ELECTRICAL MACHINES (DC Motors) Chapter 2-1 (201305) Contents Introduction to Electrical & Direct Current Machines Constructional

ructional Details of DC Machines Principle of Operation of Dc Machines Types of DC Motor Power Flow Diagram Characteristics of DC Motors Armature Reaction Speed Control of DC Motors Applications

Learning Outcomes
Upon completion of chapter-2 you should be able to: State the principle by which machines convert mechanical energy to electrical energy and vice versa. Discuss the operating differences between different types of dc machines. Explain the characteristics of dc machines.

Introduction
Energy Conversion Energy exists in many forms. One form of energy can be obtained from the other form with the help of converters. Light bulbs and heaters require energy in electrical form. Electrical Machines: Converters that translate an electrical input to a mechanical output or vice versa are called the electric machines. This process of translation is electromechanical energy conversion. The magnetic system acts as the link between the electrical and mechanical systems
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Introduction . . .
Electromagnetic phenomena: Electrical machines use the following electromagnetic phenomena for their electromechanical energy conversion: Whenever the field in the vicinity of a conductor changes (or) flux linking a conductor changes, an emf is induced into that conductor (Faradays Law). Whenever a current-carrying conductor is placed in a magnetic field, the conductor experiences a mechanical force.

Introduction . . . .

Energy flow diagram

Gen

Transformer (step-up)

Transmission Line

Transformer (step-down)

Distribution /Utilization: Loads could be Motors, Lighting, Heaters, Coolers,

Over view of DC Machines

Direct-current (DC) machines are divided into dc generators and dc motors. DC Generator A dc generator is a machine that converts mechanical energy into electrical energy (dc voltage & current) by using the principle of magnetic induction. DC generators are not as common as they used to be, because dc, when required, is mainly produced by electronic rectifiers.

Over view of DC Machines . . .

DC Motor
A

dc motor is a machine that converts electrical energy into mechanical energy by supplying a dc power (voltage and current).
DC

motors are widely used in many applications.

DC

motors are everywhere! In a house, almost every mechanical movement that you see around you is caused by an DC (direct current) motor.

Over view of DC Machines . . .

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CONSTRUCTIONAL DETAILS OF DC MACHINES Stator: Field Poles (minimum 2) - magnetic flux Rotor : Armature - carries armature winding Air gap (between poles and armature) Commutator (ac to dc) Carbon brushes (collects and carry current from the commutator)

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Slot

Tooth

Rotor of a DC machine 12

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Constructional details of dc machines . . .

The field poles which produce the magnetic flux, are mounted on the yoke made up of cast iron and carry field windings. The pole cores and pole faces are laminated to reduce eddy current loss. The armature core, which carries armature windings is on the rotor and is made of sheet-steel laminations. The slots are cut on the surface of armature core to place armature windings.

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Constructional details of dc machines . . .

The ends of the windings are connected to the commutator segments (built in copper and are very good conductors). Carbon brushes are placed over commutator segments and serve as leads for the electric connection.

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Constructional details of dc machines . . .

ARMATURE (Rotor)

The

entire assembly of iron core, commutator, and windings is called the armature.
The The

commutator is connected to the slotted iron core.

windings of armatures are connected in different ways depending on the requirements of the machine.
More

turns of conductor = higher rectified voltage

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Constructional details of dc machines . . .

ARMATURE . . . There are two types of armature winding: Lap winding and Wave winding. Lap Wound Armatures are used in machines designed for low voltage and high current armatures are constructed with large wire because of high current Number of parallel paths = number of poles

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Constructional details of dc machines . . .

ARMATURE . . . Wave Wound Armatures are used in machines designed for high voltage and low current are used is in the small generator No of parallel paths = 2

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Constructional details of dc machines . . .

Field winding
Most

DC machines use electromagnets to provide the magnetic field.

Two

types of field windings are used : series field winding shunt field winding Series field windings are so named because they are connected in series with the armature are made with relatively few turns of very large wire (sufficiently large to carry the current) and have a very low resistance.
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Constructional details of dc machines . . .

Shunt field windings Have relatively many turns of small wire, thus, it has a much higher resistance than the series field. is intended to be connected in parallel with, or shunt, the armature. high resistance is used to limit current flow through the field.

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When

a DC machine uses both series and shunt fields, each pole piece will contain both windings.
The

windings are wound on the pole pieces in such a manner that when current flows through the winding it will produce alternate magnetic polarities.

