Networking Basics

NETWORKING
Networking Fundamentals
Computer Litarcy 101
An Educators' Guide to School Networks
All about Networking
TYPES PHYSICAL TOPOLOGIES CABLING LOGICAL TOPOLOGIES NETWORK PROTOCOLS NETWORK HARDWARE
LAN Linear Classification Ethernet OSI model Hubs, Switches
MAN Star Coaxial Token Ring TCP/IP Repeaters, Bridges
WAN Ring Twisted Pair FDDI IPX Routers, Brouters
CAN Tree Fiber Optic ATM NetBIOS/NetBEUI Gateway
TAN Mesh
Lan Wiring, Hardware, and Installation: An Online Course in Networking
DEFINITIONS: A NETWORK consists of two or more computers that are linked in order to share resources
(such as printers and CD-ROMs), exchange files, or allow electronic communications. The computers on a
network may be linked through cables, telephone lines, radio waves, satellites, or infrared light beams.
● When any one of these computers are connected to a LAN they are referred to as a
WORKSTATION. All computing devices on a network; workstations, printers, etc., are referred to as
NODES.
● When connecting a workstation, the interface hardware is referred to as an ADAPTER. Networking
adapters are also commonly referred to as NETWORK INTERFACE CARDS or NICS.
Generated by www.PDFonFly.com at 7/30/2009 8:05:57 AM

URL: http://www.millbury.k12.ma.us/hs/techrepair/networking.html
● Most NIC's break the information into FRAMES or PACKETS of information.
● The LAN connection for a printer, however, is referred to as a PRINT SERVER and not a NIC.
● The SERVER is the computer whose resources are shared with other computers.
● SEGMENTS are trunks of cabling connecting devices to a routing device.
● A BACKBONE is the foundation of the LAN/WAN where the servers are linked together in a common
series of concentration devices.
● A network where a server acts as a dedicated server and supplies information to workstations is
called a CLIENT/SERVER network.
● A PEER-TO-PEER network is a network where all computers act as both servers and clients and data
files can be shared. This network has no one dedicated server.
A basic network is made up of primary components.
1. A hub (which acts as the traffic cop on your small information highway. The hub acts as a switch to
route information from one terminal to another through the use of cables.
2. an interface card (hardware in each computer that connects to the hub)
3. a server (the central storage computer for information).
4. special cabling
5. computers, printers, scanners, etc.
TYPES OF NETWORKS: The three basic types of networks include:
● Local Area Network (LAN): A Local Area Network (LAN) is a network that is confined to a relatively
small area. It is generally limited to a geographic area such as a writing lab, school, or building.
Rarely are LAN computers more than a mile apart.
● Metropolitan Area Network (MAN): A Metropolitan Area Network (MAN) covers larger geographic
areas, such as cities or school districts. By interconnecting smaller networks within a large
geographic area, information is easily disseminated throughout the network. Local libraries and
government agencies often use a MAN to connect to citizens and private industries.
● Wide Area Network (WAN): Wide Area Networks (WANs) connect larger geographic areas, such as
Florida, the United States, or the world. Dedicated transoceanic cabling or satellite uplinks may be
used to connect this type of network.
● CAN: Campus Network
● TAN: Tine Area Networks are 2 - 3 computers networked at home or in a small business.
NETWORK TOPOLOGIES
There are two types of topology: physical and logical.
● The physical topology of a network refers to the configuration of cables, computers, and other
peripherals.
● Logical topology is the method used to pass the information between workstations as can be seen
in protocols.
PHYSICAL TOPOLOGIES
1. LINEAR BUS
A linear bus topology or 10BASE2 bus topology consists of a main run of cable with a terminator at each
end. All nodes (file server, workstations, and peripherals) are connected to the linear cable. ETHERNET
AND LOCALTALK networks use a linear bus topology. Networking is simple. The network may have or hub
or not.
DISADVANTAGES
● Entire network shuts down if there is a break in the main cable.
● Terminators are required at both ends of the backbone cable.

