Effect of Delayed Backfill in Open Stope Methods PDF

EFFECT OF D E L A Y E D B A C K F I L L ON OPEN STOPE MI NI NG METHOD S
by
CRISTIAN ANDRES CACERES DOERNER
B.Sc, Universidad de Chile, 1997
A THESIS SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF
THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF
MASTER OF APPLIED SCIENCE
in
THE FACULTY OF GRADUATE STUDIES
MINING ENGINEERING
THE UNIVERSITY OF BRITISH COLUMBIA
March 2005
Cristian Andres Caceres Doerner, 2005
Abstract
i i
A B S T R A C T
Open stopi ng i s compri sed of large rectangular voi ds separated by i nterveni ng pi llars so
as to mi ni mi ze the si ze of the exposed surface and thereby reduci ng the potenti al for wall
slough and i n turn external di luti on.
These pi llars provi de support to the exposed wall; however, they result i n ore loss and
i ncreased costs such as havi ng to establi sh slots for blasti ng. Longhole mi ni ng methods such
as Avoca or longhole retreat as practi ced at the Musselwhi te mi ne of Placer Dome employs
100% extracti on wi th the use of fi ll walls to provi de support to the adjacent stope.
Transverse open stopi ng also practi ced at Musselwhi te employs cemented rock fi ll
adjacent to a mi ned stope. The questi on i s how to account for the overall stope wall stabi li ty
when the adjacent support i s backfi ll. The backfi ll does not provi de the same support as that
of a rock pi llar, however, due to the i ncreased use of fi ll abutments one has to develop a
methodology that accounts for thi s reduced overall support element as i t does reduce the
overall stope surface exposed.
It has been shown i n thi s thesis that the backfi ll wall does not provi de the same overall
stabi li ty to an i ndi vi dual stope as would avai l i tself i f the stope had rock abutments.
Thi s i s the focus of thi s study i n order to establi sh desi gn cri teri a to enable one to
employ exi sti ng methods for stope desi gn such as the Stabi li ty Graph by augmenti ng i nput
parameters that have been cali brated through fi eld measurements, analyti cal assessments,
numeri cal modeli ng and laboratory testi ng to evaluate the effect of mi ni ng adjacent to a
backfi lled stope.
Si ll pi llars are employed at the Musselwhi te mi ne to allow for multi ple mi ni ng hori zons
wi th unconsoli dated backfi ll placed i mmedi ately above the i nterveni ng si ll. These si lls can be
compri sed of unmi ned ore when the economi cs are such as to negate thei r mi ni ng or
alternati vely they are replaced by a constructed si ll mat to allow for mi ni ng underneath by
non-entry methods and thereby contai ni ng the overlyi ng backfi ll.
Numeri cal studies were conducted to i nvesti gate modeled results of mi ni ng under a
cemented rockfi ll si ll mat and to develop cri teri a for si ll mat desi gn. The results obtai ned
from thi s analysi s can be extrapolated to other operations that uti li ze backfi ll as part of the
Abstract
i i i
mi ni ng sequence. Desi gn curves were developed for the stabi li ty of si ll mats for vari ous
stope confi gurati ons and cemented rockfi ll strength properti es
Thi s, coupled wi th defi ni ng the effect of mi ni ng adjacent to backfi ll, forms the focus of
thi s thesi s.
Table of Contents
T A B L E OF CONT E NT S
ABSTRACT "
TABLE OF CONTENTS IV
LIST OF TABLES VII
TABLE OF FIGURES VIII
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS XI
1 INTRODUCTION 1
1.3 BACKGROUND 2
1.4 THESIS OVERVIEW 3
1.5 CONTRIBUTIONS MADE BY THESIS 3
2 THE MUSSELWHITE MINE 5
2.1 INTRODUCTION 5
2.2 GEOLOGY 6
2.2.1 Regional Geology 6
2.2.2 Mine Geology 7
2.3 UNDERGROUND MINING METHODS 9
2.3.1 Avoca 9
2.3.2 Transverse Retreat Open Stoping 10
2.3.3 Drilling and Blasting Methods 10
2.3.4 Ore Handling 11
2.3.5 Ground Support / /
2.3.5.1 Development Support 12
2.3.5.2 Stope support - Stope backs and walls 12
2.3.6 Backfill 13
2.3.6.1 Mi ni ng Underneath Backfi ll - CRF Si ll Mats 14
2.3.6.2 Mi ni ng Adjacent to Backfi ll 14
2.4 EQUIPMENT 16
3 REVIEW OF DESIGN METHODOLOGIES 17
3.1 BACKFILL 17
3.1.1 Purpose of Backfill. / 7
3.1.2 Types of Backfill 19
3.1.2.1 Rockfi ll 20
3.1.2.2 Uncemented Rockfi ll - URF 20
3.1.2.3 Cemented Rockfi ll with Portland cement Slurry - CRF 21
3.1.3 Backfill Properties 21
3.1.4 Parameters Affecting Cemented Rockfill Strength 26
3.2 VERTICAL LOAD ON CEMENTED ROCKFILL SILL MA T PILLARS 28
3.2.1 Sill Mat Pillar Definition 28
3.2.2 Background - Loads Acting by Unconsolidated Material 29
3.2.3 Maximum Horizontal Pressure on the Walls of the Stope 31
3.2.4 Coefficient of Lateral Earth Pressure 33
3.2.4.1 Categories of Lateral Earth Pressure 33
3.2.4.2 Calculating Lateral Earth Pressure Coefficients 35
3.2.5 Maximum Vertical Load Exerted by Backfill on the Floor of the Stope 38
3.2.5.1 Terzaghi's Formulation 39
3.2.5.2 Bli ght's Formulation for Inclined Stopes 39
3.2.6 Vertical Load of Unconsolidated Material as a Function of the Material's Height 40
3.2.6.1 The Janssen Method - Si lo Theory 40
3.2.6.2 The Reimbert Method - Si lo Theory 41
3.3 STABILITY OF CEMENTED ROCKFILL SILL MATS-ANALYTICAL SOLUTION 42
Table of Contents v
3.3.1 Caving Failure 42
3.3.2 Flexural Failure 43
3.3.3 Sliding Failure : 44
3.3.4 Rotational Failure 44
3.3.5 Strength Properties 44
3.4 EMPIRICAL STABILITY DESIGN METHODS 45
3.4.1 The Stability Graph Method
1
46
3.4.2 The Stability Graph Method - Radius Factor* 48
3.5 SOFTWARE AND DEVICE UTILIZED 49
3.5.1 Flac
2D
- Two Dimensional Explicit Finite Difference Method*' 49
3.5.2 Map3D - Three Dimensional Boundary Element Method*
2
50
3.5.3 NeuroShell Predictor - Neural Networks
fl
51
3.5.4 Unwedge - Underground Wedge Stability Analysis*
4
52
3.5.5 Dips - Graphical and Statistical Analysis of Orientation Data *
4
53
3.5.6 Methods Ground Control Assessment - Cavity Monitoring System Surveys*
5
53
4 DATABASE 55
4.1 INTACT STRENGTH 55
4.2 FABRIC ANALYSIS 56
4.3 ROCK MASS ANALYSIS 58
4.4 STRESS 60
4.5 NUMERICAL MODELING - CONSTITUTIVE MODELS AND MA TERJAL PROPERTIES 60
4.6 EMPIRICAL STOPE DESIGN - MUSSEL WHITE'S STABILITY DA TABASE 61
4.7 STATISTICAL ANALYSIS OF THE MUSSELWHITE DATABASE 63
5 DESIGN GUIDELINES FOR CEMENTED ROCKFILL SILL MATS 66
5.1 INTRODUCTION 66
5.2 LOAD OF BACKFILL 66
5.2.1 Vertical Stress Comparison using different Coefficients of Lateral Earth Pressure 70
5.3 VERTICAL STRESS USING NUMERICAL MODELING 71
5.3.1 Introduction 71
5.3.2 Stress Distribution as a Function of Stope Dip Angle 74
5.3.3 Vertical Stress as a Function of Stope Span 75
5.3.4 Vertical Stress as a Function of Rockfdl 's Density 76
5.3.5 Vertical Stress as a Function of Rockfdl's Friction Angle 76
5.3.6 Comparison of Analytical and Numerical Methods to Determine Vertical Stress 77
5.3.7 Proposed Analytical Equation for Inclined Stopes 79
5.4 STABILITY OF CEMENTED ROCKFILL SILL MATS 80
5.4.1 Introduction 80
5.4.2 Sill Mat Strength - Friction and Cohesion (<j>
c
) 81
5.4.3 Backfill Load. 82
5.4.4 Proposed Rotational Analytical Formulation 82
5.5 FAILURE MODES-NUMERICAL MODELING SOLUTION 85
5.5.1 Model Construction 85
5.5.2 Constitutive Equations - Strain Softening 86
5.5.3 Model Execution 87
5.5.4 Caving Failure 88
5.5.5 Flexural Failure 88
5.5.6 Sliding Failure 89
5.5.7 Rotational - Crushing Failure 90
5.5.8 Rotational Breaking Failure 90
5.5.9 Sill Mat Design Curves 91
6 EFFECT OF DELAYED BACKFILL ON OPEN STOPING 97
6.1 INTRODUCTION 97
6.2 BACKFILL AS LOCAL SUPPORT 97
Table of Contents vi
6.3 USE OF THE STABILITY GRAPH METHOD 99
6.4 QUANTIFYING THE EFFECT OF BACKFILL ON LONG HOLE OPEN STOPING 100
6.5 UP DA TING MUSSEL WHITE 'S STABILITY GRAPH 100
6.6 NEURAL NETWORK TRAINING AND RESULTS 104
6.6.1 Relative Importance of Inputs 104
6.6.2 Neural Network Predictions 107
6.7 EFFECT OF BACKFILL IN STABILITY OF OPEN STOPES - NUMERICAL MODELING ANALYSIS 110
6.7.1 Radius Factor Behavior with Stope Strike Length 112
6.7.2 Horizontal Displacement Behavior considered with Stope Strike Length /15
6.7.3 Design Curves - Avoca Mining Method 116
7 CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS 120
8 FUTURE WORK 125
REFERENCES 128
APPENDIX A 134
PROPOSED ANALYTICAL EQUATION TO DETERMINE VERTICAL LOAD OF BACKFILL.... 134
APPENDIX B 138
PROPOSED ANALYTICAL EQUATION TO DETERMINE ROTATIONAL SILL MAT FAILURE
MODES 138
APPENDIX C
+
139
INTERFACE ELEMENTS 139
List of Tables
vii
LIST OF TABLES
Table 2-1: Support strength properties 11
Table 2-2: Development support 12
Table 2-3: Mobile Equipment List 16
Table 4-1: Mean uniaxial compressive strength, standard deviation and ISRM hardness
55
Table 4-2: Mean Young's Modulus (E) and Mean Poisson's Ratio (v) 56
Table 4-3: RMR and Q' of a typical foorwall stope 59
Table 4-4: Typical RMR ranges for the different Musselwhite rock types 59
Table 4-5: Musselwhite's far field stress state 60
Table 4-6: Mohr-Coulomb stress-strain and strength parameters for backfill and host
rock 61
Table 4-7: Updated Musselwhite stability database 63
Table 5-1: Example of Musselwhite's geometry, rockfill loading, and sill mat strength
properties 86
Table 6-1: Average and standard deviation for the Musselwhite's stability database. 102
Table of Figures viii
TABLE OF FIGURES
Figure 2-1: Location of Musselwhite mine 5
Figure 2-2: Long section of Musselwhite orebody 5
Figure 2-3: Geological cross-section through the T-Antiform Northern Iron Formation6
Figure 2-4: Geological cross-section showing the Wa, T, C and S zones 7
Figure 2-5: Longitudinal retreat open stoping -- Mining adjacent to backfill 9
Figure 2-6: Transverse open stoping -- Mining adjacent to backfill 10
Figure 2-7: Cemented rockfill sill mats constructed: 275, 300 and 375 m Levels 14
Figure 3-1: Purposes of backfilling 18
Figure 3-2: Mohr-Coulomb failure envelope for a cohesive fill material 24
Figure 3-3: Mohr-Coulomb failure envelope for a cohesionless fill material 25
Figure 3-4: Angle of repose <| >for cohesionless fill material 26
Figure 3-5: Sill mat pillar cross-section 28
Figure 3-6: Natural angle of repose of the material (left) and the oblique, normal and
tangential components of the force (right) 29
Figure 3-7: Vertical stress at increasing depth for a confined material 31
Figure 3-8: Pressure on a horizontal slice of thickness 5z 31
Figure 3-9: Relationship of earth pressures to wall movements 35
Figure 3-10: Comparison of at-rest earth and active earth pressure coefficients 35
Figure 3-11: Differential slice in a silo 40
Figure 3-12: Mathews Stability Graph (Mathews et al., 1981) 46
Figure 3-13: Modified Stability Graph (Porvin and Milne, 1992) 47
Figure 3-14: Modified Stability Graph with support (Nickson, 1992) 47
Figure 3-15: ELOS dilution design method (Clark, 1998) 48
Figure 3-16: Empirical estimation (a) of wall slough (ELOS) expressed in terms of
Radius Factor (b) 49
Figure 4-1: Equal area stereonet representing the three major joint sets 57
Figure 4-2: Wedge formed on the back of a drift running north-south 58
Figure 4-3: Geological section obtained using Vulcan database 60
Figure 4-4: Statistical Analysis on Musselwhite stability database 64
Figure 5-1: Coefficient of lateral earth pressure A" for cohesionless material 67
Figure 5-2: Comparison of analytically and numerically determined coefficients of
lateral earth pressure 68
Figure 5-3: Coefficient of lateral earth pressure obtained using numerical modeling and
best fit curve derived 69
best fit curve derived for the rockfill friction angle range 69
Figure 5-5: Horizontal vs. vertical stress at different rockfill friction angles 70
Figure 5-6: Vertical stress comparison for different K values 71
Figure 5-7: 25 meters (5 layers) and 35 meters (7 layers) of unconsolidated backfill
deposited in the stope 73
Figure 5-8: Vertical stress distribution along span at different stope dips 74
Figure 5-9: Stress contour for a stope dipping at 70 degrees 75
Figure 5-10: Vertical stress at various stope spans for different rockfill heights 75
Figure 5-11: Vertical stress vs. rockfill density at varying rockfill heights 76
Table of Figures
i x
Figure 5-12: Vertical stress vs. rockfill height at varying friction angles 77
Figure 5-13: Vertical stress over rockfill height comparing analytical and numerical
results 78
Figure 5-14: Vertical stress versus stope span using different methods 78
Figure 5-15: Vertical stress for a 10 meter stope span using different methods 79
Figure 5-16: Analytical vs. numerical modeling comparison for different stope dip
angles SO
Figure 5-17: Geometry, strength and stress component and failure modes in a sill mat
pillar g
Figure 5-18: Rotational failure considering shear strength in the hangingwall of the sill
mat g
Figure 5-20: Factor of safety for sill mat failure modes 84
Figure 5-21: Strain softening model - cohesion example 87
Figure 5-22: Caving failure mode - planar and semi circular crack 88
Figure 5-23: Sill mat flexural failure mode - grid elements and plasticity state 89
Figure 5-24: Sill mat sliding failure mode - grid elements and plasticity state 89
Figure 5-25: Sill mat rotational crushing failure mode - grid elements and plasticity
state
Figure 5-26: Sill mat rotational breaking failure mode - grid elements and plasticity
state 91
Figure 5-27: Sill mat stability for 90 - No strength on HW (x
t
= 0%) 92
Figure 5-28: Sill mat stability for 90 - 50% sill mat strength on HW (x, = 50%) 92
Figure 5-29: Sill mat stability for 90 - 100% sill mat strength on HW (T, = 100%) 92
t
= 0%) 93
t
= 0%) 94
Figure 5-34: Sill mat stability for 80 - 50% sill mat strength on HW (x
t
= 50%) 94
Figure 5-35: Sill mat stability for 80 -100% sill mat strength on HW (x
t
= 100%) 94
Figure 5-36: Sill mat stability for 75 - No strength on HW (x, = 0%) 95
t
= 50%) 95
Figure 5-38: Sill mat stability for 75 -100% sill mat strength on HW (x
t
= 100%) 95
Figure 6-1: Horizontal stress versus rockfill height at different stope spans 98
Figure 6-2: Stope adjacent to rock (isolated) or backfill abutment(s) - Modified from
Atlas Copco Drawing 99
Figure 6-3: Stability Graph update - longitudinal stope data (AVOCA) 101
Figure 6-4: Stability Graph update - transverse stope data 102
Figure 6-5: Stability Graph update - transverse and longitudinal stope data 103
Figure 6-6: Relative importance of inputs on stope stability for stopes dipping more
than 90 degrees (footwalls) V
Figure 6-7: Relative importance of inputs on stope stability for stope dips under 90
degrees (hangingwalls) 1<
Figure 6-8: Relative importance of inputs on stope stability considering rock type, ore
dip and undercut Ii
Table of Figures
x
Figure 6-9: Effect of undercutting the hangingwall: various types of failure 107
Figure 6-10: Predicted ELOS values of transverse vs. longitudinal stopes 108
Figure 6-11: Wall instability due to structure on hangingwall 109
Figure 6-12: Sequence without backfill 110
Figure 6-13: Sequence with backfill 110
Figure 6-14: Mining of the top stope only Il l
Figure 6-15: Horizontal displacement profile Il l
Figure 6-16: Schematic of a stope of increasingly larger strike length 112
Figure 6-17: Radius factor measurement at distance from front face 113
Figure 6-18: Radius factor generation 114
Figure 6-19: Radius factor versus stope strike length at different distance from front
face 114
Figure 6-20: Horizontal displacement measurement at various distances from front face
115
Figure 6-21: Horizontal displacement versus stope strike length at different distances
from front face 116
Figure 6-22: Radius factor increment - stope of 30 meter height and 400 meter strike
length 117
Figure 6-23: Radius factor increments for a stope of 30 meter height and 400 meter
strike length 118
strike length 119
Acknowledgments
xi
A C K NOW L E D G ME NT S
I would li ke to extend my deepest gratitude to all those who have helped to make thi s
thesi s possi ble.
For hi s assistance and on-goi ng support, and for gi vi ng me the opportuni ty to create thi s
thesi s, I thank fi rst and foremost Dr. Ri mas Pakalni s. Hi s i nput and i nfluence represent the
si ne qua non of my work and wi ll never be forgotten.
Enri que Rubi o enthusi asti cally encouraged me to pursue thi s degree and I could never
fully express my debt of gratitude to hi m. Thank you beyond words.
Many ki nd i ndi vi duals graci ously leant thei r support and the benefit of thei r experi ence,
i ncludi ng Robert McDonald, Rod Gray, Ti m Sanford, Don Peterson, Joe Hunter, Ken
Strobbe, Jean-Marc Dallai re, Cameron Chapman, Sam Mah, and other personnel of Placer
Dome's Musselwhi te mi ni ng operati on that I may be remi ss i n not nami ng speci fi cally.
Forgi ve me.
For thei r i nstrumental recommendati ons and counsel, I extend my si ncere thanks to
commi ttee members, Dr. Malcolm Scoble, Dr. Mari o Mori n, and Davi d Sprott.
I am enormously grateful for the fi nanci al support provi ded to me by the Department of
Mi ni ng and Mi neral Processi ng Engi neeri ng at UB C, as well as by NSERC and Placer
Dome's Musselwhi te Mi ne. Wi thout thi s support, no thesi s, i ndeed no career, would be
possi ble.
I would also li ke to extend my sincerest appreci ati on to my parents for thei r conti nuous
support and encouragement duri ng my studies.
I am i nfi ni tely thankful to my patient, forgi vi ng, and un-selfi shly supporti ve wi fe
Veroni ca, and to my i nspi rati on to do all that I am capable of doi ng, my preci ous daughter
Vi ctori a.
For poi nti ng out errors and omi ssi ons, and tactfully cri ti ci zi ng the presentati on of my
ideas, research, and theoreti cal conclusi ons on paper, I would also li ke to thank my edi tor,
Trenton McColl.
Chapter 1 - Introduction
1
1 I NT R OD UCT I ON
1.1 Preface
Research i nto desi gn methodologi es for open stope mi ni ng i s essenti al to overall mi ne
effi ci ency and producti vi ty. New, more accurate, desi gn gui deli nes wi ll prove more cost
effecti ve than those i n exi stence, thus effecti ng a more competi ti ve mi ni ng operati on.
Addi ti onally, these new gui deli nes wi ll reduce mi ne waste whi le i mprovi ng safety
condi ti ons.
To arri ve at new desi gn gui deli nes, the fi rst component i n stope desi gn to be consi dered
i s analysi s of cemented rockfi ll, for the loadi ng case (i .e., loadi ng of uncemented rockfi ll
materi al), and for fai lure mode study (i .e., the li mi ts of the desi gn).
The second component i s analysi s of backfi ll adjacent to open worki ngs (i .e., stopes)
and its i nfluence on desi gn.
A method based upon past practi ce and observed measurements (combi ned wi th
modeli ng analysi s) wi ll be employed to arri ve at a new methodology that accounts for an
increase i n overall stabi li ty.
1.2 Open Stopes
Open stopi ng accounts for over 60% (De Souza, et al., 1998) of the total underground
tonnage i n Canadi an mi ni ng operati ons.
Open stopi ng i n Canada i s one of the most cost effective and producti ve underground
mi ni ng methods. Thi s thesis focuses on the geomechani cs of mi ni ng by longhole open
stopi ng, adjacent to backfi ll. The objecti ve i s to i mprove recovery and reduce di luti on.
Di luti on and recovery are cruci al factors, and may determine the vi abi li ty of a gi ven mi ni ng
operati on. A mi ne may fall below profi tabi li ty where di luti on i s hi gher than expected or
recovery i s lower than predi cted, because of excess ore left behi nd i n the form of si lls and/or
ri b pi llars. These factors are i nvesti gated i n detai l.
A l l fi eld research was completed at Placer Dome's Musselwhi te mi ne. Musselwhi te i s a
4000 tpd, underground gold mi ne, located 500 km north of Thunder Bay, Ontari o.
The underground methods i n use at Musselwhi te are longi tudi nal retreat and/or
transverse open stope mi ni ng, and voi ds are subsequently backfi lled usi ng development
Chapter I - Introduction
2
waste rock and open pi t waste rock. The waste i s augmented by addi ng cement, and used for
either backfi lli ng pri mary stopes or i n si ll mat constructi on. Chapter 4 detai ls these acti vi ti es.
In the fi rst case (Chapter 5), the research focuses on si ll mat fai lure modes by analyzi ng
current conventi onal methods (re: Musselwhi te). The second case (Chapter 6) concentrates
on rock behavi or when mi ni ng adjacent to backfi lled stopes (pri mary, and i ndi rectly,
secondary stopes) and where longi tudi nal retreat wi th delayed backfi ll i s employed. The
effect of backfi ll on longi tudi nal retreat mi ni ng (Avoca) i s exami ned i n li ght of i ts i nfluence
on stabi li ty desi gn.
Empi ri cal tools, numeri cal modeli ng, and equi li bri um analyses are supplemented by
fi eld data, i llustrati ng how backfi ll affects the stabi li ty of mi ni ng adjacent to, and below, a
fi lled stope.
1.3 Background
Mi ni ng open stopes i n the proxi mi ty of backfi ll has become an i ncreasi ngly popular
mi ni ng method over the past 10 years. Thi s i s pri nci pally due to recent techni cal i nnovati ons
such as the i ntroducti on of pastefi ll and cemented rockfi ll. In the past, cemented hydrauli c
stopes had less capaci ty for quali ty control compared wi th that of recent i nnovati ons i n stope
desi gn. Vari ous methods of si zi ng stopes have evolved si nce 1982, when Mathews
i ntroduced the "Stabi li ty Graph". However, these methods focus on i solated stopes, whi ch
have soli d pi llar abutments along the stri ke/di p.
Substi tuti on of backfi ll for a rock pi llar abutment i ntui ti vely i mpli es compromi sed
overall stabi li ty of the open stope. Thi s thesis addresses thi s concern and presents an updated
amendment to the "Stabi li ty Graph Method", where mi ni ng occurs adjacent to a backfi lled
stope. Open stopi ng under consoli dated backfi ll poses addi ti onal ri sk i n terms of back
collapse, and i n turn di luti on, and subsequent delays to the "mi ni ng cycle", whi ch i ncludes
dri lli ng, blasti ng, mucki ng, and so on.
The desi gn methodologi es of si ll mats are revi ewed i n the context of open stope "non-
entry" mi ni ng at the Musselwhi te mi ne. Defi ci enci es are addressed and a uni que method of
desi gn i s i ntroduced vi a numeri cal and analyti cal si mulati ons. Musselwhi te and other
underground operati ons are di scussed i n detai l.
Chapter 1 - Introduction 3
1.4 Thesis Overview
Chapter 2 detai ls the mi ni ng method currently i n use at the Musselwhi te mi ne. Chapter 3
revi ews exi sti ng li terature detai li ng the types and uses of backfi ll, and backfi ll's i ntri nsi c
properti es. Thi s chapter also addresses exi sti ng analyti cal equations, and i ntroduces two new
analyti cal equati ons, to estimate rockfi ll loads and si ll mat stabi li ty. A bri ef descri pti on of the
software used i n thi s study i s gi ven. Chapter 4 compri ses all of the i nformati on gathered from
the Musselwhi te mi ne, i ncludi ng stress, structures, fabri c analysi s, cavi ty moni tori ng system
surveys, geologi cal secti ons, and others. Chapter 5 i ntroduces relevant cemented rockfi ll
gui deli nes by analyzi ng the stabi li ty of si ll mats and the vari ables controlli ng stabi li ty, such
as the verti cal load exerted by unconsoli dated backfi ll materi al. Chapter 6 further expands
our understandi ng of the stabi li ty of open stopes i n those cases where mi ni ng occurs adjacent
to backfi ll materi al, by analyzi ng the effects of backfi ll on exposed wall di mensi ons. Chapter
7 provi des a summary of the theoreti cal, empi ri cal, and practi cal consi derati ons of thi s thesis
i n conci se, conclusi ve form. Chapter 8 proposes on-site i nstrumentati on to evaluate the
actual, practi cal effects of backfi ll materi al, and suggests possi bi li ti es for future work.
1.5 Contributions Made by Thesis
The pri nci pal contri buti ons to the fi eld of study are: a more effi ci ent and cost effecti ve
desi gn of si ll mats wi thi n a mi ne si tuati on; and a new method of evaluati ng the effect of
backfi ll on open stope desi gn. These are uni que to the present state of knowledge for open
stope operati ons.
Replaci ng an ore si ll pi llar wi th a cemented rockfi ll si ll mat pi llar wi ll yi eld a hi gher
overall recovery, i .e., i mprove the economi cs of the mi ni ng operati on.
Where mi ni ng encounters a hi ghly stressed back (e.g., the producti on drift cei li ng)
and/or weak rock mass, safety becomes a cri ti cal i ssue. In thi s case, the replacement of an
exi sti ng ore pi llar wi th a consoli dated backfi ll pi llar can i mprove the overall safety of the
mi ne.
The methodology proposed i n thi s thesi s for the desi gn of open stopes can be used to
effecti vely reduce di luti on as i t exi sts i n current mi ne desi gns, by accounti ng for the effect of
backfi ll on wall stabi li ty. A technique based upon past practi ce and observed measurements,
Chapter 1 - Introduction
4
coupled wi th numeri cal modeli ng, wi ll be employed i n the thesi s to arri ve at a new
understandi ng of how backfi ll affects overall wall stabi li ty.
The models developed i n thi s thesi s attempt to reproduce as accurately as possi ble the
behavi or of the rock mass at the Musselwhi te mi ne, i .e., stress regi me, rock properti es (e.g.,
strength), and so on. Therefore, these models relate to the Musselwhi te mi ne operati on i tself,
and should be consi dered appli cable pri mari ly to thi s speci fi c case.
Although the models are intended to reflect accurately the reali ty of a parti cular mi ni ng
si tuati on, these models nevertheless requi re formal vali dati on, i .e., cali brati on, by the
acqui si ti on of actual mi ne data, accompli shed vi a proper i nstrumentati on, conducted at the
mi ne.
Addi ti onally, thi s real world data appli cati on wi ll enhance the accuracy of these
numeri cal models, as i t i s carri ed out i n future research, thus progressi vely i ncreasi ng the
usefulness of the desi gn curves developed i n thi s thesi s.
Chapter 2 - The Musselwhite Mine
5
2 THE MUSSELWHITE MINE
2.1 Introduction
Placer Dome Inc.'s Musselwhi te Mi ne i s located 430 km northwest of Thunder Bay,
Ontari o (figure 2-1).
Figure 2-1: Location of Musselwhite mine
The fi rst underground producti on stope blast was made i n March of 1997. The mi ll
tonnage today i s 4200 tonnes dai ly, of whi ch 4000 tonnes of muck are extracted from
underground, and the remainder comes from open pi t. Fi gure 2-2 portrays a long secti on of
the mi ne's orebody plungi ng at 12 to 15 degrees.
Figure 2-2: Long section of Musselwhite orebody
Chapter 2 - The Musselwhite Mine.
2.2 Geology
2.2.1 Regional Geology
The Musselwhi te property i s located i n the central regi on of the Weagamow, North
Cari bou Lake metavolcani c, metasedimentary greenstone belt. The property i s located i n an
area where the package has been i socli nally folded i nto a series of northwesterly trendi ng
antiforms and synforms (Musselwhi te Project Feasi bi li ty, Geology Report, 1995). These
structures plunge 12 to 15 degrees to the northwest. Important li thologi cal uni ts, referenced
i n thi s thesi s, are:
- 4ea:
Iron Formati on, chert-gruneri te-garnet-amphi bole;
- 4f:
Iron Formati on, garnet-biotite schi st;
- 4b: Iron Formati on, chert-magnetite;
- A Vol: Volcani c, i ntermedi ate-mafi c; and
- B Vol : Volcani c, i ntermedi ate-felsi c.
Fi gure 2-3 portrays a geologi cal cross-secti on of the T-Anti form i n the Musselwhi te gold
deposi t along gri d li ne 10050 North. The cross-secti on depi cts the di stri buti on of gold
beari ng zones wi thi n the mi xed basalti c and northern Iron Formati on sequences.
Figure 2-3: Geological cross-section through the T-Antiform Northern Iron Formation
Chanter 2 - The Musselwhite Mine
1
2.2.2 Mine Geology
Thi s study deals pri nci pally wi th the gold mi nerali zed zone i n the T-Anti form. The gold
mi nerali zati on i s found predomi nantly wi thi n the sediment ri ch i ron foundati on called the
"4ea". More speci fi cally, the gold i s located i n four subsi di ary fold closures wi thi n the 4ea
li thology, named the Wa, T, C, and S zones (figure 2-4). The Wa, T, and C zones are
approxi mately located on the westerly li mb of the anti form, and the S zone i s located on the
Figure 2-4: Geological cross-section showing the Wa, T, C and S zones
In fi gure 2-4, the Wa, T, and C zones can be generally descri bed as sub-parallel, steeply
di ppi ng, planar bodi es of varyi ng thi ckness. The Wa zone i s the lowest and most westward
zone on the fold li mb, the T zone i s i n the mi ddle, and C zone i s at the top of the anti form.
These three ore zones are typi cally found adjacent to each other, but frequently have
several meters of less si gni fi cant mi nerali zed 4ea between them. The zones vary i n thi ckness
from 0.5 meters to 25 meters, and typi cally represent a secti onal hei ght of 200 meters from
the bottom of the Wa zone to the top of the C zone. The three zones lay i n close proxi mi ty to
each other.
faulted, eastern li mb.
8
For example, the Wa and T zone wi dths vary from 0 meters to 17 meters of waste
materi als (and typi cally, wi dths fall between 0 meters and 6 meters). The T and C zone
wi dths vary from 0 meters to 13 meters of waste materi als (and typi cally, wi dths fall between
0 meters and 9 meters). The S zone i s a steeply di ppi ng body posi ti oned on the eastern li mb
of the anti cli ne to the south, and runni ng up to straddle both sides of the fold to the north
(depi cted i n fi gure 2-5). The S zone i s compri sed of a short (45 meters), thi ck (10 meters)
body i n the south, and a thi nner (6 meters), tall (150 meters), steeply di ppi ng body to the
north.
2.3 Underground Mining Methods
2.3.1 Avoca
Two underground longhole mi ni ng methods are currently employed at the Musselwhi te
mi ne: Avoca, or longi tudi nal retreat open stopi ng, wi th delayed backfi ll; and transverse open
stopi ng (Musselwhi te Project Feasi bi li ty, Mi ni ng Report, 1996). Longhole open stopi ng i s
the pri nci pal method employed at Musselwhi te, because of i ts safety, producti vi ty, and
economi c characteri sti cs.
Where the ore i s between 4 meters and 12 meters i n wi dth, Avoca, or longi tudi nal retreat
i s used. Thi s method employs conventi onal longhole benchi ng where the stopes are
backfi lled wi th waste rock composed of development waste and crushed materi al from open
pi t stri ppi ng.
Stopes are mi ned upwards, where the ore i s mucked on top of the previ ously backfi lled
stopes below. The broken ore i s usually remotely mucked on the lower si ll. Rockfi ll materi al
is dumped, usi ng either scoops or trucks, from the top si ll, fi lli ng the stope to just short of
where the hangi ng wall exposure would exceed its predi cted maxi mum stable span. The
Avoca method demands peri odi c re-deposi t of backfi ll to prevent the stope walls from
collapsi ng i nto the open stope. The mi ne operati on compri ses sequenti ally: blasti ng,
mucki ng, and backfi lli ng. Slot raises are dri lled and blasted at the end of each stope, to create
the free face necessary for subsequent producti on blastholes to be fi red.
Dri lli ng Equi pment
\
Truck backfi lls after
most ore i s mucked
Retreating.
Backfi ll
L HD Equi pment
Floor can be of any type: Ore, backfi ll or si ll (mat) pi llar
Figure 2-5: Longitudinal retreat open stoping ~ Mining adjacent to backfill
10
2.3.2 Transverse Retreat Open Stoping
Where the ore wi dth exceeds 12 meters, i t i s typi cally mi ned transversely wi thi n 50
meter or 25 meter hi gh stope blocks. The transverse stopes are backfi lled wi th cemented and
uncemented rockfi ll. Cemented rockfi ll i s used i n pri mary stopi ng blocks and uncemented
rockfi ll i s used i n secondary stopes. Pri mary stope rockfi ll i s crushed and screened to less
than 5 i nches, yi eldi ng a workable si ze that achi eves the strength needed when mi xed wi th
cement bi nders. The materi al i s dropped down a raise fi ll to the underground batchi ng plant.
Next, waste materi al i s di scharged through a chute i nto the truck box, and cemented slurry i s
then added vi a spray bars. Slot raises are dri lled and blasted at each stope, creati ng new faces
for each pri mary and secondary stope.
Secondary
UR F Backfi ll
Pri marj
CRF Backfi ll
; Open Stope
! Blasted Ore
L H P Equi pment
Pri mar)
CRF Backfi ll
Figure 2-6: Transverse open stoping ~ Mining adjacent to backfill
2.3.3 Drilling and Blasting Methods
The li mi ts of the orebody define whether parallel or fanned 10 centi meter (4 i nch)
blastholes are dri lled. These blastholes can be dri lled as either down holes or up holes,
dependi ng on the locati on of the stope and i ts sequence.
Hi stori cally, ground control problems associ ated wi th dri lli ng and blasti ng have been:
i naccurate dri lli ng; faulty ti mi ng of the holes; and/or di scovery of unfami li ar geologi cal
structures. These are all important factors i n wall stabi li ty.
11
2.3.4 Ore Handling
Ore i s handled underground, by remote-controlled LHDs wi th 40-tonne-capaci ty
arti culated low profi le trucks. They are used to haul the ore to the surface or to feed the bi n of
an underground crusher, 460 meters beneath the surface. Remote-controlled L HDs enhance
both safety and producti vi ty measures. Remotely, the operator controls the fully-functi onal
L HD , ensuri ng maxi mum safety.
2.3.5 Ground Support
Consi stent wi th Placer Dome's support gui deli nes, pattern bolti ng suffi ci ent to prevent
small scale local fai lure, i s used i n all cases (Geotechni cal Assessment of the Musselwhi te
Project, Golder Associ ates, 1996). The followi ng table summari zes the type and pattern of
development support employed:
Table 2-1: Support strength properties
R OCK B OL T PROPERTI ES
Bolt Strength Yi eld Strength Breaki ng Strength
(tonnes) (tonnes)
5/8" mechani cal 6.1 10.2 (Grade 690MPa)
Spli t Set (SS-33) 8.5 10.6
Standard Swellex N/ A 11
Yi eldi ng Swellex N/ A 9.5
Super Swellex N/ A 22
20mm rebar (#6) 12.4 18.5
25mm rebar (#8) 20.5 30.8
#6 Dywi dag 11.9 18
#7 Dywi dag 16.3 24.5
#8 Dywi dag 21.5 32.3
#9 Dywi dag 27.2 40.9
#10 Dywi dag 34.6 52
1/2" Cable bolt 15.9 18.8
5/8" Cable bolt 21.6 25.5
#6 refers to 6/8", #7 refers to 7/8", #8 refers to 8/8" di am etc.
B OND STRENGTH
Spli t Set 0. 75- 1.5 tons/ft 0.7-1.4 tonnes/ft
Swellex 3- 5 tons/ft 2. 7-4. 6 tonnes/ft
Cable Bolt (5/8") 29 tons ~ 3ft 10.2 (Grade 690MPa)
Rebar 18 tonne 20 tons - 12" 18 tonnes ~ 12" (grani te)
Chapter 2 - The Musselwhite Mine 12
SCR E E N - B A G STRENGTH 4ft X 4ft P A T T E R N
4' X 4" Welded wi re mesh (4 gauge) bag strength =3.6 tonne
2" chai nli nk - 11 gauge bare metal bag strength =2.9 tonne
2" chai nli nk - 11 gauge galvani zed bag strength =1.7 tonne
2" chai nli nk - 9 gauge bare metal bag strength =3.7 tonne
2" chai nli nk - 9 gauge galvani zed bag strength =3.2 tonne
4 gauge =0.23" di am, 6 gauge =0.20", 9 gauge =0.16"
11 gauge =0.125", 12 gauge =0.11" di am
2
shotcrete shear strength =2MPa =200 tonnes/m
2.3.5.1 Development Support
Placer Dome's support gui deli nes i ndi cate that pattern bolti ng suffi ci ent to prevent small
scale local fai lure be used i n all cases. The type of support that should be employed
dependi ng on the span of the openi ng, i s summari zed i n the followi ng table:
Table 2-2: Development support
Span
#
6