Factors affecting the machine output Speed Field strength No. of turns in the windings
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DC motor principles
The same dc machine can act as a generator or a motor. The motor converts electric energy to mechanical energy. DC motors are used in industrial applications that demand a high degree of flexibility in the control of speed and torque (the torque-speed characteristics of dc motors can be varied over a wide range while retaining high efficiency). They drive devices such as hoists, fans, pumps, calendars, punch-presses, cars, steel mills, mines, electric trains etc.

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DC motor principles . . .
The Advantages The greatest advantage of DC motors may be speed control. Today, adjustable frequency drives can provide precise speed control for AC motors, but they do so at the expense of power quality, as the solid-state switching devices in the drives produce a rich harmonic spectrum. The DC motor has no adverse effects on power quality.

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DC motor principles . . .
The drawbacks Power supply, initial cost, and maintenance requirements are the negatives associated with DC motors Rectification must be provided for any DC motors supplied from the grid. It can also cause power quality problems. The construction of a DC motor is considerably more complicated and expensive than that of an AC motor, primarily due to the commutator, brushes, and armature windings.
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DC motor principle of operation DC motors consist of rotating armature windings and stationary field windings. The current must be conducted to the armature windings by passing current through carbon brushes that slide over a set of copper surfaces called a commutator, which is mounted on the rotor. The commutator bars are soldered to armature coils. The brush/commutator combination makes a sliding switch that energizes particular portions of the armature, based on the position of the rotor. This process creates north and south poles on the rotor that are attracted to or repelled by north and south poles on the stator, which are formed by passing direct current through the field windings. It's this magnetic interaction that causes the rotor to 27 rotate.

DC motor principle of operation . . .

All motors rely upon the force exerted by a magnetic field on a current-carrying conductor. If a straight current carrying conductor is placed at right angles to the uniform magnetic field existing between the North and south poles of a permanent magnet, the result is shown in Fig.a. Two fields are present: the uniform field due to the magnet with lines of force that are straight and parallel, and the circular field around the current-carrying conductor, shown dotted.
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DC motor principle of operation . . .

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DC motor principle of operation . . . As the lines of force above the conductor in Fig.a point in the same direction, they add together, and as the lines of force below the conductor oppose each other, they subtract. The resultant magnetic field is shown in fig. b. Because the field is strong above the conductor and weak below the conductor, the distorted lines of force tend to straighten like stretched elastic bands. A force is thus exerted on the conductor, tending to move it down, as indicated by the arrow. If it were free to move, the conductor would leave the magnetic field. If the current is reversed through the conductor, the circular field around the conductor will also reverse. Hence, the conductor will tend to move in the opposite direction, i.e., upwards. Similarly, if the polarity of the main magnetic field is reversed, the direction of conductor motion will change. 30

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Torque
It is the turning or twisting force about an axis.

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Force on the conductor

sin

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Counter emf (Back emf) in dc motors

When a dc supply is connected to the dc motor, a large current will flow through the armature conductors because its resistance is very low. Each current carrying conductor experiences a force (because they are immersed in the magnetic field). These forces add up to produce a powerful torque, causing the armature to rotate. As soon as the armature begins to turn, a 2nd phenomenon takes place: the generator effect. With the armature rotating in the magnetic field, the armature conductors generate an emf. This generated (induced) emf is proportional to the speed of rotation of the motor and the flux per pole, and is as follows:

E0 Zn 60 P A

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Counter emf (Back emf) in dc motors . . .

Where, Z = total number of armature conductors = effective flux per pole (Wb) n = speed of rotation (rpm) P = no. of poles A = no. of parallel paths The generated voltage opposes the supply voltage, thus limiting the armature current. In case of a motor, the induced voltage, E0 is called counter emf because it opposes the source voltage. The armature current is given by I ES E0 R where ES = line supply voltage & E0 = counter (generated) emf. 35

Counter emf (Back emf) in dc motors . . .

When the motor is at rest, the counter emf (cemf) is zero and so the starting current is given by: I = (ES-0) / R. As the speed increases, the cemf increases, with the result that the value of armature current diminishes. When a motor runs at no-load, the counter-emf must be slightly less than ES, so as to enable a small current to flow, sufficient to produce the required torque.

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Mechanical power and torque

The electrical power supplied to the armature, which is converted to mechanical power (mechanical power developed), is

P E0 I

where, P =mechanical power developed by the motor (W) E0 = induced voltage in the armature (cemf) (V) I = total current supplied to the armature (A) The mechanical power P is also given by the expression, where n is the speed of rotation.