● Difficult to identify the problem if the entire network shuts down.
● Not meant to be used as a stand-alone solution in a large building.
2. STAR TOPOLOGY Generated by www.PDFonFly.com at 7/30/2009 8:05:57 AM

A star topology is designed with each node (file server, workstations, and peripherals) connected directly to
a central network hub or concentrator. A concentrator is a device that provides a central connection point
for cables from workstations, servers, and peripherals. Most concentrators contain the ability to amplify the
electrical signal they receive.
DISADANTAGES
● Requires more cable length than a linear topology. If the hub or concentrator fails, nodes attached
are disabled.
● More expensive than linear bus topologies because of the cost of the concentrators.
This configuration is common with twisted pair cable; however, it can also be used with coaxial cable or
fiber optic cable. A simple star topology is also used for 10BASE-T ETHERNET networks.
3. STAR-WIRED RING (TOKEN RING)

A STAR-WIRED RING topology may appear (externally) to be the same as a star topology. Instead of
having a concentrator at the center of the ring network, there is a device called a MAU (MULTISTATION
ACCESS UNIT). Internally, the MAU of a star-wired ring contains wiring that allows information to pass from
one device to another in a circle or ring. The MAU does the same thing a hub does, but it works with
TOKEN RING networks instead of Ethernet.

An illustration of a token ring's token passing
A Token ring using Unshielded twisted pair in star or modified star transfers at 4 Mbps.
A Token Ring configuration using shielded twisted pair in star or modified star configuration transfers at 4
or 16 Mbps. A local Ring Hub allows four-node connections on one MAU port cable. 64 - 72 (max.) nodes
are recommended per ring for optimal performance. A double ring may have a maximum of 12 MAU's,
each which can support 8 nodes. THe maximum distance between MAU and workstation is 45 m.; MAU to
MAU is 120 m.
In difference, FDDI (FIBER DISTRIBUTED DATA INTERFACE), pronounced fid-ee, also uses A COMPLEX
token ring topology. FDII networks run on optical fiber cables instead of copper cabling. It's similar to
Token Ring but can be connected to 2 MAUS so if one fails, the other can work. The FDDI has an added
alternate ring. If a break occurs in either ring, it automatically reroutes the data transmission to the
alternate ring. This ring supports speeds up to 100 Mbps. Has become the defacto high speed backbone.
Maximum stations are 1000. THe distance limitation is 2 miles.

4. TREE TOPOLOGY
A tree topology combines characteristics of linear bus and star topologies. It consists of groups of star-
configured workstations connected to a linear bus backbone cable. Tree topologies allow for the expansion
of an existing network, and enable schools to configure a network to meet their needs.
DISADVANTAGES
● Overall length of each segment is limited by the type of cabling used.

● If the backbone line breaks, the entire segment goes down.
● More difficult to configure and wire than other topologies.
5-4-3 RULE: A consideration in setting up a tree topology using Ethernet protocol is the 5-4-3 RULE. One
aspect of the Ethernet protocol requires that a signal sent out on the network cable reach every part of the
network within a specified length of time. Each concentrator or repeater that a signal goes through adds a
small amount of time.
● This leads to the rule that between any two nodes on the network there can only be a maximum of
5 segments
● connected through 4 repeaters/concentrators.
● In addition, only 3 of the segments may be populated (trunk) segments if they are made of
coaxial cable. A populated segment is one which has one or more nodes attached to it.
This rule does not apply to other network protocols or Ethernet networks where all fiber optic cabling is
used.
2. MESH TOPOLOGY

In a mesh topology, each device on the network is networked (cabled) to eachother. ADVANTAGES: Mesh
topologies are installed where FAULT TOLERANCE is important. A single cable failure would not stop network
communications between any two computers. The mesh topology is highly fault tolerant.
DISADVANTAGES: More expensive and difficult to install. Requires more cabling since each device is
cabled to eachother.
CABLING
XBaseX classification: 10BaseT, 100BaseT and 10Base2 are networking standards and there are others.
● The first number is an indication of the transmission speeds involved. It is listed in Mbps (Mega
Bits Per Second).
● The second portion designates Baseband or Broadband, how the data is sent across the cabling. In
Baseband one signal takes up the entire bandwith of the cable. This data is digital.
With Broadband, the total bandwith of the cabling is divided and there will be many signals
traveling through the cabling at a time. Broadband is analog. Broadband signals can travel father
then Baseband.
● The last portion is an indication of wire type and the approximate distances involved or the type of
cabling.