r
e
b
a
r

1
.
4

x

1
.
4

m

p
a
t
t
e
r
n

#
8

r
e
b
a
r

1
.
8

x

1
.
8

m

p
a
t
t
e
r
n

F
u
l
l
y

G
r
o
u
t
e
d

F
a
c
e

p
l
a
t
e

C
a
b
l
e

B
o
l
t
s

3
.
6

x

3
.
6

m

p
a
t
t
e
r
n

<5.5m
X X X
5.5m - 7.2m
X X X
7.2m <
X X X X
2.3.5.2 Stope support - Stope backs and walls
It i s standard practi ce i n Canada to use support i n all worki ng areas. The accepted
conventi on i s that the length of the support should not be less than one-thi rd of the mi ni mum
span of the supported excavati on. Assumi ng that rock bolts wi th a maxi mum length of 2.4
Chapter 2 The Musselwhite Mine 13
meters are used, cables should be employed i n all excavati ons where the mi ni mum span
exceeds 7.2 meters.
Cables effecti vely support hangi ng walls and foot walls, and prevent cave-i n, whi ch
would affect producti on and increase di luti on i f not addressed suffi ci ently.
2.3.6 Backfill
The Musselwhi te orebody i s of vari able wi dth and di p. Accordi ngly, there are a number
of different stope layouts. The two mai n layouts are longi tudi nal retreat, where the fi ll
exposure i s of li mi ted span and up to 30 meters hi gh, and transverse stopi ng where the fi ll
spans up to 30 meters wi th heights of up to 25 or 50 meters.
Two backfi ll stations are located at the 150 mL and the 200 mL. Gi ven that the bulk of
the mi ne producti on today comes from the 400 mL and below, backfi lli ng has become a ti me
consumi ng and costly task.
Open pi t, screened, cemented rockfi ll i s used for backfi lli ng transverse pri mary stopes.
As waste i s mi ned, selected rock i s stockpi led for crushi ng. Crushed rock i s dumped i nto a
fi ll rai se and then transferred to trucks vi a a chute at the bottom of the rai se. Cement i s
transferred vi a a borehole to an underground cement slurry stati on, or batch plant, located
adjacent to the fi ll rai se, where the cement i s mi xed wi th rockfi ll. Spray bars are used to coat
the rockfi ll wi th a pre-measured amount of cement slurry, i n accordance wi th relevant
strength requi rements. Trucks haul the fi ll to the stope and dump the fi ll at the top of the
stope.
The system i s compri sed of several components:
- crusher;
- on-si te cement storage (cement and fly ash si los);
- boreholes for cement transfer underground;
- raises for transfer of rockfi ll underground; and
- underground fi ll stations (i ncludi ng the slurry plant).
Generally, the upper bound for parti cle si ze deli vered to the top of the fi ll rai se i s set
wi thi n a range of 150 mm to 200 mm. Waste rock consi sts typi cally of meta-volcani c rock
wi th esti mated uni axi al strengths i n excess of 150 MPa, whi ch i s i deal for CRF composi ti on.
2.3.6.1 Mining Underneath Backfill - CRF Sill Mats
A si ll mat pi llar i s a cemented, enri ched, bottom floor of a backfi lled stope. It i s used i n
place of an ore si ll pi llar, mai ntai ni ng stabi li ty when mi ni ng the stope below. Musselwhi te's
si ll mats are constructed from several batches of screened rockfi ll materi al, recovered from
run of mi ne development waste and/or open pi t crushed waste rock (crushed to < 12.5
centi meters). Bi nder i s mi xed at the surface plant. The resultant slurry i s transported below
ground vi a boreholes. Each truck-load i s coated wi th the bi nder mi xture usi ng spray bars,
transported and end-dumped onto the floor i n a retreating fashi on. A scoop (LHD) i s used to
bri ng the si ll mat to proper elevati on, as requi red.
To date, 3 si ll mats have been constructed: the 275 mL, the 300 mL, and the 375 mL,
portrayed i n fi gure 2-7.
h- > r J CRFS ill Mats
225 Level
250 Level
5 Level
\
100m
*
5 Level
\
100m
*
/
\
330 Level
\
330 Level
375 Level
4.00 L( VPI
425 Level
Figure 2-7: Cemented rockfill sill mats constructed: 275, 300 and 375 m Levels
2.3.6.2 Mining Adjacent to Backfill
Stopes are mi ned upwards, usi ng sub-level open stopi ng methods. The ore i s mucked on
the floor of backfi ll materi al and deposi ted on the level below. The broken ore i s normally
remotely mucked on the bottom si ll. Rockfi ll materi al i s dumped, usi ng either scoops or
trucks, from the top si ll to the poi nt just before the hangi ng wall exposure would exceed its
predi cted maxi mum stable span.
The longi tudi nal retreat and transverse open stopi ng methods both requi re peri odi c
placement of backfi ll to support the stope walls.
Thi s mi ne operati on consi sts sequenti ally of: blasti ng; mucki ng; and backfi lli ng. Slot
raises are dri lled and blasted at the end of each stope to create the free face needed for
subsequent producti on blastholes. Remote scoops are uti li zed to muck ore from the blasted
stopes. Use of remote-control mucki ng i mproves both safety and producti vi ty.
Rockfi ll used for fi lli ng mi ned stopes comes from underground waste development, or
from open pi t rock materi al. Open pi t rockfi ll materi al i s crushed and screened to a maxi mum
si ze of 10 cm, provi di ng crushed rock di mensi ons consistent wi th strength gui deli nes for
mi xi ng wi th cement (< 5% for pri mary stopes; < 8-10% for si ll mat pi llars). The materi al i s
dropped down a rai se fi ll to the underground batchi ng plant, where i t i s di scharged through a
chute and onto a truck or scoop. Cemented slurry i s then appli ed wi th spray bars to meet
shear and tensi le strength requirements.
Mai ntai ni ng a hi gh quali ty backfi ll product i s cruci al to the safety and effi ci ency of the
mi ni ng operati on, whi le maxi mi zi ng ore recovery, and leavi ng behi nd mi ni mal ore pi llars.
16
2.4 Equipment
Mobile equipment in use is summarized by table 2-3.
Table 2-3: Mobile Equipment List
Type of Equipment Make/Model Number of Units
Drilling Equipment
Producti on dri lls Tamrock Solo 1000 Si xty 2
Development dri lls Tamrock Mi ni mati c H205D 3
Bolters Tamrock Robolt H320-30C 3
Mi scellaneous dri lls MacLean Blockholer 1
Boart BCI -2 1
Production Scoops
3 yd" Tamrock EJC-130 1
8y d
J
Tamrock Toro T500D 3
9y d
J
Tamrock Toro T650D 5
11 y d
J
Tamrock Toro 0011 1
Production Trucks
30 tonne Tamrock EJC 430 1
40 tonne Tamrock Toro 40D 9
Ancillary Equipment
Explosi ves loader Tamrock A L B 45 2
Sci ssor li ft Teledyne SL6-812 3
Boom truck Teledyne 1
Grader Caterpi llar M-120 1
Personnel vehi cle Toyota Landcrui ser 17
Bulk explosi ves truck ICI U-101-1 1
This chapter reviewed Musselwhite's mining methods, types of support, handling of ore
and waste materials, and types of equipment in current use. The next chapter will discuss
design methodologies in current use.
Chapter 3 - Review of Design Methodologies
11
3 R E V I E W OF D E S I G N M E T H OD OL OG I E S
Thi s revi ew of pertinent, exi sti ng li terature i s sub-di vi ded i nto the followi ng topi cs:
- uses, types, and properti es of backfi ll;
- verti cal load exerted by rockfi ll;
- analyti cal si ll mat desi gn;
- empi ri cal stabi li ty graph methods; and
- software uti li zed i n the analysi s.
3.1 Backfdl
Backfi ll i s an i ncreasi ngly important component of underground mi ni ng operati ons
around the world. Followi ng i s a bri ef overvi ew of current methods of backfi ll technology,
focusi ng on rockfi ll. Rockfi ll i s the pri nci pal backfi ll materi al used at the Musselwhi te
operati on.
Di sposal of backfi ll underground not only reduces the envi ronmental i mpact and
footpri nt, but also provi des the basi s of an engi neeri ng materi al that can be used to i mprove
both the ground condi ti ons, and the economi cs of mi ni ng. Carefully engi neered and
effi ci ently operated backfi ll systems can si gni fi cantly enhance the producti vi ty of a gi ven
mi ni ng operati on. On the other hand, badly engineered backfi ll system can become a serious
i mpedi ment to mi ni ng operations and, i n the worst case scenari o, compromi se safety.
Whether composed of tai li ngs, alluvi al sand, or coarse rockfi ll, backfi ll can be treated as
a speci al form of soi l. Therefore, several of soi l's mechani cal properti es and relati onshi ps can
be appli ed to backfi ll. Note that mechani cal and cure properti es of fi ll deposi ted underground
may vary consi derably, dependi ng upon the fi ll materi al's i ntri nsi c properti es, the method of
preparati on, and the locati on and condi ti on of the mi ne envi ronment.
3.1.1 Purpose of Backfdl
Backfi ll has multi ple purposes, as i ndi cated i n figure 3-1. The pri mary purposes are to
i mprove hangi ngwall stabi li ty, and to permi t i ncreased ore extracti on. Other i mportant
appli cati on purposes i nclude di luti on control and regi onal support. Although much less
18
common, some i nteresti ng appli cati ons mi ght i nclude venti lati on i mprovement, fi re control,
and envi ronment protecti on (De Souza, et al., 1998).
Purpose of backfilling
Fi gure 3-1: Purposes of backfi lli ng
For wall stabi li ty usi ng backfi ll, the objecti ve i s not to transmi t rock stresses, but to
reduce the uncontrollable convergence of rock mass so that the rock i tself wi ll retai n its load
carryi ng capaci ty, and i n turn, decrease cracki ng propagati on of crown pi llars and abutments
(Barrett et al., 1978). Thi s also helps to prevent cave-i ns and roof falls, mi ni mi ze surface
subsi dence, and enhance pi llar recovery (Coates, 1981). The ulti mate result i s less
deteri orati on of ground condi ti ons i n the mi ne, and thus operati on and safety are i mproved
overall.
Addi ng small percentages of ordi nary Portland cement provi des cohesi ve strength, and
self-support when exposed i n verti cal faces to adjacent pi llar mi ni ng, as well as to the mi ni ng
conducted below. The self-supporti ng nature of backfi ll permi ts hi gher recovery of pi llars.
Thi s, i n turn, allows greater exploi tati on of the mi ni ng reserves, and i mproves the economi cs
of the mi ni ng operati on. Increased ore recovery results i n a longer mi ne li fe.
Chapter 3 - Review of Design Methodologies 11
In some mi ni ng methods, backfi ll forms a worki ng platform for mi ne personnel and
equi pment. Backfi ll must be capable of supporti ng thi s traffi c. Cement i s usually not requi red
i n such an appli cati on.
Deposi ti ng backfi ll underground di rectly reduces the quanti ty of waste to be di sposed of
on the surface. Thi s results i n di rect operati ng and capi tal cost benefi ts, and reduces future
rehabi li tati on costs.
Nantel (1998) i ni ti ated a trend now common i n Canada, where envi ronmental
authori zati ons for future underground mi nes requi re the return of the maxi mum avai lable
quanti ty of mi ne wastes to the underground operati on. Thi s trend has reached i ts logi cal li mi t,
as seen i n the recent Australi an government recommendati on to approve a project for the
proposed Jabi luka urani um mi ne, whi ch i s enci rcled by the world famous Kakadu Nati onal
Park (i nscri bed on the World Heri tage Li st). For thi s project, a maxi mum percentage of
mi lli ng wastes are requi red to be re-deposi ted underground.
Research by Y u (unpubli shed) and Stone (1993) provi des a good background reference
source regardi ng the placement of cemented rockfi ll, typi cal strength characteri sti cs and i ts
appli cati ons.
3.1.2 Types of Backfill
Hassani and Archi bald (1998) stated that backfi ll refers to any waste materi als re-
deposi ted i nto voi ds mi ned either for di sposal or some other engi neeri ng task. These
materi als i nclude waste development rock, desli med and whole mi ll tai li ngs, quarri ed and
crushed aggregate and alluvi al or aeoli an sands. Other exoti c backfi ll components may
i nclude i ce and salt. The waste materi als are often combi ned wi th cement or other pozzolani c
(volcani c ash) bi nders to i mprove thei r strength properti es.
The three most common backfi ll types are:
- Hydraulic backfill Desli med mi ll tai li ngs slurry, wi th densi ti es up to
70%cw (i .e., concentrati on of soli ds by wei ght) the coarser fractions are
deposi ted underground as hydrauli c backfi ll and the sli mes rejected to the
surface dam;
- Rock/ill Surface or underground waste rock, crushed to a
maxi mum si ze -- can be deposi ted as i s or combi ned wi th cemented hydrauli c
backfi ll slurry, or cement water slurry; and
- Paste backfill Total mi ll tai li ngs fi ltered or thi ckened to approx.
80%cw, to whi ch cement and water i s added, achi evi ng requi red rheologi cal
and strength characteri sti cs. (Note: pastefi ll i s a type of backfi ll i n current use,
although thi s thesis does not deal speci fi cally wi th pastefi ll.)
3.1.2.1 Rockfdl
Rockfi ll can be grouped i nto unconsoli dated and consoli dated types of materi al. The
latter compri ses bi ndi ng mi xtures that achi eve the requi red strength for a gi ven purpose.
Consoli dated, or cemented, rockfi ll (CRF) i ncludes classi fi ed or unclassi fi ed aggregate,
mi xed wi th a vari ety of types and quanti ti es of bi nder materi als. Typi cally, unconsoli dated,
or uncemented, rockfi ll (URF) i s pre-mi xed wi th cement bi nder, usually i n slurry form, pri or
to i ts entry i nto the stope, formi ng a reasonably homogenous materi al at that ti me.
Consoli dated rockfi ll i s commonly employed i n large exposures where undermi ni ng can
occur, future exposure of fi ll walls i s expected, and si gni fi cant resistance to wall movement
i s desi red. The rockfi ll stiffness so achi eved produces si gni fi cant advantages to operati ons
seeki ng ground control at sites subject to hi gh ground stresses.
URF also faci li tates an i nexpensi ve method of di sposi ng of development waste or
surface open pi t waste.
3.1.2.2 Uncemented Rockfdl - URF
URF i s waste materi al deposi ted wi thout addi ti ves. Although URF has a li mi ted ground
support capabi li ty because of its mi ni mal resistance to closure, URF wi ll prevent wall slough.
The free standi ng hei ght capaci ty of such fi ll i s negli gi ble. URF i s used when the fi lled stope
won't be exposed to future pi llar recovery operati ons. In thi s case, stopes surroundi ng the
fi lled stope wi ll have been mi ned and fi lled before pi llar recovery. URF i s generally used for
voi d fi lli ng and to provi de some measure of passi ve wall support to resi st locali zed ground
Chapter 3 - Reviewof Design Methodologies 21
movement. It i s a relati vely low cost fi ll medi um, whi ch i s both expedi ent and relati vely easy
to place in situ.
3.1.2.3 Cemented Rockfill with Portland cement Slurry - CRF
A vari ati on on cemented rock backfi ll wi dely used i n Canada makes use of crushed
waste rock and Portland cement slurry aggregated at rates of approxi mately 5% cement by
wei ght. Consequently, the overall si zi ng curve i s low i n fi nes content (i .e., si ze di stri buti on of
rockfi ll). Thi s reduces the workabi li ty of the deposi ted backfi ll and demands hi gher cement
aggregati on to provi de equi valent strength performance. The techni que i s currently i n use at
the Musselwhi te mi ne, where a surface batchi ng plant produces slurry, whi ch i s then
deli vered vi a boreholes to an underground mi xi ng plant.
Note that CRT yi elds a hi gher strength fi ll, demandi ng lower quanti ti es of cementi ng
agents i n compari son to cemented hydrauli c fi ll materi als (i ncludi ng pastefi ll). Aggregated
wi th equi valent bi nder components, CRF exhi bi ts uni axi al compressi ve strengths that can be
two to three ti mes hi gher than consoli dated hydrauli c fi ll (i ncludi ng pastefi ll). CRF rockfi lls
also exhi bi t hi gher moduli of elasti ci ty, cohesi on, and fri cti on angle characteri sti cs than
hydrauli c fi ll mi xtures (i ncludi ng pastefi ll) composed of si mi lar cement contents.
3.1.3 Backfill Properties
Rockfi ll parti cles are i n constant contact wi th each other, i .e., parti cles do not colli de but
rather roll, rub, and scrape against one another. Thi s type of stress i s called fri cti onal stress,
as opposed to colli si onal or ki neti c stress, whi ch occurs i n more di luted soluti ons.
When granular materi al does not move or flow to any extent, the only force acti ng on the
grai ns i s gravi ty. Basi c engi neeri ng theory states that for any flui d, the total stress at the
bottom of a granular pi le of hei ght h would be:
P = p-g-h 3-1
Where:
g
P
i s the accelerati on of gravi ty; and
i s the bulk densi ty of the rockfi ll materi al.
22
Theoreti cally, the total stress at the bottom of the waste fi ll i s a normal stress along the
verti cal di recti on (h), and therefore i s an i sostati c pressure, solely resulti ng from the wei ght
of the rockfi ll pi le. In practi ce thi s i s not true. In fact, beyond a suffi ci ent hei ght of the
rockfi ll column, the pressure reaches a maxi mum value and wi ll not increase further,
regardless of the hei ght of the fi ll. Thi s occurs because rockfi ll supports fri cti onal shear
stress, even i n a static si tuati on. Addi ti onally, i f side walls exi st wi thi n the stope, they can
support the extra wei ght of the rockfi ll column. And so, the total stress at the bottom of the
rockfi ll pi le i s a combi nati on of normal stress and shear stress.
In order to predi ct the ground support capaci ty of a backfi ll system, i t i s essenti al to fi rst
define, and to understand, the si gni fi cant properti es of the fi ll materi al. Si nce most fi ll
materi al can be defi ned as either granular or fi ne-grai ned soi ls, evaluati on of any fi ll property
i nvolves the pri nci ples of soi l mechani cs. However, soi l mechani cs alone cannot descri be all
of the properti es of cemented fi ll. Aggregati on of cement and other pozzolans to a fi ll,
transforms the fi ll from natural materi al, e.g., soi l, to an engineered materi al, maki ng the
process of characteri zi ng fi ll properti es more complex. Extensi ve evaluati on of the effects of
cement aggregati on i s therefore necessary.
Exi sti ng detai led studies and laboratory work exami ne cemented fi lls and the properti es
si gni fi cant i n thei r desi gn. Laboratory testi ng i ndi cates that the relevant properti es of
cemented fi ll (Kni ssel and Helms, 1983) are:
- strength (i .e., uni axi al compressi ve strength);
- deformati on behavi or;
- cohesi on and angle of i nternal fri cti on;
- densi ty and porosi ty; and
- consi stency of the mi xture.
As wi th uncemented fi ll, strength i s the pri nci ple concern i n cemented fi lls. Certai n
properti es of the fi ll materi al i ncludi ng fri cti on angle, densi ty, and porosi ty, have the same
effect on cemented fi ll strength as on uncemented fi ll strength.
Cement aggregati on i mproves the strength properti es of backfi ll materi al. The most
evi dent i ncrease i n strength of a cemented fi ll over an uncemented fi ll i s i n shear strength.
Cement bonds formed between fi ll parti cles produce a cohesi ve component i n the fi ll's
shear strength, absent i n an uncemented fi ll.
24
The relati onshi p between shear stress and normal stress i s commonly referred to as the
Mohr-Coulomb relati onshi p for fri cti onal shear stress.
In its basi c form, i t i s:
r = c + <r-tan^ 3-2
Where:
- x i s the fi cti onal shear stress (MPa, psi , etc.);
- rj
n
i s the normal fri cti onal stress (MPa, psi , etc.); and
- c i s the cohesi on of the materi al (MPa, psi , etc.).
Cohesi on, c, i s a known materi al property (descri bi ng the cohesi ve state of grai ns)
normally negli gi ble i n uncemented fi ll materi al, and (j) i s the angle of repose (i .e., the angle of
i nternal fri cti on of the materi al).
The followi ng fi gure describes equati on 3-2:
Frictional Stress: Mohr-Coulomb Plane
r
e
s
s

