How to make Ferrofluid

Here's a relatively simple method to make ferrofluid, a very interesting liquid that responds to magnetic fields. You'll need the following chemicals: 20mL 1.5M FeCl3 solution 10mL 1.5M FeCl2 solution 150mL Household Ammonia 5mL Oleic Acid 100mL Kerosene My iron chlorides probably weren't precisely as listed above, because I made them by dissolving iron in HCl (see my other video here: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=iWpfHk... ). What you want to shoot for is a 2:1 ratio of FeCl3:FeCl2. Ferrofluids consist of 3 parts: a magnetically responsive material, a surfactant, and a carrier fluid. The surfactant serves to suspend the magnetic material and keep it from clumping together. Here, our material is magnetite, the surfactant is oleic acid, and the carrier fluid is kerosene. First, we will make the magnetically active material. Mix the two iron chlorides together, and pour the mixture into 150mL of household ammonia solution. This initiates a complex reaction that produces tiny particles of magnetite, Fe3O4, in ammonium chloride solution. Next, we will coat the material in the surfactant. Take the solution outside or in a fume hood, and heat it to near boiling. Then add 5mL of oleic acid with lots of stirring, and continue to heat until the smell of ammonia disappears. This usually takes about an hour - swirl the solution often to keep the magnetite suspended and to let the oleic acid attach to it completely. The acid initially reacts with the ammonia to form ammonium oleate, a slightly soluble soap. Additional heating decomposes this to ammonia gas, which escapes, and oleate ions, which attach to and surround the magnetite particles.

Now, we need to suspend our oleic acid-coated magnetite in a carrier fluid. Keep your solution outside, let it cool, and add in 100mL of kerosene. Stir this up a bit (but NOT with a magnetic stirrer !). Oleic acid is insoluble in water, but is soluble in kerosene. With stirring, it will migrate into the kerosene layer and stay there, taking its attached magnetite with it. You'll end up with a black layer of liquid on top of a clear layer of water. This black layer can be decanted off, and is your finished product of ferrofluid! Because it's mostly kerosene, this stuff smells and will stain things very easily. For display, it's neat to put a small amount in a bottle or vial, perhaps filled with water so that the residue doesn't stick to the sides. Bring a magnet nearby and watch it follow it! Hope you enjoyed the video and found it instructive. Let me know in the comments! My source for this experiment was http://www.scispot.com/Chemistry/liq...

Qu es el potencial Z?, Por qu se mide la movilidad electrofortica?

La serie Zetasizer Nano mide el potencial Z a travs del clculo de la movilidad electrofortica aplicando la ecuacin de Henry.
El potencial Z es una medida de la magnitud de la repulsin o atraccin entre las partculas. Su medida proporciona una idea detallada de los mecanismos de dispersin y es la clave del control de dispersin electrosttico.

r El potencial Z es un parmetro extremadamente importante en una gran variedad de actividades industriales como las bebidas, cermica, farmacutica, medicina, procesado mineral o tratamiento de aguas. Muchas industrias usan grandes cantidades de agua, que pueden ser contaminadas durante el proceso de produccin. El potencial Z puede ser usado para optimizar el uso de floculantes excesivamente caros y la velocidad del proceso de floculacin.

Cuando se formula una nueva suspensin o emulsin, uno de los mayores consumidores de tiempo es la medida de la estabilidad de las formulaciones candidatas en una gran variedad de condiciones. El potencial Z puede ser usado para el ensayo con stos condidatos para rechazar aquelos candidatos pobres en una etapa temprana; reduciendo el costo de un estudio de estabilidad.

La nueva tecnologa patentada M3-PALS para medida del Potencial Z y las nuevas clulas de medida deshechables demuestran la capacidad tecnolgica de la serie Zetasizer Nano

En qu consiste la tecnologa M3-PALS? Cmo son las nuevas clulas deshechables de potencial Z? Podemos medir sobre la misma clula potencial y/o tamao?