TYPES OF CABLE
There are three types of network wiring.
● Coaxial
● Twisted-Pair
● Fiber
Each type of cabling has different requirements if it is to meet network standards.
IEEE 802.X SPECIFICATIONS

THE INSTITUTE OF ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONIC ENGINEERING
(IEEE) published the 802 specifications. This designed standards for the
physical components of a network.
● 802.1 Internetworking
● 802.2 Logical Link Control (LLC)
● 802.3 CSMA/CD LANs (Ethernet)
● 802.4 Token Bus LAN
● 802.5 Token Ring LAN
● 802.6 MAN
● 802.7 Broadband Technical Advisory Groups
● 802.8 Fiber Optic Technical Advisory Group
● 802.9 Integrated Voice and Data Networks
● 802.10 Network Security
● 802.11 Wireless Network, etc.
The 802 standards break the Data Link Layer further:
● LOGICAL LINK CONTROL (LLC) - For error correction and

control.
● MEDIA ACCESS CONTROL (MAC) - gives physical addresses to
device. Like the TO: and FRO: of an envelope.
1. COAXIAL CABLE
Following the IEEE 802.3 Standard, coaxial cable is used for 10BASE2 (thin-net, CheaperNet) and
10BASE5 (thick-net) networking. No concentrator is needed. 10BASE2 is not the most reliable cabling.
10BASE2 and 10BASE5 are used in a LINEAR BUS topology.

With Ethernet 10Base2
● 255 devices cab be connected

● maximum length of a segment is 185 meters
● is usually standard industry RG-58 cable
❍ has a solid copper center conductor
❍ braided outer conductor
❍ 50 ohm cable
❍ requires termination at both ends of segment using 50 ohm terminator.
● Each computer connects to the computer with a T-Connector (BNC - British Naval Connector).

With Ethernet 10Base5
● is usually standard industry RG-8 or RG-11 cable

● maximum length of a segment is 500 meters
● 50 ohm cable
● requires termination at both ends of segment using 50 ohm terminator.
10Base5 wire is connected not by BNC connectors but by AUI connectors. AUI
connectors are a DB15 connector, that is, a D-shaped plug with 15 pins. These look just
like RS-232 modem connectors, only about half as broad. These are common on
equipment such as routers.
AUI Connector

10Base5 cable may also be connected by a vampire connector with clamps holding the
cable in place. A vampire tap is a connection to a coaxial cable in which a hole is drilled
through the outer shield of the cable so that a clamp can be connected to the inner
conductor of the cable. This cable connection is made with a unit that clamps onto and
"bites" into the cable, hence the vampire name.
Vampire Connectors
Stripping & Terminating Coaxial Cable: Illustrated Tutorial.
2. TWISTED PAIR CABLING (STP and UTP)

Coaxial and SHIELDED TWISTED PAIR (STP) have a copper braid of foil that offers
good resistance to electrical noise, but the extra foil creates a larger, thicker cable,
making it difficult to pull the cable through conduit and walls during installation.
UNSHIELDED TWISTED PAIR (UTP) does not contain this aluminum shielding and is
thinner and therefore easier to install. It offers less resistance to electrical noise.
STP is used in Token Ring, ARCnet and Appletalk networks. UTP is used in Star
Topologies. Generated by www.PDFonFly.com at 7/30/2009 8:05:57 AM
Unshielded Twisted Pair(UTP) is the next step up from Coaxial. TP cabling is a cable
made up of four pairs of insulated copper wires. UTP are 8 copper conductor, four pair
wires.
RJ45 connectors are fitted on each end of the cable. They resemble a normal telephone
plug (RJ11) with the exception of eight pins rather than four. The RJ45 cable connects
to a NETWORK PATCH PANEL which is connected to the hub. The RJ45 is an 8 wire (4
pair) media connector.
DIRECTIONS: If at this point you have not made any patch cables, proceed to the
crimpers, UTP cable, RJ45's and follow the directions "On Putting Together Patch
Cables".
EAI/TIA 568 COMMERCIAL BUILDING WIRING

STANDARD for Unshielded TP(UTP):
UTP comes in levels of Category 1 - 5. The Electronics

Industries Association and the Telecommunication
Industries Association (EIA/TIA) created this standard for
Unshield Twisted Pair cabling. The higher category cables
contain more wire paths and higher number of twists to
prevent EMI.

● URL: http://www.millbury.k12.ma.us/hs/techrepair/networking.html
Category 1: not rated for performance
● Category 2: used for telephone wiring - sasta rate
of 1 magabit per second.
● Category 3: lowest level that can be used for
networking. Used for ETHERNET 10BASE-T. Data
rate of 16 megabits per second.Used for data up
to 10 Mps
● Category 4: used for Token Ring and 10BASE-T.
Maximum dat rate is 20 megabits per second.
● Category 5: used for Ethernet 10BASE-T.
Maximum date rate of 155 megabits per second.
Used for voice/or data.
UTP (Unshieded Twisted Pair) is most commonly used in Category Three (CAT3) or
Category Five (CAT5). The difference between the ratings is the number of twists per
inch. Higher is better. CAT5 is probably the most commonly seen and used. It is
inexpensive, reliable, easy to maintain and expand.
COATING ON CABLES: Cable through the ceilings must be plenum-rated and riser-
rated and capable of withstanding environmental and fire conditions(riser) without
giving off toxic gases(plenum) when it burns. PVC rated is the least expensive but
highly flammable.
Stripping and Terminating a Cat5 Cable: Illustrated Tutorial.
3. FIBER OPTIC CABLE

