x, y, z. The
texture will be loaded from file Numplate_name.png (see directory GUI/Textures of
the installed product).
Currently (i.e. IPG-MOVIE 3.2) only a single number plate, name=CarMaker, is sup-
ported. In a later version it is planned to allow user defined textures.
The center of the rectangle sized wi x he will be positioned at x, y, z. Rotation around
the y/z-axes is specified in degrees by ry, rz. ry=rz=0 denotes a number plate in the y-z-
plane, whose front side can be seen when looking in x-direction.
Example of a rear number plate:
NumPlate CarMaker 0.08 0.00 0.55 12 0 0.55 0.12
Include fname
In addition to the geometry information contained in the current file, a geometry file
fname will be read. The format of fname is allowed to be different from that of the cur-
rent file (but, of course, must be supported by IPG-MOVIE).
Relative filenames is interpreted relative to the directory of the file with the include
statement.
Each of the above statements may be specified multiple times. The transformations given
by Scale, Translate and Rotate will be evaluated in the given order and determine the coor-
dinate system for the all geometry data contained in the file. They also effect all following
NumPlate and Include statements.

312
Appendix D
Start Conditions
D.1 Overview
In the CarMaker GUI use Simulation / Determine Start Values to take a snapshot of the
vehicle state at an arbitrary time during a testrun. CarMaker will store the current vehicle
state into the SimOutput/<hostname>/Snapshot.info file.
These values could be used to setup vehicles start conditions .

313
Appendix E
Road-Obstacles and Markers
Road-Obstacles are geometrical items placed on the road surface to simulate local increas-
es and decreases. Markers add certain attributes for a defined section of the road.
E.1 Description of Road-Obstacles

CarMaker supports the following types of obstacles:
• Cylinders
• Beams
• Waves
• Cones
To define the placement of obstacles on the road the arc length (distance) and the offset to
the centerline have to be specified. Internally the coordinates of the obstacle in the inertial
frame Fr0 are calculated.

314
E.1.1 Cylinders
A cylinder obstacle basically is a frustum with a circular base depicted in Figure 12.1.
y
t
z
R0
RH
RH R0
y0
s s
Height
x0 x
Figure 12.1: Definition of Cylinder Obstacles
The origin is displayed by the inertial coordinates x0 and y0.

A Cylinder is defined in the Markers/Obstacles dialog by the following parameters:
Cylinder <Dist> <y> <Height> <Radius0> <RadiusH> fric

Dist Distance in meters from the origin of the road (measured on
centerline).
y Offset to the centerline (measured orthogonally to the direction
vector).
Height Total height of the frustum.
Radius0 Base radius.
RadiusH Top radius.
fric Friction coefficient of the whole obstacle.

315
E.1.2 Beams
A Beam is a barrier with a rectangular base. The overall length results of the sum of three
partial lengths. The half width of the obstacle has to be specified.
y
z
s
t
t
l3
b l2
b
y l1
Height s
α -
-b
x0 x
l1 l2 l3
Figure 12.3: Definition of Beam Obstacles
A Beam is defined in the Markers/Obstacles dialog by the following parameters
Beam <Dist> <y> <Angle> <Height> <Width> <l0> <l1> <l2> <fric>
centerline).
vector).
Angle Angle of the beam relatively to the direction vector.
Height Total height of the beam.
Width Half width of the beam.
l0 Length of upward ramp.
l1 Length of plateau.
l2 Length of downward ramp.

316
E.1.3 Waves
The obstacle Wave is defined by a rectangular base. Its length is determined by the product
of the wavelength and the number of periods.
(x0,y0) in inertial coor-

z
s t
(n-2) peri-
t len
Heig
b b
y0 s
-b
-
α -
x0 x 0.5 l l (n-2) l 0.5 l
nl
Figure 12.5: Definition of Wave Obstacles
A detailed illustration of the z-profile is given in Figure 12.5. It is visible that at the beginning
and at the end a transition of half a period length is added to the actual wave which starts
and ends at its maximum height.
In between the wave is constructed with (n-1) period length. If a wave with only one period
is specified it consists only of the beginning and trailing transition.
A Wave is defined in the Markers/Obstacles dialog by the following parameters
Wave <Dist> <y> <Angle> <Height> <Width> <nPeriods> <PeriodLen> <fric>

centerline).
vector).
Angle Angle of the wave(s) relatively to the direction vector.
Width Half width of the wave.
nPeriods Total number of Periods.
PeriodLen Length of one period.