Con el sistema M3 hacemos dos medidas para la determinacin del potencial Z, una en la que el campo est siendo invertido rpidamente, denominada FFR (Fast Field Reversal) y otra en la que el campo es invertido lentamente, denominada SFR (Slow Field Reversal), consiguiendo por un lado robustez en la medida con la medida FFR y por otro para determinar con precisinla distribucin de movilidades presentes en la muestra. Con el sistema PALS se determina la mobilidad de la partcula haciendo una comparacin de fase entre la seal detectada (luz dispersada por la partcula) y la seal de referencia, que en ste caso pasa por fuera de la clula de medida. Muchos avances recientes farmacuticos (teraputicos, anticuerpos) estn basados en el conocimiento detallado y caracterizacin de las protenas implicadas. Todas stas aplicaciones y muchas ms podr desarrollarlas con la nueva serie Zetasizer Nano de Malvern Instruments, cuya informacin podr ampliar en el apartado de Potencial Z en la seccin de productos.

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relacionadas

La actividad relacionada con la investigacin de la nanopartcula cubre un gran rango de inters en el campo de la qumica, fsica y ciencia de materiales. El tamao de partcula, la morfologa y la composicin pueden ser manipuladas para producir materiales finales de diferentes propiedades. Estas substancias nuevas poseen propiedades diferentes de los materiales constituyentes. Por ejemplo, las nanopartculas pueden aumentar la fuerza y la dureza de metales y cermicas, generando capas protectoras transparantes. Algunas reas de aplicacin de las nanopartculas incluyen dispersiones coloidales, nanopartculas metlicas, biopolmeros y materiales nanoestructurados.

SZ-100

Overview
The SZ-100 nanopartica series instruments are flexible analytical tools for characterizing the physical properties of small particles. Depending on the configuration and application the system can be used as a

particle size analyzer, or also used to measure zeta potential, molecular weight, (MW) and second virial coefficient (A2). Typical applications for the SZ-100 include nanoparticles, colloids, emulsions, and submicron suspensions. Particle size analysis is performed by dynamic light scattering (DLS). Depending on the physical properties of the sample, the dynamic range is 0.3 nm 8 m. The lower limit is influenced by concentration, how strongly the sample scatters light, and the presence of large, unwanted particles. The upper limit is influenced by the density of the sample since DLS is modeled on all motion coming from Brownian motion, not gravitational settling. The charge on the surface of particles is characterized by the SZ-100 by measuring the zeta potential of a suspension. The sample is injected into a disposable cell and a measurement of the particle electrophoretic mobility results in the calculated zeta potential. The zeta potential of the sample is most often used as an indicator of dispersion stability. Large magnitude zeta potential values indicate that an electrostatically stabilized suspension will remain stable. The zeta potential is often measured as a function of pH or other change in the chemistry to help formulators create new products with a long shelf life. Conversely identifying conditions at which the zeta potential is zero (that is, the sample is at the isoelectric point) allows one to choose optimum conditions for flocculating and separating particles. The same instrument can also be used to measure the molecular weight and second virial coefficient of proteins, polymers, and other molecules. The user prepares several solutions with known concentrations and then uses the system in a static light scattering mode to create a Debye plot, which results in a calculation of both MW and A2.

Features

Particle size, zeta potential, molecular weight, and second virial coefficient all in one instrument Wide range of particle sizes and concentrations Particles size measurements at both 90 and 173 Multiple particle size measurement modes for working with small particles and weak scatterers Small volume cells for both particle size and zeta potential Optional pH controller for automatic titration of zeta potential vs.pH

Zeta potential is the charge on a particle at the shear plane. This value of surface charge is useful for understanding and predicting interactions between particles in suspension. Manipulating zeta potential is a method of enhancing suspension stability for formulation work, or speeding particle flocculation for water treatment for example. Measuring zeta potential by electrophoretic light scattering allows one to assess the effects of various strategies for manipulating zeta potential. Electrophoretic light scattering exploits the fact that a charged particle responds to an applied electric field.

Zeta potential is the charge on a particle at the shear plane

Zeta Potential Layout for SZ-100

The particle motion due to the applied electric field is measured by light scattering. The particles are illuminated with laser light and therefore the particles scatter light. The frequency of the scattered light is a function of particle velocity due to the Doppler shift. This explains another name for this technique: laser Doppler electrophoresis. A second beam of light (the reference beam) is mixed with the scattered beam in order to sensitively extract the frequency shift in the scattered light. See the figure below showing the scattered beam mixing with the reference beam at the zeta potential detector in the lower right. The measured magnitude of the frequency shift is then used to determine the particle velocity.