Standard IEEE 802.8. Rather than using electrical impulses over wire, optical fiber
transmits data using pulses of light. It is expensive to install and maintain. The
average network administrator lacks the expertise to terminate each end. Fiber can
carry data as high as 622 megabits per second. Fiber is not affected by EMI like copper
cable and does build up a magnetic field to allow crosstalk. It is very light-weight
compared to copper-based cable.
LOGICAL TOPOLOGIES
A protocol is a set of rules that governs the communications between computers on a
network. These rules include guidelines that regulate the following characteristics of a
network: access method, allowed physical topologies, types of cabling, and speed of
data transfer. Logical topologies instruct the hardware how to packet and transmit
data across a physical topology.
1. ETHERNET
The Ethernet protocol is by far the most widely used. The Ethernet protocol allows for
linear bus, star, or tree topologies. Data can be transmitted over twisted pair, coaxial,
or fiber optic cable at speeds of 10 Mbps.
The foundations of Ethernet is CSMA/CD (Carrier Sense Multiple Access/Collision
Detection). In an Ethernet network, all computers share a single network segment,
called a collision domain. When 2 computers transmit data along the segment
simutaneoulsy, collision occurs. Each computer then can transmit data only when no
other computer is transmitting.
Ethernet uses CSMA/CD described in the IEEE standard 802.3.
MAX Max Devices

Devices/ Max
Cabling Distance/ Topology Length of Attached Termination Grounded
Segment IRLs
Segment Cable To:
2.5km (1.5
miles)
maximum
Standard lngth of
1640 ft. trunk 500 m.
Thick 100 Backbone 50-ohm
(500 m)
Ethernet Workstations Bus 2 by use of resistor To earth
10 Mbps
(10Base5) per trunk entire transceivers (both ends)
Speed
COAXIAL network trunk
maximum
2500 m.
5-4-3 RULE
925m
(3035 ft.)
1024
Thin workstations
607 ft. 30 NICs with
Ethernet per network 50-ohm resistor
(185 m) Workstations Bus 2 built-in BNC To earth
(10Base2) (both ends)
10 Mbps per trunk transceivers
COAXIAL minimum
cable length
between
workstations
20"
Shielded 328 ft.

Central hub
(STP) (100 m) None
Token Ring 3 500m managed or
10Base-T 16 - 155 needed
unmanaged
TWISTED Mbps
PAIR
1023
workstations
without
bridging
5-4-3 RULE
Unshielded 328 ft.
Central hub
(UTP) (100 m) Workstations None
Star 3 500m managed or
10Base-T 10 Mbps only 328 ft. needed
unmanaged
TWISTED Speed from
PAIR concentrator
minimum
cable legnth
between
stations 8 ft.
1023
workstations
without
bridging
5-4-3 RULE
Unshielded 328 ft.
Central hub
(UTP) (100 m) Workstations None
Star 3 500m managed or
100Base-T 100 Mbps only 328 ft. needed
unmanaged
TWISTED Speed from
PAIR concentrator
minimum
cable legnth
between
stations 8 ft.
1.2 miles
(2 km)(w/5
10Base-FL segments Fiberoptic
None
FIBER max. is 2 Star 2 4km hub or
needed
OPTIC 500m) repeater
100 Mbps - URL: http://www.millbury.k12.ma.us/hs/techrepair/networking.html
2 Gbps
The Ethernet standard has grown to include faster networks.
Cable Type Data Transfer Speed Maximum Distance

100BASE-T (fast Ethernet) 100 megabits per second 20 m.
100BASE-FX (Fast Ethernet on optical
none
fibers)
100BASE-T4 20 m.
Chart Taken from Data Comm Warehouse

Technical Reference Guide
2. TOKEN RING
Uses IEEE Standard 802.5, Token Ring is very different from Ethernet. In token ring a single packet is passed around the network. Every computer waits
its turn. There are no collisons. Token Ring has the same bandwidth as Ethernet. Too many computers result in network slowness. FDDI is a faster Token
Ring configuration (as described above).
3. ATM (Asynchronous Transfer Mode