V)
T =c + On tan((|))
S
h
e
a
i

S
h
e
a
i

\ ()) =Friction Angle
c =cohesi ve shear
0
Normal Stress an
Figure 3-2: Mohr-Coulomb failure envelope for a cohesive fill material
At yi eld, the hi gher the fri cti onal stress, the hi gher the shear stress. The more
i nterconnected the parti cles, i .e., the more cohesi ve, and/or the hi gher the angle of fri cti on,
the hi gher the shear stress, as i ndi cated i n fi gure 3-2.
The Mohr-Coulomb law descri bed by equati on 3-2 and portrayed i n fi gure 3-2, i s a
yi eldi ng law asserti ng that a materi al wi ll yi eld by sheari ng on a surface element i f x attains a
cri ti cal value defi ned by equation 3-2. Thi s li near relati onshi p i s sometimes called the "yi eld
li ne". Below the yi eld li ne, the materi al response wi ll be ri gi d or elasti c and wi ll not typi cally
undergo strai n, and i f i t does i t i s merely elasti c strai n. Elasti c strai n i s negli gi ble i n
uncemented rockfi ll materi al.
Fi gure 3-3 portrays the Mohr-Coulomb envelope for a cohesi onless fi ll materi al. If the
shear stress i s i ncreased for a gi ven normal stress so that the stress state of the materi al
remai ns at yi eld, then plasti c strai n, i .e., yi eldi ng, wi ll result. A state of stress cannot exi st
above the Mohr-Coulomb yi eld li ne. When yi eld stress i s reached, parti cles wi ll si mply sli de
over one another.
Figure 3-3: Mohr-Coulomb failure envelope for a cohesionless fill material
In thi s case, shear stress of the rockfi ll materi al i s due solely to the fri cti onal component
and i s mobi li zed by the normal stress.
Frictional Stress: Mohr-Coul omb Plane
0 Normal Stress On
The angle of repose (or angle of i nternal fri cti on) i s evi dent i n the followi ng fi gure:
Figure 3-4: Angle of repose <| >for cohesionless fill material
The angle of repose, portrayed i n figure 3-4, i s low when grai ns are smooth, coarse, or
rounded, and hi gh for sti cky, sharp, i rregular, or very fi ne parti cles. Typi cally, i t i s between
15 and 50 degrees. Musselwhi te rockfi ll fri cti on angles range from 35 to 40 degrees.
3.1.4 Parameters Affecting Cemented Rockfill Strength
The followi ng parameters are consi dered essential to fi nal rockfi ll strength (Kuganathan,
et al., 2001):
- maxi mum si ze of the aggregate;
- gradi ng of the aggregate;
- bi nder content of the mi x; and
- water content of the mi x.
Sui table gradi ng of the aggregate i s i mportant, not only to reduce porosi ty, i .e., the voi d
rati o of the fi ll, but also to increase the number of rock to rock contacts per uni t area. The
strength of the fi ll depends on the number of cement bonds that develop at these contact
poi nts. The strength and quali ty of CRF depends on how well the rockfi ll parti cles are coated
wi th the cement slurry before they are deposited i n the stope. In a well controlled operati on,
27
the resultant fi ll wi ll exclude uncemented rockfi ll pockets, and a nearly homogeneous CRF
fi ll mass i s thus achi evable.
In the majori ty of underground mi ni ng operations revi ewed, si zed rockfi ll aggregate i s
mi xed wi th cement slurry, typi cally at a cement content of 5 to 6 percent, by wei ght(cw), and
a pulp densi ty of 50 to 60%(cw). Thi s type of fi ll may exert acti ve pressure on contact wi th
stope walls, provi di ng not only ground support but also i mprovement i n the inherent wall
rock strength. In the case of consoli dated rockfi ll, there normally occurs no drainage
problem, and a hi gh fi ll quali ty can often be achi eved i f the materi als are mi xed properly.
Wi th these rockfi ll materi als however, segregati on control can be di ffi cult, and quali ty
control may be vari able. In thi s regard, Stone (1993) presents a methodology for the
opti mi zati on of mi x designs for cemented rockfi ll, and suggests laboratory evaluati ons for
veri fi cati on of the desi gn parameters. Furthermore, a program of quali ty control testi ng and
performance moni tori ng i s outli ned to i mprove the reli abi li ty of the desi gn.
Segregati on of consoli dated rockfi ll i s often unavoi dable but can be mi ni mi zed when fi ll
operations are well planned and closely moni tored.
28
3.2 Vertical Load on Cemented Rockfdl Sill Mat Pillars
3.2.1 Sill Mat Pillar Definition
Si ll pi llars are ore blocks left between worki ng levels i n an underground mi ne to support
the overlyi ng mi ne backfi ll, duri ng removal of the underlyi ng ore. Steeply di ppi ng ore bodi es
should be mi ned bottom up but for economi c reasons and/or because of stabi li ty constrai nts
(i .e., underhand cut and fi ll), upper ore levels are usually mi ned fi rst. Si ll pi llars are
commonly used i n steeply di ppi ng ore zones of li mi ted wi dth.
A typi cal si tuati on i s portrayed i n fi gure 3-5:
Backfi ll
Si ll Mat Pi llar
Stope
Figure 3-5: Sill mat pillar cross-section
Accordi ngly, mi neable values i n the ore generally make i t economi cally feasi ble to mi ne
the si ll pi llar. It i s necessary to create an arti fi ci al si ll, whi ch wi ll support the overlyi ng
unconsoli dated fi ll, after the stope below i s mi ned. Such si ll mats can be constructed from
either cemented rockfi ll or hydrauli c and paste backfi ll materi al.
In analyzi ng si ll mat stabi li ty, the strength of backfi ll necessary to mai ntai n stabi li ty i s a
functi on of the stresses generated wi thi n and around the si ll mat and the fi ll mass.
These stresses are caused by:
- self-wei ght of the si ll mat;
- verti cal load of unconsoli dated backfi ll;
- blast damage/abrasi on; and
- ground movements.
The most si gni fi cant desi gn loadi ng used i n thi s thesis i s the wei ght of the fi ll materi al.
The stresses generated by thi s wei ght are a functi on of fi ll densi ty, fi ll fri cti on angle, hei ght,
and span.
A number of methods have been proposed for analyzi ng the stabi li ty of cemented si ll
mats. These generally use free standi ng wall or two-di mensi onal stope stabi li ty concepts.
Mi tchell's (1981) approach i s revi ewed i n thi s chapter.
3.2.2 Background - Loads Acting by Unconsolidated Material
When backfi ll materi al i s dumped onto a hori zontal surface, i t heaps i nto a volume
coni cal i n shape, formi ng a speci fi c angle <f > wi th the hori zontal plane. Thi s angle i s
characteri sti c of each type of materi al and i s called the natural angle of repose of the
materi al. Thi s i s the angle of i nternal fri cti on. If the materi al i s dumped i nto a confi ned space
such as that of a stope, i t wi ll exert pressure on the walls and on the floor of the stope. The
resultant thrust, due to the fri cti on of the materi al on the walls, i s obli que i n relati on to the
surface of the walls. Thi s thrust has two components, one, N, normal to the wall, and the
other, T, parallel to the wall (Rei mbert, 1976).
The normal pressure i s also called lateral thrust (figure 3-6):
Figure 3-6: Natural angle of repose of the material (left) and the oblique, normal and
tangential components of the force (right)
30
The materi al's angle of fri cti on on the walls i s termed <)>' , and the correspondi ng
coeffi ci ent of fri cti on i s tan <)>' . As a functi on of the obli que thrust Q defi ned above, the two
components N and T are:
N = Q-cosf
T = Q-sm</>'
Therefore:
T = N-tan.fi 3-5
Where T i s the load balanced by the fri cti on correspondi ng to the thrust N.
At a gi ven depth of the stope, the load, i .e., total verti cal pressure, i s the difference
between the total wei ght of the backfi ll materi al and the total load offset by the fri cti on of the
materi al on the walls.
In situ measurements tell us that pressure increases wi th depth. However, because of the
fri cti on of the materi al on the walls, the pressure on the stope floor i s merely a fracti on of the
wei ght of the confi ned materi al. Furthermore, at great depths the pressure reaches a constant
maxi mum value (Rei mbert, 1976). The curve representi ng pressure (plotti ng depth on the x-
axi s, and pressure on the y-axi s) i s asymptoti c parallel to the x-axi s, i n correspondence wi th
the maxi mum verti cal pressure (portrayed i n figure 3-7).
3-3
3-4
11
Vertical Stress at Deoth
for Confined Material
V
e
r
t
i
c
a
l

S
t
r
e
s
s

r
j
y
y

/ Maximum Vertical Pressure
Depth z
Figure 3-7: Vertical stress at increasing depth for a confined material
3.2.3 Maximum Horizontal Pressure on the Walls of the Stope
A behavi or si mi lar to that portrayed by fi gure 3-7, can be i nferred from the curve
representi ng the lateral thrust on the walls. Thi s curve i s asymptoti c parallel to the x-axi s
where the y-axi s plots maxi mum thrust.
The value of the maxi mum hori zontal thrust can be determined by the followi ng method
(figure 3-8):
z
1
*
L
t
Figure 3-8: Pressure on a horizontal slice of thickness 8z
Chapter 3 - Review ofDesien Methodologies
21
The wei ght of a hori zontal sli ce of thi ckness dz i n the i nteri or of the stope i s:
S-dz-y 3-6
Where:
- S = i nternal area of the cross-secti on of the stope;
- y = uni t wei ght of the backfi ll materi al; and
- dz = thi ckness of the hori zontal sli ce.
The wei ght exerts a lateral pressure on the walls over the entire peri meter:
cr
x
{z)-P-dz 3.
7
Where:
- CT
x
(z) = lateral thrust at a depth z; and
- P = i nternal peri meter of the stope.
Pressure increases wi th depth up to the maxi mum (7x_Max, at whi ch poi nt the fri cti on on
the walls balances the actual wei ght of the sli ce consi dered. Therefore:
x
_
Max
-P-dz-tan(p'=S-dz-
r
3-8
From whi ch the value of the maxi mum thrust can be determi ned:
cr =
r
'
S
3-9
X
-
M a x
P-tanp'
Note that, for stopes of suffi ci ent stri ke length (i .e., i n theory, i nfi ni te), the hydrauli c
radi us S/P tends toward one half the span of the stope (see equati on 3-9). Equati on 3-10
i ndi cates the maxi mum lateral thrust wi thi n a stope of suffi ci ently long stri ke:
a = y
L
3-10
xx Max ,
2 tan cp
Where:
- L = stope span.
Up to thi s poi nt i n the analysi s, only the maxi mum lateral thrust has been deri ved
analyti cally. Determi ni ng the stabi li ty of CRF si ll mats deals wi th the verti cal load exerted on
the top of the si ll. The coeffi ci ent of lateral earth pressure i mpli es a relati onshi p between the
verti cal and hori zontal pressures. Thi s relati onshi p i s consi dered next.
3.2.4 Coefficient of Lateral Earth Pressure
Esti mati ng lateral earth pressures i s not a tri vi al problem. Nor i s i t a new problem.
Couplet and Coulomb developed thei r theories i n 1726 and 1776 (respecti vely), and Ranki ne
developed hi s theory i n 1857. Flexural movement of the structure must occur for the
predi cti ons of these theories to be vali d, and whether i t i s translati on/rotati on i nto, or out of,
the soi l mass i n questi on, acti ve (or passi ve) lateral earth pressure wi ll develop.
The coeffi ci ent of lateral earth pressure i mpli es a constant relati onshi p between the
average hori zontal, OH, and verti cal, oy, stresses, independent of the geometry of the fi ll
volume. Whi le there i s no physi cal reason for such a relati onshi p to hold, i n practi ce, routi ne
i ndustri al calculati ons i ndi cate that the results i mpli ed by thi s relati onshi p are reasonably
accurate empi ri cally.
Equati on 3-11 portrays thi s relati onshi p (the coeffi ci ent of lateral earth pressure):
K =
3
"
n
3.2.4.1 Categories of Lateral Earth Pressure
There are three categories of lateral earth pressure and each depends upon the movement
experi enced by the verti cal wall upon whi ch the pressure i s acti ng.
These categories are:
- acti ve earth pressure;
- passi ve earth pressure; and
- at-rest earth pressure.
Acti ve pressure develops when the wall i s free to move outward. E.g., a retai ni ng wall
where the soi l mass may stretch suffi ci ently to mobi li ze i ts shear strength. On the other hand,
i f the wall moves i nto the soi l, then the soi l mass i s compressed suffi ci ently to mobi li ze its
shear strength where passi ve pressure develops.
Thi s problem mi ght occur along the secti on of the wall that i s below grade, on the
opposi te wall from that of the hi gher secti on.
In order to develop full acti ve pressure or full passi ve pressure, the wall must move. If
the wall does not move suffi ci ently, full pressure wi ll not develop. If full acti ve pressure does
not develop behi nd a wall, then the pressure wi ll be hi gher than the expected acti ve pressure.
Si gni fi cant movement i s necessary to mobi li ze the full passi ve pressure. Thi s i s i llustrated i n
fi gure 3-9.
Most earth retai ni ng problems i nvolve the movement of the structure away from the soi l
mass, known as the "acti ve condi ti on". Terzaghi (1920) demonstrated the si gni fi cance of
lateral earth pressures developed on structures that experi ence no movement, and termed
them "at-rest earth pressures". Note the at-rest condi ti on, portrayed by fi gure 3-9(b), where
the wall rotati on i s equal to zero (i .e., the condi ti on for zero lateral strai n).
Fi gure 3-9 shows that:
- as the wall moves away from the soi l backfi ll (see fi gure 3-9(c)), the acti ve
condi ti on develops and the lateral pressure against the wall decreases wi th
wall movement, unti l the mi ni mum acti ve earth pressure force i s reached;
- as the wall moves toward (i .e., i nto) the soi l backfi ll (see fi gure 3-9(a)), the
passi ve condi ti on develops and lateral pressure against the wall increases wi th
wall movement unti l maxi mum passi ve earth pressure i s reached - the
i ntensi ty of the acti ve/passi ve hori zontal pressure, whi ch i s a functi on of the
appli cable earth pressure coeffi ci ent, depends on wall movement, as i t affects
the degree of shear strength mobi li zed i n the surroundi ng soi l; and
- at-rest pressure develops when the wall experi ences no lateral movement,
whi ch typi cally occurs when the wall i s restrained from movement, as i n the
case of a stope (see fi gure 3-9(b)).
35
Figure 3-9: Relationship of earth pressures to wall movements
Coefficient of Lateral Earth Pressure K
- Ko at rest
- Ka active
20 25
Friction Angle (deg)
35 40
Figure 3-10: Comparison of at-rest earth and active earth pressure coefficients
3.2.4.2 Calculating Lateral Earth Pressure Coefficients
Lateral earth pressure i s related to verti cal earth pressure by coeffi ci ents, termed as
follows:
- acti ve earth pressure coeffi ci ent (Ka);
- passi ve earth pressure coeffi ci ent (Kp); and
- at-rest earth pressure coeffi ci ent (Ko).
Lateral earth pressure i s equal to verti cal earth pressure multi pli ed by the appropriate
earth pressure coeffi ci ent.
36
Si nce soi l backfi ll i s typi cally granular materi al, such as crushed rock, sand, si lty sand,
sand wi th gravel, etc., the backfi ll materi al that exerts pressure on the wall can be treated as
coarse-grai ned non-cohesi ve materi al.
3.2.4.2.1 Active and Passive Earth Pressure Coefficients
When di scussi ng acti ve and passi ve lateral earth pressure, there are two relati vely
strai ghtforward classi cal theories (among others) i n wi despread use: Ranki ne earth pressure,
and Coulomb earth pressure.
The Ranki ne theory assumes that:
there i s no adhesi on or fri cti on between the wall and soi l;
lateral pressure i s li mi ted to verti cal walls;
fai lure (i n the backfi ll) occurs as a sli di ng wedge along an assumed fai lure
plane defi ned by (j);
lateral pressure vari es li nearly wi th depth, and the resultant pressure i s located
one-thi rd of the height above the base of the wall; and
the resultant force i s parallel to the backfi ll surface.
there i s fri cti on between the wall and soi l and accounts for thi s by usi ng a soi l-
wall fri cti on angle of 8 (8 ranges from 12 to 2cp/3 and a 5 equal to 2<J>/3 i s
commonly used);
lateral pressure i s not li mi ted to verti cal walls; and
the resultant force i s not necessari ly parallel to the backfi ll surface because of
the soi l-wall fri cti on value 5.
The Ranki ne acti ve and passi ve earth pressure coeffi ci ents for a hori zontal backfi ll
surface are calculated as follows:
The Coulomb theory i s si mi lar to the Ranki ne theory, except that:
(Active) Ka =
1 - sin(fz))
1 + sin(c^)
= tan
2
(45-^/2) 3-12
(Passive) -> Kp =
1 + si n(^)
1 - si n(^)
tan
2
(45 + ^/2)
3-13
The Coulomb acti ve and passi ve earth pressure coeffi ci ents are more complex
expressi ons that depend on the angle of the back wall, the soi l-wall fri cti on value, and the
angle of the backfi ll. The Coulomb acti ve and passi ve earth pressure coeffi ci ent for the
speci fi c case of a verti cal back wall angle and hori zontal backfi ll surface (not shown) yi elds
results equi valent to the Ranki ne method (equations 3-12 and 3-13).
3.2.4.2.2 At-Rest Coefficient
Generally, at-rest earth pressure i s the hori zontal component of the in situ stress state, or
the hori zontal pressure acti ng on an earth retai ni ng structure. At-rest lateral earth pressures
can be shown to be some multi ple of the verti cal stress at any poi nt, i llustrated i n the
followi ng rati o (Terzaghi , 1920):
A more speci fi c defi ni ti on i s offered by Bi shop (1958): "The coeffi ci ent of earth
pressure at-rest, i s the rati o of the lateral to the verti cal effective stresses i n a soi l
consoli dated under the condi ti on of no lateral deformati on, the stresses bei ng pri nci pal
stresses wi th no shear stress appli ed to the planes on whi ch these stresses act" or:
3-14
Where:
i s the hori zontal pressure;
Ko
i s the verti cal pressure; and
i s the coeffi ci ent of earth pressure at-rest.
3-15
Where:
- a'h i s the hori zontal pri nci pal effective stress; and
38
- a'v i s the verti cal pri nci pal effective stress.
Exi sti ng publi shed relati onshi ps depend upon the soi l's engi neeri ng values to calculate
the at-rest earth pressure coeffi ci ent. One common earth pressure coeffi ci ent for the at-rest
condi ti on used wi th granular soi l i s called the "Neutral Earth Pressure Method", deri ved by
Tschebotari off(1973):
K = 3-16
0
l-v
Where:
- v i s the Poi son's rati o.
The assumpti on i s that the force of gravi ty affects the elasti c mass of materi al and
therefore lateral movement i s prevented.
A n alternate soluti on for Ko can be found vi a Jaky's (1944) equati on:
K
o
=l-sm(0) 3-17
Where:
- <j) i s the soi l fri cti on angle value.
3.2.5 Maximum Vertical Load Exerted by Backfill on the Floor of the Stope
After determi ni ng the maxi mum hori zontal pressure or lateral thrust a
x
_Max, shown i n
equati on 3-9, on the wall of the stope, the next step i s to fi nd the maxi mum verti cal pressure
exerted by the backfi ll. From the (previ ously defined) coeffi ci ent of lateral earth pressure K,
correspondi ng wi th the hori zontal to verti cal stress rati o, maxi mum verti cal stress can be
found usi ng equati on 3-18:
^ y _Max
rl 3-i8
P-K-\M$)
Stri ke length of suffi ci ent magnitude allows for the hydrauli c radi us to be consi dered as
one-half of the stope span. The maxi mum verti cal stress wi ll be:
y _Max
2-#-tan(^)
3-19
3.2.5.1 Terzaghi's Formulation
Another approach to esti mati ng the verti cal load exerted by backfi ll materi al i s found i n
Terzaghi et. al. (1948). Terzaghi deri ves a soluti on to the fi rst order li near di fferenti al
equati on:
5 ^
dy
r
2-c
2 K a tan0
3-20
Where:
i s cemented rockfi ll cohesi on.
For cohesi onless soi ls, the soluti on to the fi rst order di fferenti al equati on yi elds the
equati on for maxi mum verti cal stress:
y_Max (*) =
2- . K- t an( 0)
3-21
3.2.5.2 Blight's Formulation for Inclined Stopes
Bli ght (1984) proposed an approxi mate soluti on for the stresses i n an i ncli ned planar
stope. Thi s soluti on appli ed to the desi gn of i ncli ned rectangular stopes, produces the
equati on:
y _Max
2-K- tan(^)
sin(/7)
3-22
Where:
P i s the i ncli nati on of stope.
40
3.2.6 Vertical Load of Unconsolidated Material as a Function of the Material's Height
Employi ng the maxi mum verti cal load rather than the actual verti cal load, dependent
upon the hei ght of the backfi ll, overestimates the strength requi red to wi thstand the load on a
si ll mat. Thi s i n turn leads to an increase i n cost. For that reason the preferable appli cati on of
verti cal loads i s as a functi on of the backfi ll hei ght.
There are numerous formulati ons of si lo theory, two of whi ch are di scussed here. Si lo
theory only appli es to verti cal si los and thus i s not vali d for i ncli ned stopes. Si lo theory,
however, can enhance our understandi ng of how verti cal stresses act wi thi n open stopes.
Janssen's method, developed i n 1895, and Rei mbert's method, developed i n 1953 (and
subsequently further developed i n 1976), are di scussed next.
3.2.6.1 Th e Janssen Meth od - Silo Th eory
Janssen's method i s based on the equi li bri um of a thi n hori zontal sli ce, expressed as a
di fferenti al equati on (3-23).
Figure 3-11: Differential slice in a silo
da K tan(^) tr
+
:
--y = o
dy HR
3-23
Thi s yi elds a soluti on of the form:
CT( Z ) =
y HR
K-tan(<j>)
1-exp
K-ian(<f))-z
HR
3-24
or,
CT (Z) = CT
y _Max
1 -exp
HR
3-25
Where:
Y
HR
K
b
z
uni t wei ght of the uncemented rockfi ll materi al;
hydrauli c radi us of the stope;
coeffi ci ent of lateral earth pressure;
Mi d-span of the stope (shown i n figure 3-11):
rockfi ll fri cti on angle; and
rockfi ll hei ght.
The overall i mpli cati on of thi s equati on i s that below a certai n depth i n the granular
materi al, all wei ght supported by the stope walls, vi a fri cti on, generates either an acti ve or a
passi ve state of stress (as i llustrated above).
3.2.6.2 The Reimbert Method - Silo Theory
Rei mbert's method i s a modi fi cati on of the Janssen method based on empi ri cal
observati ons. The Rei mbert method assumes that the verti cal stress, whi ch i s the difference
between the hydrostati c verti cal stress and the load balanced by the fri cti onal force
(asymptoti c wi th depth), can be represented by an experi mental curve. For a si lo undefi ned
between two parallel verti cal walls the verti cal stress at depth (z) i s expressed as:
(
z
)
+ 1
- i "
1
2
+ 1 >
[Aij
Where:
A i i s the characteri sti c absci ssa correspondi ng to the si lo.
42
The characteri sti c absci ssa i s defi ned as:
Ai =
2-L
n tan(^) K
3-27
Combi ni ng equations 3-26 and 3-27, yi elds:
(
n tan(^) K- z
2 T Z
-i-i
+ 1 3-28
V
J
3.3 Stability of Cemented Rockfill Sill Mats -Analytical Solution
One of the key components of si ll mat stabi li ty, analyzed previ ously, i s the verti cal load
exerted by the backfi ll materi al. The verti cal load is a cruci al i nput parameter of the si ll mat
stabi li ty analyti cal soluti on. The speci fi c modes relevant here are: block cavi ng, flexural
fai lure, block sli di ng (shear fai lure parallel to the hangi ng wall wi thi n the fi ll), and rotati on
fai lure (tensi le/shear fai lure of the roof as i t rotates away from the flat di ppi ng hangi ng wall).
Schemati cs of these fai lure modes can be found i n Chapter 5.
3.3.1 Caving Failure
Assumi ng that cavi ng would extend to a stable arch hei ght L/2 (for a semi -ci rcular arc),
all unrei nforced si lls would form a depth, d > L/2, and cavi ng would occur when (Mi tchell,
1991):
L-y>S-a,/Tc
3-29
Where:
tensi le strength of the cemented si ll;
uni t wei ght of the materi al; and
stope span.
43
The dri vi ng forces represented by the wei ght w of the arc of radi us L/2 are defi ned as:
w =
8 r
3-30
Si ll mat tensi le strength a
h
over the entire hangi ng wall to footwall span L, represents
the resi sti ng force. The factor of safety (F.S.) i s deri ved by the forces resi sti ng movement
over the dri vi ng forces:
F.S.=
8 - C T ,
y-n-L
3-31
3.3.2 Flexural Failure
A wi de, thi n si ll mat i s suscepti ble to flexural fai lure due to the relati vely low tensi le
strength of cemented backfi ll. Usi ng standard flexural formulae for a fi xed-end uni formly-
loaded beam, fai lure i s predi cted when (Mi tchell, 1991):
>
2-(cr
t
+cr
c
)
w
3-32
or:
>
2-(<X,+CT
C
)
(7
v
+d-y
3-33
Where:
a
c
w
L
d
tensi le strength of the cemented si ll;
hori zontal confi ni ng stress;
uni form loadi ng, whi ch i ncludes the self-wei ght of the si ll mat;
stope span; and
si ll depth.
44
3.3.3 Slidin g Failure
From equi li bri um, block sli di ng of the si ll as a result of side shear fai lure occurs when
(Mi tchell, 1991):
(a
v
+d-y)>2-
f - ^ ,
d
\
si n
2
(/3)
3-34
Where:
P
shear strength of the cemented si ll; and
di p of the stope.
3.3.4 Rotational Failure
Rotati onal fai lure i s most li kely to occur when the sheari ng resistance at the hangi ng
wall contact i s too low, as a result of poor quali ty hangi ng wall rock and/or low di p angles.
Separati on subsequently occurs. For low di p angles, an approxi mate predi cti on can be made
by assumi ng the si ll mat tensi le fai lure results i n a complete separati on i n hangi ng wall
contact (i .e., a gap forms).
Rotati onal fai lure develops when (Mi tchell, 1991):
(cr
v
+ d y) >
d a.
3-35
2 L (L - d cot(/3)) sin
2
(J3)
Techni cally, thi s formula has an embedded factor of safety of 2.0. The formula should
therefore be of the form:
(a
v
+d-y)>
d
2
-a.
3-36
L -(L -^-cot (/ 3))-si n
2
(/ 3)
3.3.5 Strength Properties
The tensi le strength of the fi ll i s cruci al i n its capaci ty to resist damage due to blast
vi brati on, and to resi st fai lure where undercutti ng i s effected. Tensi le strength of the fi ll i s
45
li mi ted to, and i s pri mari ly a functi on of, bi nder content. Resi stance to blast vi brati on damage
i s a functi on of dynami c tensi le strength, whi ch can be approxi mated as 5% to 15% of
unconfi ned compressi ve strength. Ari oglu (1983) concluded that tensi le strength of cemented
aggregate fi ll occurs at approxi mately 15% of UCS. Smi th (1982) concluded that tensi le
strength of cemented tai li ngs fi ll occurs at approxi mately 12% of UCS.
Y u (unpubli shed) states that the actual strength of CRF placed i n a mi ne wi ll be
approxi mately 2/3 of the laboratory value that i s obtai ned from standard 6 i nch diameter
concrete test cyli nders, but wi ll be about 90% of the value obtai ned from 12-i nch di ameter
cyli nders.
For stabi li ty analysi s of CRF si ll mats, thi s study uses a tensi le strength of 10% of UCS.
A l l other strength properti es were obtai ned usi ng Mohr-Coulomb stress strength cri teri a.
The strength properti es used to calculate the factors of safety are obtai ned by the
analyti cal equati ons:
Cohesion, c US_ ^
+
^
3 3 ?
2 2
Tensile Strength, <r
t
10
Shear Strength, r
t
C + C T / ; - t a n ( ^ )
3
"
3 9
Normal Stress, a - i K
a
y d
2
s i n ( J3)
3 4