Click image to enlarge: Optical layout for zeta potential measurement in the SZ-100

Webinar: Zeta Potential Technology in the SZ-100 (you need to be signed in to view)

Calculating Zeta Potential

From the known applied electric field and measured particle velocity, the particle mobility is readily determined. Zeta potential is then calculated from mobility by using a model, the most common of which is the Smoluchowski model. The only parameters required for determining zeta potential are liquid dielectric constant, refractive index, and viscosity. This makes the technique rapid and reliable.

The known electric field and measured particle velocity allow for the calculation of particle mobility, and with choice of model, the zeta potential. In practice, measurements are made by adding a small amount of suspension or emulsion to the measurement cell and inserting the cell into the instrument. The instrument software then automatically determines the appropriate electric field strength, adjusts the reference beam intensity to ensure the optimal signal to noise ratio, collects and analyzes the data, and presents the results to the user. Often, the effect of H+ or other ions on zeta potential is important. In the former case, a pH titration can be performed, and in the latter, the ion concentration is varied (usually on a logarithmic scale) and a series of zeta potential measurements are performed. Significant labor savings can be realized by using an automated titrator to adjust sample pH.

Click image to enlarge: Many environmental factors affect zeta potential including pH. A manual or automatic pH titration can identify both the isoelectric point and ranges of maximum zeta potential, and by extension, predicted stability.

Particle size can be determined by measuring the random changes in the intensity of light scattered from a suspension or solution. This technique is commonly known as dynamic light scattering (DLS), but is also called photon correlation spectroscopy (PCS) and quasi-elastic light scattering (QELS). The latter terms are more common in older literature. After a few comments on the applications of dynamic light scattering, this page explains the technique beginning the actual phenomena under study (particle motion, not particle size). The nature of the measurement and data interpretation is then discussed. Finally, there are some concluding comments.

Applications for Dynamic Light Scattering

DLS is most commonly used to analyze nanoparticles. Examples include determining nanogold size, protein size, latex size, and colloid size. In general, the technique is best used for submicron particles and can be used to measure particle with sizes less than a nanometer. In this size regime (microns to nanometers) and for the purposes of size measurement (but not thermodynamics!) the distinction between a molecule (such as a protein or macromolecule) and a particle (such as nanogold) and even a second liquid phase (such as in an emulsion) becomes blurred. Dynamic light scattering can also be used as a probe of complex fluids such as concentrated solutions. However, this application is much less common than particle sizing.

Stokes Einstein: Relating Particle Size to Particle Motion

Small particles in suspension undergo random thermal motion known as Brownian motion. This random motion is modeled by the Stokes-Einstein equation. Below the equation is given in the form most often used for particle size analysis.

The Stokes-Einstein relation that connects diffusion coefficient measured by dynamic light scattering to particle size.

where

Dh is the hydrodynamic diameter (this is the goal: particle size!) Dt is the translational diffusion coefficient (we find this by dynamic light scattering) kB is Boltzmanns constant (we know this) T is thermodynamic temperature (we control this)

is dynamic viscosity (we know this)

The calculations are handled by instrument software. However, the equation does serve as important reminder about a few points. The first is that sample temperature is important, at it appears directly in the equation. Temperature is even more important due to the viscosity term since viscosity is a stiff function of temperature. Finally, and most importantly, it reminds the analyst that the particle size determined by dynamic light scattering is the hydrodynamic size. That is, the determined particle size is the size of a sphere that diffuses the way as your particle. For those who work with protein sizing and other areas where hydrodynamic radius is more commonly used, note that the development here is around diameter. Radius calculations are the same except for a factor of two. Also, a note to those interested in polymer size. The hydrodynamic radius is not the same as the radius of gyration. Hydrodynamic sizes are more easily measured than radii of gyration and can be measured over a wider range of sizes. The conversion from hydrodynamic radius to radius of gyration is a function of chain architecture (including questions of random coil vs. hard sphere, globular, dendrimer, chain stiffness, and degree of branching).

How to Measure Particle Motion I: Dynamic Light Scattering Optical Setup

A top view of the optical setup for DLS is shown below.