Following IEEE Standard 802.9, ATM is one of the newer topologies. It can carry voice and data over network wire or fiber. ATM transmits packets as 53-
byte cells that have a variety of identifiers to detmine such things as Quality of Service or wich packet is to be routed first. Packets are sent their need for
bandwidth. For example, email would have a low priority and voice and video a higher priority and be sent first. ATM runs 25 - 622 megabits per
second. It is also expensive.
NETWORK PROTOCOLS
On top of the Logical Topologies are protocols. Protocols handle the translation of data from applications to the logical topology.
THe OSI model explain how a network should work. The lower the level the less abstract and more concrete the layer is. Each layer communicates only
with the layer above or below it while moving data.
OSI MODEL (Open Systems Interconnect)

The seven-layer OSI (Open systems Interconnection) model, created by the ISO (International Standards Organization),
defines internetworking environments. It provides a description of how software and hardware interact to permit
communication between computers. An interface separates each layer from those above and below it; each layer provides
services to the layer directly above it.
This handy mnemonic will help you keep the layers in proper order:
7. All Application
6. People Presentation
5. Seem Session
4. To Transport
3. Need Network
2. Data Data Link
1. Processing Physical
LAYER FUNCTION PROTOCOLS HARDWARE
Application Allows application processes to FTP, SNMP, Gateway

Layer access network services. SMPT NCP
(Rx. the Manages communication
dashboard of between applications. Flow
your car. The control and error recovery is Generated by www.PDFonFly.com at 7/30/2009 8:05:57 AM
different handled here. URL: http://www.millbury.k12.ma.us/hs/techrepair/networking.html
gauges
make you
aware of the
information
that you
need to
know in
order to
maintain
speed limits
and optimal
performance
for your
vehicle.
Presentation FORMAT - Functions as the NCP Gateway

Layer network’s translator – handles
(RX. the protocol conversion, data
universal translation and encryption, and
signs both on data compression. The
the highway redirector operates here.
and inside
your
vehicle.)
Session Layer TRAFFIC COP. Provides None Gateway

(Rx. the synchronization between
designated computers; allows applications
traffic lanes on two computers to establish a
session.
Transport RESPONSIBLE FOR THE Uses protocols Gateway

Layer ACCURACY OF THE DATA TCP, SPX
(Rx Speed TRANSMISSION. Ensures (Sequenced
recognition reliable delivery of packets. Packet
devices on a Repackages messages, dividing Exchange)
highway) them into smaller packets. from IPX/SPX
stack, and
NWLink
(Microsoft's
implementation
of IPX/SPX),
NetBEUI
SPX and TCP
packets are
connection
protocols.
Network Layer Establishes THE UNIQUE IP, IPX, Router, Brouter

(Rx highway NETWORK ADDRESS AND NetBEUI, DLC
exit MANAGES THE TRANSPORT
numbering OF INFORMATION PACKETS
scheme) BETWEEN DIFFERENT
NETWORKS. Routes the
packets and determines the
best route for sending them.
Manages network traffic
problems, packet switching,
routing, and reassembling data.
Data Link DETERMINES HOW DEVICES None Bridge, Remote Bridge,

Layer CONNECTED WILL GAIN Brouter, Switch
(Rx. Entry ACCESS. Determines how 1's
ramp/toll nd 0's are asssembled into IEEE 802.X Standards
booth that frames or packets of data.
allows Sends data frames from the Ethernet, Token Ring, FDDI
access onto Network Layer to the Physical
the highway) Layer. Contains the physical
address of a device. Like the
FROM: and TO: of a
envelope. URL: http://www.millbury.k12.ma.us/hs/techrepair/networking.html
Physical Transmits data bits between None The NIC CARDS,
Layer computers. Defines how 1's and REPEATERS,
(Rx. 0's are interpreted from the CONCENTRATORS/HUBS,
determining medium. DEFINES CABLES, MAU's, SWITCHING HUBS
if the road NETWORK INTERFACE etc.
infrastructure CARDS, AND OTHER
will be built PHYSICAL ASPECTS. CABLES - IEEE 802.X
of concrete
or asphalt.)
TRANSMISSION PATH
1. TCP/IP Network Protocol