3.4 Empirical Stability Design Meth ods
Thi s thesi s also addresses the stabi li ty of open stopes adjacent to backfi ll. Empi ri cal
stabi li ty desi gn methods are the basi s for the development of a soluti on for stopes wi th
backfi lled abutments.
3.4.1 The Stability Graph Method^
The Stabi li ty Graph Method for open stope desi gn was i ni ti ally proposed by Mathews, et
al. (1981), depi cted i n figure 3-12, and subsequently modi fi ed by Potvi n (1988), usi ng 242
case hi stori es (176 unsupported, 66 supported) and by redefi ni ng some of the adjustment
factors. The result was the modi fi ed stabi li ty number N' . The i nfluence of cable bolt support
was re-exami ned by Potvi n & Mi lne (1992), depi cted i n figure 3-13, and Ni ckson (1992),
figure 3-14, to arri ve at the Modi fi ed Stabi li ty Graph. Stabi li ty was quali tati vely assessed as
bei ng: stable, potenti ally unstable, or caved.
Research at the Uni versi ty of Bri ti sh Columbi a (1988) quanti fi ed the degree of slough by
the i ntroducti on of the term "Equi valent Li near Overbreak/Slough," EL OS, (Clark, 1998) as
depi cted i n fi gure 3-15. Empi ri cal esti mati on of wall slough employs:
- Stabi li ty Number N (or N' , i .e., modi fi ed); and
- Adjusted Rock Mass Rati ng wi th respect to the Hydrauli c Radi us (Clark,
1998).
1 0 0 0
0. 1-I 1 1 1 1 1
0 5 10 15 20 25
Shape Factor, S (m)
Figure 3-12: Mathews Stability Graph (Mathews et al., 1981)
4 2
1000
0 5 10 15 20 25
Hydraul i c Radi us, HR (m)
Figure 3-13: Modified Stability Graph (Potvin and Milne, 1992)
HY DR A UL I C R ADI US , HR (m)
Figure 3-14: Modified Stability Graph with support (Nickson, 1992)
Numbers showing measured ELOS values
0.1
L
-
1
' '
1
0 5 10 15 20
HY D R A UL I C RA D I US (m)
Fi gure 3-15: E L OS di luti on desi gn method (Clark, 1998)
3.4.2 The Stability Graph Method - Radius Factor
f
The Stabi li ty Graph, later augmented by Mah (1997), was fi rst i ntroduced i n terms of
Radi us factor, by Mi lne (1997). Radi us factor accounts for complex mi ni ng geometries
whereas Hydrauli c Radi us i s restri cted to rectangular surfaces (Area/Peri meter). The radi us
factor has the same form as hydrauli c radi us; however, i nstead of bei ng based on the average
of four measurements of the supporti ng abutments, several measurements are taken at small
angular i ncrements, as shown i n figure 3-16(b). Thi s allows greater flexi bi li ty i n assessing
the geometry of the support potenti al at a speci fi c poi nt on the surface (Mi lne, 1997),
i nvolvi ng complex shapes, provi di ng "wei ghti ngs" (i .e., RF values).
The Stabi li ty Number N' employed i n figure 3-16(a) i s si mi lar to that of fi gure 3-15.
The only si gni fi cant difference i s i n the calculati on of stope surface geometry, whi ch
employs the radi us factor parameter.
t from "Pakalni s et al.", (1998).
4
MODIFIED STABILITY GRAPH (ELOS) - 9 6 0 D S
l i i l l l i o ! I! n i t i>
Figure 3-16: Empirical estimation (a) of wall slough (ELOS) expressed in terms of
Radius Factor (b)
3.5 Software and Device Utilized
3.5.1 Flac
2D
- Two Dimensional Explicit Finite Difference Method*
1
Flac
20
(versi on 4.0) i s the numeri cal modeli ng tool used i n thi s study to exami ne the
load exerted by backfi ll. Flac
2D
(Fast Lagrangi an Analysi s of Conti nua) i s a two-di mensi onal
expli ci t fi ni te difference program used i n engi neeri ng mechani cs computati ons.
The program can si mulate the behavi or of structures bui lt of soi l, rock, or other
materi als, whi ch may undergo plasti c flow when thei r yi eld li mi ts are reached. Materi als are
represented by elements, or zones, whi ch form a gri d that can be adjusted to fi t the shape of
the object to be modeled.
Each element behaves accordi ng to a prescri bed li near or nonli near stress/strai n law i n
response to the appli ed forces or boundary restrai nts.
The materi al can yi eld and flow and, i f set to do so, the gri d can deform and move the
materi al that i s represented. Plasti c collapse and flow are modeled very accurately usi ng the
expli ci t Lagrangi an calculati on scheme and the mi xed-di screti on zoni ng techni ques i n
Flac
2D
. Flac
2D
i s also the numeri cal modeli ng tool used to deri ve the desi gn charts for
stabi li ty of the CRF si ll mat. Flac
2D
i s an effecti ve tool for modeli ng non-li near gravi ty
dri ven materi als li ke uncemented and cemented rockfi ll. Wi thi n appropriate quali ty control
gui deli nes, the materi al (of requi red strength for a self-wei ght supported structure li ke the
CRF si ll mat) should behave as an i nelasti c materi al, once cured. Even so, the two
2D
di mensi onal versi on of Flac wi ll overestimate results gi ven that the thi rd di mensi on i s
consi dered to be i nfi ni te, and therefore Flac i s consi dered to provi de a conservati ve
estimate.
At Musselwhi te, the stope stri ke length, where si ll mats were constructed, i s typi cally
three or more ti mes greater than the stope hei ght, and the use of plai n-strai n numeri cal
modeli ng i s effecti ve and practi cal, for understandi ng its behavi or. A n essenti al aspect of
modeli ng backfi ll usi ng Flac li es i n the fact that backfi ll i s deposi ted as a materi al wi th no
i ni ti al stress state. The only stress comes from its own wei ght, whi ch allows the di stri buti on
of verti cal loads to be a functi on of Hangi ngwall (HW) and Footwall (FW) host-rock/backfi ll
i nteracti ons, and backfi ll properti es.
Another i mportant feature of Flac
2D
, for the purpose of thi s analysi s, i s its capaci ty to
di splay actual deformati ons of gri d zones caused by materi al fai lure under different stress
states and materi al properti es. The expli ci t, ti me-marchi ng soluti on permi ts analysi s of
progressi ve fai lure and collapse, si gni fi cant phenomena i n studies of mi ne desi gn.
It i s also possi ble to perform parametri c studies, conveni ently, by restarti ng the analysi s
at a previ ous state. Results are gi ven i n Chapter 5.
t l techni cal source: Itasca Consulti ng Group Ltd. (2002)
3.5.2 Map3D - Three Dimensional Boundary Element Method^
2
Map3D i s a comprehensi ve, fully three-di mensi onal rock stabi li ty analysi s package.
Map3D can construct models as well as analyze and di splay di splacements, strai ns, stresses,
and strength factors. Map3D i s effective for modeli ng rock engi neeri ng desi gn problems
i nvolvi ng both large tabular orebodies and i rregular massi ve excavati ons.
The program features:
- full three-di mensi onal stress analysi s;
- tabular stress analysi s wi th yi eldi ng pi llars;
- elasti c, non-li near, creep and thermal/flui d flow opti ons;
- fault sli p and fracture analysi s capabi li ty;
- si mulati on of sti ff dykes, weak schi st zones and backfi ll;
- external loadi ng effects;
- structural support placement; and
- sei smi c database vi suali zati on.
Models may be made of rock slopes, open pi ts, tunnels, fractures, and underground
excavati ons, wi th yi eldi ng (i .e., non-li near) zones of different moduli (e.g., sti ff dykes or soft
ore zones) and loads resulti ng from steady-state thermal/flui d flow. Excavati ons can be
i ntersected by multi ple di screte faults (i .e., non-planar and gouge fi lled) that sli p and open.
Map3D can si mulate ground support elements such as arches, steel sets, props, thi ck li ners,
chalks, strong backfi ll, etc.
Map3D i s based on three-di mensi onal boundary element formulati on. Both di splacement
di sconti nui ty and force di sconti nui ty (fi cti ti ous force) formulati ons are avai lable i n the
software package. Speci al propri etary elements are used for si mulati on of thermal/flui d flow
and non-li near effects. Because automated lumpi ng i s bui lt i nto the program, Map3D can
accommodate more than 300,000 elements (and over 1,000,000 degrees of freedom) usi ng
merely desktop computers. Larger models can be created as requi red..
t2 techni cal source: Mi ne Modeli ng Pty Ltd. (2004)
Map3D-SV (standard versi on), release 5.0, i s used i n thi s study to calculate the
di splacements on the stope wall for different stri ke lengths. The results and analysi s are gi ven
i n Chapter 6.
3.5.3 NeuroSh ell Predictor - Neural Networks
fS
Neural network technology mi mi cs the brai n's own problem solvi ng system. Just as
humans apply knowledge gai ned from past experi ence to new problems or si tuati ons, a
neural network takes previ ously solved examples to bui ld a system of "neurons" that makes
new deci si ons, classi fi cati ons, and forecasts.
A Neural network looks for patterns wi thi n trai ni ng sets of data, then learns these
patterns, and develops the abi li ty to correctly classi fy new patterns, or to make forecasts and
predi cti ons. Neural networks excel at problem di agnosi s, deci si on maki ng, predi cti on,
classi fi cati on, and other problems where pattern recogni ti on i s vi tal but preci se
computati onal answers are not requi red.
The neural network begi ns by evaluati ng li near relati onshi ps between the i nputs and the
output. Wei ghts are assi gned to the li nks between the i nput and output neurons. After those
relati onshi ps are i denti fi ed, neurons are added to the "hi dden layer", so that non-li near
relati onshi ps can then be searched for. Input values i n the fi rst layer are multi pli ed by the
wei ghts and passed to the second (hi dden) layer. Neurons i n the hi dden layer "fi re," i .e,
produce outputs that are based on the sum of the wei ghted values passed to them. The hi dden
layer passes values to the output layer i n the same fashi on, and the output layer produces the
desi red results, i .e., i ts predi cti ons.
The network "learns" by re-adjusting the wei ghts between layers. The answers the
network produces are conti nually compared wi th the correct answers, and each ti me the
connecti ng wei ghts are adjusted sli ghtly i n the di recti on of the correct answers. Addi ti onal
hi dden layer neurons are added as needed to i solate structures i n the data set.
Eventually, i f the problem can be learned, a stable set of wei ghts evolves and wi ll
produce useable answers for all sample deci si ons, or predi cti ons. The real power of neural
networks becomes evi dent when the trai ned network i s able to produce useable results for
data that the network has never "seen" before.
t3 techni cal source: Ward System Group Inc. (1997)
NeuroShell Predi ctor versi on 5.1 i s used i n thi s study to compare EL OS (Equi valent
Li near Overbreak Slough) data for transverse pri mari es, or i solated stopes, against
longi tudi nal stopes, where backfi ll i s adjacent to the exposed wall. Results are gi ven i n
Chapter 6.
3.5.4 Unwedge - Underground Wedge Stability Analysis*
4
Unwedge (versi on 2.2) i s a three-di mensi onal stabi li ty analysi s and vi suali zati on
program for underground excavati ons i n rock, contai ni ng i ntersecti ng structural
di sconti nui ti es. Safety factors are calculated for potenti ally unstable wedges so that support
requirements can be modeled usi ng vari ous types of pattern and spot bolti ng, and shotcrete.
Unwedge can perform safety factor analysi s, i n accordance wi th rei nforcements employed,
and interpret the results.
53
The graphi cal data interpreter provi des a ri ch set of tools, i ncludi ng 3D ani mati on,
provi di ng for conveni ent di splay of wedges surroundi ng the excavati on.
Unwedge i ncorporates enhanced support models for bolts, shotcrete, and support
pressures, and has the abi li ty to opti mi ze tunnel ori entati on. There i s also an opti on to
exami ne different combi nati ons of three joi nt sets based on a li st of multi ple joi nt sets.
Unwedge uses a new analysi s engi ne based on Goodman and Shi 's block theory, i ncludi ng
the abi li ty to evaluate i nduced stress around the excavati on and i ts effects on stabi li ty.
Unwedge i ncludes new strength models such as Barton-Bandi s and Power Curve, and the
abi li ty to i mprove the scali ng and si zi ng of wedges.
t4 techni cal source: Rocsci ence Inc.(2004)
Unwedge i s used i n thi s study to represent structural blocks, and support pattern
performance i n a typi cal producti on tunneli ng scenari o.
3.5.5 Dips - Graphical and Statistical Analysis of Orientation Data
14
Dips i s desi gned for the i nteracti ve analysi s of ori entati on-based geologi cal data and
allows the user to analyze and vi suali ze structural data, followi ng the same techni ques used
i n manual stereonets. Addi ti onally, i t has several computati onal features, such as stati sti cal
contouri ng of ori entati on clusteri ng, mean ori entati on and confi dence calculati on, cluster
vari abi li ty, and quali tati ve and quanti tati ve feature attribute analysi s.
Dips i s desi gned for analysi s of parameters related to the engi neeri ng analysi s of rock
structures, however, the free format of the Di ps data fi le permi ts analysi s of any ori entati on-
based data (Rocsci ence Inc., 2004).
+4 techni cal source: Rocsci ence Inc.(2004)
Di ps versi on 5.0 i s used i n thi s study i n the modeli ng of Musselwhi te's fabri c analysi s
(see 4.2).
3.5.6 Methods Ground Control Assessment - Cavity Monitoring System Surveys
fS
Optech's Cavi ty Moni tori ng System (CMS) i s an advanced, reflectorless, laser-based
auto scanni ng system that provi des effi ci ent and accurate measurement of dangerous and
i naccessi ble cavi ti es. CMS collects thousands of data poi nts per mi nute. The data i s used to
54
determine stope volume and stope di luti on, sloughi ng/backfi ll volumes and mi ne
measurements, and to create detai led profi les of pi llars, orepasses, rai ses, dri fts, and
drawpoi nts. Mi ne surveyors obtai n detai led 3D survey data i mages of underground
producti on stopes. Mi ne planners use the data to determine the exact area mi ned, and
quantify volumes of mi ned/unmi ned ore. Geologi sts use the data to match month end
reconci li ati on. Rock mechani cs then use the data to predi ct rock fai lure (e.g., hangi ngwall
and footwall).
After a set of blast ri ngs i s desi gned, blasted, excavated and surveyed, the results are
compared to the ori gi nal blast desi gn. The results are then analyzed for tonnage of lost ore
(underbreak), tonnage of waste rock or unplanned di luti on (overbreak), and accuracy of
grades sent to the mi ll (reconci li ati on). Ulti mately, the results are analyzed for the success, or
lack of success, of dri lli ng and blasti ng, and to predi ct di luti on i n future stopes (Optech Inc.).
t5 techni cal source: Optech Incorporated.(2004)
Chapter 4 - Database
55
4 DATABASE
4.1 Intact Strength
A total of 32 addi ti onal uni axi al compressi ve strength tests were carri ed out, augmenti ng
the exi sti ng 12 results on both i ron formati on and i ntermedi ate-mafi c/felsi c volcani c rocks.
Four more samples of the i ron formati on were tested wi th extensometers, allowi ng for elasti c
modulus determi nati on. The tests were performed as recommended i n the I SRM Suggested
Methods (Brown, E.T. (Edi tor), 1981). The test result averages are presented i n Table 4-1
and Table 4-2.
Table 4-1: Mean uniaxial compressive strength, standard deviation and ISRM hardness
Rock Type
Iron Formation
Number of
Samples
UCS
(MPa)
Standard Deviation
(MPa)
ISRM Hardness
4ea 7 194 46 Very Strong Rock - R5
4f 12 92 31 Strong Rock - R4
4e 3 116 15 Very Strong Rock - R5
4b 5 156 46 Very Strong Rock - R5
4e4f 3 86 11 Strong Rock - R4
Intermediate-Mafic
Volcanic
A Vol 9 181 43 Very Strong Rock - R5
Intermediate-Felsic
Volcanic
B Vol 5 117 22 Very Strong Rock - R5
Table 4-2: Mean Young's Modulus (E) and Mean Poisson's Ratio (v)
56
Rock Type Young Modulus Standard Poisson's ratio Standard
E Deviation
V Deviation
(GPa) (GPa)
() ()
4ea 84 13 0.21 0.03
4f 72 7 0.21 0.02
A Vol 85 N/ A 0.23 N/ A
B Vol 79 N/ A 0.24 N/ A
The tests were performed usi ng an electro-hydrauli c servo-controlled sti ff testi ng
machi ne, used for compari ng the vari ous physi co-mechani cal properti es of rocks under
different condi ti ons of loadi ng to I SRM standards.
4.2 Fabric Analysis
Generally, three joi nt sets are promi nent i n all rock types: parallel to the ore,
perpendi cular to the ore, and flat. Some random, typi cally verti cal, faulti ng also exi sts as
does the 4f (garnet-bi oti te-schi st), whi ch i s also verti cal and parallel to the ore zone. A
structurally intense domai n seems to be characteri sti c of the B Vol (footwall dri ft) i n whi ch
the three promi nent joi nt sets exi st, except wi th tighter spaci ng, resulti ng i n blocky ground.
The A Vol has characteri sti cally ti ght foli ati on (north-south, verti cally di ppi ng), whi ch ranges
i n spaci ng from below one centimeter to fi ve centimeters, or more. Flat and crosscutti ng
joi nts i n the A Vol are spaced from one to two meters or more as opposed to the B Vol.
Ground condi ti ons at the back of the A Vol are generally very good. Because there i s ti ght
foli ati on, the walls are prevented from buckli ng.
The ore zone consi sts of three predomi nant joi nt sets i n di p/di p di recti on, global
ori entati on format:
83 / 90 (north-south, verti cal joi nts);
- 75 / 177 (east-west, verti cal joi nts); and
25 /210 (flat joi nti ng).
57
Fi gure 4-1 portrays the equal area projecti on stereonet, obtai ned by employi ng
Rocsci ence's Dips program on the three major joi nt sets.
Figure 4-1: Equal area stereonet representing the three major joint sets
In the ore zone, the three joi nt sets typi cally have an average spaci ng of 1 - 1.5 meters.
The joi nt sets have sli ghtly rough surfaces and li ttle or no separation wi th hard joi nt wall
rock. In the B Vol , the joi nts are typi cally spaced more ti ghtly and have thi n chlori ti c-coated
surfaces.
There i s the potenti al for wedge or block fai lures i n these areas, both when dri fti ng and
when longholi ng. Wedge fai lures may occur at the hangi ngwall or the back of the open stope.
Wedges i n the drifts are normally supportable wi th standard 1.8 meter (#6) support.
Fi gure 4-2 portrays a 10-tonne wedge, supported by standard 1.4 meter by 1.4 meter
pattern, fully-grouted resi n rebar. The factor of safety for the standard bolti ng pattern
employed at Musselwhi te produces a hi gh degree of confi dence. Stabi li ty analysi s was
effected usi ng Rocsci ence's Unwedge program on three major joi nt sets (previ ously defined)
wi th 1 meter spaci ng each, consi deri ng no cohesi on and a 35 degree fri cti on angle for the