Click to enlarge: Optical setup for dynamic light scattering (DLS) nanoparticle size analyer

Light from the laser light source illuminates the sample in the cell. The scattered light signal is collected with one of two detectors, either at a 90 degree (right angle) or 173 degree (back angle) scattering angle. The provision of both detectors allows more flexibility in choosing measurement conditions. Particles can be dispersed in a variety of liquids. Only liquid refractive index and viscosity needs to be known for interpreting the measurement results. The obtained optical signal shows random changes due to the randomly changing relative position of the particles. This is shown schematically in the graph below.

Click to enlarge: Optical signal from a nanoparticle sample on a microsecond timescale.

The noise is actually due to particle motion and will be used to extract the particle size. In contrast to laser diffraction, DLS measurements are typically made at a single angle, although data obtained at several angles can be useful. In addition, the technique is completely noninvasive; the particle motion continues whether or not it is being probed by DLS. The variations in the signal arise due to the random Brownian motion of the particles. Treating this random signal is discussed in the next section on extracting particle motion.

How to Extract Particle Diffusion Coefficient: Dynamic Light Scattering Data Interpretation
The signal can be interpreted in terms of an autocorrelation function. Incoming data is processed in real time with a digital signal processing device known as a correlator and the autocorrelation function as a function of delay time, , is extracted.

Autocorrelation Function from dynamic light scattering. The decay of this function is used to extract particle size. Faster decays correspond to smaller particles.

For a sample where all of the particles are the same size, the baseline subtracted autocorrelation function, C, is simply an exponential decay of the following form:

Exponential decay of autocorrelation function. The decay constant is proportional to the diffusion coefficient.

is readily derived from experimental data by a curve fit. The diffusion coefficient is obtained from the relation =Dtq2 where q is the scattering vector, given by q=(4n/)sin(/2). The refractive index of the liquid is n. The wavelength of the laser light is , and scattering angle, . Inserting Dt into the Stokes-Einstein equation above and solving for particle size is the final step.

Analyzing Real Particle Size Distributions I: The Method of Cumulants and Z-average
The discussion above can be extended to real nanoparticle samples that contain a distribution of particle sizes. The exponential decay is rewritten as a power series:

Exponential decay of autocorrelation function. The linear decay constant is proportional to the average diffusion coefficient and is used to extract average particle size.

Once again, a decay constant is extracted and interpreted to obtain particle size. However, in this case, the obtained particle size, known as the z-average size, is a weighted mean size. Unfortunately, the weighting is somewhat convoluted. Recall that the decay constant is proportional to the diffusion coefficient. So, by dynamic light scattering one has determined the intensity weighted diffusion coefficient. The diffusion coefficient is inversely proportional to size. So, in truth, the z-average size is the intensity weighted harmonic mean size. This definition differs substantially from that of the z-average radius of gyration encountered in the light scattering study of polymers.

Despite the convoluted meaning, the z-average size increases as the particle size increases. And, it is extremely easy to measure reliably. For these reasons, the z-average size has become the accepted norm for particle sizing by dynamic light scattering.

Analyzing Real Particle Size Distributions II: Size Distribution Data

While a detailed discussion is beyond the scope of this work, it is possible to extract size distribution data from DLS data. One can convert the measured autocorrelation function into what is known as an electric field autocorrelation function, g1(). Then use the following relationship between g1() and the scattered intensity, S, for each possible decay constant, . The overall electric field autocorrelation function is the intensity weighted sum of the decays due to every particle in the system.

Electric field autocorrelation function as a sum of exponential decays. The decay constants are inversely proportional to the particle size.

Inversion of this equation, that is using experimentally determined values of g1() to find values of S(), will lead to information about the size distribution. Unlike the cumulants analysis discussed above, this is an illposed mathematical problem. Even so, the technique remains useful for interpreting DLS data.

Concluding Comments and Additional Thoughts

The underlying theory of measurement by dynamic light scattering was discussed. Many of the points on this web page are starting points for further investigation depending on the readers analytic needs and interests. All of these equations and the analysis are handled automatically in the HORIBA software. As such, dynamic light scattering has found application for determining protein size, nanoparticle size, and colloid size.

Dynamic Image Analysis Technology

The phrase image analysis encompasses any technology which involves the processing of captured images. For the purposes of particle characterization the major division is between static image analysis and dynamic image analysis. The distinction is whether particles are presented in a static (stationary) orientation or dynamic, flowing past the detector. Here we discuss dynamic image analysis, also known as digital image processing, specific to the CAMSIZER technique of particle size and particle shape analysis. For more information, view the webinars below introducing the CAMSIZER and CAMSIZER XT dynamic image analyzers.