1. DEFINITION: Stands for Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol. This is the protocol that carries data over the Internet. It is actually a
set of protocols
❍ PPP - Point to Point Protocol
❍ SMPT - Simple Mail Transport
❍ TCP - Transmission Control Protocol
❍ IP - Internet Protocol that handles addresses, etc.
❍ FTP - File Transfer Protocol
❍ MIME - Multipurpose Internet Mail Extensions, is more of a standard than a protocol. Used by e-mail applications, it is a method for
sending files back and forth between computers through electronic mail. This allows formatted documents created through word
processors or spreadsheet programs to be attached to an electronic mail message and arrive on the other end exactly as they were sent.
TCP/IP uses 5 layers of the OSI model(1,2,3,4, and 7)
2. IP ADDRESSES: To communicate on the Internet, computers must have unique identifiers in order to differentiate one computer from another.
This is accomplished through IP addresses. IP is made up of a 32-bit address or 4 "octet" address. An IP address consists of 4 parts separated by
decimal points.
199.250.132.1
128.30.7.10
Every host has at least one unique IP address. In addition, every router has a unique IP address for every network adapter it possesses. However,
all hosts on the same physical network must have the same network prefix. (For example, Take a look at the IP addresses on the side of each
machine in the lab)
3. DYNAMIC and STATIC NAMING: IP addresses can be assigned uniquely by the administrator or assigned dynamically by a DHCP (DOMAIN
HOST CONFIGURATION PROTOCOL) server. DHCP is a dynamic router in that it builds and updates its own routing tables. It automates what
the administrator has to do manually. Instead of dynamically naming a unique number for a network address, the server assigns a network
address to whoever goes on the network next. Thus the network address of a computer or workstation will be different each time. It can also
assign other things too, as a default gateway, DNS server, WINS server, and SUBNET MASK. See What is DHCP (Dynamic Host Configuration
Protocol)?
There are really 2 addresses in the TCP/IP packet

❍ IP Addresses (starting address and ultimate ending address)
❍ MAC addresses (Stopping point along the way)
4. IP ADDRESS CLASSES: IP addresses are grouped in different classes. Classes are allocated to organizations that request them in address
blocks. The INTERNIC assigns the addresses. Three classes are used for HOSTS.
A network is divided into subnets. A SUBNET is a network on where you are currently located. That network can be made longer by adding more
subnets. When a network packet is not addresed to its own network or subnets, it is forwarded to a DEFAULT GATEWAY (like a post office).
THE NUMBER OF HOSTS THAT MAY BE ALLOWED IN A NETWORK IS DETERMINED BY CLASS: Each class uses special numbering scheme
for Domain Names.
❍ Class A Addresses (very few left). Example: X.0.0.0

X = from 1 - 126. That is, 1.X.X.X - 126.X.X.X.
First octet identifies the network, i.e. 1-126; and the last three identify the node.
CLASS A
DEFAULT SUBNET MASK = 255.0.0.0
11111111. 00000000 00000000 00000000

Network node node node
❍ Class B Addresses
128.0.0.X - 191.255.X.X.
The first two octets identify the network and the last two the node.
CLASS B
11111111. 11111111 00000000 00000000

Network Network node node
❍ Class C Addresses: 192.0.0.X - 223.255.255.X

The first three octets identify the network, and the last octet is the node.
CLASS C
11111111. 111111111 11111111 00000000

Network Network Network Network
5. PORT NUMBERS: TCP/IP has its own protocols. Different TCP/IP Internet protocols use different port numbers to connect to web servers.
❍ HTTP uses default port 80 or 8080

❍ FTP (File Transfer Protocol) uses default port 21
❍ TELNET (text communication) uses default port 23
❍ SMNP uses default port 161
❍ SMTP (Simple Mail Transfer protocol) uses default port 25
6. DOMAIN NAME: Your IP address not only comes in numbers but has a Domain Name. It is easier to remember a name than a number.
The DNS breaks addresses into groups and gives each level the responsibility for the levels under them. Each level is called a domain. A period
separates each domain name from the next one. The right most portion of the address identifies the top level domain name which references
the organization type. The following table lists commonly used domain names:
.com = Commercial organizations