joi nt sets' i nfi lli ng materi al. The tunnel trends to the north.
58
UNM E D C E - S T A B I L I T Y A N A L Y S I S
lit U. I ' M
P e i c s p o o t rue ui i <t|
/
01
I J ' . K
1-fK. L MP A IfOMHi
TO V.Q13H
IIM I.HIUrl Kik'i\
T O HOT ftT J"
> SUc t butto n to l nat l 1 '*ujior't ( CESC1 to o xi t )
Figure 4-2: Wedge formed on the back of a drift running north-south
Fai lures i n the open stope due to random faulti ng and joi nti ng produce the potenti al for
unplanned di luti on. Some fai lures of up to 4.5 meters deep have been observed occasi onally,
due to the poor hangi ngwall rock mass quali ty 4f, whi ch runs parallel to the hangi ngwall.
4.3 Rock Mass Analysis
Bi eni awski 's Geomechani cs Classi fi cati on (1976), or the Rock Mass Rati ng (RMR), of
the stopes vari es between 40% - 70% for the hangi ng wall, 60% - 80% for the footwall, 65%
- 70% for the back of the stope, and 70% - 75% for the ore i tself. Table 4-3 i llustrates an
example of the R MR where R4 rock strength represents uni axi al compressi ve strength
between 100 and 250 MPa, and the Rock Quali ty Desi gnati on (RQD) provi des a quanti tati ve
estimate of rock mass quali ty from dri ll core logs. RQD i s defi ned as the percentage of i ntact
core pi eces longer than 100 mm (4") wi thi n the total length of the core. Barton's Tunneli ng
Quali ty Index Q, was also measured, or deri ved, for each stope, to estimate i ts stabi li ty and
determi ne the approxi mate degree of hangi ngwall and footwall slough.
Chapter 4 - Database 59
Table 4-3: RMR and Q' of a typical footwall stope
Parameter Descri pti on Rati ng (%)
Strength R4 12
% RQD 60-70% 12-14
Joi nt Spaci ng 0.25-0.5m 11-17
Joi nt Condi ti on Sli ghtly rough/smooth 15-17
Ground Water Dry 10
Total R MR 60-70%
Total Q' 5.9-18.0
The followi ng table summari zes the average range of Rock Mass Rati ng (Bi eni awski ,
1976) for the different rock types found at Musselwhi te throughout the li fe of the mi ne.
Table 4-4: Typical RMR ranges for the different Musselwhite rock types
Rock Type BVol AVol 4f 4b
Strength
120
(240 MPa)
12
(180 MPa)
12
(100 MPa)
12
(150 MPa)
RQD
18
(75-90)
18
(75-90)
17-10
(50-90)
17-10
(50-90)
Spacing
18-13
(0.3-lm)
18-13
(0.3-lm)
11-8
(50-300mm)
11-8
(50-300mm)
Condition
17-12
(ti ght-sep<lmm)
17-12
(ti ght-sep<lmm)
15-7
(ti ght-sli ck)
15-7
(ti ght-sli ck)
Ground Water
10
(dry)
10
(dry)
10
(dry)
10
(dry)
RMR
75-65
(typi cal: 70)
75-65
(typi cal:70)
65-47
(typi cal:60)
65-47
(typi cal:55)
60
Some of the R MR poi nts were deri ved by i nterpreti ng geologi cal secti ons usi ng the
Vulcan geologi cal database. Thus, the contact rock type and thi ckness was associ ated wi th
the R MR range i n each case (see Table 4-4).
Figure 4-3: Geological section obtained using Vulcan database
4.4 Stress
The followi ng table summari zes the stress state of Musselwhi te orebodi es at a depth of
500 meters (Arjang et. al., 1997):
Table 4-5: Musselwhite's far field stress state
Type In-situ Stresses e.g., at 500m
CTh
Max
(E-W) 2.5 x a
v
MPa/m depth 38MPa
0-h
Min
(N-S) 1.5 xaV MPa/m depth 23MPa
rjv(Vertical) 0.03 MPa/m depth 15MPa
4.5 Numerical Modeling - Constitutive Models and Material Properties
Two different consti tuti ve models were used to characteri ze both materi al types, host
rock and backfi ll. Host rock materi al was assi gned an elasti c and i sotropi c model. Thi s model
provi des the si mplest representation of materi al behavi or. The model i s vali d for
homogeneous, i sotropi c, conti nuous materi als that exhi bi t li near stress-strain behavi or.
Backfi ll materi al was represented by the Mohr-Coulomb model, whi ch i s the conventi onal
model used to represent shear fai lure i n soi ls and rocks.
Table 4-6: Mohr-Coulomb stress-strain and strength parameters for backfill and host
rock
Parameter Rockfill Host Rock
Unit weight (kJN/m3), y
19.67 26.48
Cohesion (MPa), c 0.0 -
Friction angle (degree),
37.0 -
Tensile strength (MPa), at
0.0 -
Young modulus (MPa), E 300.0 74,000
Poisson's ratio ( ), v
0.25 0.22
Bulk modulus (MPa), K 200 44,047
Shear modulus (MPa), S 120 30,327
4.6 Empirical Stope Design - Musselwhite's Stability Database
The stabi li ty of underground excavati ons at Musselwhi te i s determi ned by three
components:
- characteri zati on of the surroundi ng rock mass;
- geometry and relati ve ori entati on of the openi ng; and
- i nduced stress-state about the openi ng.
The fi rst component i s the i denti fi cati on and quanti fi cati on of the rock mass properti es,
e.g., rock type, support, RMR, and/or Barton's Tunneli ng Quali ty Index Q. The second
component i s the si ze of the planned openi ng and the di p of the stope, i .e., stri ke length and
slanted hei ght of the openi ng. From thi s, the hydrauli c radi us (or radi us factor) of the
exposed wall i s determi ned. The thi rd aspect consi dered i s the degree of relaxati on of the
stope wall and the major pri nci pal stress (versus mi nor pri nci pal stress) about the openi ng.
The modi fi ed stabi li ty number N' i s adjusted for the new stress condi ti ons.
By i denti fyi ng and quanti fyi ng rock mass properti es and the planned geometry i t i s
possi ble to deri ve empi ri cally the stabi li ty of the stope, usi ng the Modi fi ed Stabi li ty Graph
(Potvi n, 1998) and/or determi ni ng the amount of wall slough usi ng the Equi valent Li near
Overbreak Slough (ELOS) Graph (Clark, 1998).
Table 4-7 portrays Musselwhi te's mi ne stabi li ty database, compri sed of the 69 stopes
i nvesti gated. For each stope, the followi ng data are i ndi cated: length, hei ght, di p, RMR, and
EL OS, for both hangi ngwall and footwall. The EL OS value was calculated by compari ng the
dri ll layout and/or geologi cal block model wi th the CMS survey profi le for each stope. The
followi ng table was deri ved speci fi cally for thi s study:
Table 4-7: Updated Musselwhite stability database
63
L HHW Di p Posi ti ve D i p^ R M R QHW N'HW
H WE L 0 S HFW Di Pm
Posi ti ve Dippw
H.R.pw
R M R QFW N '
F WE L 0 S
S100T535 20.5 44.5 74.4 74.4 7.0 60.0 5.9 9.4 0.8 47.3 -65.0 115.0 7.2 70.0 18.0 35.9 0.5
S100t515 20.0 44.5 81.6 81.6 6.9 70.0 18.0 32.0 0.6 45.2 -77.1 102.9 6.9 70.0 18.0 35.9 0.4
S100T495 20.0 42.0 81.0 81.0 6.8 70.0 18.0 31.7 0.5 42.5 -77.5 102.5 6.8 60.0 5.9 11.8 0.6
S100T475 20.0 42.0 81.0 81.0 6.8 70.0 18.0 31.7 0.5 42.1 -80.0 100.0 6.8 70.0 18.0 35.9 0.3
S100T455 20.0 42.0 81.0 81.0 6.8 70.0 18.0 31.7 0.4 42.6 -76.6 103.4 6.8 70.0 18.0 35.9 0.3
S100T435 20.0 42.0 85.7 85.7 6.8 70.0 18.0 33.9 0.6 42.1 -84.6 95.4 6.8 70.0 18.0 35.9 0.3
S125T570 42.5 36.5 79.1 79.1 9.8 55.0 3.4 5.8 1.4 36.4 -80.0 100.0 9.8 70.0 18.0 35.9 0.4
S150T625 25.0 54.0 80.6 80.6 8.5 55.0 3.4 6.0 1.5 54.1 -80.0 100.0 8.5 70.0 18.0 35.9 0.5
S150T600 25.0 52.0 80.2 80.2 8.4 45.0 1.1 1.9 2.6 53.9 -72.0 108.0 8.5 70.0 18.0 35.9 0.4
S150L510SZ 40.0 32.2 -88.0 92.0 8.9 70.0 18.0 35.9 0.4 33.1 76.8 76.8 9.0 55.0 3.4 5.6 1.4
S175L610 47.5 29.0 75.0 75.0 9.0 70.0 18.0 29.0 0.4 28.4 80.7 80.7 8.9 45.0 1.1 2.0 2.3
S175L505SZ 22.5 23.4 -79.4 100.6 5.7 70.0 18.0 35.9 0.4 24.3 71.4 71.4 5.8 60.0 5.9 9.0 0.7
S175L940 12.5 30.5 68.3 68.3 4.4 70.0 18.0 26.0 0.3 28.7 -81.1 98.9 4.4 70.0 18.0 35.9 0.3
S175940CZ 12.5 30.2 67.8 67.8 4.4 70.0 18.0 25.8 0.3 28.3 -81.2 98.8 4.3 70.0 18.0 35.9 0.3
S200T785 20.0 32.8 90.0 90.0 6.2 50.0 1.9 3.9 1.7 32.8 90.0 90.0 6.2 55.0 3.4 6.8 0.8
S200L455 15.0 32.2 -83.0 97.0 5.1 70.0 18.0 35.9 0.4 32.3 82.0 82.0 5.1 60.0 5.9 10.6 0.5
S225T888 20.0 57.4 77.0 77.0 7.4 70.0 18.0 29.9 0.4 57.2 -77.8 102.2 7.4 70.0 18.0 35.9 0.3
S225T842 22.5 54.4 80.0 80.0 8.0 45.0 1.1 1.9 1.6 54.4 -80.0 100.0 8.0 70.0 18.0 35.9 0.2
M250L250 17.0 22.0 64.9 64.9 4.8 45.0 1.1 1.5 2.0 20.0 -83.9 96.1 4.6 70.0 18.0 35.9 0.3
M250T110 35.0 27.0 82.0 82.0 7.6 60.0 5.9 10.6 0.9 30.8 -60.3 119.7 8.2 60.0 5.9 11.8 0.5
M250T090 20.0 49.5 78.5 78.5 7.1 70.0 18.0 30.6 0.4 50.3 -74.6 105.4 7.2 70.0 18.0 35.9 0.3
S250T980 22.5 49.3 86.5 86.5 7.7 60.0 5.9 11.3 0.8 49.3 -86.5 93.5 7.7 70.0 18.0 35.9 0.5
S250T957 22.5 50.5 83.8 83.8 7.8 55.0 3.4 6.2 1.0 50.4 -85.4 94.6 7.8 60.0 5.9 11.8 0.7
S250T935 17.5 52.0 83.6 83.6 6.5 60.0 5.9 10.8 0.7 52.0 -84.0 96.0 6.5 70.0 18.0 35.9 0.4
S250L820 32.5 29.0 78.4 78.4 7.7 45.0 1.1 1.9 2.0 28.6 -82.9 97.1 7.6 60.0 5.9 11.8 0.6
S250L820 72.5 28.5 85.0 85.0 10.2 45.0 1.1 2.1 1.8 28.5 -84.0 96.0 10.2 55.0 3.4 6.8 0.9
S250L735 35.5 46.0 -86.8 93.2 10.0 55.0 3.4 6.8 0.7 46.0 86 8 66.8 10.0 70.0 18.0 34.4 0.4
S250L735 37.5 44.0 90.0 90.0 10.1 55.0 3.4 6.8 0.9 44.3 83.4 83.4 10.2 70.0 18.0 32.8 0.4
S250L550 80.0 39.7 -87.6 92.4 13.3 70.0 18.0 35.9 0.5 39.9 83.6 83.6 13.3 60.0 5.9 10.8 0.4
M275L440CZ 50.0 27.5 73.7 73.7 8.9 55.0 3.4 5.4 1.0 27.2 -76.0 104.0 8.8 55.0 3.4 6.8 0.8
M275L440 17.5 23.1 74.6 74.6 5.0 55.0 3.4 5.4 0.8 22.6 -79.5 100.5 4.9 60.0 5.9 11.8 0.6
M275L350 20.0 23.5 72.4 72.4 5.4 55.0 3.4 5.2 1.3 22.7 -80.1 99.9 5.3 60.0 5.9 11.8 0.5
275 POCZ 35.0 24.0 73.3 73.3 7.1 45.0 1.1 1.8 3.0 23.0 90.0 90.0 6.9 70.0 18.0 35.9 0.4
M275L260 35.0 27.0 80.4 80.4 7.6 70.0 18.0 31.5 0.4 26.6 -87.7 92.3 7.6 70.0 18.0 35.9 0.4
M275L048 55.0 52.0 78.0 78.0 13.4 70.0 18.0 30.3 0.5 50.9 -89.8 90.2 13.2 70.0 18.0 35.9 0.4
M275T003 37.5 55.0 76.1 76.1 11.1 70.0 18.0 29.5 0.4 53.4 90.0 90.0 11.0 60.0 5.9 11.8 0.7
M275L920 53.0 30.0 84.0 84.0 9.6 70.0 18.0 33.1 0.6 29.9 -86.0 94.0 9.6 60.0 5.9 11.8 0.5
M300L450 35.0 27.9 69.6 69.6 7.8 70.0 18.0 26.5 0.6 26.8 -77.5 102.5 7.6 70.0 18.0 35.9 0.3
M300L350CZ 105.0 31.6 68.5 68.5 12.1 45.0 1.1 1.6 2.4 30.7 -73.3 106.7 11.9 55.0 3.4 6.8 0.7
M300T162 45.0 54.6 80.4 80.4 12.3 70.0 18.0 31.5 0.4 55.2 -77.3 102.7 12.4 70.0 18.0 35.9 0.2
M300L152 35.0 55.7 78.1 78.1 10.7 70.0 18.0 30.4 0.4 54.7 -84.8 95.2 10.7 70.0 18.0 35.9 0.3
M300L092 45.0 55.7 79.1 79.1 12.4 70.0 18.0 30.8 0.5 54.7 -88.1 91.9 12.3 70.0 18.0 35.9 0.3
M330L250 25.0 38.1 84.6 84.6 7.5 70.0 18.0 33.4 0.4 37.9 90.0 90.0 7.5 70.0 18.0 35.9 0.3
M330L550 30.0 38.6 74.4 74.4 8.4 70.0 18.0 28.7 0.3 38.3 -75.9 104.1 8.4 70.0 18.0 35.9 0.2
M330L135 30.0 36.4 90.0 90.0 82 70.0 18.0 35.9 0.3 36.4 88.8 88.8 8.2 70.0 18.0 35.4 0.4
M330L035WA 50.0 37.0 90.0 90.0 10.6 70.0 18.0 35.9 0.4 37.1 -85.0 95.0 10.7 60.0 5.9 11.8 1.0
M330L070 86.0 38.0 -84.3 95.7 13.2 70.0 18.0 35.9 0.4 38.0 84.0 84.0 13.2 70.0 18.0 33.1 0.6
M375L235 44.0 36.0 90.0 90.0 9.9 70.0 18.0 35.9 0.2 36.0 90.0 90.0 9.9 70.0 18.0 35.9 0.2
M375L235 40.0 31.7 -88.3 91.7 8.8 55.0 3.4 6.8 1.6 31.7 86.5 86.5 8.8 70.0 18.0 34.3 0.3
M330L550 35.0 38.6 76.5 76.5 9.2 70.0 18.0 29.7 0.4 38.5 -77.0 103.0 9.2 70.0 18.0 35.9 0.3
M375L740 72.5 38.5 77.4 77.4 12.6 60.0 5.9 9.9 1.4 38.3 -78.5 101.5 12.5 60.0 5.9 11.8 0.5
M375L550 50.0 36.7 82.0 82.0 10.6 45.0 1.1 2.0 3.7 36.6 -83.3 96.7 10.6 70.0 18.0 35.9 0.3
M375L550 86.0 37.5 75.1 75.1 13.1 70.0 18.0 29.0 0.4 37.7 -74.0 106.0 13.1 70.0 18.0 35.9 0.3
M375L550 47.5 36.4 81.6 81.6 10.3 60.0 5.9 10.5 0.9 36.5 -80.8 99.2 10.3 70.0 18.0 35.9 0.3
M375L420CZ 48.0 37.4 77.9 77.9 10.5 45.0 1.1 1.9 5.5 37.1 -80.0 100.0 10.5 70.0 18.0 35.9 0.0
M375L235WA 37.5 35.8 -87.6 92.4 9.2 70.0 18.0 35.9 0.4 36.1 82.0 82.0 9.2 70.0 18.0 32.2 0.6
M375L175WA2 22.5 35.1 -89.1 90.9 6.9 70.0 18.0 35.9 0.4 35.2 85.2 85.2 6.9 70.0 18.0 33.7 0.6
M400L340WA 35.0 29.1 -88.7 91.3 7.9 60.0 5.9 11.8 0.7 29.2 84.1 84.1 8.0 70.0 18.0 33.2 0.3
M400L240WA2 57.5 29.2 -79.8 100.2 9.7 60.0 5.9 11.8 1.0 29.2 80.2 80.2 9.7 55.0 3.4 5.9 1.4
M400L340WA 37.5 29.1 89.1 89.1 8.2 70.0 18.0 35.5 0.5 29.2 84.5 84.5 8.2 70.0 18.0 33.4 0.2
J475L285SZN P4 37.5 35.3 81.0 81.0 9.1 70.0 18.0 31.7 0.3 35.6 -78.3 101.7 9.1 70.0 18.0 35.9 0.3
J475L285SZN S3 37.5 37.0 67.9 67.9 9.3 45.0 1.1 1.8 2.4 35.3 -76.5 103.5 9.1 60.0 5.9 11.8 0.8
J475L140SZN P3 35.5 35.4 78.9 78.9 8.9 60.0 5.9 10.1 1.3 37.0 -70.0 110.0 9.1 70.0 18.0 35.9 0.6
475PO 140 SZ 33.5 33.7 73.7 73.7 8.4 45.0 1.1 1.8 1.9 33.2 -76.7 103.3 8.3 70.0 18.0 35.9 0.4
J475L040 30.0 30.8 87.6 87.6 7.6 70.0 18.0 34.8 0.0 30.8 -88.8 91.2 7.6 70.0 18.0 35.9 0.2
J500L455SZN P3 15.0 35.8 77.7 77.7 5.3 70.0 18.0 30.2 0.4 35.4 -81.2 98.8 5.3 70.0 18.0 35.9 0.3
J500P3 32.5 35.8 74.9 74.9 8.5 55.0 3.4 5.5 1.5 35.4 -77.3 102.7 8.5 70.0 18.0 35.9 0.3
J500L370S1 32.5 36.2 71.6 71.6 8.6 60.0 5.9 9.0 1.1 35.8 -73.5 106.5 8.5 70.0 18.0 35.9 0.0
J500L255SZN P1 41.0 36.3 74.0 74.0 9.6 45.0 1.1 1.8 2.6 35.4 -80.0 100.0 9.5 70.0 18.0 35.9 0.3
4.7 Statistical Analysis of the Musselwhite Database
The followi ng figures portray frequency of occurrence hi stograms from the Musselwhi te
mi ne database. These hi stograms i nclude a normal di stri buti on curve for each parameter. The
hi stograms were sorted i nto hangi ngwall and footwall data, except for stope length, whi ch
was consi dered as bei ng uni que for each stope.
Figure 4-4: Statistical Analysis on Musselwhite stability database
From the previ ous stati sti cal analysi s, i t i s obtai ned the ranges of stope confi gurati ons
(height, span and di p) whi ch wi ll be used i n the followi ng chapters as i nput parameters for
numeri cal modeli ng and neural network analysi s.
Chapter 5 Design Guidelines for Cemented Rockfill Sill Mats 66
5 DESIGN GUIDELINES FOR CEMENTED ROCKFILL SILL MATS
5.1 Introduction
Theori es of cemented rockfi ll si ll mat desi gn demand the opti mi zati on of fi ll
requi rements, achi evi ng the strength needed, whi le meeti ng safety gui deli nes and mi ni mi zi ng
mi ni ng costs.
Cement i s the largest materi al cost component of backfi ll. Therefore, strategies ai med at
reduci ng cement content are of the highest benefit to mi ni ng operati ons. Thi s chapter defines
and compares the relevant analyti cal relati onshi ps and numeri cal modeli ng results of backfi ll
behavi or on si ll mat stabi li ty. The analysi s i s done vi a observati ons of practi ti oners and
researchers worki ng i n the mi ni ng fi eld.
Note that more than 1000 numeri cal models have been executed, as a part of thi s thesi s,
that di rectly relate to these analyti cal relati onshi ps, i ncludi ng models to determi ne verti cal
stress and models to determine the stabi li ty of cemented rockfi ll mats.
5.2 Load of Backfdl
One of the key factors i n assessing cemented rockfi ll stabi li ty i s quanti fyi ng the verti cal
stress acti ng on the top of the si ll mat. In situ measurements and analyti cal predi cti ons
deri ved by vari ous researchers i mply that archi ng of unconsoli dated rockfi ll materi al
decreases the verti cal load on the si ll by transferri ng part of the total load to the hangi ngwall
and footwall. Methods to better estimate the true load lead to more reli able and cost effective
soluti ons i n the desi gn of si ll mats. Overesti mati on of the verti cal load produces unnecessary
expense by i ncreasi ng the quanti ty of cement used and/or the hei ght of the si ll mat requi red
to wi thstand the supposed load. Underesti mati ng can cause a premature fai lure of the si ll mat
whi le mi ni ng i s bei ng conducted below i t, resulti ng i n ore lost, ore di luti on, cycle
i nterrupti on, damage to equipment, and a compromi se i n personal safety.
Theoreti cal consi derati ons deri ved from Janssen (1895), Terzaghi (1948), Rei mbert
(1976), and Bli ght (1984) are compared wi th numeri cal modeli ng results to determine the
theoreti cal true load exerted by the fi ll. To analyze backfi ll load, fi rst i t i s necessary to
determine accurately the coeffi ci ent of lateral earth pressure, K, an i nput vari able of the
analyti cal equati on. Fai li ng to estimate accurately the value of K produces unreli able verti cal
Chapter 5 - Design Guidelines for Cemented Rockfill Sill Mats
load calculati ons. The deri ved curve for K can be used when numeri cal modeli ng software i s
not avai lable and/or to compare verti cal loads correspondi ng to different K values.
5.2.1 Coefficient of Lateral Earth Pressure K
Thi s thesi s determines the coeffi ci ent of lateral earth pressure K usi ng numeri cal
modeli ng and proposes that an effective computati onal method i s capable of representi ng the
behavi or of cohesi onless soi ls. Moreover, the software appli ed here can be used to
characteri ze the deformati ons of backfi ll usi ng only the effect of gravi ty and i ts i nteracti on
wi th the stope walls. The computati onal tool employed i s the fi ni te di fference program
known as Flac
2D
.
Fi gure 5-1 i llustrates a Flac
2D
graph of stress measurements at a speci fi c poi nt wi thi n a
backfi lled stope. The stope i s backfi lled i n layers of 5 meters each, to a maxi mum hei ght of
35 meters. The y-axi s corresponds to the hori zontal stress, a^, and the x-axi s corresponds to
the verti cal stress, Oyy. The resultant slope represents the coeffi ci ent of lateral earth pressure,
K.
FLAC (Version 4.00)
LEGEND
16-May-M 13:47
step 25092
HISTORY PLOT
Y-axis :
Ave.SXX ( 31. 1)
X-axis.
Ave. SYY (31. 1)
Figure 5-1: Coefficient of lateral earth pressure K for cohesionless material
Fi gure 5-2 di splays the graph of the coeffi ci ent of lateral earth pressure at different
fri cti on angles, compari ng the results of analyti cal equations of the coeffi ci ents for the acti ve
Chapter 5 - Design Guidelines for Cemented Rockfill Sill Mats 68
(Ka), and at-rest (Ko) cases, taki ng i nto consi derati on the settli ng effect (Ks), wi th the results
obtai ned from numeri cal modeli ng.
Figure 5-2: Comparison of analytically and numerically determined coefficients of
lateral earth pressure
Fi gure 5-2 portrays the values obtai ned usi ng numeri cal modeli ng. The values are
consi stent wi th the acti ve case, up to the poi nt where the fri cti on angle reaches 30 degrees. At
fri cti on angles greater than 30 degrees, the K value becomes constant, and the curve tends
toward the at-rest condi ti on. Thi s behavi or mi ght occur because at lower fri cti on angles
greater deformati on of the materi al takes place. The rockfi ll materi al behaves as i f the wall i s
i n moti on, re-formi ng i tself by the acti on of gravi ty, and the materi al i s supported by the
stope walls, generati ng the acti ve state of stress. On the other hand, at fri cti on angles greater
than 30 degrees the deformati on tends to decrease and the i nteracti on between rockfi ll and
the stope walls decreases accordi ngly, tendi ng toward the at-rest state of stress.
Fi gure 5-3 and figure 5-4 portray the second order polynomi al curve that best fi ts the
data obtai ned usi ng numeri cal modeli ng (K Deri ved). The coeffi ci ent of lateral earth pressure
i s plotted against the si ne of the fri cti on angle and the best fi t curve determi ned.
61
Sin(4>)
best fit curve derived
0.40 0.45 0.50 Si H (<())
5 5