317
E.1.4 Cones
Like the Cylinder obstacles Cones are frustums with a elliptical base.
y
t
t z
s
RT H RTH
y0 RS 0 RT0 RSH
RT 0 Height
RS H RS0 s
x
x0
Figure 12.7: Definition of Cone Obstacles
A Cone is defined in the Markers/Obstacles dialog by the following parameters
Cone <Dist> <y> <Angle> <Height> <Width> <rs0> <rt0> <rsH> <rtH> <fric>
centerline).
vector).
Angle Angle of the wave(s) relatively to the direction vector.
Width Half width of the wave.
rs0 Elliptical radius Rs on road surface in direction of the obstacle.
rt0 Elliptical radius Rt on road surface orthogonally to the obsta-
cles direction.
rsH Elliptical radius rs on top of cone in direction of the obstacle.
rtH Elliptical radius r t on top of cone orthogonally to the obstacles
direction.

318
E.2 Description of Markers

Markers are valid for a certain section of the road. This stretch defined by the marker
obtains additional attributes depending on the marker type.
CarMaker knows the following default markers:
• Pylon for simulation of pylon courses,
• VelSign for simulation of speed signs
• SideWind for simulation of side winds.
Additionally the user is able to design his own markers.
The beginning of a Marker is specified by the arc length. The end of the marker section is
defined by a length counting from the start point.
End
Dist
Len
Figure 12.9: Range of a Marker
Additionally marker specific parameters may be specified.

319
E.2.1 Pylons
With pylon markers a pair of pylons according to Figure 12.11: is defined.
Side
b Dist
Width
Figure 12.11: Definition of Pylon Markers
A Pylon marker is defined in the Markers/Obstacles dialog by the following parameters
Marker Pylon <Distance> <yOffset> <Width>

centerline).
yOffset Offset to the centerline (measured orthogonally to the direction
vector).
Width Width between the two pylons.

320
E.2.2 Velocity Signs

With the marker type VelSign a speed limit sign can be set. A speed limit is valid for a cer-
tain length or up to the next VelSign.
A VelSign marker is defined in the Markers/Obstacles dialog by the following parameters
Marker VelSign <Distance> [<Length>] <Velocity>

centerline).
Length Optional. Length of the speed limit stretch. Otherwise this
speed limit is valid up to the next Velsign marker.
Velocity Maximum Velocity [m/s].

321
E.2.3 SideWind
This marker defines side winds on the specified section of the road.
End
α
β
Dist
y
Wind direction
x
Figure 12.13: Definition of Sidewind Markers
A SideWind marker is defined in the Markers/Obstacles dialog by the following parameters
Marker SideWind <Distance> [<Length>] <WindVelocity> <Angle>

Distance Distance in meters from the origin of the road (measured on
centerline).
Length Optional. Length of the side wind stretch. Otherwise side wind
(in this kind) is blowing up to the next SideWind marker.
WindVelocity Velocity of the wind [m/s].
Angle Wind direction α. Zero equals back wind.

322
E.3 Description of Digitized Road

Alternatively to a segment based definition the road course can be defined by digitized data
for example fetched by surveying and mapping. These tabulated data points can be the (x,y)
course in the xy plane, the course in 3D and the slope of the road surface. Other road char-
acteristics like surface friction, left and right lane width, obstacles etc. are defined segment
based. Straight segments are used. Their middle line is projected to the digitized course.
A digitized road file is an ASCII file with tabulated course points, (x,y) for 2-D or (x,y,z) for
3-D, and/or camber. The file starts with a header line, leaded by character ‘:’ The keywords
for course position x, y, z and slope can follow. Comment lines starts with ‘#’. The contents
lines contain values separated by blanks or tabulators.
z and slope are optional.
Units: x, y, z in meters, slope in meter/meter.
TotalLeft
Pi+2 Pi+3
Pi+4
Pi+1 -TotalRight
center line
y Pi
Figure 12.15: Section of a digitized road
Example of a Digitized Road Input File
: x y z q
0.000 0.000 0.000 0.01111
0.480 0.000 0.009 0.01176
1.000 0.000 0.018 0.01236
1.540 0.000 0.028 0.01294
2.090 0.000 0.037 0.01350
2.630 0.000 0.046 0.01401
3.130 0.000 0.056 0.01452
3.670 0.000 0.075 0.01501
4.250 0.000 0.084 0.01543
...
Additional Requirements
Two successive points define the course direction for a road element from the first to the
second point. The minimal distance between two points is 0.01 meter. The angle between
two successive direction vectors has to be in-between 90 and 180 degrees.