.edu = Educational organizations
.gov = Government (non-military)
.mil = Military organizations
.org = Non-profit association
.net = Network resources
Two services that the TCP/IP protocol uses to resolve domain name to IP adresses are
■ HOST FILE : a test file that is kept on the local machine and contains aGenerated
list of otherbyhosts
www.PDFonFly.com at 7/30/2009
and IP numbers. The 8:05:57 AM
domain name
resolver goes to this text field first.
■ DNS Server: Every company has a DNS server that workstations may consult for a name to IP address resolution. THE DNS
server contains FQDN (Fully Qualified Domain Names) to IP address matches. This database contains entries for every host
within the organization. Only one DNS server will keep the master database.
■ LMHosts - WINS: A LMHost file resolves a NetBIOS name to an IP address. The file must be installed and kept up to date on
each machine. The WINS server is a database that keeps track of IP addresses and NetBIOS names. The WINS server is
dynamic in its configuration and updates.
❍ TROUBLESHOOTING TCP/IP UTILITIES:
■ PING: The ping command is used to test connectivity to a host. It is a loop-back address. You can also Ping an address on the
other side of your router to test the default gateway.
To check if you have a path to an Internet host, enter the Ping command and the host's IP address at the command line, as in
the following example:
PING 204.32.23.67
NOTE: You can also use Ping with the DNS name of the host, such as www.wavetech.com.
■ TRACERT:This utility allows you to find the route used between you and the remote computer host. For example, say that you
are having trouble reaching a host named www.yahoo.com. Type the following command at the command prompt:
TRACERT WWW.yahoo.com
and press enter.
■ WINIPCFG/IPCONFIG: A good utility to use to check the TCP/IP configuration on a Windows 95 workstation is WINIPCFG. You
can quickly determine a computer's IP address, subnet mask, and default gateway using this utility. Windows NT has a
command line utility, IPCONFIG that presents similar data about the IP configuration on an NT platform.
2. IPX Network Protocol

IPX stands for Internet Packet Exchange. It is a Novell NetWare designed transport protocol. Novell Netware is an operating system made of FAT and
DET(Directory Entry Table). Performs addressing and routing functions. Resides in the NETWORK layer. Requires some configuration. Requires the
administrator to uniquely assign a network or cable segment address.
3. NetBIOS/NetBEUI Network Protocol

Stands for Network Bios Input Output Sustem and Network Advanced User Interface. Microsoft designed this protocol for fast packet delivery in a
small network without much configuration. It is not routable, but operates on the NETWORK and TRANSPORT layers of the OSI model.

NETWORK HARDWARE
More than any feature, network hardware may determine the speed, quality and
performance of a network.
Hubs
A hub is a central connecting device that joins computers in a star

configuration. Hubs may be passive or active. A passive hub merely connects
computers to the network and does not process data in any way. Active hubs,
sometimes called repeaters, regenerate the data in order to maintain signal
strength. Some hubs have intelligence and can perform additional duties such
as bridging, routing and switching.
Hub
Stackable Hub
Modular Hub
SWITCHES
Fast Ethernet switches allow dedicated, high-speed connections at either

10BASE-T or 100BASE-TX. They are ideal for connecting servers or multiple
hubs in small businesses that want the highest network performance possible to
exchange large data files and images, and access real-time information. A
switch does this by providing dedicated bandwidth to every device—server, PC,
or hub—connected to one of its ports. They are intelligent in that they give
priority to large bandwidth data.

Repeater
A repeater is the simplest and least expensive of the three. Repeaters are
usually small enough to fit in your hand and are used to connect two segments
of network cable. Extends the signal and distance of the LAN. The repeater
retimes and regenerates signals but does not change the data frame or packet
in any way.
Transceiver
A tranceiver connct different Ethernet nodes together in an organized fashion,
and allows multiple Ethernet segment nodes to connect to eachother to create
a segment.
Bridge
A bridge is like a smart repeater. Bridges, like repeaters, can connect two
network segments, but bridges are a little smarter about the data they
transport. Most bridges have the capacity to listen to the network and figure
out the address of each computer on both sides of the bridge. The bridge can
then inspect each message that comes from one side and broadcast it to the
other side of the bridge, if the message is intended for a computer that is on
the other side. If the paket's destination is on the same side of the bridge, it is
is discarded. This creates a more efficient scheme for data transport. The bridge
● can connect segments that use different cable media types, like
10BaseT(Twister Pair) and 10Base5(Coaxial).
● cannot connect different transport protocols - like Ethernet and Token
Ring networks.
Routers
A router is like super-intelligent bridge. They can link multiple LANs and look
deeper into the data packet to determine its destination. Routers not only know
the addresses of the computers on the network but are aware of all the other
bridges and routers on the network and can decide the most efficient path in
which to send data. The router uses a routing table of network addresses to
determine where to forward the packet.When a router receives data, it discards
the outer packet or frame or MAC address, repackages the data with network
address, and retransmits the signal. By stripping off the outer layers of data
Generated
before sending a packet, the total number of bits moving across the by www.PDFonFly.com
network is at 7/30/2009 8:05:57 AM
URL:the
reduced. The router at the receiving end then repackages http://www.millbury.k12.ma.us/hs/techrepair/networking.html
data into a packet
of frame that is appropriate for its network. There are ROUTABLE and NON-
ROUTABLE protocols.
● TCP/IP and IPX/SPX are routable