6 0

6 5
best fit curve derived for the rockfill friction angle range
Equati on 5-1 represents the best fi t curve:
K = 1 .4 Sin
2
(<p) - 2 Sin {</>)+ \
5 A
Note that equati on 5-1 i s only appli cable for cohesi onless backfi ll materi al wi th fri cti on
angles rangi ng from 0 degrees to 40 degrees.
10
Fi gure 5-5 portrays the vari ati on of the slope (K) of the hori zontal versus verti cal stress
for different rockfi ll fri cti on angles.
Horizontal Stress vs. Vertical Stress
at different Friction Angles
0.800 , -
Vertical Stress ayy (MPa)
Figure 5-5: Horizontal vs. vertical stress at different rockfill friction angles
5.2.1 Vertical Stress Comparison using different Coefficients of Lateral Earth Pressure
Vari ati ons i n verti cal stress obtai ned vi a different coeffi ci ents of lateral earth pressure K
are portrayed by fi gure 5-6. It shows the plot of maxi mum verti cal stress for the acti ve case,
the at-rest case, and the deri ved case usi ng numeri cal modeli ng whi le consi deri ng the
followi ng backfi ll properti es and stope confi gurati on:
y = 19.67 kN/m
3
4 = 37.0
L = 10.0 m
(3 = 90
Vertical Stress Comparison
Using different K values
^ 600
C O
0.
s
500
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4 -
CO
300
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200
E
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E 100
"><
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HHli fl
lililpiiplipJIl
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HHli fl
lililpiiplipJIl
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HHli fl
lililpiiplipJIl
lli li Pi ll
HHli fl
lililpiiplipJIl
lli li Pi ll
ji ji ji i i i i i
S p
HHli fl
lililpiiplipJIl
lli li Pi ll
ji ji ji i i i i i
S p
HHli fl
lililpiiplipJIl
lli li Pi ll
ji ji ji i i i i i
S p
K active K at-rest KFIac
Figure 5-6: Vertical stress comparison for different K values
As portrayed i n figure 5-6, there i s a consi derable difference between the maxi mum
verti cal pressure usi ng the acti ve versus the at-rest coeffi ci ents of lateral earth pressure. The
vari ati on of approxi mately 200 kPa can be attributed to the difference between the desi gns of
a stable versus an unstable si ll mat. Results obtai ned usi ng numeri cal modeli ng produce an
i ntermedi ate value, whi ch falls between the acti ve and the at-rest cases. The most important
outcome here is that the solution obtained using numerical modeling accounts for the
deformation of the material within the stope. The behavi or of thi s cohesi onless materi al i s
affected by the magni tude of the fri cti on angle at the contact between the stope walls and the
rockfi ll materi al.
5.3 Vertical Stress Using Numerical Modeling
5.3.1 Introduction
Thi s secti on addresses the total load on the floor of the stope gi ven that i t i s thi s load that
determines the stabi li ty of CRF si ll mats.
Rockfi ll materi al deposi ted i nto stopes constitutes a granular, or pseudo-soli d, mass, for
whi ch equi li bri um laws sti ll apply. Gi ven a plasti c, homogeneous, and i sotropi c materi al, a
soluti on can be deri ved from numeri cal modeli ng results, and i s here so deri ved for thi s case.
The problem defi ned by the equi li bri um of confi ned rockfi ll materi al i s complex, and
does not well fi t the theory of elasti ci ty. It i s extremely di ffi cult to determi ne accurately the
loads appli ed to the stope walls and floor vi a exi sti ng theori es. A numeri cal modeli ng
soluti on capable of accounti ng for the fri cti on that exi sts between the fi ll and the stope walls,
and so maki ng possi ble compari son of the resultant curves wi th exi sti ng analyti cal equati ons,
is enormously valuable.
The process of modeli ng backfi ll as a functi on of the fi ll hei ght proceeds as follows: a
fi ve meter Hangi ngwall (HW) to Footwall (FW) layer of backfi ll i s deposi ted on the floor of
the stope, the model i s executed, and the verti cal and hori zontal loads are then measured.
Incrementally, fi ve meter layers of backfi ll are added on top of previ ous layers. The model i s
executed and loads are measured for each i ncrement to the poi nt where the stope has been
fi lled wi th seven layers of backfi ll materi al.
Thi s analysi s does not i ncorporate wall convergence, under the assumpti on that by the
ti me waste rock i s backfi lled, wall di splacement has already occurred.
11
Fi gure 5-7 (a) and fi gure 5-7 (b) portray two models backfi lled at two different stages:
25 meters and 35 meters of backfi ll. The verti cal stress contour represents the stress exerted
by the cohesi onless backfi ll materi al wi th a 37 degree fri cti on angle. From thi s, the archi ng of
the fi ll due to the materi al's fri cti onal component and i ts i nteracti on wi th the stope walls can
be seen.
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37 Ode g Friction Angle
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Figure 5-7: 25 meters (5 layers) and 35 meters (7 layers) of unconsolidated backfill
deposited in the stope
Chapter 5 - Design Guidelines for Cemented Rockfill Sill Mats 1A.
5.3.2 Stress Distribution as a Function of Stope Dip Angle
Vari ous stope geometries are analyzed to determine the maxi mum stress and the stress
di stri buti on along the stope span. Vari ati on i n stope di p angle i s modeled to analyze the
effects on stress and on stress di stri buti on. The stress di stri buti on along the stope span for a
range of stope di p angles i s portrayed by figure 5-9. Note that the verti cal stress decreases as
the stope di p decreases, and the maxi mum stress tends to locate near the stope's footwall.
The i mportance of thi s graph i s i n that i t produces a reference poi nt as to where the materi al's
center of mass should be located.
HW Rockfi ll
FW
10m
HW
Vertical Stress Distribution along Span
at Different Stope Dips
4.0 5.0 6.0
Distance Along Span (m)
Figure 5-8: Vertical stress distribution along span at different stope dips
Fi gure 5-9 portrays the stress contour of a stope di ppi ng at 70 degrees.
21
Fi gure 5-9: Stress contour for a stope di ppi ng at 70 degrees
5.3.3 Vertical Stress as a Function of Stope Span
Figure 5-10 portrays the vertical stress of various rockfill heights for different stope
spans. This graph, and those to follow, deal with vertical stopes. The graphs dealing with
inclined stopes appear later. Note that vertical stress is recorded at mid-span, on the floor of
the stope.
O GOO
Vertical Stress vs. Rockfill Heiaht
for different Scans
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Musselwhite vertical stress range
on top of CRF Sill Mat
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0 5.0 1 0 0 15.0 20.0 25.0 30.0 35.0 40.0 45.0 5C
Rockfill Vertical Height h (m)
0
Fi gure 5-10: Vert i cal stress at vari ous stope spans for di fferent rockfi l l hei ghts
76
The numeri cal results predi ct a decrease i n verti cal stress as rockfi ll hei ght i ncreases, as
a result of archi ng of the materi al as i t interacts wi th the stope walls. Si mi lar asymptoti c
behavi or can be seen i n the analyti cal soluti ons deri ved by Janssen and Rei mbert. For two
stope spans, 10 and 12 meters, the fi ll hei ghts extend beyond 35 meters, as these are possi ble
scenari os for Musselwhi te's constructed si ll mats.
5.3.4 Vertical Stress as a Function of Rockfill's Density
Several models are executed evaluati ng the behavi or of unconsoli dated rockfi ll for
different materi al properti es. The results are compared wi th the analyti cal formulati ons gi ven
i n Chapter 3. The followi ng sections di scuss verti cal stress vari ati on for each parameter
assessed. The analyti cal and numeri cal results both i mply li near behavi or at varyi ng rockfi ll
densi ti es, as i ndi cated i n figure 5-11.
0.700
0600
Verti cal Stress vs. Rockfi ll Densi ty
at di fferent Rockfi ll Hei ahts
0.700
0600
35m
"
Q- 0^ 00
Musselwhite's range of density
for rockfill material
r. ; 4^1
. 30m
25m
S
h D4O0
20m
r
t
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8

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8

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1 0 m
>
0.100
5m
>
0.100
I I I !
0 0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 30 3
Densi ty 5 (t/m
3
)
5
Figure 5-11: Vertical stress vs. rockfill density at varying rockfill heights
5.3.5 Vertical Stress as a Function of Rockfill's Friction Angle
Fi gure 5-12 portrays the vari ati on of verti cal stress at different fri cti on angles, for a
gi ven hei ght. As expected, for fri cti on angles approachi ng 0 degrees, the verti cal stress i s
equi valent to the hydrostati c pressure of a materi al of 2t/m densi ty. The hi gher the fri cti on
angle of the materi al, the lower i s the load exerted on the floor of the stope.
21
Vertical Stress vs. Rockfill Height
at different Friction Angles
Rockfill Height h (m)
Figure 5-12: Vertical stress vs. rockfill height at varying friction angles
5.3.6 Comparison of Analytical and Numerical Methods to Determine Vertical Stress
The followi ng fi gures compare the verti cal stress exerted on the floor of a backfi lled
stope usi ng analyti cal and numeri cal results. Fi gure 5-13 di splays the curves of verti cal stress
at different rockfi ll hei ghts, compari ng Janssen's and Rei mbert's analyti cal equations wi th
Flac
2D
results. Fi gure 5-14 di splays the analyti cal formulati ons deri ved by Mi tchell, Bli ght,
Janssen, and Rei mbert, and compares them to numeri cal results at different stope spans.
Fi gure 5-15 compares verti cal stresses for a 10 meter stope span, for each method. Fi gure 5-
15 i llustrates that there are substanti al differences i n verti cal stress calculati ons among the
different methods analyzed.
Note the 0.12 MPa difference between Flac
2D
and the most commonly used method,
Mi tchell (1991). Thi s difference i mpli es over-esti mati on of the strength requi red, when usi ng
Mi tchell's method. Thi s thesis proposes that numeri cal modeli ng i s the most reli able method,
as i t accounts for deformati on of cohesi onless materi al, as well as i nteracti on between the
materi al and the stope walls. Rei mbert's soluti on yi elds very si mi lar results as those of
numeri cal modeli ng, but i t i s li mi ted i n that i t was developed for use wi th verti cal si los.
JZ8_
0.450
0.400
0.350
0.300
Vertical Stress Compari son
Assuming:
- Density of 2.0 t/m3
-10m stope span
- 90deg stope dip
- 37deg friction angle
- v = 0.29
15 20 25
Rockfill vertical height (m)
Figure 5-13: Vertical stress over rockfill height comparing analytical and numerical
results
0.9000
0.8000
0.7000
0.6000
0.5000
0.4000
0.3000
0.2000
0.1000
Assuming:
-Density of 2.0 t/m3
- 90deg stope dip
- 37deg friction angle
- v = 0.29
Mitchelj^-*
10.0 12.0
Stope Span (m)
14.0
Figure 5-14: Vertical stress versus stope span using different methods
Chapter 5 - Desien Guidelines for Cemented Rockfill Sill Mats
21
0.50
S. 0.40
o
2
0.12 MPa Difference
Assuming:
- Density of 2.0 t/m3
- 10mstope span
- 90deg stope dip
35m 35m
35m
Blight (1984) Mitchell (1991) Mitchell (1991) Janssen (1895) Reimbert (1953) Flac
Figure 5-15: Vertical stress for a 10 meter stope span using different methods
5.3.7 Proposed Analytical Equation for Inclined Stopes
The followi ng equati on here deri ved appli es to an i ncli ned di fferenti al sli ce, thereby
accounti ng for i ncli ned stopes. The deri vati on i tself can be found i n Appendi x A . Note that
thi s expressi on can be consi dered an approxi mati on only.
y-L
2- -t an(^)
si n
2
(/?) 1-exp
f
2- - t anQ) - z^
Z-si n
2
(/?)
5-2
In compari son to Bli ght's analyti cal formulati on for i ncli ned stopes, equati on 5-2 differs
by the factor: si n ((3). The followi ng fi gure compares equati on 5-2 wi th the maxi mum verti cal
stress that occurs employi ng numeri cal modeli ng for different stope di p angles.
Analytical vs. Numerical Modeling
0.45
0.40
0.
0.35
S
>.
0.30
>>
b
in
0.25
in
a
i 0.20
to
c
a
l

0.15
t
0)
>
0.10
0.05
0.00
-Analyti cal Equation
- Numerical Modeling
45 50 60 65 70 75
Stope Dip Angle (deg)
Figure 5-16: Analytical vs. numerical modeling comparison for different stope dip
angles
Results from the proposed analyti cal equati on and from numeri cal modeli ng are
consi stent wi th each other.
5.4 Stability of Cemented Rockfdl Sill Mats
5.4.1 Introduction
The stabi li ty of rockfi ll si ll mats depends on two pri nci pal factors:
- si ll mat strength; and
- the wei ght of backfi ll.
The next secti on consi ders these two factors i n detai l.
Fi gure 5-17 portrays stope geometry, strength, stress components, and fai lure modes i n a
si ll mat pi llar.
81
Figure 5-17: Geometry, strength and stress component and failure modes in a sill mat
pillar
5.4.2 Sill Mat Strength - Friction and Cohesion (fy
The strength of rockfi ll materi al can be substanti ally i mproved by the addi ti on of a
bi ndi ng materi al. The most evi dent i mprovement (between an uncemented fi ll and a fi ll
treated wi th cement) i s i n shear and tensi le strength. Cement bonds that form between fi ll
parti cles i ntroduce a cohesi ve component to the fi ll's shear and tensi le strength, and i t is thi s
cohesi ve component that i s absent i n an uncemented fi ll.
The followi ng two soi l components di rectly determine backfi ll strength:
- fri cti onal forces, proporti onal to the i nternal angle of fri cti on () resulti ng
from i nterlocki ng soli d parti cles; and
- Portland cement (or si mi lar soi l bi nder) whi ch si gni fi cantly increases
actual fi ll cohesi on by bi ndi ng the soli d parti cles to each other.
The effects of grai n i nterlocki ng, and hence the magnitude of the i nternal fri cti on angle,
depend upon grai n shape, overall parti cle si ze, and packi ng densi ty (Thomas, et al., 1979).
The elasti c modulus of backfi ll increases wi th the addi ti on of a bi ndi ng agent. Backfi ll
typi cally has a low modulus of elasti ci ty of approxi mately 1000 MPa to 100 MPa, and i s
normally one to two orders of magnitude less sti ff than the surroundi ng rock.
5.4.3 Backfill Load
The load of backfi ll exerted on the top of the CRF si ll mat was analyzed i n detai l i n the
previ ous secti on. Thi s load i s dependent upon the backfi ll properti es: densi ty and fri cti on
angle; and the geometry of the stope whi ch i ncludes the hei ght of backfi ll materi al, span of
the stope, and stope di p.
5.4.4 Proposed Rotational Analytical Formulation
The ori gi nal rotati onal analyti cal formulati on was deri ved for pastefi ll. At the
Musselwhi te mi ne (rockfi ll), the sheari ng resistance of a gi ven hangi ngwall contact surface
may not be parti cularly low, as would be expected for pastefi ll. Also, the three si ll mats i n
exi stence at Musselwhi te do not have low di p angles.
For these reasons, the followi ng analyti cal formulati on i ncorporates sheari ng resistance
at the hangi ngwall contact surface. Thi s case does not yi eld an especi ally conservati ve result
(i n sheari ng resi stance). Safety consi derati ons demand conservati ve esti mati on so that, i n this
parti cular case, only some extent of the sheari ng resistance should be taken i nto account,
whereas full sheari ng resistance i s i ndi cated i n fi gure 5-18. Addi ti onally, consi stent wi th thi s
proposi ti on, the research developed by Di ri ge, De Souza, and Chew (2001) i mpli ed that
centrifuge modeli ng studies of pastefi ll si ll mats i ndi cate that, i n stopes wi th smooth rock
wall condi ti ons, si ll mat fai lure i s caused by the fi ll self-wei ght, i .e., fai lure has li ttle
dependency upon fi ll bi nder content. Furthermore, Di ri ge, De Souza, and Chew concluded
that, i n stopes wi th rough rock wall condi ti ons, the wall roughness i tself contri butes
si gni fi cantly to the stabi li ty of the si ll mat duri ng undercut mi ni ng. The present study i mpli es
that backfi ll si ll mats can be desi gned wi th a hi gh degree of stabi li ty usi ng standard
centrifuge physi cal modeli ng i n combi nati on wi th numeri cal modeli ng. Thi s approach
suggests that, for the si ll mat rotati onal fai lure mode, shear strength should be consi dered a
component of the analyti cal soluti on deri ved by Mi tchell (1991).
A multi pli er factor, a, rangi ng from 0 to 1, i s added to the equati on, correspondi ng to the
esti mated contact length at the hangi ngwall between the rock wall and the cemented rockfi ll
materi al. As an alternati ve, the contact quali ty i tself may be estimated to arri ve at a. After
vi sual i nspecti on, i f i t i s determi ned that there i s poor quali ty contact between the rock wall
Chanter 5 - Design Guidelines for Cemented Rnrkfill Sill Mats 83
and the CRF, then an a equal to zero should be used, yi eldi ng a result si mi lar to that gi ven by
equati on 3-36. Alternati vely, esti mati on of the a factor could be made by measuri ng the
hori zontal load exerted by the CRF materi al on the hangi ngwall/si ll mat contact (see Chapter
8: Future Work), whi ch would be an i ndi rect measurement of the quali ty of the contact.
mat
The followi ng equati on can sti ll be consi dered conservati ve gi ven that si ll mat fai lure
(when a ci rcular shear fai lure occurs) produces addi ti onal sheari ng resistance as the pi llar
sli des against the rock wall (r,), as portrayed i n figure 5-19.
(cr + a Y) >
L-(L-d-cot(j3))-sm
2
(f3)
Also, tensi le fai lure could occur at an angle di fferi ng from /3 and a locati on di fferi ng
from poi nt "O", as predi cted by numeri cal modeli ng (di scussed later). If tensi le fai lure does
occur at poi nt "O" (figure 5-18), then only the fai li ng mass (portrayed by geometri c fi gure u)
should be consi dered and not the total mass of the si ll mat, as i mpli ed by Mi tchell's
si mpli fi cati on. Doi ng so thus accounts for less wei ght than the value denoted by w. Also, the
verti cal stress u
v
should be measured near the footwall, not near the center, as i n Mi tchell
(1991).
mat
The followi ng fi gure (5-20) di splays factors of safety for the different fai lure modes
i ncorporati ng Musselwhi te's si ll mat properti es, verti cal stress, and stope geometry. The
mi ni mum safety factor requi red i s 1.2 i n the desi gn of non-entry methods, and 1.5 for entry
methods (Pakalni s, course notes, 2004).
11.0
re
10.0
9.0
8.0
7.0-I
6.0
5.0
4.0 -
3.0 -
2.0 -
1.0 -
0.0 -
Caving
Sill Mat Failure Modes
F.S. > 1.2 for design (non-entry methods)
a= 1
Flexural Sliding
Failure Mode
Rotational Including
Shear Strength
Figure 5-20: Factor of safety for sill mat failure modes
5.5 Failure Modes - Numerical Modeling Solution
A series of models i s run to obtai n desi gn curves representing si ll mat fai lure modes.
These parametri c studies account for vari ati on i n si ll mat strength vi a vari ati ons i n cohesi on,
and vi a stope geometry (characteri zed by span, and di p angle) vari ati ons. In all cases, i n the
interest of ti me effi ci ency of the numeri cal modeli ng analysi s, a constant verti cal stress of
0.41 MPa (i n the case of a verti cal stope of 10 meter span and 35 meter rockfi ll hei ght) acti ng
along the entire stope span i s appli ed to the si ll mat pi llar. As i ndi cated previ ously, the
di stri buti on of the verti cal stress along the stope span i s not constant, and decreases wi th
stope di p. However, thi s assumpti on (usi ng a constant of 0.41 MPa) yi elds an extra factor of
safety i n the si ll mat desi gn.
5.5.1 Model Construction
The followi ng secti ons deal wi th a non-standard gri d of CRF si ll mat pi llar stabi li ty.
There i s no conventi onal standard for a gri d portrayi ng measurements of stabi li ty i n CRF si ll
mat pi llars, due to the fact that the pi llar di mensi ons (height and span) vary accordi ng to
strength properti es assi gned to the gri d. These pi llar di mensi ons result from a tri al and error
executi on of the model wi th gi ven strength properti es.
A n i mportant consi derati on of the models i s the interface elements desi gned to si mulate
di sti nct planes along whi ch sli p and/or separati on can occur. More about interface elements
can be found i n Appendi x C.
Once the gri d i s constructed, materi al properti es must be assi gned to the i ndi vi dual gri d
elements. Elasti c host rock properti es are assi gned to the outer gri d elements. In situ host
rock properti es are obtai ned form intact rock cores (i .e., i n laboratory testi ng) and results are
subsequently scaled to the in situ reali ty. For detai ls of host rock properti es, refer to Chapter
4: Database.
For the elasti c model, the relevant properti es are: densi ty; bulk modulus; and shear
modulus.
Even though backfi ll properti es could be obtai ned from exi sti ng li terature, i t i s the
i mpli cati on(s) of varyi ng these parameters that i s the pri nci pal objecti ve here. These
i mpli cati ons are di scussed i n detai l i n the next secti on.
The followi ng table (5-1) portrays an example of Musselwhi te's si ll mat geometry,
rockfi ll loadi ng, and strength properti es.
Table 5-1: Example of Musselwhite's geometry, rockfill loading, and sill mat strength
properties
Sill Mat Geometry
Span, L
10.0 m (vari able)
Hei ght of Si ll, d
7.0 m (vari able)
Stope Di p, (3
85 (vari able)
Rockfill Loading
Verti cal Stress, a
v 0.41 MPa (constant)
Sill Mat Strength Properties
Unconfi ned Compressi ve Strength Test, UCS 8.0 MPa (vari able)
Cohesi on, c
2.0 MPa (vari able)
Tensi le Strength, rj, 0.8 MPa (vari able)
Shear Strength, T,
2.1 MPa (vari able)
Fri cti on angle, <j) 38 (constant)
Densi ty, 8 2.0 t/m
3
(constant)
5.5.2 Constitutive Equations - Strain Softening
Swan and Brummer (2001) analyzed a strai n softening model where a cohesi ve si ll wi ll
lose i ntegri ty at a plasti c strai n of 1.5%. The CRF si ll mat properti es assi gned by thi s thesi s
are of a Mohr-Coulomb type of materi al wi th strai n-softeni ng behavi or that loses its
cohesi on, and tensi le strength, from the gi ven value to zero (MPa, psi , etc.), at a plasti c strai n
of 1.5%. Correspondi ngly, the fri cti on angle falls from the ori gi nal value of 37 degrees (at a
plasti c strai n of 0%) to 15 degrees (at a plasti c strai n of 1.5%). At a plasti c strai n of 1.5%,
cohesi on wi ll be zero but there i s sti ll some strength because of the fri cti on angle. For the
Mohr-Coulomb plasti ci ty model, the relevant properti es are densi ty, bulk modulus, shear
modulus, fri cti on angle, cohesi on, di lati on angle, and tensi le strength. Fi gure 5-21 i llustrates
an example of a strai n-softeni ng model for the cohesi on strength parameter.
87
Strain-Softening Model
0.0% 0.2% 0.4% 0.6% 0.6% 1. 0% 1. 2% 1. 4% 1. 6%
Strain ()
Figure 5-21: Strain softening model - cohesion example
5.5.3 Model Execution
For a gi ven value of cohesi on, span, and di p of the stope, the maxi mum hei ght of the
CRF si ll pi llar that results i n fai lure can be determi ned by tri al and error. Setti ng the actual
stable hei ght 25 centimeters above the hei ght determi ned, results i n a factor of safety of at
least 1.0. In thi s case, 25 centimeters i s arbi trari ly determi ned, yet thi s choi ce represents an
effi ci ent compromi se between the accuracy of a low value (ti me consumi ng) and the ti me
saved i n usi ng a hi gh value (whi ch yi elds i naccuracy). Note that, for flexural, sli di ng, and
rotati onal fai lure modes, the same model i s appli ed where a speci fi c fai lure mode results,
accordi ng to the strength parameters: cohesi on, tensi le strength, and fri cti on angle. For these
three fai lure modes, two plots are presented: fi rst, a plot of the gri d elements and the appli ed
verti cal load, and second, a plot that i llustrates the plasti ci ty state of the gri d elements.
Si nce the parameters are purposely set low enough to result i n fai lure, the equi li bri um
soluti on i s clearly not the objecti ve here. When fai lure does occur, the model does not
converge to the equi li bri um state. Rather, the model i s stepped through the si mulati on
process, plotti ng the resulti ng collapse as i t occurs. The mi ni mum safety factor i s thus
achi eved (>1.0).
5.5.4 Caving Failure
Even though cavi ng fai lure i s the least probable fai lure mode for a si ll mat of gi ven
strength, thi s mode i s analyzed here theoreti cally, as i f the strength path i s dependent on the
shape of the fracture caused by a cavi ng fai lure. No difference between planar and semi -
ci rcular fractures can be found. Each caved pi llar represents the same overall wei ght, but the
difference i s i n the length of contact over the di stance of the fracture.
Fi gure 5-22(a) portrays a planar fracture and fi gure 5-22(b) portrays a semi -ci rcular
fracture. From thi s analysi s, no conclusi ons can be drawn regardi ng path dependence. It i s
apparent that both fai lures yi eld the same results.
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Figure 5-22: Caving failure mode - planar and semi circular crack
5.5.5 Flexural Failure
Fi gure 5-23 (a) and figure 5-23(b) portray a thi n si ll pi llar fai li ng as a result of flexi ng. It
i s evi dent that the top gri d elements fai l i n compressi on, and that tensi on cracks form on the
floor of the pi llar, subsequently causi ng its collapse. Plasti ci ty i ndi cators (fi gure 5-23(b)) are
i ncluded. These i denti fy the type of fai lure, e.g., shear, i .e., compressi ve fai lure, (represented
by black i n fi gures 5-23(b), 5-24(b), and 5-25(b)) or tensi le fai lure (represented by whi te i n
fi gures 5-23(b), 5-24(b), and 5-25(b)), and whether the stress state i n the zone i s currently at
the yi eld surface ("at yi eld"), or has previ ously reached the yi eld surface but i s currently
Chanter 5 - Design Guidelines for Cemented Rockfill Sill Mats RQ
below the yi eld surface ("at yi eld i n past"). (Note: shaded area represents elements that do
not fai l.)
Figure 5-23: Sill mat flexural failure mode - grid elements and plasticity state
5.5.6 Sliding Failure
The followi ng fi gures i llustrate sheari ng fai lure of hangi ngwall and footwall si ll-host
rock contact. These fi gures represent a typi cal sheari ng fai lure case (out of many
possi bi li ti es).
Elastic
At Yield in Shear orVol ,
El asti c. Yield in Past
At Yield in Tensi on
0.100 0.300 o.wo
Figure 5-24: Sill mat sliding failure mode - grid elements and plasticity state
90
5.5.7 Rotational - Crushing Failure
Rotati onal-crushi ng fai lure mode i s not concei ved as presented here, i n the analyti cal
soluti on previ ously di scussed. However, rotati onal-crushi ng fai lure modeli ng i llustrates that
fai lure occurs when the si ll i n contact wi th the hangi ngwall crushes (i .e., fai ls i n
compressi on) as the si ll mat rotates. Tensi le fai lure of the footwall/si ll contact results i n the
rotati on of the si ll wi th respect to the bottom footwall/si ll contact. These fai lures must occur
si multaneously i n both the hangi ngwall and the footwall.
Figure 5-25: Sill mat rotational crushing failure mode - grid elements and plasticity
state
5.5.8 Rotational - Breaking Failure
A si mi lar result occurs i n the rotati onal-breaki ng fai lure mode, where the centrifuge
model (Mi tchell, 1991) predi cts that a tensi le fai lure propagates at the same angle as the di p
of the stope, rotati ng about poi nt "O". Numeri cal modeli ng predi cts that thi s fai lure occurs at
approxi mately mi d-span, wi th no parti cular angle of fai lure. The numeri cal soluti on i mpli es
that fai lure occurs where the si ll, i n contact wi th the hangi ngwall, crushes (i .e., fai ls i n
compressi on), as the si ll mat rotates and breaks.
Chanter 5 - Deswn Guidelines for Cemented Rockfill Sill Mats
91
Y ' .V Y 3
1 Elastic
I At Yield in Shear or Vol.
I Elastic, Yield in Past
]Al Yield in Tension
O-10O 0.300 0.300 0.700
f~1C* 1)
Figure 5-26: Sill mat rotational breaking failure mode - grid elements and plasticity
state
5.5.9 Sill Mat Design Curves
Fi gures 5-27 to 5-38 represent a series of desi gn curves that predi ct, i n each case, the
poi nt of fai lure and the fai lure mode, for a gi ven strength and speci fi c geometri c parameters.
In each graph, the y-axi s portrays (i n meters) the mi ni mum hei ght, or depth, of a CRF si ll
mat necessary to be i n a stable state. The graphs are of three types: no strength on
hangi ngwall contact, 50% strength, and 100% strength on hangi ngwall contact, as
correspondi ng to the percentage of the CRF cohesi on value. E.g., for an 85 degree stope, wi th
10 meter span, when hangi ngwall/si ll contact equals 0.75 MPa, i .e., 50% of full cohesi on
(1.50 MPa), rotati onal breaki ng occurs below 2.5 meters (see fi gure 5-31). Each i ndi vi dual
graph represents a speci fi c stope di p angle, rangi ng from 90 degrees (verti cal) to 75 degrees.
The i ndi vi dual curves wi thi n each graph represent speci fi c stope spans, rangi ng from 6
meters to 12 meters. The type of fai lure occurri ng (below the mi ni mum si ll mat verti cal
height necessary to be stable) i s i ndi cated for each curve by the followi ng notati ons: "S" for
sli di ng, "Rc" for rotati onal-crushi ng, "Rb " for rotati onal-breaki ng, and "F " for flexural,
fai lure modes. A l l cases assume uni form verti cal stress acti ng on the top of the CRF si ll mat.
A stable CRF si ll mat i s represented as bei ng anywhere above the i ndi vi dual desi gn curve i n
questi on (e.g., 6, 8, 10, or 12 meter span), i mplyi ng a safety factor of 1.0 or greater.
21
t
= 0%)
SIM Mat Failure Graph for 90deq Stope Dip
at different Stope Spans
7.0 .,
Cohesi on (MPa)
Figure 5-28: Sill mat stability for 90 - 50% sill mat strength on HW (x, = 50%)
SHI Mat Failure Graph for 90deq Stope Dip
5.0 -|
Cohesi on (MPa)
t
= 100%)
Figure 5-30: Sill mat stability for 85 - No strength on HW (x, = 0%)
Figure 5-31: Sill mat stability for 85 - 50% sill mat strength on HW (T, = 50%)
21
E
I
SHI Mat Failure Graph for 80deq Stope Dip
1.50 1.75 2.00
Cohesi on (MPa)
F.S. = 1
HW contact
cohesi on value
T,=0%
t
= 0%)
10.0
9.0
8.0
7.0
6.0
5.0
4.0
3.0
2.0
SIM Mat Failure Graph for 80deq Stope Dip
FAIL
S T A B L E .
F.S. = 1
1.50 1.75 2.00
Cohesi on (MPa)
' HW contact
" cohesi on value
T,=50%
SMI Mat Failure Graph for 80deq Stope Dip
FAIL
S T AB L E
F.S. = 1
1.50 1.75 2.00
Cohesi on (MPa)
Rb
12m
" 10m
8m
_ 6m
_ HW contact
cohesi on value
t
= 100%)
t
= 0%)
Figure 5-37: Sill mat stability for 75 - 50% sill mat strength on HW (r
t
= 50%)
t
= 100%)
Thi s series of desi gn curves enables the operator to select the si ll di mensi ons, gi ven the
cohesi ve strength of the fi ll materi al, and the parameters consi dered of greatest si gni fi cance
to the desi gn such as:
- span;
- wall di p; and
- HW shear strength.
The Flac
20
approach used i n thi s study does not i ncorporate a factor of safety i n i ts
method of desi gn. However, by applyi ng a factor of safety to the cohesi on parameter, the
total factor of safety i n the overall desi gn wi ll be i mproved.
Chapter 6 - Effect of Backfill on Open Stoping 97
6 EFFECT OF DELAYED BACKFILL ON OPEN STOPING
6.1 Introduction
A si gni fi cant questi on at the Musselwhi te mi ne and for open stope operators i n general,
i s what i s the effect of mi ni ng adjacent to previ ously backfi lled stopes? Desi gn methods such
as The Stabi li ty Graph have been deri ved from a database of i solated stopes. These are stopes
that have soli d abutments adjacent to the stope bei ng mi ned.
The Stabi li ty Graph Method makes the assumpti on that the adjacent backfi lled stope
does not reduce overall stabi li ty.
Thi s thesi s, alternati vely, investigates the effect of backfi ll on adjacent stopes i n terms of
resultant wall slough.
6.2 Backfill as Local Support
Backfi ll should generate i nduced stresses on the order of 30 MPa, to provi de for
si gni fi cant local support (Gi i rtunca et al., 2001). However, the research by Gti rtunca i mpli es
that backfi ll affects di splacement and stresses wi thi n the rock mass at a much lower backfi ll
stress level. Thi s research i ndi cates, i n terms of backfi ll provi di ng local support, that backfi ll
starts to i nduce changes wi thi n the rock mass when backfi ll stresses approach 1 MPa and
furthermore, that rock mass i nduced effects reach thei r maxi mum when backfi ll stresses
approach 2 - 3 MPa. These effects are measured vi a reduced wall closure, reduced bed
separati on, reduced di lati on, and the effect of i nduced wall stresses.
Reduced closure and di lati on wi thi n the rock mass li mi ts stope wall
di sturbance/condi ti oni ng, and i n turn lowers wall slough. Thi s level of
di sturbance/condi ti oni ng i s a functi on of distance to the backfi ll front. Backfi ll strai n at a
speci fi c di stance near the open stope/fi ll face should yi eld (a cri ti cal) 2- 3 MPa of i nduced
backfi ll stress, i n theory. If thi s cri ti cal 2- 3 MPa backfi ll stress occurs, but a di stance much
greater than that of the exposed stri ke length of the stope, then clearly these condi ti ons do not
adequately i nfluence the exposed area, and do not render stabi li ty wi thi n the rock mass. If the
selected mi ne layout does not i nclude wi thi n its parameters suffi ci ent closure, then the use of
backfi ll i n such a low closure envi ronment i s not fully effective and consequently provi des
negli gi ble support to the adjacent stope.
Consequently, i t i s evi dent that, when mi ni ng adjacent to backfi ll (e.g., Avoca and
secondary transverse open stopi ng), the radi us factor (or hydrauli c radi us) of the exposed
area i s only one of several geometri c factors determi ni ng stabi li ty i n open stopes. A
combi nati on of the radi us factor (or hydrauli c radi us) of the exposed zone and the backfi lled
zone should be used to account for the stabi li ty of open stopes.
For mi ni ng vi a the Avoca method uti li zi ng unconsoli dated rockfi ll, or i n the case of
transverse open stope mi ni ng wi th cemented rockfi ll pri mari es, the mai n consi derati on i s the
effect of mi ni ng adjacent to backfi ll. Taki ng i nto account that, at the actual depth of mi ni ng
(200 - 600 meters below the surface), wall closure i s negli gi ble, and that rockfi ll wi ll
generate mi ni mum hori zontal stresses, less than the mi ni mum threshold of 1 MPa i s
generated, i .e., not enough to provi de local support. As a result, i t i s necessary to adjust the
stabi li ty graph curves (or modi fy the radi us factor) i n accordance wi th thi s mi ni mum support
condi ti on. Radi us factor (or hydrauli c radi us) must be i ncreased i n order to account for the
backfi lled zone and i ts effects on the overall exposed surface.
Fi gure 6-1 di splays the hori zontal stresses exerted by the backfi ll i n a 35 meter hi gh
stope (unconsoli dated rockfi ll) at different stope spans. It i s evi dent that the hori zontal stress
values are very low and are far below that needed to provi de local support ( 2- 3 MPa of
hori zontal stress).
Horizontal Stress vs. Rockfill Height
at different Spans
0.18 i
0.0 5.0 10.0 15.0 20.0 25.0 30.0 35.0 40.0 45.0 50.0
Rockfill Vertical Height h(m)
Figure 6-1: Horizontal stress versus rockfill height at different stope spans
Chapter 6 - Effect of Backfill on Open Stnpinv
99
6.3 Use of the Stability Graph Method
A l l of the known Empi ri cal Desi gn Stabi li ty Methods (re: Chapter 3) were developed for
i solated stopes and not for stopes mi ned adjacent to backfi ll (Fi gure 6-2). Thi s leads to
fundamental errors i f these exi sti ng methods are not cali brated to fi t the gi ven (non-i solated)
speci fi c mi ni ng condi ti ons (e.g., mi ni ng adjacent to backfi ll). The cali brati on of the stabi li ty
graph, the modi fi ed stabi li ty graph, or the hangi ngwall stabi li ty rati ng graph (re: Chapter 3),
when mi ni ng adjacent to a backfi lled stope, i s accompli shed by modi fyi ng the radi us factor
(or hydrauli c radi us) thereby i ncreasi ng its value, and then applyi ng the method to the
ci rcumstance of mi ni ng adjacent to a backfi lled stope. Interpolati on (rather than
extrapolati on) i s appropri ate to empi ri cal methods. New data poi nts thus enhance the exi sti ng
database. Numeri cally modeli ng the si gni fi cance of mi ni ng adjacent to backfi ll wi ll i mprove
our understandi ng of stope stabi li ty.
Figure 6-2: Stope adjacent to rock (isolated) or backfill abutment(s) - Modified from
Atlas Copco Drawing
Chapter 6 - Effect of Backfill on Open Stoping
100
6.4 Quantifying the Effect of Backfill on Longhole Open Stoping
Two mi ni ng methods are employed at Musselwhi te: Avoca (or longi tudi nal retreat), and
transverse open stopi ng. Effects of mi ni ng adjacent to backfi ll are assessed for i solated
stopes, and for stopes mi ned adjacent to backfi ll, vi a the followi ng procedure:
1. Compi lati on of the Musselwhi te database i n terms of hydrauli c radi us (converted to
radi us factor) and the modi fi ed stabi li ty number N' ;
2. Analysi s of other parameters that affect the stabi li ty of open stopes such as
undercutti ng of stope walls;
3. Conducti ng structural mappi ng wi thi n the different rock uni ts;
4. Determi ni ng Equi valent Li near Overbreak Slough (ELOS) for the compi led database
usi ng CMS survey profi les;
5. Establi shi ng, usi ng neural networks, the relati ve i mportance of i ndi vi dual parameters
and thei r si gni fi cance on wall stabi li ty (ELOS) for i solated stopes versus stopes
mi ned adjacent to backfi ll;
6. Determi ni ng vi a numeri cal modeli ng (fi ni te di fference method), the resultant decrease
on wall closure for stopes wi th and wi thout backfi ll;
7. Determi ni ng wall closure usi ng three di mensi onal numeri cal modeli ng (3D boundary
element method) i n order to assess the effect of wall closure as further mi ni ng of the
stope progresses; and
8. Determi ni ng the change i n radi us factor throughout the stope wall as mi ni ng
progresses, i .e., away from the ori gi nal radi us factor reference poi nt.
6.5 Updating Musselwhite's Stability Graph
Musselwhi te's stabi li ty database i s plotted on the Stabi li ty Graph, i n terms of radi us
factor, wi th the equi valent li near overbreak curves superi mposed onto i t. Fi gure 6-3 portrays
thi s updated Stabi li ty Graph for Avoca (or longi tudi nal retreat) stope data, and fi gure 6-4
portrays the updated Stabi li ty Graph for transverse stope data. 90 and 48 poi nts are plotted
for longi tudi nal and transverse stopes respecti vely, for a total of 138 poi nts, all of whi ch are
plotted i n figure 6-5.
Empirical Estimation of Overbreak/Slough
Musselwhite Mine (Longitudinal Stopes Data) 90 cases
0.1 i 1 1 1 1 1
0 5 10 15 20
Radi us Factor (m)
Figure 6-3: Stability Graph update - longitudinal stope data (AVOCA)
Chapter 6 - Effect of Backfill on Open Stoping 1 0 2
Empirical Estimation of Overbreak/Slouah
Musselwhite Mine (Transverse Stopes Data) 48 cases
Radi us Factor (m)
Figure 6-4: Stability Graph update - transverse stope data
The data poi nts of the updated database are summari zed i n the followi ng table:
Table 6-1: Average and standard deviation for the Musselwhite's stability database
Longitudinal stopes Transverse stopes
Average Std Deviation Average Std Deviation
Length FW 42.0 20.8 26.5 9.0
Length HW 41.4 20.0 26.5 9.0
Height FW 33.9 8.0 44.6 8.3
Height HW 34.3 7.6 44.2 8.5
Dip FW 92.4 8.7 101.4 7.0
Dip HW 82.9 10.6 80.4 3.8
Hydraulic Radius FW 8.9 2.5 8.0 1.6
Hydraulic Radius HW 8.9 2.4 8.0 1.6
Radius Factor FW 9.8 2.7 8.8 1.8
Radius Factor HW 9.8 2.6 8.8 1.8
ELOS FW 0.5 0.4 0.4 0.2
ELOS HW 1.0 1.0 1.0 0.7
Empirical Estimation of Overbreak/Slouqh
Musselwhite Mine (All Stopes Data) 138 cases
100
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0.5m <ELOS <=1.0m -
1.0m<ELOS <=1.5m -
-fr -sir -sir 1.5m <ELOS <= 2.0m
Le a e na
# # # ELOS <= 0.5m
0.5m <ELOS <=1.0m -
1.0m<ELOS <=1.5m -
Le a e na
# # # ELOS <= 0.5m
0.5m <ELOS <=1.0m -
1.0m<ELOS <=1.5m -
Le a e na
# # # ELOS <= 0.5m
0.5m <ELOS <=1.0m -
1.0m<ELOS <=1.5m -
CI CI CI 2.C
)m<ELOS
I I I I I I I I I I I ! i i i i
10 15 20
Radius Factor (m)
Fi gure 6-5: Stab i li ty Gr aph update - transverse and longi tudi nal stope data
Chapter 6 Effect of Backfill on Open Stoping 104
6.6 Neural Network Training and Results
Neural networks are used to determine the relati ve i mportance of the vari ous i nputs
related to the stabi li ty of open stopes, and to determine the effect of backfi ll on open stope
stabi li ty where mi ni ng adjacent to backfi ll occurs. The si gni fi cance of i ndi vi dual i nputs i s
assessed i n terms of i ts effect on wall slough (ELOS).
6.6.1 Relative Importance of Inputs
Fi gure 6-6 i mpli es that the di p of the orebody hi ghly affects stope stabi li ty when di p
angle i s greater than 90 degrees (gemometri c footwall). From a geometri c perspecti ve, thi s i s
the poi nt at whi ch a hangi ngwall becomes a footwall.
Relative Importance of Inputs