P T nT 9.55
Combining the above two equations for P,

nT 9.55 E0 I

T Z I

P 6.28 A

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Mechanical power and torque . . .

nT 9.55 E0 I

T Z I

P 6.28 A

where, T = torque developed (N-m) Z = total number of armature conductors F = effective flux per pole (Wb) I = armature current (A) 6.28 = constant, to take care of units (=2)

Speed of rotation

E0 Zn 60 P A

Speed , n 60 E0 A ( Z P )

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Classification of dc motors
The magnetic flux in DC machine is produced by field coils carrying current. The production of magnetic flux in the machine by circulating current in the field winding is called excitation. There are two methods of excitation: separate excitation and self excitation. In separate excitation the field winding is energized by a separate DC source.

Fig. Separately excited DC motor

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Classification of dc motors . . .
In self excitation the current flowing through the field winding is supplied by the machine itself. DC machines are named according to the connection of the field winding with the armature. The principle types of DC machine are: (i) separately excited DC machine (ii) self excited DC machine: 3 types Shunt machine. Series machine. Compound machine. Fig. Self excited DC motor

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Series motor The field is connected in series with the armature and must, therefore, carry the full armature current.

IL

V= E+Ia(Ra+Rse) IL = Ia

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Pcf=ia2Rf Pin= VTiL Pm

Power Flow Diagram P Pout

Pca=ia2Ra

P is normally given Pin = Pout + total losses Where, Pca =armature copper loss Pcf =field copper loss P=stray, mech etc Pm= E a i a

60 P 2 N

60 Po for output / load torque , o 2 N for mechanical 60 Pm torque , m 2 N

Pout Efficiency , P in

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Shunt motor The field is connected in parallel with the armature.

V= E+IaRa IL = Ia+Ish

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Power Flow Diagram Pcf=if2Rf Pin=VTiL Pm P Pout

Pca=ia2Ra

P is normally given Pin = Pout + total losses Where, Pca =armature copper loss Pcf =field copper loss P=stray, mech etc Pm= E a i a

60 P 2 N

60 Po for output / load torque , o 2 N 60 Pm for mechanical torque , m 2 N Pout Efficiency , P in

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Compound motor A compound motor carries both a series field and a shunt field. The shunt field is always greater than the series field. If the magnetic flux produced by the series winding aids the flux produced by the shunt field winding, the machine is said to be cumulatively compounded. If the series field winding opposes the shunt field flux, the machine is said to be differentially compounded.

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Compound motor . . . Either type may be long shunt or short shunt type.

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Compound motor . . . Short shunt

V =E+ IaRa + ILRse IL = Ia+Ish Long shunt

V= E+Ia(Ra+Rse) IL = Ia+Ish
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Pca=ia2Ra Pin=VTiL

Pcf2=ia2Rf2 Pm

Power Flow Diagram P Pout

Pcf1=if2Rf1

P is normally given Pin = Pout + total losses Where, Pca =armature copper loss Pcf =field copper loss P=stray, mech etc Pm= E a i a

60 P 2 N

60 Po for output / load torque , o 2 N 60 Pm for mechanical torque , m 2 N Pout Efficiency , P in

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Characteristics of dc motors: Load characteristics Shunt motor Consider a dc shunt motor running at no-load. If a mechanical load is suddenly applied to the shaft, the motor begins to slowdown. This causes the counter emf to decrease, resulting in a higher armature current and a corresponding higher torque. E n T Ia The speed of a shunt motor stays relatively constant (changes by 5 to 15 percent) from no-load to full-load. As load current increases the torque developed also increases linearly as the field flux remains almost constant. 49

Characteristics of dc motors: Load characteristics

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Characteristics of dc motors: Load characteristics

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Characteristics of dc motors: Load characteristics . . . Series motor When a series motor starts up (Eb is zero), the armature current is higher than the normal, with the result the flux also greater than normal.
Ia

Therefore the starting torque of the series motor is considerably greater than that of a shunt motor.

T Ia

T I a2

At light loads the armature current and the flux are small. The weaker field causes the motor to run faster than the normal speed At no-load the speed may rise to a dangerously high value. For this reason we never operate a series motor at no-load 52

Characteristics of dc motors: Load characteristics . . . Compound motor In a cumulative compound motor, the mmf of series field adds to the mmf of shunt field. Hence, as the load increases, the total mmf increases which in turn decreases the speed. The speed drop from no-load to full-load is generally between 10 and 30 percent.

In a differential compound motor, the mmf of the series field opposes the mmf of the shunt field. In such a motor, the total mmf decreases with increasing load which in turn increases the speed of the motor.

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Speed control of dc motors Shunt motor There are two methods of speed control, namely armature control and field control Armature control According to eqn. E Zn 60 P A 0 if the flux per pole is kept constant, the speed depends only on the counter emf or mainly on the supply voltage (Armature resistance being very small). The field excitation of the motor is kept constant, but the armature voltage is varied from zero to maximum to vary the speed of the motor.
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Speed control of dc motors . . . Armature control. . . One way to control the speed of a dc motor by armature control is to place a resistance in series with the armature. The voltage drop in the resistance reduces the armature voltage. This method enables us to reduce the speed below its nominal speed. This is only recommended for smaller machines because a lot of power is wasted in the resistance.