CAMSIZER Measurement Principle

The CAMSIZER measuring principle involves the projection of particle silhouettes (shadows) in transmitted light. The classic CAMSIZER presents sample particles to a single light source as the particles freely fall from a feeding chute. The CAMSIZER XT extends this to include a second light source and multiple presentations (free fall, compressed air dispersion, liquid suspension). In each instrument two cameras record the projected shadows.

Click to enlarge: The CAMSIZER Measurement Principle

Dual Camera Capture

The CAMSIZER technique consists of two cameras. The basic camera measures the big particles and ignores the small ones and the zoom camera measures the small particles. The two measuring ranges result in a very high resolution and a wide dynamic measuring range. The patented Dual Camera Capture is unique to the CAMSIZER and CAMSIZER XT particle size analyzers.

Click to enlarge: The CAMSIZER Dual Camera Technique

How the CAMSIZER "Sees" a Particle

The CAMSIZER detectors (cameras) are very similar to those used in digital cameras. And like a digital camera, the resolution of the image is determined in part by the number and size of the pixels in the detector. A

particle detection occurs when at least half of any pixel is covered by the projected shadow. So the detector doesn't actually capture a perfect image of the particle, it captures a reconstruction of the particle using square pixels (see figure below). The lower 30 m size limit of the classic CAMSIZER is set by the requirement that at least two adjacent pixels are activated. This requirement drastically increases the likelihood that the detection event is, in fact, caused by a particle.

Click to enlarge: Resolution of the classic CAMSIZER cameras

Measuring the Complete Particle

Now that the particle shadow is captured the question becomes: which size(s) should be calculated? For some particle size analysis techniques this is a trivial question because only one particle size may be calculated. Often the equivalent spherical diameter is reported because the spherical assumption simplifies the mathematical model used. By actually capturing an image of the particle the CAMSIZER makes it possible to calculate various lengths, widths, equivalent diameters, etc. Shape metrics including sphericity, aspect ratio, symmetry are also calculated. These options are available because the CAMSIZER software scans the particle shadow in 64 directions. This approach allows for a more information-rich characterization of irregularly shaped particles -- particles which constitute the majority of applications. Such understanding directly leads to process and product quality improvements. Or, where historical sieve data must be matched, an intelligent correlation can be achieved.

The CAMSIZER scans every particle in 64 directions

Excellent Accuracy and Precision

The large field of view provided by the Dual Camera Capture ensures that every particle presented to the detectors is measured. This results in excellent repeatability and reproducibility, even with very small amounts of sample. Operator-to-operator, lab-to-lab, and instrument-to-instrument precision are outstanding because of robust construction and simple operation owing to electronic task files used to control the CAMSIZER. The result is fewer result-matching headaches, decreased labor costs, and lower re-work rates. A typical measurement finishes within three minutes and more than 500,000 particles detected and measured.

Click to enlarge: Unique and reproducible size results for four different, but related samples

Maintenance and Reliability

Unlike light scattering techniques, image analyzers require regular calibration to ensure correct operation. To guarantee a constant reproducibility of the CAMSIZER results, an electron-lithographic object for calibration is provided. It features an extreme small deviation of only 0.1 m per particle. Unique to this standard: it features evaporated reference particles which cover the whole measuring range of the CAMSIZER. Calibration takes only a few minutes and is typically carried out once every month.

The CAMSIZER calibration reticle

Light scattering has long been used to investigate the size of various objects. Gustav Mie (he of the Mie Scattering Theory) studied gold nanoparticles like those in the image below as part of his doctoral thesis. Previously confined to custom-built setups in labs, several innovations took laser diffraction from the darkroom to research labs and production floors across the world.

Click to enlarge: Typical laser diffraction experimental setup

How Laser Diffraction Works

So how does laser diffraction work? At its very most basic, laser diffraction is about the relationship between particle size and the angle and intensity of scattered light. Light scatters more intensely and at smaller angles off of large particles than small particles. Every analyzer, from the very first commercial prototype to the state of the art LA-950 utilizes this principle. In fact, the analyzer itself does not measure particle size -- it measures the angle and intensity of light scattered from the particles in your sample. That information is then passed to an algorithm designed to use Mie Scattering Theory which transforms the scattered light data into particle size information.