Dip: Stope dip angle
|
H.R.: Hydraulic radius
|
Q: Barton's rock mass
quality number
|
quality number
-
Dip H.R. Q
Figure 6-6: Relative importance of inputs on stope stability for stopes dipping more
than 90 degrees (footwalls)
Conversely, at orebody di p angle of less than 90 degrees, the quali ty of the rock mass i s
the pri nci ple determi ni ng stabi li ty parameter. Fi gure 6-7 portrays the relati ve i mportance of
the parameters that determi ne stope stabi li ty.
105
Relative Importance of Inputs

H.R.: Hydraulic radius
. .
quality number
. _
quality number

Dip H.R. Q
Figure 6-7: Relative importance of inputs on stope stability for stope dips under 90
degrees (hangingwalls)
The parameters known to determine stope stabi li ty are (i n no parti cular order): dri lli ng
and blasti ng, wall undercut, orebody di p, hydrauli c radi us of the stope walls, quali ty of the
rock mass, stress state, geologi cal heterogenei ty, and level of support, among other less
si gni fi cant factors.
Current tools i n use for the desi gn of open stopes oversi mpli fy all these parameters as
bei ng represented by quali ty of rock mass, N' , and the distance to the abutments (hydrauli c
radi us). The assumpti on i s that the quali ty of the rock mass subtends all parameters excludi ng
hydrauli c radi us.
Fi gure 6-8 portrays the database of measurements gathered by Musselwhi te's
engi neeri ng staff and i ncorporates other factors that i nfluence stope stabi li ty. One si gni fi cant
factor i s the thi ckness of the 4f rock, whose R MR value can be as low as 45%. Another
vari able determi ni ng stope stabi li ty, when combi ned wi th rock quali ty, i s the degree of
undercutti ng of the stope walls.
The quali ty of 4f rock usually determines the stabi li ty of the stope. Exposi ng the 4f rock
may produce cavi ng, especi ally when thi s rock type has been undercut. Thi s i s due to the
foli ated nature of 4f rock and i ts structure, where, typi cally, the joi nt sets wi th low strength
seri ci ti c-alterati on-i nfi lli ng, run parallel to the orebody.
| Relative Importance of Inputs
4f: Average 4f thickness
U/C: Undercut of HW/FW
4f Dip U/C
Figure 6-8: Relative importance of inputs on stope stability considering rock type, ore
dip and undercut
Fi gure 6-9 i llustrates how numeri cal modeli ng can be used to determi ne stabi li ty i n the
hangi ngwall where the (poor-quali ty) rock mass i s undercut. The modeli ng results i mply that
when thi s poor-quali ty rock type i s not undercut, the stope walls are stable. Naturally, thi s
behavi or may vary si gni fi cantly i n a real envi ronment, due to the numerous vari ables
i nvolved i n a real-world si tuati on. Some elements of these real-world vari ables are di ffi cult,
i f not i mpossi ble, to represent by numeri cal modeli ng.
I
ftjijjjj
r r j f f I
Fai lures
Figure 6-9: Effect of undercutting the hangingwall: various types of failure
6.6.2 Neural Network Predictions
The "neural net" analysi s i s trai ned on two databases, independent of each other:
- Isolated stopes (transverse pri mari es stopes); and
- Stopes adjacent to backfi ll (Avoca).
Thi s analysi s i s employed to determine i f any relati onshi p exi sts between EL OS values
when mi ni ng adjacent to backfi lled stopes versus mi ni ng adjacent to soli d abutments. EL OS
predi cti ons are made for vari ous hydrauli c radi us and stabi li ty values. The trai ned results
generated for longi tudi nal stopes are expected to be hi gher i n terms of EL OS than results
generated for transverse pri mary stopes, but no such difference can be found where backfi ll
i s used i n actual practi ce, even though radi us factor measurements should be somewhat
hi gher (re: Secti on 6.7).
Fi gure 6-10 portrays the predi cted EL OS values for transverse pri mari es versus
longi tudi nal stopes.
Predicted ELOS (not to scale)
Transverse Stopes vs. Longitudinal Stopes
Stopes Adjacent to Backfill
0.5 1.0 1.5
ELOS of Longitudinal Stopes (m)
Figure 6-10: Predicted ELOS values of transverse vs. longitudinal stopes
Fi gure 6-10 i llustrates the random scatter generated from neural net analysi s, as opposed
to the expected di stri buti on of predi cted data whi ch should have been located pri mari ly
below the one-to-one regressi on. It i s not clear that longi tudi nal stopes (adjacent to backfi ll)
would yi eld hi gher EL OS values than would transverse pri mary stopes (i .e., i solated), as
expected. Thi s result can be justi fi ed by the many other factors that affect stabi li ty such as
dri lli ng and blasti ng, geologi cal heterogeneity, undercutti ng of the stope wall, and others. A n
example of unexpected wall slough i s portrayed by figure 6-11, where a CMS survey of a
secti on of the 500SZN-P1 zone shows that di luti on occurs due to a geologi cal structure.
109
500SZN-P1 Looking North
Geologi cal structure
Unexpected wall slough
Figure 6-11: Wall instability due to structure on hangingwall
110
6.7 Effect of Backfill in Stability of Open Stopes - Numerical Modeling Analysis
2D
The followi ng sequences are tested usi ng Flac to quantify the effect of mi ni ng
adjacent to backfi ll. The first sequence (figure 6-12), corresponds to the excavati on of a 40
meter hi gh bottom stope and subsequent excavati on of the top stope (of the same hei ght)
wi thout usi ng backfi ll for the bottom stope. The next sequence (figure 6-13) i s the same as
the fi rst but i n thi s case, after the bottom stope has been mi ned, i t i s then backfi lled. The thi rd
sequence (fi gure 6-14) consi ders only mi ni ng of the top stope.
Figure 6-12: Sequence without backfill
Figure 6-13: Sequence with backfill
111
Figure 6-14: Mining of the top stope only
Fi gure 6-15 i mpli es that backfi ll has a mi ni mal effect when compared wi th soli d rock
abutments. These results are based solely on an elasti c, numeri cal model. In practi ce, thi s i s
no the case, as backfi ll provi des confi nement, i n terms of stabi li ty. The assumpti on that i t i s
i ndeed a mi nor effect on elasti c wall closure explai ns why there i s an increase i n radi us factor
(or hydrauli c radi us) when mi ni ng adjacent to backfi ll. It i s i mportant to note that thi s i s a
parametri c study, measuri ng the effect of backfi ll i n an elasti c, homogeneous, i sotropi c
model.
Wall Closure Profile
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Wall Closure Profile (cm)
Figure 6-15: Horizontal displacement profile
112
6.7.1 Radius Factor Behavior with Stope Strike Length
Radi us factor i s calculated for vari ous poi nts from the front face, whi le i ncreasi ng the
stope stri ke length unti l the radi us factor reaches a constant value, beyond a speci fi c stri ke
length. Beyond thi s stri ke length, radi us factor vari ati on i s mi ni mal and begi ns to behave
asymptoti cally. The assumpti on bei ng made here i s that, for a gi ven exposed stri ke length,
the measuri ng poi nt i s one-half of the maxi mum unsupported span, and beyond that
maxi mum unsupported span the stope i s consi dered to be backfi ll. Fi gure 6-16 portrays a
measurement poi nt at 5 meters from the front face, where i t can be assumed that the
maxi mum unsupported stri ke length i s 10 meters, beyond whi ch the stope i s consi dered to be
backfi lled. At 5 meters from the front face, the radi us factor i s calculated for a stope of 10,
20, 30, 40, 50, 100, 200, and 400 meter stri ke lengths.
10m
0
> Long Secti on
BackfiTj begins here
Backfi ll
,'>ys/\ 'J
r,y,f - j ., yJ-,*w.-.- . ..
* J / / ? / / * J *
f / fJ / e~ J' / / J- 1
v.' ,' ' >
t r *V ' j. "
10m Strike Length - Displacement and
Radius Factor measured at 5m from face
30m stope height
30m stope height
30m stope height
30m stope height
30m stope height
Theoreti cal affective
backfi ll (vari es case
by case)
Un-affecti ve backfi ll
oo
Figure 6-16: Schematic of a stope of increasingly larger strike length
113
Fi gure 6-17 i llustrates a radi us factor measurement at 5 meters from the front face, for a
stope of 40 meter hei ght and 100 meter stri ke length. The same procedure i s used to measure
the radi us factor at 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 15, and 20 meters from the front face, representi ng 12, 14,
16, 18, 20, 30, and 40 meters, respecti vely, of unsupported stri ke length. Beyond these
distances (12, 14, 16, etc.) the stope i s consi dered to be backfi ll (fi gure 6-17 portrays the 5
meter case only).
40m
i i
5m
vr10m
100m
Figure 6-17: Radius factor measurement at distance from front face
Fi gure 6-18 i llustrates the generati on of radi us factors by an AutoLI SP program (Mi lne
and Lunder, 1994) over an entire area of a stope of 40 meter height and 100 meter length.
5 0,7 0,8 0,9 0,9 0.9 0,8 0,6 0,9 O.S 0,9 0,9 0,S 0,8 0,9 0.B 0,8 0,8 O.B 0,7 0,
C.7 4.3 5.S 5.6 5.7 5.8 5.9 5,9 6.0 6.0 6.0 6.0 6,0 5,9 5.9 5.S 5.7 5.6 5.2 4.3 0.'
C.B 5.6 7.7 8.6 9.1 9.4 9.6 9.7 9.8 9.6 9.B 9.8 9.8 9.7 9.6 9.4 9.1 8.6 7.7 5.6 0.3
C,B 6,2 9,0 10,5 11,3 11,8 12,112,312,412,512,512,512,412.312,1 11,8 11,3 10,5 9,0 6,2 0,3
C.8 6.4 9.6 11.5 12.513,2 13.613.B14.0 14,0 14,1 14,0 14,013.813.613.212.5 11,5 9,6 6,4 0,3
C.8 6.5 9.S ll.B 12.913.614.014.314.514.614.614.614.514.314.013.612.9 ll.B 9.8 6,5 0.3
C.8 6,4 9.6 11.5 12.513.213,613.814.0 14.0 14.1 14.0 14.013.813,613,212,5 11.5 9.6 6.4 0.3
C.8 6,2 9.0 10.5 11.3 11.8 12.112.312.412.512.512.512.412.312.1 11.8 11.3 10.5 9.0 6.2 0.3
C.8 5.6 7.7 8.6 9.1 9.4 9.6 9.7 9.8 9.a 9.8 9.a 9.B 9.7 9.6 9.4 9.1 8.6 7.7 5.6 O.J
C.7 4.3 5.2 5.6 5.7 5.8 5.9 5.9 6.0 6,0 6.0 6.0 6.0 5.9 5.9 5.8 5.7 5.6 5.2 4.3 0.'
0:5 0.7 0.8 0.8 0.3 0,8 0.8 O.S 0.8 0.9 0.8 0.8 0.8 0.8 0.8 0.8 0.8 O.S 0.8 0.7 O.g
40m
5m
10m
100m
Figure 6-18: Radius factor generation
Fi gure 6-19 portrays the relati ve i ncrement of radi us factor at i ncreasi ngly larger stope
stri ke length measured at a distance from the front face. Radi us factor behaves asymptoti cally
wi th the stope stri ke length.
Radius Factor versus Stope Strike Length (AutoLisp)
2 8.0
20mfromface
--15mfromface
-- 10mfromface
-*- 9mfromface
8mfromface
----7mfromface
6mfromface
-*- 5mfromface