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Speed control of dc motors . . . Field control We can also vary the speed of a dc motor by varying the field flux. If the line supply voltage is maintained constant then the speed is inversely proportional to the flux, F. This method of speed control is frequently used when the motor has to run above the normal speed. To control the flux we vary the field current by connecting a rheostat in series with the field.

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Speed control of dc motors . . . Field control. . . If we suddenly increase the resistance of the rheostat, both the exciting current Ix and the flux will decrease. This in turn reduces the cemf, causing the armature current to jump to a much higher value.

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Speed control of dc motors . . . Field control. . . The motor develops a greater torque than before and hence runs faster. This method of speed control enables high-speed/basespeed ratios as high as 3:1. Under certain abnormal conditions, the flux may drop to dangerously low values which in turn may cause the motor to rotate at a dangerously high speed. Safety devices are introduced to prevent such runaway conditions.

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Speed control of dc motors . . . Series motor The speed of a series motor can be increased by placing a low resistance in parallel with the series field. The field current is then smaller than before, which produces a drop in flux and an increase in speed

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Starting of dc motors When a motor is at rest, the cemf is zero and so the starting current is given by I = ES / R. The starting current may be 2030 times greater than the nominal full-load current. All dc motors must, therefore, be provided with a means to limit the starting current to reasonable value. One method is to place a rheostat in series with the armature. The resistance is gradually reduced as the motor accelerates and is eventually eliminated when the machine has attained full speed.
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Reversing the direction of rotation The direction of the rotation may be reversed by reversing either the armature connection or the field connection (but not both). Armature reaction Armature reaction is the effect of the magnetic interaction between the two fields set up by the rotor and the stator on the distribution of main field flux. When there is no load on the armature, the armature current is almost zero and hence the flux is also zero and there is no armature m.m.f.
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Armature reaction . . . When a d.c. machine is loaded, current flows in the armature winding. This armature current sets up an armature flux. This armature reaction produces 2 undesirable effects on the main field flux. Net reduction in the field flux per pole. (demagnetizes / weakens the main flux). Distortion of main field flux wave along the air-gap. (cross-magnetizes / distorts).

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Armature reaction . . . Interpoles: Probably the most common method for compensating the armature reaction is the use of interpoles. These are smaller than the main field poles and are connected in series with the armature. The polarity of an interpole is that of the main pole left behind with respect to the direction of rotation for motoring mode and that of the main pole ahead in the direction of armature rotation for the generating mode.

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Losses and efficiency The losses of dc machines may be classified as follows: Copper losses. The ohmic losses (I2R losses) in the armature and field windings. Iron losses. The power absorbed by the core is called iron losses and is due to eddy currents and hysteresis. Rotational losses. These are bearing friction, friction of the brushes & windage losses. Iron losses and other rotational losses (Mechanical losses) are made very small by design.

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Eddy current loss As an armature rotates in a magnetic field, the armature core also cuts the magnetic flux and an emf is induced in it causing a current flow (called an eddy current) in the core. Owing to this eddy current and resistance, a certain amount of power will be absorbed, producing heat. Although eddy current losses are effectively reduced by laminating the core, they are never eliminated.

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Hysteresis loss The alternating flux causes changes in the alignment of the molecules in the magnetic core. This change is energy consuming and heat is produced within the core. The energy loss is referred to as hysteresis loss, which depends on the nature of the material used for the laminations. Silicon steel has low hysteresis losses

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Efficiency Efficiency is the ratio of the output power to the input power

Input power losses 100 Input power

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Applications of dc motors Shunt motors: Shunt motors are prone to armature reaction, a distortion and weakening of the flux generated by the poles that results in commutation problems evidenced by sparking at the brushes. Installing additional poles, called interpoles, on the stator between the main poles wired in series with the armature reduces armature reaction. They are suitable for applications requiring constant speed and where accurate control of speed or position of the load is required. specific applications: fans, conveyor drives, machine tools, packaging etc.
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Applications of dc motors Series motors: Series motors lack good speed regulation, but are well-suited for high-torque loads like power tools and automobile starters because of their high torque production and compact size. They are used on equipments requiring a high starting torque. suitable to use in traction, electric cranes & hoists.

Compound motors: The concept of the series and shunt designs are combined. They are used when high starting torque compared to shunt motors are required. suitable for lifts or hoists.

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