● NetBEUI is non-routable because it cannot work out of its own subnet.
Brouters
A brouter is like a bridge that have advanced intelligence that allows them to
take on duties that would normally require a router. These bridges are called
brouters.
Gateways
A gateway is like a super-intelligent router. Gateways are designed to connect
radically different networks. Although slower than a bridge or router, a gateway
has its own processor and memory to perform complex functions such as
interpreting between computers that speak different languages through both
protocol and bandwidth conversion. A gateway can convert a TCP/IP packet to a
NetWare IPX packet and vice versa. An example of a gateway is a messaging
gateway, which converts messages between different protocols.
Keys To Remember:
Repeaters, bridges, routers and gateways all extend and segment networks.
Because of this, they’re often confused, as they may take on similar duties. The
difference between these devices lies in the different degrees of data
discrimination and handling capability.
Repeater: Regenerates signals to span longer segments of network. Does not

alter data.
Bridge: Links two subnets (networks) that use the same media and protocol.
May control data traffic and speed.
Router: Allows the interconnection of two or more physically distinct networks

and have advanced intelligence enabling it to determine the most efficient
method of delivering data.
Gateways: Designed to connect radically different networks.
QUIZ: Can you now recognize the topologies below

FAULT TOLERANCE
Fault tolerance involves storing data on multiple hard drives to insure against
the failure of any individual drive. There are several levels of fault tolerance,
referred to as RAID (Random Array of Inexpensive Disks) levels.
● RAID Levels
● FAULT TOLERANCE
● RAID Levels
Internet Resources:
● Network Basics (Network+)


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NETWORKING

Lan Wiring, Hardware, and Installation: An Online Course in Networking

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A basic network is made up of primary components.

TYPES OF NETWORKS: The three basic types of networks include:

● Entire network shuts down if there is a break in the main cable.

● Terminators are required at both ends of the backbone cable.

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3. STAR-WIRED RING (TOKEN RING)

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● Overall length of each segment is limited by the type of cabling used.

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Each type of cabling has different requirements if it is to meet network standards.

IEEE 802.X SPECIFICATIONS

The 802 standards break the Data Link Layer further:

● LOGICAL LINK CONTROL (LLC) - For error correction and

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● 255 devices cab be connected

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● is usually standard industry RG-8 or RG-11 cable

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Stripping & Terminating Coaxial Cable: Illustrated Tutorial.

2. TWISTED PAIR CABLING (STP and UTP)

EAI/TIA 568 COMMERCIAL BUILDING WIRING

UTP comes in levels of Category 1 - 5. The Electronics

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Stripping and Terminating a Cat5 Cable: Illustrated Tutorial.

3. FIBER OPTIC CABLE

Ethernet uses CSMA/CD described in the IEEE standard 802.3.

MAX Max Devices

Shielded 328 ft.

The Ethernet standard has grown to include faster networks.

Cable Type Data Transfer Speed Maximum Distance

Chart Taken from Data Comm Warehouse

3. ATM (Asynchronous Transfer Mode

OSI MODEL (Open Systems Interconnect)

2. Data Data Link

LAYER FUNCTION PROTOCOLS HARDWARE

Application Allows application processes to FTP, SNMP, Gateway

Presentation FORMAT - Functions as the NCP Gateway

Session Layer TRAFFIC COP. Provides None Gateway

Transport RESPONSIBLE FOR THE Uses protocols Gateway

Network Layer Establishes THE UNIQUE IP, IPX, Router, Brouter

Data Link DETERMINES HOW DEVICES None Bridge, Remote Bridge,

1. TCP/IP Network Protocol

There are really 2 addresses in the TCP/IP packet

❍ Class A Addresses (very few left). Example: X.0.0.0

11111111. 00000000 00000000 00000000

11111111. 11111111 00000000 00000000

❍ Class C Addresses: 192.0.0.X - 223.255.255.X

11111111. 111111111 11111111 00000000

❍ HTTP uses default port 80 or 8080

.com = Commercial organizations

❍ TROUBLESHOOTING TCP/IP UTILITIES:

and press enter.

2. IPX Network Protocol

3. NetBIOS/NetBEUI Network Protocol

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A hub is a central connecting device that joins computers in a star

Fast Ethernet switches allow dedicated, high-speed connections at either