20mfromface
--15mfromface
-- 10mfromface
-*- 9mfromface
8mfromface
----7mfromface
6mfromface
-*- 5mfromface
20mfromface
--15mfromface
-- 10mfromface
-*- 9mfromface
8mfromface
----7mfromface
6mfromface
-*- 5mfromface
j ^ . . .
20mfromface
--15mfromface
-- 10mfromface
-*- 9mfromface
8mfromface
----7mfromface
6mfromface
-*- 5mfromface
*
20mfromface
--15mfromface
-- 10mfromface
-*- 9mfromface
8mfromface
----7mfromface
6mfromface
-*- 5mfromface
a.^-
20mfromface
--15mfromface
-- 10mfromface
-*- 9mfromface
8mfromface
----7mfromface
6mfromface
-*- 5mfromface
20mfromface
--15mfromface
-- 10mfromface
-*- 9mfromface
8mfromface
----7mfromface
6mfromface
-*- 5mfromface
20mfromface
--15mfromface
-- 10mfromface
-*- 9mfromface
8mfromface
----7mfromface
6mfromface
-*- 5mfromface
20mfromface
--15mfromface
-- 10mfromface
-*- 9mfromface
8mfromface
----7mfromface
6mfromface
-*- 5mfromface
f
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450
Stope Strike Length (m)
Figure 6-19: Radius factor versus stope strike length at different distance from front
face
6.7.2 Horizontal Displacement Behavior considered with Stope Strike Length
The procedure i s repeated but usi ng the Map3D boundary element program i n order to
measure hori zontal wall closure at 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 15 and 20 meters from the front face.
These measurements represent 10, 12, 14, 16, 18, 20, 30 and 40 meters respecti vely of
maxi mum unsupported stri ke length. As before, the assumpti on i s that, beyond these
di stances, i n each case, the stope can be consi dered as a backfi lled stope. There i s a
decreasi ngly mi nor (asymptoti c) effect on wall closure. Fi gure 6-20 portrays hori zontal wall
closure measurement at 5 meters from the front face for a stope of 40 meter hei ght and 100
meter stri ke length.
Grid line - wall closure measuring point
(5m curve for 100m strike length - progressively mined stope)
|Map30"SV50 IC:VDocuonli and Setling*\Ciitlian C*ceie\M> Docunmnli\Thei\Map3DMhiee.001112005:01:04]
Figure 6-20: Horizontal displacement measurement at various distances from front face
Fi gure 6-21 i llustrates the relati ve i ncremental decrease i n wall closure at progressi vely
larger stope stri ke lengths. From thi s analysi s i t i s evi dent that radi us factor i s correlated wi th
hori zontal wall closure. Wall closure behaves asymptoti cally wi th stope stri ke length. The
i ncrease i n wall di splacement i s proporti onal to the degree of fai lure, whi ch i tself i s li mi ted i n
degree (i .e., di splacement) by the distance to the abutments.
Horizontal Wall Closure versus Stope Strike Length (Map3D)
20mfromface
1
15mfromface
--10mfromface
-*- 9mfromface
- - 8mfromface
- - 7mfromface
6mfromface
-- 5mfromface
100 150 200 250 300 350
Stope Strike Length (m)
Figure 6-21: Horizontal displacement versus stope strike length at different distances
from front face
No si gni fi cant effect of backfi ll on wall di splacement was found from an elasti c,
homogeneous, i sotropi c, numeri cal modeli ng perspecti ve. Thi s parametri c assessment
analyzes the effect of backfi ll only, and does not i ncorporate other factors such as blasti ng
damage, rock heterogenei ty, etc. The model i s an approxi mati on only.
However, thi s model predi cts, that greater di splacement leads to a proporti onal increase
i n the degree of fai lure. Backfi ll alone does not affect the degree of fai lure i n a meani ngful
way. The followi ng conclusi on i s reached: radi us factor for a stope mi ned adjacent to backfi ll
should consi der the exposed wall and at the same ti me consi der the backfi lled wall (i n terms
of its effect on stabi li ty).
6.7.3 Design Curves -Avoca Mining Method
Fi gures 6-22 and 6-24 i llustrate the increase of radi us factor from i ts i ni ti al value
(represented by the i solated stope curve) to its maxi mum value (represented by the 380 meter
backfi ll curve). Fi gures 6-22 and 6-24 portray radi us factors for stopes of 30 meter and 40
meter hei ghts, respecti vely. The dashed li ne ( ) represents the maxi mum radi us factor
obtai ned at the mi ddle of the stope, i .e., 200 meters from each end.
Radius Factor
Stope of 30m Height - 400m Strike Length
Distance to Front Face (m)
Figure 6-22: Radius factor increment - stope of 30 meter height and 400 meter strike
length
Chapter 6 - Effect of Backfill on Open Stoping i l l
Example calculati on: radi us factor measurement i s obtai ned for poi nt R of the i solated
stope A B C D (fi gure 6-23) and i s also measured for the exposed stope plus the backfi lled
stope A E F D (fi gure 6-23) whi ch can then i n its entirety be assumed to be open. In the case of
a 30 meter stope hei ght, the radi us factor increases from an i ni ti al value of 6.5 meters for a 20
meter stri ke length to a constant value of 8.4 meters at a 400 meter stri ke length, as i llustrated
by fi gure 6-22 and depi cted three di mensi onally i n figure 6-23.
20m
strike length
For a stope of 30 meter hei ght, where radi us factor i s measured at a mi d-span of 10
meters (20 meter stri ke length), radi us factor increases from an i ni ti al value of 6.5 meters (i n
the i solated stope) and reaches the constant value of approxi mately 8.4 meters at 400 meter
stri ke length (mi d-span remai ns 10 meters) for 380 meters of backfi ll.
Chapter 6 - Effect of Backfill on Oven Stopinz 111
Radius Factors
Stope of 40m Height - 400m Strike Length
in
4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21
Distance to Front Face (m)
strike length
Thi s approach shows that i t i s numeri cally possi ble to assess the increase i n radi us factor
due to mi ni ng adjacent to backfi ll. After applyi ng neural network analysi s, the mi ne database
(see Chapter 4, Table 4-7) does not conclusi vely reflect a quanti tati ve procedure, as a
consequence of the many parameters that affect di luti on.
Chapter 7 - Conclusions and Recommendations 120
7 CONCLUSIONS AND R E C OMME ND A T IONS
Backfi ll plays an essenti al role i n the effi ci ency of mi ni ng operations at the Musselwhi te
ore deposi t. Moni tori ng the true performance of backfi ll, both from safety and operati onal
perspecti ves, should be a routi ne part of operations to ensure that the quali ty of the mi ne's
fi nal product results as planned.
Cement i s the pri nci ple cost component of a backfi ll system. Strategies that opti mi ze the
use (i .e., amount) of cement, whi le mai ntai ni ng a hi gh degree of quali ty i n backfi ll materi al,
are of substanti al benefit to the overall mi ni ng operati on.
In order to determine analyti cally the verti cal load exerted by unconsoli dated backfi ll,
the coeffi ci ent of lateral earth pressure, K, must be obtai ned. A n i naccurate esti mati on of K
wi ll i n turn produce a si ll mat desi gn di fferi ng from the opti mi zed soluti on. Numeri cal
modeli ng was used to determine di rectly the coeffi ci ent K by measuri ng the hori zontal and
verti cal stresses of a gi ven gri d element, and subsequently calculati ng the rati o between these
two stresses. The coeffi ci ent of lateral earth pressure K obtai ned vi a numeri cal modeli ng falls
between the acti ve value and the at rest value. Addi ti onally, a curve was fi tted to the poi nts
obtai ned from thi s numeri cal modeli ng and an equati on was subsequently determi ned. Thi s
equati on can be used to obtai n the K value for unconsoli dated rockfi ll materi al confi ned
wi thi n stope walls.
The equati on i s:
K = 1.4 Sin
2
(</>)- 2 Sin(0) +1 wi th 0 < <b <= 40
Also, an analyti cal equati on to determine the verti cal load of unconsoli dated backfi ll as a
functi on of backfi ll hei ght was deri ved i n thi s thesi s. Thi s equati on accounts for the decrease
i n verti cal load as a result of stope i ncli nati on. Although thi s equati on yi elds an
approxi mati on, the numeri cal modeli ng conducted was shown to be hi ghly correlated wi th
analyti cal results.
The equati on i s:
r-L
si n
2
(/?) 1 -exp
f 2-K-tan(<f>)-z
L-sm\B)
The exi sti ng analyti cal equati on for the rotati onal fai lure mode does not consi der shear
strength on hangi ngwall/si ll mat contact, due to the low strength of pastefi ll and/or the gap
that may occur at the contact surface (as a result of low di p angle), gi ven the method of
pastefi ll deli very i tself (i .e., vi a pi pi ng), and so i t becomes di ffi cult to mai ntai n fi rm contact.
Methods of constructi ng si ll mat pi llars employi ng rockfi ll most li kely can overcome thi s
problem, i n nearly all cases, and so a new analyti cal equati on that consi ders shear strength of
the wall contact was developed. As a result of thi s new analyti cal equati on, there i s a
si gni fi cant i ncrease i n the factor of safety of a gi ven si ll mat.
The equati on i s:
, , C T -d
2
+a-2-T d-L-sm
2
(B)
(cj+d-y)>
?
- r
L- ( L- J- cot ( ^ ) ) - si n
2
( ^ )
Although analyti cal equations are hi ghly useful i n the desi gn of si ll mat pi llars, thi s
thesi s proposed that numeri cal modeli ng i s a more accurate method of desi gni ng si ll mat
pi llars gi ven numeri cal modeli ng's capaci ty of i ncorporati ng several addi ti onal factors that
i nfluence stabi li ty. These factors i nclude: materi al deformati on, and the reducti on i n strength
properti es throughout the modeli ng process (as a functi on of the strai n on gri d elements).
Among the strategies assessed, the fi ni te difference program Flac
2D
was consi dered to be the
most sui table program of all those avai lable, i n addressi ng and understandi ng the mechani cs
of the vari ous fai lure modes of cemented rockfi ll si ll mats, and the parameters i nvolved i n
rockfi ll si ll mat desi gn.
Desi gn curves for the stabi li ty of cemented rockfi ll si ll mats were developed to ai d i n the
desi gn of new pi llars or to reassess the performance of exi sti ng pi llars at the Musselwhi te
mi ne. It i s i mperati ve that, when mi ni ng under backfi ll, no personnel are exposed to the
danger, and remote mi ni ng methods are employed (wi th a mi ni mum factor of safety of 1.2
for non-entry methods). Thi s i s the lowest useable factor of safety to ensure that the si ll mat
remai ns i ntegral duri ng its exposure. The above statement notwi thstandi ng, vi a numeri cal
modeli ng i t i s possi ble only to determine si ll mat pi llar stabi li ty wi th a factor of safety of 1.0,
and by i ncorporati ng a sui table factor of safety on the input strength parameters (cohesi on)
the operator i s able to produce a desi gn wi thi n exi sti ng constructi on gui deli nes. It i s also
essenti al that stabi li ty calculati ons di ctati ng vari ati on i n fi ll reci pes be confi rmed by full-
scale fi eld tri als and veri fi ed by observati ons duri ng actual mi ni ng. If at all possi ble,
numeri cal modeli ng i s the preferred method of analysi s (over analysi s usi ng analyti cal
equati ons).
The graphs shown i n detai l i n Chapter 5 portray the stabi li ty curves developed vi a
numeri cal modeli ng. The x-axi s represents the strength of the si ll mat pi llar (i n terms of
cohesi on) and the y-axi s represents the minimum requi red verti cal hei ght of the pi llar to be
stable. Each graph i ncludes four stabi li ty curves for spans rangi ng from 6 to 12 meters. The
graphs are di vi ded i nto 3 categori es: zero strength i n the hangi ngwall/si ll mat contact, 50%
strength i n the contact, and 100% strength assumed i n the contact (cohesi on value). Graphs
were developed for 90 degrees (verti cal), and for 85, 80 and 75 degree stopes.
The rotati onal fai lure mode obtai ned vi a numeri cal modeli ng di ffers from that obtai ned
i n previ ous exi sti ng research employi ng centrifuge models. Two rotati onal fai lure modes
were generated vi a numeri cal modeli ng, rotati onal-crushi ng and rotati onal-breaki ng. Nei ther
i mpli ed tensi le fai lure at the footwall propagati ng at an angle of the same magni tude as the
stope di p angle, but i n a di recti on defi ned by the supplementary angle, as predi cted by
Mi tchell's (1991) rotati onal fai lure mode equati on. Rotati onal-crushi ng fai lure mode predi cts
tensi le fai lure at the footwall contact and shear (or volumetri c) fai lure at the hangi ngwall
contact, whereas the rotati onal-breaki ng fai lure mode predi cts a tensi le fai lure propagati ng
verti cally at mi d-span, and a shear (or volumetri c) fai lure at the hangi ngwall contact.
Musselwhi te's Stabi li ty Graph was updated usi ng the cavi ty moni tori ng system survey
database. A total of 138 cases were analyzed. These were di vi ded i nto i solated stopes (48
cases) and stopes mi ned adjacent to backfi ll (90 cases). The poi nts were plotted i nto the
empi ri cal esti mati on of wall slough (ELOS) expressed i n terms of radi us factor (portrayed i n
Chapter 7 - Conclusions and Recommendations
123
detai l i n Chapter 6), since the adjustment factor was obtai ned only for the radi us factor case
(whi ch would not be possi ble i n the case of hydrauli c radi us).
Neural network analysi s was i mplemented to determine i f i solated stopes would account
for less wall slough compared wi th stopes of the same exposed wall si ze, but where the
mi ni ng occurs adjacent to backfi ll. As a consequence of the many vari ables i nvolved
(pri nci pally, dri lli ng, blasti ng and geologi cal heterogenei ty), no conclusi ve results were
obtai ned from thi s analysi s i n order that the assumpti on could be made that stopes mi ned
adjacent to backfi ll wi ll result i n a greater degree of wall slough than i solated stopes.
The exi sti ng empi ri cal desi gn-stabi li ty methods were mostly developed for i solated
stopes. Although i t i s possi ble to cali brate the empi ri cal desi gn stabi li ty curves to site speci fi c
condi ti ons (e.g., mi ni ng adjacent backfi lled stopes), the method proposed i n thi s thesi s uses
the same desi gn curves developed for i solated stopes, but adjusts the magni tude of the radi us
factor of the excavati on to account for the porti on of the stope contai ni ng backfi ll. The
figures shown i n detai l i n Chapter 6, portray the i ncremental increase i n radi us factor that
must be progressi vely appli ed as mi ni ng advances, where mi ni ng adjacent to backfi lled
stopes occurs. The x-axi s represents the di stance to the front face. Thi s thesi s made the
assumpti on that, for a gi ven exposed stri ke length, the measuri ng poi nt i s one-half of the
maxi mum unsupported span, and beyond that maxi mum unsupported span the stope i s
consi dered to be backfi ll. The y-axi s di splays the radi us factor values. Two curves are
plotted, the lower representi ng radi us factor for i solated stopes, and the upper representi ng
maxi mum radi us factor obtai ned for a 380 meter backfi lled stope (stri ke length) that can be
considered i nfi ni te. Two graphs were developed, one for a stope of 30 meter hei ght and the
other for a stope of 40 meter hei ght.
The i ncrease i n radi us factor wi ll vary dependi ng upon exposed stri ke length. There i s a
negli gi ble i ncremental difference i n the radi us factor value for a backfi lled stope of 100
meter stri ke length compared to a backfi lled stope of "i nfi ni te" stri ke length. A stope of 400
meter stri ke length i s consi dered to be the same mathemati cally as a stope of i nfi ni te stri ke
length.
Chapter 7 - Conclusions and Recommendations
124
A hypotheti cal effect should be that secondary stopes, where both abutments are CRF
pi llars, wi ll have greater i nstabi li ty as consequence of hi gher radi us factor, and i n turn wi ll
suffer greater di luti on (when compared to stopes wi th a si ngle backfi ll abutment).
Radi us factor calculati ons obtai ned i n thi s thesis usi ng the AutoLI SP procedure (Mi lne
and Lunder, 1994), always yi eld the maxi mum value for each locati on measured (si nce the
stope i s consi dered enti rely wi thout backfi ll). For thi s reason, the radi us factor value obtai ned
i n each case i s the maxi mum value attainable. Consi der a reduced percentage of the radi us
factor maxi mum value as bei ng effective i n reduci ng wall closure, due to backfi ll's mi ni mal
effects on wall closure as predi cted by the numeri cal modeli ng results i n thi s thesi s.
The i ncreased use of pastefi ll/CRF i n mi ni ng operati ons demands a greater
understandi ng of the geomechani cal effects of backfi ll and thei r i mpli cati ons on desi gn. Thi s
area of appli cati on wi ll gai n i ncreasi ng acceptance i n the future, as mi ni ng deposi ts are found
deeper underground and ground condi ti ons prove to be more hazardous.
Chapter 8 - Future Work
125
8 F UT UR E W OR K
Implementi ng a full i nstrumentati on campai gn for determi ni ng in situ properti es (i .e.,
strength, stress and strai n) of cemented and uncemented rockfi ll i s hi ghly recommended, as
i ni ti ally proposed i n the research by Scoble, et al. (1987). A better understandi ng of these
properti es wi ll contri bute to the opti mi zati on of CRF si ll mat desi gns. Addi ti onally, opti mal
desi gn of stopes, i n terms of excavati on di mensi ons, leads to a reducti on i n wall i nstabi li ty,
where mi ni ng adjacent to backfi lled stopes occurs. A n opti mi zed desi gn di rectly reduces
mi ni ng costs.
Unconsoli dated rockfi ll verti cal loads along the span of a backfi lled stope could be
determi ned usi ng an array of earth pressure cells i nstalled on top of the si ll mat pi llar. In
practi ce, thi s i s a very di ffi cult task due to the physi cal hazards of enteri ng an open stope.
Remoted equi pment would thus be employed to i nstall thi s equi pment, mi ni mi zi ng the ri sk to
mi ne personnel.
CRF si ll mat strength properti es could be determi ned vi a an in situ pressuremeter
apparatus. Pressuremeters have cyli ndri cal rubber membranes that are i nflated wi th
pressuri zed flui d (e.g., water, gas, or oi l) to measure volume change. Enti re stress-strai n-
strength curves could then be deri ved, as well as in situ total hori zontal stress, shear modulus,
shear strength, and li mi t pressure. Types of pressuremeter testi ng i nclude: the pre-bored
(Menard), the push-i n devi ce, the self-bori ng, and the full-di splacement, types (e.g., cone
pressuremeter or pressi ocone). Pre-bored types are preferred consi deri ng the extreme
di ffi culty of penetrati ng cemented rockfi ll.
The strength on the hangi ngwall/si ll mat contact could be i ndi rectly i nferred usi ng earth
pressure cells. The hi gher the load exerted by CRF backfi ll on the contact, the hi gher the
i nferred strength value. Hori zontal stress, as well as the stress parallel to the hangi ngwall
contact, should increase duri ng mi ni ng of adjacent stopes (wall convergence). These load
measurements would help i n determi ni ng the crushi ng mode i nstabi li ty of si ll mats (not
analyzed i n thi s research). Another possi bi li ty for determi ni ng the strength on
hangi ngwall/si ll mat contact i s to obtai n core samples through the contact and, usi ng a shear
Chapter 8 - Future Work 126
box apparatus, test the shear strength of the sample obtai ned. Samples should be cored at
vari ous depths of the contact and also at vari ous poi nts along the stri ke length of the si ll mat
pi llar, i n order to obtai n a representative measurement of the strength of the hangi ngwall/si ll
mat pi llar contact.
The effects on si ll mat stabi li ty i ncorporati ng the actual verti cal load di stri buti on along
the stope span, as well as, greater verti cal hei ght of rockfi ll, could be effected by numeri cal
modeli ng analysi s. In thi s thesi s, the analyses were completed usi ng a constant verti cal load
along the span.
A three di mensi onal numeri cal modeli ng program could be used to model backfi ll
behavi or. Three di mensi onal numeri cal modeli ng would help i n that i t can model the depth
di mensi on, whi ch cannot be modeled usi ng the two di mensi onal versi on. The two
di mensi onal versi on cannot accurately model the overall three di mensi onal geometry
associ ated wi th A VOC A mi ni ng.
Also, numeri cal modeli ng to determine stope stabi li ty, where mi ni ng adjacent to
backfi ll, could be re-run i n three di mensi ons. The results may help determi ne how backfi ll
affects di splacement around an openi ng adjacent to the backfi ll i tself. Instrumentati on of the
stope wall by employi ng extensometers could be used to determine the real di splacements of
both i solated stopes and of stopes mi ned adjacent to backfi ll.
Stopes wi th backfi ll below (longi tudi nal mi ni ng method wi th backfi ll on the floor of the
stope) could be analyzed. The analysi s performed i n thi s thesis deals only wi th radi us factor
adjustments for stopes backfi lled along the stri ke. Backfi ll on the floor of the stope would
have a di rect effect on the magnitude of the radi us factor.
To determi ne solely the i nfluence of backfi ll on wall stabi li ty, i t would be necessary to
i solate all external factors that account for wall i nstabi li ty. Those factors that can be i solated
are mai nly dri lli ng and blasti ng. In order to i solate these factors, i t would be necessary to
survey all blastholes (or at least those blastholes dri lled adjacent to the hangi ngwall and
Chapter 8 - Future Work
127
footwall of the orebody). A di rect measurement of blasti ng performance could be obtai ned
vi a sei smi c wave method. Results from thi s analysi s could be combi ned wi th dri ll devi ati on
to account for unplanned wall slough as a result of dynami c effects. Doi ng so, would make i t
possi ble to determine the actual, real-world effect of backfi ll on wall stabi li ty.
References 128
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t h
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Appendix A - Analytical Equations to Determine Vertical Load of Backfill
134
APPENDIX A
Proposed Analytical Equation to Determine Vertical Load of Backfill
Thi s method i s based on the Janssen's method of si lo theory, but consi ders i ncli ned
walls.
Differential inclined slice in a silo
Thi s method consi ders the same characteri sti cs of Janssen's di fferenti al sli ce but
i ncorporates the followi ng assumpti ons: the hori zontal pressure i s equal i n magni tude and i n
opposi te di recti on on both si lo walls; and the tangenti al stress i s equal i n magni tude for both
sides of the si lo walls. Thi s wi ll gi ve the followi ng "approxi mati on" for the force equi li bri um
expressi on:
2-b-a
y
-2-b-(a
y+
da
y
)-
2
'
dy
'
o
a
' + 2-b-
r
dy = 0
si n(/?)
Si mpli fyi ng the above equati on and di vi di ng by 2b*dy gi ves the di fferenti al form:
r
= o
dy b si n(/?)
135
A further generali zati on of the above equati on i s obtai ned by defi ni ng the hydrauli c
radi us of the si lo for any cross secti on of any shape as HR = S / P, where S i s the area and P
i s the peri meter. Wi th thi s notati on, the equi li bri um equati on becomes:
der.
dy HR si n(/?)
-r = o
The fri cti on law would be:
a, =cr
n
-tan(^)
However, i n the i ncli ned case an relates to ax wi th the angle of the wall (3, and then the
fri cti on law can be wri tten as:
a, =
si n
2
(/?)
The two unknowns, the average verti cal stress a
y
and the average hori zontal stress a
x
are necessary to solve equati on 3. To obtai n a soluti on, i t i s necessary to employ the
coeffi ci ent of lateral earth pressure K previ ously defi ned.
K-tm(0)-a
v
si n
2
(/?)
Combi ni ng equations 3 and 6, yi elds:
da K-tm(<f>)-cT
+ = 0
dy HR- si n
2
(/?)
The i ntegrati ng factor would be:
O0 = exp J-
K tan(^)
HR- si n
2
(j3)
dy = exp,
K tan(^)y
HR- si n
2
(/?)
136
The soluti on of the fi rst order di fferenti al equati on would be:
f
^ - t a n f ^V ^
v
e X P
l
HR- si n
2
(/?)
r
dy
exp
r
K tan(<f>) y^
HR-sin
2
(8)
Solvi ng the i ntegral yi elds to the followi ng equati on:
r -HR- si n
2
(/?)
K t an(
exp
K tanQ) y
HR- si n
2
(/?)
+ C
exp
f
K-\an((j>)-y^
HR- si n
2
(j3)
10
Usi ng the boundary condi ti ons, the followi ng soluti on i s obtai ned:
^ y-HR
N
/C-tan(^)
si n
2
(/?) 1-exp
' A: tan(^) z ^
HR-sin
2
(J3)
11
or,
CT
vO) = - v At o -si n
2
(^)'
1-exp
HR-sin
2
(B)
12
Where:
- P = stope's di p
Now, when i nfi ni te stope stri ke length i s consi dered:
HR
L-SL L
lim SL><x>
2(1 + SL) 2
13
Where:
L = stope's span; and
SL = stope's stri ke length.
137
Then equati on 11 can be si mpli fi ed to:
o\ 0) =
Y-L
sin
2
(/?) 1 -exp
f
2 tari ff)-z^
I -si n
2
(/?)
14
Appendix B - Analytical Equations to Determine Sill Mat Failure Modes
138
A P P E ND I X B
Proposed A nal y t i cal Equati on to Determi ne Rotati onal Si l l Mat Fai lure Modes
Dri vi ng momentum wi th respect to poi nt O i s:
CT-L-
L
2 2 tan(/?)
+ d-L-y
2 2 tan(/?)
Whereas resi sti ng momentum wi th respect to O i s:
cr.
d
si n(A)
2-si n(/?)
+ a T,
f
d ^
si n(/?)
L si n(/?)
Then, rotati onal fai lure would develop when:
G
(cr
v
+d-y)>
' 2
f
d
2
^
v
si n
2
( / ?)
y
+ a r, d L
i . l .
2
f
L-
tan(/?)
Si mpli fyi ng equati on 3 yi elds:
(cr
v
+d-y)>
f
d
2
^
V
si n
2
(/5)y
+ a 2 T d L
L
or:
K + d r) >
a, d
2
+ a- 2-T
(
dL-si n
2
(/J)
L-(L-d-cot(j3))-sin
2
(j3)
Appendix C - Interface Elements
139
APPENDIX C
f
Interface Elements
A n interface or sli p-plane model i s avai lable to represent di sti nct i nterfaces between two
or more porti ons of the gri d. The interfaces are planes upon whi ch sli p and/or separati on are
allowed, thereby si mulati ng the presence of faults, joi nts or fri cti onal boundari es.
A n interface i s represented as a normal and shear stiffness between two planes whi ch
may contact one another (figure A ).
Figure A: An interface represented by sides A and B, connected by shear (k
s
) and
normal (k) stiffness springs
Where:
- S = sli der;
- T = tensi le strength;
- k
n
= normal stiffness; and
- k
s
= shear stiffness.
Three opti ons are avai lable for speci fyi ng the condi ti ons of the i nterface, as follows:
Glued Interfaces - i f interfaces are declared glued, no sli p or openi ng i s allowed, but
elasti c di splacement sti ll occurs, accordi ng to the gi ven stiffnesses.
Coulomb Shear-Strength - the Coulomb shear-strength cri teri on li mi ts the shear force
by the followi ng relati on:
140
Fs max = c- L + Fn- tan(^) 1
Where:
- c = cohesi on (i n stress uni ts) along the i nterface,
- L = effecti ve contact length, and
- = fri cti on angle of interface surfaces. In addi ti on, the interface may di late at the
onset of sli p (non elasti c sli di ng). Di lati on i s governed i n the Coulomb model by a
speci fi ed di lati on angle, v|/.
Tensi on Bond - If a (posi ti ve) tensi le bond strength i s speci fi ed for an i nterface, each
segment of the interface acts as i f i t i s glued (elasti c response only) whi le the magni tude of
the tensi le normal stress i s below the bond strength. If the magni tude of the tensi le normal
stress of a segment exceeds the bond strength, the bond breaks for that segment, and the
segment behaves thereafter as unbonded (separati on and sli p allowed, i n the normal way).
The apparent stiffness (expressed i n stress-per-distance uni ts) of a zone i n the normal
di recti on i s:
f
4 ^
K + --G
3
max
mm
Az
V J
Where:
- K = bulk modulus,
- G = shear modulus, and
- A z
m i n
= i s the smallest wi dth of an adjoi ni ng zone i n the normal di recti on.
Bulk modulus, K, and shear modulus, G, are related to Young's modulus E, and
Poi sson's rati o v, by:
141
K = -
3-(l -2-v)
G =
2-(\ + v)
+ Itasca Consulti ng Group, 2002. "Flac
2D
Fast Lagrangian Analysis of Continua -
User's Guide ".

Effect of Delayed Backfill in Open Stope Methods PDF

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EFFECT OF D E L A Y E D B A C K F I L L ON OPEN STOPE MI NI NG METHOD S

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