Index 323
Index
A Low Pressure Accumulator . . . .

LPA.pMax . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
182
163
Ambient . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29 LPA.pMin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163
Anti-Roll Bar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57 LPA.vMax . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163
Attenuator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137 LPAcheckV.qOri . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137
axis systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10 LPAcheckV.qPipe . . . . . . . . . . . . 182
Master Cylincer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156
MC.area . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156
B MC.closeComp . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157
MC.springConst . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157
Brake MC.springLoad . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157
Att.dp2dv . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164 nue1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184
Attenuator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137 nue2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185
Boo.63Prcnt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153 Outlet_f.qOri . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177
Boo.ampli . . . . . . . . . . . 151, 152, 154 Outlet_f.qPipe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178
Boo.delay . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153 Pedal.ratio . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
Boo.pGrad.mapping . . . . . . . . . . 155 Pist_.area . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158
Boo.pMax . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155 Pist_.ratio. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
Boo.relF . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153 Pist_.rBrake . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
Boo.runOut . . . . . . . . . . 151, 153, 154 PLim.pOpen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180
Boo.sign2press . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153 PLim.qOri . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179
Boo.type . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150 PLim.qPipe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179
Booster . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154 Pump.cLoss . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166
Brake.PedalForce2pMC . . . . . . . 143 Pump.Full . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167
Brake.PedalPos2pMC . . . . . . . . . 143 Pump.genVmax . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168
Brake.pMC_based_on . . . . . . . . 143 Pump.p63Prcnt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167
Brake.pWB2Trq . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143 Pump.pEdge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167
CircuitConfig . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147 Pump.qMax . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166
Cyl_.pv.mapping . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161 Pump.Zero . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167
InCheckV_f.qOri . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177 PV.qOri . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179
InCheckV_f.qPipe . . . . . . . . . . . . 177 PV.qPipe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179
Inlet_f.deltaT.mapping . . . . . . . . 174 PVcheckV.qOri . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180
Inlet_f.qOri . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176 RefTemperature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184
Inlet_f.qPipe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177 SuppL.dp2dv . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164
Inlet_f.transfer.mapping . . . . . . . 173 SV.qOri . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181
LiqTemperature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184 SV.qPipe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181

Index 324
T1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184 installation directory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19

T2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185 ISO 8855 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
Brake.HandTorque.Value . . . . . . . . 139
Brake.Kind . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138
Brake.TorqueAmplify . . . . . . . . . . . . 138 K
Brake Booster . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154
Kind-Key . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
Brake System
Kinematics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
“TrqDistrib” . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
Buffers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
Bumpers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53 M
Marker
C SideWind . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 321
VelSign . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 320
Camber . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
Mass Geometry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
Car Model
Master Cylinder . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156
Force Elements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
MESA VERDE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
Kinematics and Compliance . . . . . 60
Model
Mass Geometry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
Trailer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 232
Suspension Anti-Roll Bar . . . . . . . 57
Model Manager. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
Suspension Roll Stabilizer . . . . . . . 57
Compliance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
Configuration File . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21 N
Naming Conventions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
D
Damper . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
Datasets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
O
Description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21 OutputQuantities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
design configuration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
DIN 70000 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
P
E Parameter Files . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
primary coordinates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
equilibrium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39 Project Directory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
External Forces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47 PVcheckV.qPipe. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180
F Q
FileCreator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21 Quantities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
FileIdent-Key . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
Force Element . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
Fr0 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10 R
Fr1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
Fr2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11 Roll Stabilizer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
FrD . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
FrX . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
S
G secondary coordinates . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
SimParameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22, 27
Generalized Coordinates . . . . . . . . . . . 65 SI-quantities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
Spin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
Spring Force . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
I start-off configuration . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
SuspF.Damp_Pull, SuspR.Damp_Pull . .
Installation Directory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19 52