Idealized scattering off a spherical particle Both the hardware and software required to make a particle size measurement have gone through many revisions in order to improve accuracy, precision, reliability, and ease of use. The LA-950V2 represents the ninth generation of HORIBA laser diffraction analyzers; each different and better than the last. Read on to discover what important factors go into making this measurement routine and trustworthy.

The SZ-100 Nanoparticle Analyzer can be used in to measure the molecular weight of proteins, starches, polymers, and dendrimers. This data can be obtained by two different methods, dynamic light scattering and static light scattering. These methods are discussed below.

Dynamic Light Scattering

There is a well-known empirical correlation between the diffusion coefficient of a macromolecule and its molecular weight known as the Mark-Houwink-Sakurada equation.

where:

Dt is diffusion coefficient k is an empirical constant M is molecular weight is an empirical constant

The values for k and are found empirically for polymer/solvent pairs. That is, they must be specified for the polymer, solvent, and temperature. These values can be found in the literature. The disadvantage of this technique is that it relies on empirical constants and the nature of the average molecular weight. The advantages of this technique are that polymer concentration need not be well known and it is very fast.

Static Light Scattering

The SZ-100 can also be used in a static light scattering mode to measure the molecular weight of proteins, small particles, and polymers. These results are generated using a Debye plot created by measuring the scattered light at a single angle (90 ) at multiple sample concentrations. The intercept of the Debye plot is used to determine the molecular weight and the slope is used to calculate the second virial coefficient. Molecular weight from static light scattering experiments uses the Rayleigh equation given below:

where:

K is the Debye constant c is the sample concentration R is the Rayleigh ratio Mw is the weight average molecular weight

A2 is the second virial coefficient

The Debye constant is given by K=42n2(dn/dc)2/(4NA) where n is the refractive index of the liquid, (dn/dc) is the refractive index increment, is the wavelength of light in vacuum, and NA is Avagadros number. In most cases, all of these values are independent of molecular weight. The limit give in the Rayleigh equation above deserves special attention. The equation only works at the limit of zero angle. One practice required for larger macromolecules is to use a multi-angle scattering instrument and extrapolate the result to zero angle. For smaller molecules (Rg < 20 nm), this is not necessary and data at a single angle can be used. However, this does introduce a systematic error that increases with angle used. That is, measurement results using back angle have about twice the systematic error compared to results obtained using scattering at right angle (90). For this reason, the SZ-100 collects static light scattering data at 90. The disadvantages of this technique are that it requires careful sample preparation and is a time consuming measurement. The advantages of this technique are that the results are well-defined and do not rely on empirical correlations. An example of Debye plots for several samples is shown in the figure below.

Click to enlarge: Debye plots to measure molecular weight

The specific surface area and the pore size distribution are fundamental parameters for the characterization of solids. Properties such as porosity, strength, hardness, permeability, separation selectivity, corrosion, thermal stress resistance, etc. can be directly correlated to the porous structure of a material. These properties can be easily investigated by the physisorption technique which can be carried out by the SA-9600 surface area analyzer.

Idealized physisorption model

BET Theory
Clean solid surfaces adsorb surrounding gas molecules and Brunauer, Emmett and Teller theory (BET) provides a mathematical model for the process of gas sorption. This physical adsorption of a gas over the entire exposed surface of a material and the filling of pores is called physisorption and is used to measure total surface area and pore size analysis of nanopores, micropores and mesopores. The specific surface area of a powder is estimated from the amount of nitrogen adsorbed in relationship with its pressure, at the boiling temperature of liquid nitrogen under normal atmospheric pressure. The measurement process of physisorption involves chilling the surface of the measured powder, using nitrogen to adhere to the surface -adsorption, then taking the chilling away leading to desorption.

Click to enlarge: Adsorption and desorption correlate to changes in thermal (or electrical) conductivity over time.

Single and Multi Point Analysis

This process can be applied one time for a single point measurement, or several times for a multi-point measurement. In general, a surface area result obtained by the multipoint method using nitrogen as the adsorbate is somewhat more reliable than a single point measurement, but the SA-9600 is built to provide high sensitivity results even with single point analysis. The SA-9600 performs these measurements using the flowing gas method which has several advantages, mostly speed of analysis.

Example multi-point analysis from the SA-9600