Index 325
SuspF.Damp_Pull.Amplify,
SuspR.Damp_Pull.Amplify
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
SuspF.Damp_Push, SuspR.Damp_Push
52
SuspF.Damp_Push.Amplify,
SuspR.Damp_Push.Amplify
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
SuspF.Spring, SuspR.Spring . . . . . . . . 49
SuspF.Spring.Amplify, SuspR.Spring.Amplify
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
SuspF.Spring.l0, SuspR.Spring.l0 . . . 49
T
Tire
Parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188
Toe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
Trailer
Aerodynamics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 253
Brake System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 251
Chassis Forces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239
Hitch . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247
Hitch “Ball” . . . . . . . . . . . . . 249, 250
Hitch “BallDamp” . . . . . . . . . . . . 250
Hitch “BallFric”. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 250
Hitch “Trapez” . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 249
Trailer Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 232
Transformation Matrix . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
Translation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63, 64
U
User Accessible Quantities . . . 140, 261,
262, . . . . . . . . . . . . . 268, 271, 272, 275
V
Valves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137
W
Wheel brakes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158
Wheel compression . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64

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CarMaker ®

CarMaker Reference Manual Version 2.1.6

CarMaker Reference Manual Version 2.1.6

End of test run . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26

4 Suspension Force Elements 46

5 Suspension Kinematics and Compliance 60

CarMaker Reference Manual Version 2.1.6

CarMaker Reference Manual Version 2.1.6

Model ‘Generic’ Coupling Parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108

9 Brake System 135

CarMaker Reference Manual Version 2.1.6

Proportional Solenoid Valves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172

11 Trailer Model 232

CarMaker Reference Manual Version 2.1.6

12 User Accessible Quantities 257

CarMaker Reference Manual Version 2.1.6

User Accessible Quantities: Car . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 262

A Mini-Maneuver Command Language 282

CarMaker Reference Manual Version 2.1.6

Obsts_Calc() - calculate the obstacle module . . . . . . . . . . 303

D Start Conditions 312

E Road-Obstacles and Markers 313

CarMaker Reference Manual Version 2.1.6

1.1 General Remarks

Table 1.1: SI Units used with CarMaker

Quantity Name Symbol

CarMaker Reference Manual Version 2.1.6

1.2 CarMaker Axis Systems

CarMaker Reference Manual Version 2.1.6

Frame Fr2 (carrier axis system)

CarMaker Reference Manual Version 2.1.6

1.3 CarMaker Geometry Input

1.3.1 Conventions defining CarMaker Objects

Table 1.2: Origins of CarMaker Fr1 Objects

Type of Fr1 Origin

1.3.2 Guidelines defining CarMaker Objects

CarMaker Reference Manual Version 2.1.6

Design configuration not necessarily has to be equilibrium configuration!

CarMaker Reference Manual Version 2.1.6

1.4 CarMaker Naming Conventions

1.4.1 CarMaker Subsystems

Model Abbrev. Description

CarMaker Reference Manual Version 2.1.6

1.4.2 Classification of Quantities

The letters ... in general stand for

CarMaker Reference Manual Version 2.1.6

1.4.3 Meaning of Abbreviations

The letters ... in general stand for

CarMaker Reference Manual Version 2.1.6

The letters ... in general stand for

CarMaker Reference Manual Version 2.1.6

1.5 CarMaker Directory Structure

<project directory path>

CarMaker Reference Manual Version 2.1.6

<installation directory path>

CarMaker Reference Manual Version 2.1.6

1.6 About Parameter Files and Datasets

1.6.1 Database Syntax

1.6.2 FileIdent, Description and FileCreator

FileIdentt = CarMaker-KindString [ VersionId ]

Syntax CarMaker-<ModelClass>[-<Kind>] <Version ID>

Example FileIdent = CarMaker-PowerTrain.ET-4WD 2

Current FileIdents Currently Carmaker supports the following Fileidents: