90

7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
DESIGN OF STEEL STRUcruRES
arranged at the comers and the centre of square of side a . .
by most heavily loaded rivet. Ans.[1.24 W] . FlOd 10 terms of W, the. load transmitted
(\ steel bracket connection has 22 mm diameter . .
10 Fig. 3.41. Determine the load P so that allowabl rIvets 12 10 number arranged as shown
:ake safe permis e stress 10 the extremely loaded rivet is just
sIble stress In bearing in rivet f... :'" f'
N/mm
2
, and safe per , ft
m.lSSlble stress in shearing in'" " /
rivet =102.5 N/mm
2
p '\." / /
(J.U. 1965) Ans. [186 kN] " /
If the worst rivet in the system r-"" - ;x:
shown in Fig. 3.42 may be 1'" IT. IOOItI
J
m / "
stressed to 100 N/mm
2
, calcu- I T / "
late t.he safe value for. the cc- T / / '\.
centrIC load P. The rivets are T ,I T / '\.
,?m in diameter and are
In smgle shear. F ,00",.. -----{..!D
Ans. [140 kN] FIG. 3.41. p
FIG. 3.42.
Calculate the m&1timum load
carried by any rivet shown
in Fig. 3.43. Rivets A and
B are 200 mm
2
cross-sec
tional area and rivet C of
400 mm
2
area.
Design a bracket connection
shown in Fig. 3.44, if it carries
a load of 120 kN at an ec
centricity of 350 mm from
the centre line. Use power
driven rivets. The thickness
of bracket is 16 mm and the FIG. 3.43.
thickness of flange of the stanchion is 12 mm.
'00
The flange of a tee section 200 mm x 200 .
the fla f mm IS l.veted to
. nge? a rolled. steel column of I-section to form a bracket
whIch carnes a vertIcal load of 250 kN at a distance of 200
mm. from face of the stanchion, as ,shown in Fig. 3.45.
DeSIgn. the rIveted connection. Use shop driven rivets each 20 .
mm dl8. '
FIG. 3.44.
I
I
I - SECTION.
T-SECTK)N
IOmm BRACKET
-+I i-10mm
FIG. 3.45.
4.1. INTRODUCTION
Steelwork Connections : II
Bolted & Pinned Connections
In chapter 1, we have seen that there are three fundamental structural members-tension
members, compression members, and bending members. These structural members are often
composed of structural sections which are jointed together. The most common types of structural
steel connections are riveted connections, bolted connections and welded connections, though
riveted conriections are fast becoming absolete because of their low strength, high installation
cost and other disadvantages. In bolted connections, bolts and nuts are used. There are several
types of bolts that can be used for connecting structural steel members. The three types of
bolts used in structural applications are (i) unfinished or black bolts, (ii) turned and fitted
bolts and (iii) high-strength bolts. In pinned connections, pins are used for jointing the members.
Advantages of bolted connections
1. The bolting operation is very silent, in contrast to the hammering noise in riveting.
2: Bolting is a cold process, and hence there is no risk of fire.
3. Bolting operation is far more quicker than riveting.
4. There is no risk involved in the bolting, in coIitrast to the risk of flying rivets in
riveting work.
5. Less man-power is required in making the' connections.
Disadvantages of bolted connections
1. The bolted connections, if subjected to vibratory loads, result in reduction in strength
if they get loosened. -
2. Bolted connections for a given of bolt, have lesser strength in axial tension
since the net area at the root of the' threads is less.
3. Unfinished bolts have lesser strength because of non-uniform diameter.
4: In the case of black bolts, the diameter of hole is kept 1.5 mm more than the diameter
of the bolt, and this extra clearance does not get filled up, in contrast to the riveted joints,
4.2. BOLT TYPES
A bolt is a metal pin with a head formed at one end and the shank threaded at the
other end, in order to receive a nut. Structural bolts are classified as under :
. \ (91)
! .1
92
(a) A.ccording to type of shank
(I) Unfinished or black bolts
(ii) Turned bolts.
(b) According to materta . . I and strength
Ordinary structural bolt
(u) High strength steel bolt
(c) A.ccording to Shape of head and
(I) Square bolt nut
(ii) Hexagonal bolt
(d) to Pitch and fit of thread
Standard pitch bolt
(u) Coarse pitch bolt
I (ui) Fine pitch bolt
. n common steel structural workh
DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURES"
ABOLT ASSEMBU
FIG. 4.1. BOLT ASSEMBLY
1. Ordinary unfinished or black' the following three bolt types are recognised:
2. Turned and fitted bolts
3. High strength bolts.
4.3. ORDINARY UNFINISHED OR BLACK BOLTS
These are manufactured from b .
the shank is left unfinish d . lack round bars of low carb
under the thread is IS rough as rolled. The head is and the sunaco of
wbtch are usually made 15' to 3 mm less than the shank The y mgtng. The dtameter
SInce the bearin of " mm larger In diameter than the Y loose In the holes
stresses in these gbOltssuch bolts on the walls of the holes dIameter of the bolt
only for ordinary field are k:pt than the other types of the
T bI wor and Itght loads-speciall d' s. ey are therefore used
b a e 4.1 summarises the dime. . y unng erection operations
olts, by IS , range of lengths and other information black
RAL DIMENSIONS OF HEXAGONAL H
D' EAD BLACK BOLT IS . I
II. lameter (d) mm 6 8 i l' I .l364 (Part I) 1983
I[
__ I __
Houl ",:,. (.), mm 24 30
"11.05 14.38 17.77 20.03 26.75 " 33.53 H i Til
l
39.98!
Head thickness, mm 4 5.3 6 T I I 50.85 1
I ,..,..., ....,h mm I 18 22!4 I 7.5 ! 10 125 15 I 18.7

__ __ __
. 1.25 I I Pitch of thread, mm 1 0 w 1
Wruher, out. dia. mm 18
__;;__ __

T
__ I
Washer thickness, mm i 1.5 2.01I 13.0 I 17.0 21.0 IS: 5370-1969

I " i 3.0 4.0

For 1< 125 mm. For 125< I s 200, b IS 6 mm more and for I > 200, b is 19 mm more
93
BOLTED AND PINNED CONNECTIONS
Permissible stresses
Table 4.3 gives permissible stresses in bolts in clearance holes (Le. unturned bolts), along
with those for turned bolts.
4.4. TURNED AND FITfED BOLTS
These are speclally.ma frOm black round ba1S of mild steel containing low carbon content,
de
but are turned down to exact diameter. The diameter of the shank is finished by turning to
a diameter which Is larger than the nominal diameter of the bolt by 1.2 mm [or bolts M8
to M16 and by 1.3 mm for larger sizes. FIat face of tbe nut and head on the inner side
are usually machined. washers should also he machined on both the faces. These bolts wlll
fit the bolt holes, which are larger by 1.5 mm. The bOles for such bolts should either be
reamed or drilled. These bolts provide much better bearing contact between the bolts and
the holes. Strength of such bolts approximately equals that of rivets, and thus is greater than
that of black bolts.
Table 4.2 summarises the dimensions, range of length and other information about fit
bolts, as recommended by IS 3640-1982. TABLE 4.2. GENERAL DIMENSIONS OF HEXAGONAL HEAD FIT BOLTS (IS: 3640-1982)
30
24
20
16
12
10
8
32.3
25.3 Nominal dill (d), mm
21.3
17.2
13.2 ,
11.2
9.2
19.0
15.0 Bearing dill. d3 , mm
13.0
10.0
8.0
7.0
5.5
50.85
39.55 Head thickness, mm
32.95
26.17
19.86
17.6
- 43.0
36.5 Head diameter, e, mm
30.5
27.0
22.5
19.5
16.5
Thread Length * (b), mm
*
For I above 50 upto 150 mm.
For lupto 50 mm, b is less by 2 mm, and
For I >150 mm, b is 5 mm longer.
Permissible stresses
Table 4.3 gives the maximum permissible stresses in close tolerance and turned bolts, along
with the bolts in clearance boles. In calculating the axial tensile stress in a bolt (or screwed
tension rod), the net area shall be used.
TABLE 4.3. MAX. PERMISSIBLE STRESSES IN BOLTS
Description
AxWl tension
Shear
Bearing
of bolt
Cltf
Tvf
Gpf
MPa (or Nlmm1)
MPa
(or Nlmm2)
MPa
(or Nlmm2)
250
1.
Bolts in clear-ance holes
120
80
2.
Close tolerance
and
120
100
300
turned bolts
for
Edge distance of holes
The requirements for pitch and edge distance fur bolts are the same as fur rIvets. Hence
taking the minimum edge distance, Table 3.2 may be referred.
\
I
94
DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCfURES
Behaviour of unturned and _ turned bolts under
. load
4.2 (a) shows a black bolt (unturned bOlt),
connectIng two plates A and B. These bolts fit loosely
and there is no clamping action on the plates. When
P !s on the two plates (Fig. 4.2 b) there
IS sheanng actIOn on the plates, resulting in the slipping
of the plates until the unturned shank of the bolt comes
in contact with the edges of the hole. The load is
thus transmitted by bearing on the bolt and shear in
p
its shank. The shank of bolt bears against the edge p
plate: in high local stresses and consequent .
localIsed YieldIng of material. Hence such a bolt is not
(b) BEHAVIOUR OF UNFINISHED 80LT
desirable if the value of P is high. In contrast to this
Fig. 4.2 (c) shows the behaviour of turned and fitted
bolt, when the plates are SUbjected to a load P. Since
, the bolt fits tightly in the reamed or drilled hole of
p
plates, no slip would occur. The load, for such a case p
.. is directly transferred by bearing and shear in the bOlt:
localised bearing stresses are produced. Oile to this,
hIgher value of P can be permitted.
(c) 8HA\fIOUR OF A TURNED AND FITTED 8Ol.T
FIG, 4.2. BEHAVIOUR OF BOLTS
4.5. HIGH STRENGTH FRICTION GRIP BOLTS
UNDER LOADS
/I .High strength friction bolts are comparatively a recent development. They are made
Of. hIgh steel and thelT surface is kept unfinished, ie. as rolled and rough. Due to
they loose fit the holes, similar to the unturned block bolts. However, high
InitIal developed In such bolts in the initial stage of tightening, and this tension
clamps plates the bolt head and the nut. The tightening of the bolt to
a hIgh tensIOn, thelT proof load, is done through calibrated torque wrenches:
Thzs hIgh pre-compresslo.n . acm:n due to which the load is transmitted from one
plate to the other by friCtion, wtth negllgtble slip. The bearing of the bolt on the hole surface
does not come to 'play at all. The jOint so produced is a rigid one, which remain fully tight
even under dynamiC load, free from fatigue. . .
Fig. 4.3 shows the load transmission by a friction grip
bolt. In an ordinary bolted jOint, the force from one side
is to the other side through the interlocking
and beanng of the bolts. In a friction grip jOint, however,
the force is transmitted by virtue of friction between the
interfaces. To develop this friction a normal load is applied
to the jOint by using high strength bolts tightened to proof
load. By usual law of friction
P =fJ T ...(4.1)
where
T = clamping fQrce induced by the bolt
fJ = coefficient of friction between the interfaces, and
P = load carrying capacity of the. jOint in shear
FIG. 4.3. LOAD TRANSMISSION BY
FRICTION IN HIGH STRENGTII .
FRICTION GRIP BOLT
BOLTED AND PINNED CONNEcrIONS 9S
Hence if the actual applied load is equal to P or less, the joint will withstand it, and
transfer it without any slip. When the actual load exceeds this value, there occurs a major
slip, and, as load is further gradual slipping brings the bolt in contact with the
edges of the plate. The coefficient of friction is termed as slip factor. The Slip factor is defined
as the ratio between the force causing the large displacement between the two interfaces of
the plates connected together and the force normal to the interfaces due to the tension in
the bolts. A Slip factor of 0.45 is stipulated by IS : 4000-1967 for surfaces which are free
of paint, dirt, loose rust and mill scale. The high tensile friction grip bolts are commonly
abbreviated as HTFG bolts.
/' / Advantages of high strength bolts
/.f 1. It gives rigid joint as there is no slip between plates at working loads.
2. It gives high static strength due to high frictional resistance.
3. Smaller load is transmitted at net of plates.
4. There are no shearing or bearing stresses in the bolts.
5. It has high fatigue strength.
6. As the bolts are in tension upto proof load they do not permit loosening of the nut
and the washer.
Disadvantages of high strength bolts
1. The material cost of these bolts is much higher - it is about 50% greater than that
of ordinary bolts and about 3 times that of rivets.
2. Special attention is required for workmanship in installing and tightening these bolts,
specially in regard to giving them right amount of tension.
Structural uses : Field connections
High tensile friction grip bolts may be used as alternate to rivets or welds in the following
types of connections:
. (i) Column splices in all tier structures 60 m or more in height.
(ii) Column splices in tier structures 30 to 60 m in height, if the least horizontal dimension
is less than 40 percent of the height.
(iii) Column splices in tier structures less than 30 m in height, if the least horizontal
dimension is less than 25 percent of the height., .
(iv) Connections of all beams and girders to columns and., of any other beams and glTders
on which the bracing of columns is dependant, in structure over 40 m height.
(v) Roof-truss splices and connections of trusses io columns, column splices, column bracing,
knee braces and crane supports, in alI structures carrying cranes of over 50 kN capacity.
. (vi) Connections of supports of running maChinery, or of other live loads which produce
impact or reversal of stress, and
(vii) Any other connections stipulated on the design plans.
In all other cases, it is enough if field connections are made by normal type of bolts.
Minimum edge distance : The minimum distance from the centre of bolt hole to any' edge,
shall be the same as prescribed for rivets (IS : 800-1984). Hence Table 3.2 may be referred.
Dimensions for high tensile friction grip bolts and nuts
Table 4.4 shows typical dimensional relations of h!gh tensile friction griI? bolts with
head for sizes ranging from 12to 39 mm and Table 4.5 gIVes preferred length-dIameter combmatlons.
Table 4.6 gives dimensions for high-tensile friction grip nuts. Similarly, Table 4.7 gives
. for plain washers. The various di!llensions stated in Tables are. marked m
.. Fig; 4.,4. Sometimes, square taper washers may also be used, the detaIls WhICh may be
obtained from IS : 3757-1966.
100 DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURES
4.8. DESIGN OF BOLTED SHEAR CONNECTION
From Eq. 4.1, we have
P =fl T
If there are n interfaces, we have
f P=nfl T
Dividing this by a factor of safety (F), we have
...(i)
...(ii)
Shear per bolt =: 1x n X T ... ( 4.2)
Shear per bolt Slip factor x No. of interfaces x proof load.
Factor of safety
where
shear per bolt =Contribution of one bolt to the total shear strength of the joint
Slip factor == Coefficient of friction =0.45
T = Proof load= Maximum permissible load in the bolt, as given in Table 4.8
The total number of effective interfaces is determined by common contact surfaces between
adjacent load transmitting structural members with forces in opposite directions; this is, excluding
packing pieces through which the bolt passes.
. The factor of safety (F) is taken as 1.4 for all loads except wind load in which case
in may be reduced to 1.2. The factor of safety allows for the stress relaxation in the bolts
which may be of the order of 10 percent. Research has proved that stress relaxation in the
bolt occurs mostly during first few days after the bolt is tightened.
From Eq. 4.2, it is clear that greater the number of interfaces, smaller is the value of
the required proof load corresponding to a given shear. This could mean that smaller diameter
bolt will be required if the number of lnterfaces are more, and vice-versa.
The various types of shear connections considered in this Chapter are
(i) Lap joint (ii) Butt joH'lt with double cover plates (iii) Moment connection
(iv) Flange plate connection (v) Bracket connection
Example 4.1. Bolted Lap Joint
Design' a doubly bolted lap jOint for plates 16 mm thick to cany its full load. Take permissible
'axial tension in plate 0.6 fy where 250 N Imm
2
.
Solution
Load carried by the plate per pitch length ___..l..;_+t::"""'s:'LT LINE
O'at X p X t ;::::::::J.-.
(0.6 x 250) P x 16 2400 P N I 16mm
Fig. 4.8 shows the lap joint. There is only
one interface to transmit shear. Since there are
two bolts per pitch length, the load carried. by
each bolt 1x 2400 p n 1200 p N
Hence from Eq. 4.2, taking n 1,
1200 P == X n X T
T =: proof load
_(1200p)F _
- fl n - 0.45 x 1
== 3733.33p
FIG. 4.8.
HTFGBOLTS
M24(1OK)
BOLTED AND PINNED CONNECTIONS
Providing bolts at 60 mm pitch,
101
Proof load, T == 3733.33 x 60 =224000 N = 224 kN. .
From Table 4.8, we get T =232.5 kN for 24 mm. dia. 19K boIt. Hence proVIde HTFG
bolts M24 (10K) with a pitch of 60 mm and edge dIstance of 40 mm.
Example 4.2. Bolted butt joint with double cove:
Redesign the joint of Example 4.1, using butt Jomt wzth double cover plates.
Solution
In the case of butt joint with double cover
plates, shown in Fig. 4.9, there will be two interfaces
(i.e n =2) for each bolt.
LINE
P :t-
HTFG eOLTS
M 12UOIt)
Hence we have
1200p =1x n x T = x 2 x T
From which
_ {1200 p) x 1.4 =1866.67 P
T - 0.45 x 2
Thus we find that the proof load T has been
reduced to half, because of two interfaces
bolt. This will require lesser value of bolt dIa.
and, inturn, less value of pitch p.
....L +\1+ #0
T ,I 30
11-t + 1
+- -t:: 30mm
"+ ... + -t:: + 30
+-t!\-+ -+
FIG. 4.9.
Keeping p =30 mm, we get
T =1866.67 x 30 =56000 N =56 kN ..'
Hence provide HTFG bolts M12 (10K) at a pitch of 30 mm and a SIde dIstance of 20
mm. The joint is shown. in Fig. 4.9.
Example 4.3. Bolted Moment Connection
t
' ISHB 400 t(i) 77 4 kglm transmits a moment of 5 kN-m to the
A top column of sec tOn t'
bottom column of section ISHB 450 @ 87.2 kglm. Design the moment connec tOn.
that the direct load is transmitted from the upper column to the lower
column b web connection (shear connection) ..The of 5 I
kN-m wulbe transmitted through flange connecMn, provIdmg bolts .,......,...... 5kN-m
in the flanges.
M 5 x 10' - 125 kN
Shear on the bolts at each flange :::: h = 400 - .
The bolts are in single shear, i.e. there will be one interface
only at each flange,
l!:..xT=P
F
0.45 x Proof load :::: 12.5
1.4 14
. 12.5 x. 38 89 kN
Proof load == 0.45 = .
or
Referring to Table 4.8, select HTFG bolts M12 (8G) 4 Nos.
. on each flange as shown in Fig. 4.10.
ISHe 400
I
I
400
I
ISHe 450
I

FIG, 4.10.
PACKING
372
\
DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTIJRES
is it the full continuity moment as assumed in elastic rigid-frame analysis. Because of difficulty
of evaluating the degree of restraint, semi-rigid connections are not used in plastic design and
are rarey used in working stress design. Actual connections are neither completely rigid nor
completely flexible, and can be classified on the basis of the ratio of the moment developed
by the connections to the full moment capacity of the connected member, expressed as a percentage.
As stated above, the approximate percentages for simple connections are from a to 20, for
a semi-rigid connection from 20 to 80, and for a rigid connection from 80 to 90. The percentage
of a particular connection must be determined by actual tests.

SIMPLE BEAM END CONNECTIONS
Steel beams are supported at their ends by (i) masonry walls or piers, (ii) steel columns,
or (iii) heavier beams and girders running in transverse directions. In the case wher&'t.ne beam
is supported on steel supports, the
beam reactions are borne by the end
connections of the beam with the sup
porting member. As discussed above,
in the case of simple framing, the
original angle between the members
may change upto 80% of the amount
it would theoretically change if fric
tionless hinged connections could be
used. For beams, such a connection
provides only shear transfer at the
ends.
Simple beam end connections
are of two types :
1. Framed connections
2.
(a)
(b)
(Fig. 12.2, 12.3)
Seated connections
Unstiffened seat connection
(Fig. 12.4)
Stiffened seat connection
(Fig. 12.5)
Framed Connections :
A framed connection is the one
when it beam istonnected to a girder
or a stanchion by means of two angles .
placed on the two sides of the web
of the. beam, as shown in Fig. 12.2.
When the beams intersect and
are attached to other so
flanges of both are at the same eleya
tion, as in Fig. 12.3 (a), (b), the beams
framing-in have their flanges coped
or cut away. The loss of section is
primarily loss of flange that carries
little shear, so that normally a cope
results in little loss of. strength.
--""IROER
(A) BEAM CONNECTED TO BEAM
BEAM
(B) BEAM CONNECTED TO STANCHION
FIG. 12.2. FRAMED BEAM CONNECTIONS
(0)
(b)
FIG. 12.3. BEAM FRAMING AT THE SAME LEVEL
373
. In framed C?nnections, an angle shelf is sometimes used to support the connectin beam
dunng erectIOn, simply to facilitate the process (Fig. 12.2 b), though the angle is
not an mtegral part of the connection and may be removed after the connection process is
. over.
RIVETED BEAM CONNECTIONS
t!;
eated beam connections
When a beam is connected to the
nge. (or the web) of a steel stanchion,
the WIdth of the flange (or the depth
of the web) may be insufficient to ac
commodate the connecting angles. In
that case, framed beam connections are
not suitable, and seated beam connec
. tions are preferred. In its simplest form,
a seated connection is the one in which
a horizontal angle with its horizontal
leg at its top is used to receive the beam
on it, as shown in Fig. 12.4; in such
as a case it is called unstiffened seat con
nection. In addition to the seat angle,
a web cleat is provided when the beam
is connected to a beam (Fig. 12.4 a)
while a flange cleat is used when the
beam is connected to.a stanchion. The
angle cleats (ie. web cleat or flange cleat)
are essential parts of seated connections
because they keep the beam stable in
a vertical position and prevent it from
lateral buckling.
When the reaction to be transferred
by the beam is so large that the seat
angle cannot support it, then the horizon
tal leg of the seat angle is stiffened by
means of one or two stiffener angles
, as shown in Fig. 12.5. The stiffener
should be tightly fitted under the seating
angl: and suitable packing should be
proVIded, as shown in Fig. 12.5.
connections require more
space m the vertical direction and due
to this, they are not commonl; used for
connecting the beam to a beam. Seated
connections are more suitable for con
. neeting the beam to either- the flange
Orto the web of a steel stanchion. Similar
ly, framed connection is not suitable for
connecting a beam to the web ofa column
of space limitation on either
SIde of the beam.
(AI BEAM CONNECTED TO BEAM
(BI BEAM CONNECTED TO STANCHION
FIG. 12.4. UNSTIFFENED SEATED CONNECTION
SEAT ANGLE
STIFFENER
ANGLES
FIG. 12.5. STIFFENED SEATED CONNECTION
374 DESIGN OF S1EEL S1RUCTURES
12.3. DESIGN OF FRAMED BEAM CONNECTION
Since framed connections do not transfer the moment, they should be highly flexible.
To provide flexibility in the connection, the depth of the connecting angles is limited tQ. about
0.7 times the depth of the beam be connected, and the angles are kept as thin as possible,
sUbject to the condition that shear is transferred safely. If t is the thickness and his' the
depth of the t!ngle,
Average shear stress in one angle = Force
t.
If V is the total reaction of the beam,
Force in one angle V 12
" . Now, max. shear stress in angie = 1.5 x average shear' stress
V
Max. shear stress = 1.5 2t.h ...(12.1)
The angles should be safe to carry this maximum shear stress.
The rivets connecting the web of the beam with the connecting angles are in double shear;
herice the bearing value of the rivet generally governs the design. However, these rivets are
generally shop riveted, before the beam is brought to the site. Hence the permiSSible stresses
(corresponding to the power driven shop rivets) are higher. In contrast to this, the rivets connecting
the angles' with the stanchion or girder are driven in the field and hence permissible stresses
are less. These rivets are in single shear, but two rows of rivets are available, one row being
in each outstanding leg. In order to obtain strength of the rivet in bearing equal to that in
single shear, we have,
d
:n; 2
t apf=4divf
t =:n; d ivf
4 apf
,.,(12.2)
where t is the thickness of the angle' and d is the diameter of the rivet hole. If this
thickness is provided, bearing on the connection angle is not a factor in design, for connecting
the angles with the stanchion or girder.
Where the number of rivets can be accommodated in a single row, the angles of size
ISA.90 x 90, 8 or 10 mm thick or ISA 100 x 75, 8 mm thick will be suitable. If however,
two rows of rivets are required, ISA 150 x 75, 10 mm thick or ISA 150 x 115, 10 mm thick,
with longer leg on the web, are most suitable. When these angles, some times known as clip
angles are used to attach a beam to a column, there is a clearance set back of about' 10 to
12.5 mm (i") so that if the beam is too long, within acceptable tolerances, the angles may
be relocated without cutting off a piece of the beam. . _
Flexural stress on connection angles
In the framed connection, it is assumed that the connections are flexible and are proportioned
for the transferring beam shears applied at appropriate eccentricities. The connections dp not
offer any resistance to the rotation of the end of the beam in vertical plane. If, however, full
rotation of the beam does not take place, because of some rigidity of the jOint, moment is
induced at the end of the beam and flexural st,!esses are induced in the connection angles.
Fig. 12.6(a) shows the rigid connection where the angles are not stressed,. while Fig 12.6 (b)
shows the flexible connection where the connecti6n angles are deformed and flexural stresses
are developed due to end rotation of the beam.
Fig. 12.6 (b ii) shows the deformed shape of the centre line of the connection angle,
to an exaggerated scale. It is to be noted that the deformation of the framing angles will
RIVETED BEAM CONNECTIONS
375
. be maximum at the top and will gradually decrease towards the bot!om, to ,rotation'
of the beam. Let 0 be the maximum deformation of the angle, 1,ts value bemg hmlted by
the strength of rivets at A on tension side, since the angle can deform only so long as the
rivets at A are intact.
Let P =tensile force in rivet A (equal to
al ,a2 =effective lengths of the legs of the
to the rivet lines, as marked.
(}e ,.;, (} :::slope at corner C.
the allowable tensile force in the rivet)
angle, measured from the centre of thickness
It is assumed that slopes (}A amd
(}B are each zero.
Let MA ,MB and Me be the moments
induced atA, BandC respectively, as marked
in Fig. 12.6 (b ii).
J
( I )
In terms of moment Me. we have
MB =iMe ...(1)
(0 ) CONNECTION NOT STRESSED
(RIGID FRAMING)
and MA =Pal - Me ...(2)
Let b be the length of the angle
pendicular to the plane of the paper, and
t is the thickness of the angle. Considering
the bending of leg CB
(} _ Mea2 _ MBaz= Mea2 _ Me a2
e - 2El 2El 2El 4.1'
Mea2
Or(}e = 4E 1
...(3)
(I) (iii
where 1 =moment of inertia of the
I I
1 bt
3
(b) CONNECTION STRESSED
(FLEXIBLE FRAMING)
ang e eg =12
Similarly, applying moment area
theorem to leg CA.
FIG. 12.6. FLEXURAL S1RESSES IN
CONNECTION ANGLES
or
Equating
From which,
or
. _ M
A
. al _ Meal= (Pal - Me) al _ Meal
(}e - 2 E 1 2 E 1 2 E I 2 E 1
(}e = [P al _ Me _ Me ] = [pal - Me]
El 2 2 2 El 2
(3) and (4). we get
)
4El El 2 e
i
Me = 2Pal
4al + az
2Paf
MA =Pal-Me=Pal----
4al + a2
MA = Pal (2
a
l + a2)
4al + a2
... (4)
... (12.3)
...(12.4)
388 DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURES
12.7. SMALL MOMENT RESISTANT CONNECTIONS: CLIP ANGLE CONNECTIONS
V Such a connection is also known as clip angle
connection because clip angles are provided both
at the top and bottom of the flanges of the beam,
in addition to the web angles, as shown in Fig.
12.21.
Thus, four angles (i.e., two clip angles and
two web angles) are used in such a connection.
The web angles, similar to those in framed con
nections, resists only shear; they do not resist
any moment. Similarly, the two clip angles resist
only the ,moment and they do not resist any shear.
The vertical legs clip angles are connected to
the flange of the stanchion by two rivets provided
in one gauge line, so that distribution of tension,
. induced by moment, is uniform. If two gauge
lines are used instead of one, the distribution
of tension is not uniform (Fig. 12.22 a). Similar
argument applies if the column flange is wide
enough to accommodate four rivets in one gauge
line on the clip, the inner most rivets may take
WEB AN LES
(0 ) (bl
FIG. 12.21. CLIP ANGLE CONNECTION.
disproportionate share of load (Fig. 12.22 b). For this reason, many engineers contend that
the number of rivets on the vertical leg of the clip should not exceed two. Due to this, the
number of rivets (equal to two) limits the
moment resisting capacity of the connection;
that's why such connection is used for resist
ing only small moments.
Fig. 12.23 shows two modes of bending
of clip angles. If initial tension in rivets
is neglected,. the clip angle will under go
simple cantilever flexure (Fig 12.23 a). If
P is the tensile force in rivet A, the RM.
to, be resisted by the angle is
M = P (a - 0.5 t) ...(i) ...(12.14 a) (0)
(b I
where I is the thickness of the angle. FIG. 12.22.
If, however, the clamping action of the rivets is sufficient to prevent rotation at A and
B, the angle will bend in double flexure (Fig. 12.23 b), with. the point of contraflexure midway
between A and C. In that case the B.M. is given
by
M = P x 0.5 (a - 0.5 t) 0.5 P (a - 0.5 t)'
... (ii) ... (12.14b)
The RM. given by (ii) is half of that
obtained by (i). However, for safety, point of
contraflexure is assumed at a distance
0.6(a 0.5 t), in which case, the B.M. is given by
M =0.6P (a -0.5 t) '1.(iii) (12.14 c)
Also, from Eq. 12.5, the maximum B.M.
in the angle is given by
M = MA =0.6P.a ... (12.5)
(0) l bl
FIG. 12.23. BENDING OF CLIP ANGLE .
RIVETED BEAM CONNECTIONS 389
The difference between Eqs. 12.14(c) and 12.5 is very, small, both being based on initial
tension in the rivets. Since Eq. 12.5 was obtained on the basis of detailed analysis, the design
of clip angle is based on this B.M.
.. Ma = O.6Pa ...(12.14) ,
If I is the length of the clip angle between the two rivets (equal to gauge g of the flange
of stanchion) its moment of resistance is equal to i;U
2
Obi.
1 2 '
(;1 t Obi = Ma = 0.6Pa
or
t = V6M
a
= V0.36Pa.
lObI lObi
...(12.15)
In the above expression Obi may be taken as 185 N/mm
2

12.8. LARGE MOMENT RESISTANT CONNECTIONS
We have seen above that max. allowable value of tension in rivets (due to limited number
of rivets that can be provided) in clip angle limits the use of clip connections shown in Fig
12.21. In order to resist large moments,' three types of connections are provided :
(i) Bracket connections
(ii) 'Split beam connections
(iii) . Modified split beam connections
1. Bracket connections
A bracket connection is
essentially composed of two
sets of angles along with gusset
plates, as shown in Fig. 12.24.
One set of angles (A) is con
nected to the flange of the
stanchion while the other set
of angles (B) is connected to
the two flanges of the beam.
The set of angles (A), con
nected to the flange of the
stanchion may either be con
tinuous (such as in Fig. 12.24
a) or may be discontinuous
(such as in Fig. 12.24 b).The
bracket connection composed
of continuous angle (Fig 12.24
a) is considered to be more
rigid. Let us consider details
of such a connection, shown
in Fig. 12.25.
(i) Design of rivets along AlA 1
(0 I
STANCHION
(b)
FIG. 12.24 BRACKET CONNECTIONS
, The rivets along AJAh connecting the pairs of angles A to the gusset plates resist both
the moment (in their own plane) as well as shear. The rivet value Rl is found on the basis
of double shear and bearing on the thickness of gusset plate, the thickness of gusset plate
being kept nearly equal to the thickness of the web of the beam. Assuming the rivets to be
placed at uniform pitch (P) the number (nJ) of rivets is given by Eq. 3.20, taking
1=1:
'''I
,
392
. DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURES
The inclined edge of the gusset plate acts as a compressive member. If it is assumed
free to rotate, the lateral buckling of the edge will not occur if IIr is less than 60. For rectangular
. plate, r= t/V12 .
J-rr < 60, where 1 is the effective length of inclined edge.
t/ 1
or
or
I < 17.32
t
If, however, the edges are assumed to be restrained against rotation,
, I
fpj- < 60
2 t v 1",
I < 34.64
t
... (12.24 a)
... (12.24 b)
// Z. SPLIT BEAM CONNECTION
/ A split beam connection consists of (i) two split beams consisting of either T-section or
I-section cut into two pieces, provided at the top and bottom flanges of the beam, and (ii)
pair of web angles, connecting the web of the beam to the flange of the stanchion. Such
a connection is shown in Fig. 12.26. ,
A split beam connection is quite similar to the small moment connection, except that
in the place of clip angles, the
flange clips consists of either
T-sections, or else beam sec
tion splitted into two parts.
Here also, it is assumed that
the split beams (flange clips),
resist .moment only, while the
web angles resists shear only.
Let M be the moment
at the connection. Due to this
moment, a tensile force P will
be induced at each of the two
rivets of the upper tee, and
a compressive force P at each
of the two rivets of the lower
tee. The distorted view of the
upper T is shown in Fig. 12.26
P
p
P
(0)
IbJ
(a). Thus the external moment FIG. 12,26. SPLIT BEAM CONNECTION
2P
, -,--
tws
M, will be resisted by a couple
provided by tensile and compressive forces, of magnitude 2 P (Fig. 12.26 a), acting at a lever
arm of (h +t ws) where tws is the thickness of web of split beam :
.. 2P (h + tws) = M
or
M
p=--
2 (h + tws)
",..
Also, the T-section will be subjected to a root moment Ms given by (Fig
... (12.25)
12.26 b)
... (12.26) Ms = P x i(g tws) =0.5P (g tws)
Let tfs be the thickness of the flange of split beam. The moment Ms indu<:ed at the T-section
is resisted by its length I between the centres of rivets. Hence
. RIVETED BEAM: cOT'l'NEcnoNs,
or
1 Z M
6 1. tfs . ast = s
-16M;
tf = V 7?--I
Obt
. 393
... (12.27)
The thickness tws of the split beam should be such that (i) it transmits the pull
2 P safely, and (ii) it provides bearing strength to the rivets greater than the single shear strength
of rivets joining it to the flange of the beam.
The design of the web angles is done in the same manner, as in small moment connection.
3. MODIFIED SPLIT BEAM CONNECTIONS
The split beam con
nection can be used either
for the rigid connection or
for Semi-rigid connection.
However, as a rigid connec
tion, it may be uneconomical
since it uses a considerable
amount of material and it
may be difficult to develop
full moment capacity of the
beam. However, modified
split beam connection is
shown in Fig. 12.27. In such
'connections,flange clip seats,
consisting of I-section are
(0)
FLANGE
CLIP
SEAT
STANCHION
{b'
FLANGE
CUP
FLANGE
CLIP
SEAT
WEB
ANGLES
FIG, 12.27. MODIFIED SPLIT BEAM CONNECTIONS,
provided below the T -clips
either at top flange or at both
top and bottom flanges of
the connecting beams.
, Example 12.7. A beam 18MB 300 @ @ 44.2 kg/m transmits an end shear of 120 kN
and a moment of 25 kN-m to the flange of column 18HB 350 @ 67.4 kg/m. Design a clip
angle connection.
Solution Here v =120 kN and M = 25 kN-m
For ISMB 300 @ 44.2 kg/m,' we have
tf = 12.4 mm; tw= 7.5 mm; bF 140 mm; g= 30 mm
For ISHB 350 @ 67.4 kg/m, we have
tf = 11.6 mm; bf= 250 mm; g = 140 mm
Let us use 20 mm dia. power driven shop rivets.
(i) Stength of rivets in single shear =i (21.5lx 100 x 10- 3 =36.305 kN
(ii) Strength of rivets in double shear = 2 x 36.305 = 72.61 kN
(iii) Strength of rivets in bearing on 7.5 mm web
= 21.5x7.5x300 x10-
3
= 48.375 kN
(iv) Strength of rivets in bearing on 11.6 mm flange
= 21.5 x 11.6 x 300 x 10- 3 =74.82 kN
(v) Strength of rivets in axial tension =i (21.5)2 X 100 x 10- 3= 36.305kN
232
DESIGN OF SlEEL STRUCTURES
16. Redesign the splices of column of problem 15 if the column is also sUbjected to a moment of
25 leN-m in addition to the axial load of 650 leN. Assume the ends of the column to be milled.
17. Design a suitable splice joint between bottom column ISHB 300 @ 58.8 kg/m and the top column
ISHB 250 @ 51.0 kg/m. At the jOint, the column is subjected to an axial load of 500 kN, a horizontal
50 leN and a moment of 50 leN-m. the ends of the columns are fully faced for complete
bearmg .
18. A column of section 200 @ 37.3 kg/m, carrying an axial load of 600 leN is supPorted over .
another column of the size ISHB 300 @ 58.8 kg/m. Design the splicing at the jOint, taking
fY =250 N/mm
2
The ends are milled for full bearing.
Design of Flexural Members: Beams
19. A column 4 m in length is adequately restrained in position but not in direction at both ends.
It consists of ISWB 300 @ 48.1 kg/m, and is encased in M15 concrete with a cover of 50 mm
on all the sides. Determine the safe load which the encased can carry. Take
fy =250 N/mm
2

20. A column 5 m in length and effectively restrained in position as well as direction at both the ends
carries an axial load of 1500 kN. Design a suitable I-section, if the column is to be encased in .
M1S concrete. Take fY =250 N/mm
2
..'1 <<\
iNTRODUCTION
Flexural members or bending members are commonly called beams. A beam is a structural
member, the primary function of which is to support loads normal to its axis. The loads produce
bending moment and shear force in the beam. The idea of beam action is of great age but
despite the long history of use, the systematic design of beams had to await the development
of theory ofbending. Intellectual giants such as Leonardo da Vinci and Galileo concerned themselves
with the strength of beams, but it was not. until nearly 200 years after Galileo's death that
Navier derived the correct flexural stress formula. Torsional stresses and lateral buckling were
investigated by late nineteenth and twentieth century workers.
Beams in structures lllay also be referred to by typical names that suggest their function
in the structure, as given below :
(i) Girder: Usually indicate a major beam frequently at wide spacing that supports
small beams.
(ii) foists : Closely spaced beams supporting the floors and roofs of buildings.
(iii) Purlins Roof beams usually supported by trusses.
(iv) Rafters: Roof beams usually supported by purlins.
(v) Lintels: Beams over window or door openings that support the wall above.
(vi) Girts : Horizontal wall beams used to support wall coverings on the side of an
industrial. building.
(vii) Spandrel beam : "Beam around the outside perimeter of a floor thai support
the exterior walls and outside edge of the floor.
The term beam-column is used for that structural element that supports both transverse
and axial loads.//
Depending upon condftions at the supports, beams may be (i) simply supported (ii) fixed
(iii) cantilever (iv) propped cantilever and (v) continuous.
8--." ,? Fig. 8.1 shows some of the commonly used beam sections. The efficient utilization of
ll.r material in a beam is determined by the geometrical layout of web and mmges. The optimum
, section for flexural resistance is the one in which the material is located as far as possible
from the neutral axis, in the form of flanges. In practice, there will be need for some web
material to keep the flanges apart and to resist shear. As a measure of beam efficiency, it
(233)
234 DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTU'RES,
is possible to relate the;; allocation of .a, amount of material to flange. and web to satisfy
different and mutually contradictory criteria of elastic bending" strength, plastic
bendtng strength and beam, stiffiress. . .
The angle section (Fig. 8.1 a) is .
nQt an efficient beam shape, though it [I I
may be good for shon, li&htly , \ ,.,..'.
spans where the flat leg may, be
to support some other elemehl of tne

l
structure, such as floor or rb6f deck.
The channel section (Fig. 8.1 b)\iS also
(01 A'NGLE !!!jCt-:ANNELlcll-.JO!STtc1ICOMPOSlTE !e)COMPOsnE
used for light loads, such, as !purlins or
gins. The I-section (Fig. f)' known
as universal beam, is mo'st commonly
used for wall supponed structures. Fig.
8.1 (d) shows a composite section, made
of I-section with thin web and with flat
. plates attached to flanges. This gives
I:\Z,I
higher percentage of material con- If I BAR JOIST
centrated in the flange, resulting in
higher elastic section modulus for the
same mass per unit length. Fig. 8.1 (e)
shows composite beam section common
ly used as gantry girders for cranes. The
bar joist shown in Fig. 8.1 if) is a light
trussed beam, very widely used for floor
and roofframing in lightly loaded build
. (II) PLAT!:: GIRDER th) DOUBLE WEB
BOx GIRDER
( i I CASTELLATED BEAM
ings. The flanges or chords of such a FIG. 8.1. BEAM SECTIONS.
section may be made of angles, tees and special hot-rolled or cold formed sections, while the
webs are most often bent, round bars welded to chords. Such a section can be commonly
seen on railway platforms. Fig. 8.1 (g) shows a plate-girder used for heavy loads in buildings
and bridges. Fig. 8.1 (h) shows double-web box girders panicularly useful for heavY, flexural
members subjected also to torsion or direct stress.' Fig. 8.1 (i) shows a castellated beam giving
an increased depth of the rolled beam by castellating. To obtain such a section, a zig-zag
line is cut along the beam web by an automatic flame cutting machine. The two halves thus
produced are rearranged so that the teeth match up and the teeth are then welded together.

MODES OF FAILURE: CRITERIA FOR DESIGN .
"'/ Failure of a beam can. occur in seve;al ways, such as (i) bending failure (ii) shear failure
Q and (iii) deflection failure. .. . .
(i) Bending failure : Bending failure may be due to crushing of compression flange or
fracture of the tension flange of the beam. Instead of failure due to crushing, the compression
flange may fail by a column-like action with sidesway or lateral buckling. Collapse would probably
follow' the lateral buckling. .
(ii) ..shear failure : Shear failure would most likely be observed as buckling of web of
the beam near locations of high shear forces. Near reactions of concentrated loads, the beam
can fail locally due to crushing or buckling of web.
(iii) Deflection failure : Large beam deflections can also represent failure when the intended
use of the beam places limits on deflection. .
235
DESIGN OF FLEXURAL MEMBERS: BEAMS
In the beam design process, there are three factors of for
size of the necessary structural steel beam for a, given set of ,conditlOns. In or er 0 pnon ,
they are:
1. Design based 'on stress due to bending.
2. Design based on deflection.
3 Design based on shear. .
addition to the above, the design should also be checked secondary effects
such as local buckling of compression flange or the web, and web cnppling etc.
BENDING STRESS . . . the
/ .c'/'A,. section resists the bending moment ?y up bendmg well
distribution of bending stress across the sectlon, WhICh can be expresse Y
known' flexure formula
MaE
==y==R
where .
M == bending moment at the sectIon
... (8.1)
I =moment of inertia of the section. N
R =radius of curvature of the beam.
E == modulus of elasticity of the beam.
a == bending stress or flexural stress, at. any
layer distant Y from the fl,eutral axIS.
If the applied B.M. is it causes C?n
cavity at top, the top fibres will be m
while the fibres situated below the N.A. will be
in tension.'
At . the extreme top fibre, the compressive stress is given by
. M
abc ,cal == X yc
M
or.
7bc,cal =.
FIG. 8.2.
where
Z = I = section modulus of the section; for compression.
c yc
or
b
ottom fibre, the tensile stress is given by
Similarly, at the extreme
M
abt,cal == T Yt
M
abt ,cal = Zt
where
Zt =1 = section modulus of the section, for tension.
Yt
For a section which
is symmetrical about the N.A., .
Y
_ Y _ Y Hence for such a sectlon.
c-t-max'
M M
abc.cal =abt,cal =T Ym<lX =Z
where
Z == section
modulus.
T
L.A.
1-.
... (8.2)
...(8.2 a)
... (8.3)
...(8.3 a)
... (8.4)
137
236 DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTlJRES
Thr section modulus ,represents the strength of the section. Greater the value of Z, stronger
; will be the section. The strength of ithe does not therefore, depend on the sectipnal area
, but depends on the disposition of tJiis area with respect to the centroidal axis.
It should be noted that the total compressive force C, above the N.A., is equal to the
total tensile force T below the N;,A., for the beam to, be in equilibrium. There two forces
acting in ppposite directions, as marked in Fig. 8.2 (b), and form a couple = C(or T) x lever
arm. TIlls couple,also known as the moment of resistance (Mr), the external bending
moment.
Maximum permissible stress ,
For laterally suppprted beams, tlile permissible bending stress in tension (ObI) or in compression
,
Obt or abc; = 0.66fr ...(8.5)
For laterally unsupported bemps, is taken equal to 0.66 fy, but abc' is given by:
abe =!: 0.66 feb. fy,
...(8;1')
, ,; [ (fcbt + <tYt'l1/n
where n is assumed as 1.4. lIn tht above expressioqr, feb is the elastjc critical stress, ahd
the method of its is discussed in 8.10. 1fhe values of Ob/ as derived from Eq.
/ 8.6, for some Indian standard steels are givrn, in Table 8.4."v ' I
(
:;:...4. SHEAR STRESS: " !
&- When a beam is loaded tr.nsversely, it is subjected to both bending mOfl1ent as well as
shearing force. For a simply-supported beain,.with uniformly distributed load, maximum }3.M.
usually occurs at mid-span, while maximum force is induced at the supports. In general,
every section of the beam is, subjected ,to , b5th B.M. (M) well as shear force (V)! The
shear force causes shearing stress at the section, the magnitude of which varies across thectepth
of the beam, at that section. ' -'
On any layer, at height y from N.A, the intensity of transverse shear stress (Tv) is given
V I
by Tv =[ (Ay) ...(8.7 a)
Z , ,
where '
V =Transverse iS1F. lat the section,
I
I =Moment ine:rtia of the the bending axis.
z =Width of thf sedtion at which '
Tv is being' cOmputed.
A y =First mOment p,f outer if
area, above tile' point where
Tv is being computed, about
the N.A.
(O ) (b) (e)
It is to be noted that Tv does not
vary uniformly across the depth of the
section. Fig. 8.3 shows the shear stress,
, distribution for some typical sections.
For a rectangular section, the maximum
I) (I' ) (f)
sheafing stress occurs at the N.A., and
its magnitude is given by FIG. 8.3.
DESIGN OF FLEXURAL MEMBERS : BEAMS
Vd
2
3 V
Tv,ma>: ,= 81 = 1. bd \---b --1,
...(8.7 b)
1 where b= width of beam and d is the
, d/2
depth of the beam. \ 'f' '
The\r",atio of the shear
stress ana mean shear stress IS 1.5. . '
For I-beam (Fig. 8.4 b), the d/2
ma'ximum shearing stress also occurs at 1
and its magnitude is given by
/(b)
= rB (If :- d
2
) +d21
(0 I
Tv,max 81 Lt ,
FIG. 8.4.
""


""tv.mox.
I
/
v
...(8.1\ c)
MI;OOmum permissible shear. (IS : the distribution of stress in
The maximum shear stress tna member b'" shall not exceed the value
with elastiC behaviour of the II1,em er 1', ". . .. (8.8)
. \ b Tvm =0.45 fy f I
Tvm, glven y ., htress and h== yield stress 0 stee. .
where 'r;'vm = maximum permISSIble s ear s '. calculated on the cross-sectlOn
L_ s...."co... The average shear stress m a
AveraiW Snear .,.... ., . b
of the web shall not exceed the value T\Ill gIven y ...(8.9)
, Tva =0.4fy
. 'Of the web shall be taken as follows :
for unstlffened web. The cross-sectlOns h f th beam multiplied by the web thickness.
F lle'd I-beams and channels: dept 0 e , . .
or ro '. h f thl;;' web plate multiplied by ItS thIckness. .,:;:::
. For plate glIders . The 0 -section of the web is taken equal to (bxd). .'
N'ote 1. For rectangular the .cross when the de th of the web does not exceed 85 urnes
, 2 The above recommendations are valid only . t' P ceeds 85 stifl'eners are necessary. For
. bs h the depth to thickness ra 10 ex d" ns
the web thickness. For we were d the spacing of the stiffeners and the Imenslo
such webs, the allowable shear stress depen s upon, "
kof the panel. '
I!7'8.5. STRESS . 1 " th structural members (such as steel stanchions
'l .Beams may either be supported dlIect y on 0 er '
etc.), or else they may rest '
on concrete or masonry
supports such as, walls or
pillasters. In the later case,
the support is of a
material than steel, and It
becomes necessary to
spread the load (support
reaction) over a larger area,
so that the bearing
does not exceed a certatn
value. Th.is. is
achieved by the prOVISIon
ofa bearing plate, as shown
FIG. 8.5. BEARING STRESS.
in Fig. 8.5. '
239
238 DESIGN OF S1EEL STRUC11JRES
Permissible bearing stress (IS : 800-1984)
The bearing stress in any part of a beam when calculated on'the net area of contact
shall not exceed the value of ap determined from the following formula :
ap =0.75fy ...(8.10)
where ap = maximum permissible bearing stress, and
fy =yield stress of steel.
Thickness of bearing plate (Fig. 8.5)
Let .the size of bearing plate be B x N, and its thickness be tp. Let Ip be the actual pressure.
The critical section for bending will occur at a distance n from the edge, as marked in Fig.
8.5 (b), where n = - k. As per' AISC practice, k is taken equal to hz, equivalent to the
distance from bottoJIl of beam to web toe of the fillet.' Hence n = -:- hz. Considering unit
length of the plate, we have
n
Z
.
M =fi, '2
Hence the bending stress Ib is given by .
Ib = M.. (!e) = x !e.
2 J 1 x t;112 2
z
or
'Ib = 3/
p
n
...(8.11)

Limiting the value of Ib to abc, we have
z
t = V"'-3J;-p-n- .
... (8.12)
p abc ij'
8.6. OEFLECTION
When a beam is loaded, it deflects. The amount of maximum deflection depends upon
(i) span (U) moment of inertia of the section (iii) distribution of the load, (iv)modulus of
elasticity and (v) support conditions. Excessive deflection in a floor construction is objectionable
not only from architectural point of view but also because of undesirable vibration characteristics. ,
A very common type of loading is uniformly distributed load (w) along a beam. The maximum
deflection, caused, at the mid-span of a simply supported beam is given by
5 WL4 5 WL
3
a = 384 E /= 384 E 1 ...(8.13)
(where W =total load =wL)
and L .:= effective span of the beam.
In general, deflection of the beam is given by
WL
3
a =Kl E /
. ...-/where co-efficient KI depends upon the mode of distribution of load. In simply supported
beam, for uniformly distributed load, Kl= while fori concentrated load placed at mid-span,
Kzi:::1I48.
DESIGN OF FLEXURAL MEMBERS: BEAMS
Again, for maximum B.M. at the mid-span,
... (8.15)
M =Km TL
where Km is a moment coefficient depending upon the of load. For uniformly
distributed load,
Again
or
Taking
Km= 118 while for concentrated load at the mid-span, Km = 1/4.
M I
I =Y
M =[/
I =
y
abc and y =d/2(where d=depth of the beam)
M =2 abc / ...(8.16)
. , d
Hence from 8.15 and 8.16,
2 abc / ...(8.16 a)
WL = Kmd
1
Substituting this value of TL in Eq. 8.14, we get
I
'a = Kl
,
2L
2
abc
Km Ed
a 2 Kz L abc ...(8.17)
or L - Km, d E
The above equation is very important since it relates the ratio of maximum deflection
and span to the ratio of span to depth.
For uniformly distributed load, where Kz= 5/384 and Km= 118, we have
a 5 Labe ...(8.17 a)
L =24 dE
Similarly, for central point load, Kl= 1/48 and Km =114
a 1Labe ...(8.17 b)
L =6 d E
Limiting deflection: As per IS : 800-1984, the deflection of a not be such
as to impair the strength or efficiency of the structure and lead to Generally,
the maximum deflection should not exceed 11325 of the span, out thIS. may be exceeded
in cases where greater deflection could not impair the strengths or of the
or lead to damage to finishings. The deflection of a shall be a:lculated WIthout consldenng
the impact factor or dynamic effect of the loads causmg deflectIOn.
EtTective span of beams : The effective span of a beam shall be as. the length
the centres 'of the supports, except in cases the point of the .reactIon
is taken as eccentricity to the support, when it to take effectlve span
as the length between the assumed points of applicatlon of reactlon. ,
Now taking we get from Eq. 8.17,
1 '2KzL abc
325 = Km dE
or
L
d
1 Km E
= 650 Ki abc
... (8.18)
240 DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTIJRES
L 24 E 2954
... (8.19)
d = 1625 abc::::: abc
(By taking E =2.0 X 10
5
N/mm2)
Again, abc = 0.66fY
L 4476
...(8.19 a)
d=T
If L < 4476 the stress governs the design.
d fY .'
L 4456 .
If d >T' the deflectIOn governs the design.
For fY. =250 N/mm
2
,
= ::::: 17.9 ...(8.19 b)
8.7. COMBINATION OF STRESSES
The interaction of stresses of various types, such as bending and shear, or bending, shear
and bearing, must be investigated because certain combinations of stresses can lead to unacceptable
conditions. The criterion of distortional strain energy leads to the following expression for equivalent
stress recommended by IS : 800-1984.
(a) Bending and shear
a e , cal. = vall, cal. + 31'';'', cal or
= Vate , cal. + 31'';'',cat ...(8.20)
-The equivalent stress a e , cal. to co-existent bending (tension or compression) and shear
stresses shall not exceed. the value
a. =0.9fY ... (8.20 a)
where ae = maximum permissible equivalent
(b) Combined bearing, bending and shear stresses :
Where a bearing stress is combined with tensile, Qr, compressive bending and shear stresses
under the most unfavourable condition of loading, the equivalent stress ae , cal obtained from
the following formulae, shall not exceed ae=0.9fY :
a , cal = yr-a,-ll-,ca-l -+-a--Z C-al-.-a-P-,-ca";I-+-3-1'-';"-.-c-al
e p
or ae,cal = ale ,cal + a;,cal + abc,cal. ap,cal + .. (8.21)
. InEq. 8.20 and 8.21, abl, cal, abc, cal, 1'vm, cal and ap , cal are the numerical values of the
co-existent bending (compression or tension), shear and bearing stresses. When bending occurs
about both axes of the member, abl,cal and abc,cal shall be taken as the sum of the two calculated
fibre-stresses;
Note : To some extent, determination of position at which the equivalent stress is critical is a matter
of trial. However, obvious points are over the intermediate supports of continuous beams .and cantilevers.
241
DESIGN OF FLEXURAL : .
8.8. LATERALLY SUPPORTED BEAMS
We have seen in 8.3 that for mo;(of the rolled shapes, the permissible stress in bending
(a) is equal to 0.66 fY. The import"fnt conditions associated the use this value is
(if the member must have an axis of symmetry in the plane <:f the web, (ll) the member
must be loaded in the. plane of the web (iii) the compression flange must have
and (iv) the section is compact. Loads on a beam cause bending, due to WhICh IS
induced in one flange and compression is induced in the other flange. The compreSSIOn flange
behaves somewhat like a column
and will tend to buckle to the side,
or1aterally, as the stress increases,
if it is. not restrained in some way.
Most beams have some lateral sup
port - specially those which sup
the floor slab. However, the (0) FULL LATERAL SUPPORT
degree of lateral support is often
a matter of engineering judgment.
Fig. 8.6 shows lateral support con
ditions of beams. In some cases,
the degree of lateral support may
not be clear. In doubtful cases, it
is .conservative and safe to assume
no lateral support.
Fig. 8.6:-(a) shows two cases
of full lateral support for the top
flange; assumyd to be in compres
sion. In Fig. 8.6 (c), no lateral support (b) INTERMITTENT LATERAL (c) NO LATERAL SUPPORT
exists for top flange. Fig. 8.6 (b) SUPPORT
shows intermittent lateral support. FIG. 8.6. LATERAL SUPPORT CONDITIONS.
Another important condition ... .
(condition No. iv mentioned above) for the .to quahfy relatIon abc <or C1bt)
=0.66:t; is that the section should be a compact sectLOn - a condItIon that deals With the
of the beam in an overload situation. To qualify as compact, the section develop
its full plastic moment before localised buckling can occur. In other words, the sectIon
... be propqrtioned so that no local buckling. of the flange or .web. .befo!e the full plastic
moment capacity is achieved. A cross-sectIon that meets thIS cntenon IS saId to be compact,
and for . that section, abc (or abt)= .
8.9. DESIGN OF LATERALLY SUPPORTED BEAM
The design of a laterally supportetl beam is carr.ied out in following :

Step 1 : Determine the span of the beam. Also, estimate self weIght of .the
.' beam, and add it to the super-imposed load to get the lotal load on the beam. The self weIght
may be assumed\ to be equal to total load W1300 to WI350 kN/m. . .
Step 2 Compute the maximum B.M. (M) and shear force (V) 10 the beam.
Step 3 Take abt= abc = 0,66fY.
. Step 4 Find section modulus (Z) of the beam :
'. Z M
, =
abc
242
243
DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURES
Step 5 : From the steel tables, choose a suitable rolled beam section which has Z value
very near to the one found above. .
. Step 6 : Check for shear.
Step 7 : Check for deflection.
In addition to the above checks, the beam is also checked for web crippling and web
/\.,., bucking as discussed in 8.12 and 8.13 respectively. 'l
",";/ Example 8.1. A simply supported beam has an effective span of 7 m and carries a uniformly
1)-/ distributed load of 50 kN/m. Taking fy :;:: 250 Nlmm2 and E = 2 x 10' Nlmm2, design the beam,
if it is laterally supported.
Solution
Step 1 : Effective span L = 7 m.
. W 50x7
Assume self weIght = - = --= 1 kN/m
350 350
Total U.D.L. = W = 50 + 1 = 51 kN/m.
Step 2 M = W;2 = 51 f)2 = 312:375 kN-m= 312.375 x 10
6
N-mm
V:;:: W L = SIP) = 178.5 kN.
2
Step 3 : Take O"bt = O"bc = O.66fy= 0.66 x 250 = 165 N/mm2 0/)
Step 4 : Required Z = ! = 1893.2 x 10' mm' 'I
Step 5 : From steel tables, try ISWB 500 @ 95.2 kg/m, having the properties:
. ZXlC =2091.6cm
3
:;:: 2091.6 x 10
3
mm
3
; lxx= 52209.9 x 10
4
mm
4
h :;:: 500 mm ; t[ = 14.7 mm ; t w =9.9 mm
Step 6 : Check for shear
3
V
178.5 X 10 =36 1 NI 2
Average shear stress, Tva cal =-
, h x tw
= 500 X 9.9 . mm
Permissible value, Tva =O.4fy =0.4 x 250 =_ 100 N/mm2
Hence safe.
Step 7: Check for deflection
_ 5 W L
4
_ 5 (51 X 10
3
) (7)4 X (1000)3
Ymax - 384 E 1 - 384 x. (2 X 10
5
) (52209.9 X 10
4
)
= 15.3 mm
. . Span 7000
Allowable deflectlon = 325 = 325 =21.54 mm. Hence safe.
Note: students may also try a lighter section viz_ ISLB 550 @ 86.3 kg/m.
Example 8.2. A beam, consisting of ISMB 600 @ 122.6 kg/m, is simply supported over a
span of 8.5 m. Determine the safe load the beam cancany, assuming that the beam is laterally
supported. Take fy =250Nlmm
2
and E =2 x 10' Nlmm
2

Solution. For ISMB 600 @ 122.6 kg/m, we have :

DESIGN OF FLEXURAL MEMBERS: BEAMS
IXx = 91813.0 cm
4
= 91813 x 10
4
mm
4
3
Zxx =3060.4 cm
3
= 3060.4 x 10
3
mm
h = 600 mm; b = 210 mm
tw = 12.0 mm ;. tj= 20.8 mm
O"be = O"bt =0.66fy =0.66 x 250 = 165 N/mml .
Mr =O"be. Z = 165 x 3060.4 x 10
3
=:. 505.6 X 10
6
N-mm= 505.6 kN"m
Hence Mmax = Mr = 505.6 kN-m.
_ W L
2
_ W (8.5)2
But Mmax -
8 8
W (8.5)2 =505.6
8
From which
- 505.6 x 8 - 55 98 kN/
.W - 2 -. m .
(8.5)
The above value of w will be acceptable only if the beam is safe in shear and deflection.
Check for shear: V = = 55.98 X 8.5 = 237.915 kN. Wi:
2
V 237.915 X 10' 2
iv, cal = h x tw =600 x 12 = 33.04 N/mm
iva = 0.4fy :;:: 0.4 x 250 = 100 N/mm
2
Hence O.K.
4 3
Ch k fi d .1' _ 5 w L _ 5 (55.98 X 10 ) (8.5)4 1000 3
ec or eJ,ecnon Ymax - 384 E 1 - 384 (2 x 105) (91813 X 104) x ( ) =20.7 mm
Allowable deflection = =8.5 = 26.15 mm. Hence O.K.
Mass of beam/m = 122.6 kg
. . Self weight of beam = 122.6 x 9.81 x 10-
3
= 1.2 kN/m
:. Permissible,. superimposed load W= 55.98-1.2=54.86 kN/m.
) .
8:10. lATERALLY UNSUPPORTED BEAM
. It is observed that all compression members have a tendency to buckle or bend side ways
even when subjected to axial compression. The compression flange of a symmetrical beam tends
to buckle laterally even if the load is in a plane containing principal axis. Standard I-beams
and channels have large values of 1;<% in comparison 10 l
yy
As a result, they are relatively
weak in resistance to torsion and to bending in the plane normal to the web. If it is not
held in line by construc': .
tion, it may bend in a weak direction
even if the load is in the strong
direction. This phenomenon is al
ways accompanied by twisting, and
is called lateral buckling (Fig 8.7).
Any beam, symmetrical or not, may (0) VIEW
buckle laterally if its torsional resis

compared with the moment of in- (b) TOP FLANGE
ertia (IXlC) for the strong axis.
FIG. 8.7. LATERAL BUCKLING OF BEAM
,244 .
DESIGN OF STEEL STRllCTURES
If a symmetrical I-beam is subjected to couples M at the ends (Fig 8.7), and the ends
.' are restrained against torsion, lateral buckling will take place whel\ M attains a critical value
. Mer. The value of critical bending moment Mer depends on the properties of material, shape
and dimensions of beam, effective length of compression flange, support conditions and type
of loading. The corresponding elastic critical stress(fcb) is equal to McrlZxx. The method of computing
feb is given in 8.1O(b) and the method of computing corresponding permissible compressive
..,..gtress Obc is given in 8.10 (c).
~
a) Effective length of compression flange ' .
&-<' The recommendations of IS : 800_1984 for computing the effective length of compression
. flanges are as follows : .
1. For simply supported beams and girders, where no lateral restraint for the. compression
flanges is provided, but where each end of the beam is restrained against rotation, the effective
length I of the compression flanges, to be used in Table 8.5, shall be taken as follows :
(a) With ends of compression flanges unrestrained against lateral 1= span
bending (that is, free to rotate in p l ~ n at the bearings)
(b) With ends of compression flanges partially restrained against lateral 1= 0.85x span .
. bending (that is, not free to rotate in plan at the bearings)
(c) With ends of compression flanges fully restrained against lateral 1= 0.7 xspan.
bending (that is, not free to rotate in plan at the bearings)
Restraint against torsion can be provided by :
(i) Web or flange cleats, or
(ii) bearing stiffeners acting in conjunction with the bearing of the beam, or
(iii) Lateral end frames or ,other external supports to the ends of the compression flanges,
or (iv) their being built into walls.
Where the ends of the beams are not restrained against torsion, or where the load is
applied to the compression flange and both the load and flange are free to move laterally,
. the above values of the effective length shall be increased by 20 per cent.
Note: The end restraint element shall be capable of safely reSisting in addition to wind and other
. applied external forces, a horizontal force acting at the bearing in a direction normal to the compression
flange of the beam at the level of the
centroid of the flange and having a
value equal to not less than 2.5 percent
of the maximum force occurring in
the flange.
2. For beams which are
provided with members giving ef
fective lateral restraint to the com
pression flange at intervals along
the span, in addition to the end
restraint required in para 1 above,
the effective length of the com
pression flange shall be taken as
,the maximum distance, centre to
centre,. of the restraint members.
3. For cantilever beams of
projecting length L, the effective
length r to be used in Table 8.5
shall be taken . as follows :
l=O'75L
FIG. 8.8. CANTILEVER BUILT-IN AT SUPPORT,
RESTRAINED AGAINST TORSION AT THE END
DESIGN OF FLEXURAL MEMBERS: BEAMS
(a) Built-in at the supports, free at end : I = 0.85 L
(b) Built-in at the supports, restraint against torsion at the end by
continuous construction (See Fig. 8.8) , : I = 0.75 L
(c) Built-in at the support, restrained against lateral deflection and
torsion at the free end (See Fig. 8.9) O.5L
(d) Continuous at the support, unrestrained against torsion at the
support and free at the end (see Fig. 8.10 a) 1= 3 L
FIG. 8.9, CANTILEVER BUILT-IN AT SUPPORT, RESTRAINED LATERALLY AT THE END.
(a) CANTILEVER Ll CONTINUOUS AT THE
SUPPORT, UNRESTRAINED AGAINST
TORSION AT THE SUPPORT AND
UNRFSfRAINED AT THE END
(c) CANTILEVER SPAN CONTINUOUS AT THE SUPPORT,
FULLY RESTRAINED AGAINST TORSION AT THE SUPPORT
AND UNRESTRAINED AT THE FREE END
FIG. 8.10.
245
260
DESIGN OF STEEL S'I'RUCIURES
feb =k1(X + k2Y) 1.0 (118.355 + 0) x 1 :::::: 118.36 N/mmz
d
1
=d
1
=558.4 =46 5 I..- 20.8 _
t tw 12.0 . t 12.0 - 1.73
1344 = 1344 =85
VI; ...; 250
S' T..f...2 d1
!nce t 1" and t :}85, feb shall be increased by 20%.
Hence design feb= 1.2 x 118.36 =142.03 N/mmz ,
Kno.wing feb, the value o.f CTbc can be fo.und fro.m Table' 8A.
Thus fo.r /cb= 142.03 and fY =250, we get, fro.m Table 8A,
CTbc =71 + (74 - 71) x 2.03 =71.61 N/mmz
h
h . 10
w IC IS practically the same as fo.und earlier.
Again, instead o.f using Table 8.4, CTbc can be computed fro.m the kno.wn value o.f feb.
using Eq. 8.6.
CTbc =0.66 feb fY where n = 1.4
[(febr + (fyr] l;n
=0.66 142.03 x 250 71.78 N/mmz.
( (142.03)l4+ (250)1.4 tl4

,8.12. WEB CRIPPLING

w.eb crippling is the lo.cal
/1' ized faIlure o.f a beam web due
, to. intro.ductio.n o.f an excessive
lo.ad o.ver a small length o.f the
beam. It o.ccurs at po.int o.f ap
plicatio.n o.f co.ncentrated lo.ad
and at po.int o.f suppo.rt o.f a
beam. A lo.ad applied over a
sho.rt length o.f beam can cause
failure due to. crushing due to.
high compressive stress in the
web o.f the beam belo.w the lo.ad
(Fig. 8.11 a) Dr abo.ve the reac
tio.n (Fig 8.11 b); ThiS
pheno.meno.n is also. kno.wnas
web crippling Dr web crushing.
Practical and co.mmo.nly
used bearing lengths b are usual
ly large eno.ugh to. prevent web
" crippling fro.m o.ccurring. An as-
o sumptio.n is made that the lo.ad
spreads out alo.ng 300 lines (Fig
S.l1 e), so. that critical area o.f
stress, which o.ccurs at the to.e
o.f the fillet has a length o.f
(a) BELOW
LOAD
(d)
(I) AT REACTION
SUPPORT
(e I
S''''b+k--+i I
t .". f
b . ,
'e)
FIG. 8.11. WEB CRIPPLING
, ' '
DESIGN OF FLEXURAL MEMBERS: BEAMs 261
(b + 2 k) under the lo.ad and (b' + k) at the end reactio.n, and with a width two The co.mpressive
stress at the to.e o.f the fillet sho.uld no.t exceed the permissible bearing stress CT
p
, which is
taken equal to. 0.75fY.
Fo.r 30
0
spread, and with hz as the depth o.f to.e o.f the web, we have
k =hzV3
Hence under the concentrated lo.ad,
B =b + 2 k =b + 2 hz V3
Web crippling stress = p S 0.75fY
(b + 2 h2 V3 ) tw
...(8.23 a)
where P is the concentrated load.
Similarly, at the suppo.rts, if b' is the width o.f the bearing plate,
B' =b' +k=b' +hzV3
Web crippling stress = ' RV3 < 0.75fY
(b ' + hz 3) tw
...(8.23 b)
where R is the end reactio.n.
The value o.f hz can be fo.und fro.m sectio.n tables. Sho.uld the web crippling stress be excessive,
the problem may be corrected by (i) increasing the bearing length (ii) selecting a beam with
a thicker web, Dr (iii) providing bearing stiffeners.
Web crippling sho.uld invariably be checked at (i) all concentrated lo.ads, and (ii) at suppo.rts
where the beam is suppo.rted by walls Dr padestal Dr at columns when the co.nnectio.n is a
seated type ..
8.13. WEB BUCKLING
, The web o.f a flanged beam in usually quite thin and thus relatively weak when place9-
in direct compressio.n and it behaves, in a manner similar to. a co.lumn under a direct compressiV"e
lo.ad. At po.ints o.f concentrated lo.ad and at suppo.rts, unstiffened webs o.f universal beams and
compo.und beams are likely to. fail by buckling. Buckling o.f web may o.ccur due to. (i) vertical
compressio.n due to. concectrated lo.ad or reactio.n (ii) diago.nal co.mpressio.n due 10 bending
(iii) lo.ngitudinal compressio.n due to. bending, and (iv) combinatio.n o.f the abo.ve facto.rs.
Web buckling are o.f two. types : (i) vertical buckling, (ii) diago.nal buckling. The
possibility o.f beam failure due to. vertical buckling exists o.nly in the vicinity o.f large concentrated
lo.ads, i.e. at reactio.ns where the beam rests o.n
its supports Dr at po.int where columns or o.ther
bealOS rest o.n the to.p flange o.f the beam. Web
diagonal buckling failure wo.uld be due to. com
binatio.n o.f stresses resulting fro.in shear and
flexure, referred to. as principal stress. The deeper
the sectio.n and thinner the web, the mo.re sus
ceptible the beam is to. diago.nal buckling. '
Fig. 8.12 sho.ws fo.ur types o.f vertical web
buckling. Which o.ne will o.ccur depends o.n the
nature,o.f suppo.rt the to.p flange receives fro.m
thesurro.unding constructio.n. In Fig. 8.12(a) the
to.p flange is bo.th position fixed as well as direction
fixed, and hence the effective depth (de) will
1
d
1
be half the to.tal depth. In Fig. 8.12 (b), the (a) d."dl2
to.p ,flange is directio.n fixed but no.t po.sitio.n
FIG. 8.12. VERTICAL BUCKLING OF WEB
----
275
DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURES 274
The section modulus Zb with respect to bottom fibre is given by the following approximate,
relation : '
Zb = Zt ...(8.35)
1 + 2Ap
Ai
where Ai = Area of cross-section of primary beam.
Solving for A
p
, we get, from Eqs. 8.34 and 8.35 :
Zb-Z'
...(8.36)
Ap = h
1.2 Ai
Since yt will be more than Yc, tension will govern the design. Hence Zb can be taken
equal to MIObt.
Eqs. 8.36, 8.35 and 8.34 are useful in selecting a trial section.
The design of rivets can be done in a manner similar to the one explained in the previous
\\ article.
0./8.17. DESIGN OF DEEPENED BEAM
A deepened beam consists of two rolled steel sections, placed one above the other, as
shown in Fig. 8.23, with the sole aim of increasing the depth of the beam.
The moment of inertia of the built-up beam is
1 =2/i + 2Ai ... (8.37)
where 1; and Ai are mOlHent of inertia of area of cross-section of
each primary beam.
Dividing both the sides of Eq. 8.37 by h, we get
Z =Zi + iAi h ...(8.38 a)
It is found that for most of the I-sections, the term iAi. h lies between
1.5 Zi to
Hence
where
1.6 Zi. Adopting a lower value of 1.5 Zj for
Z =Zj + 1.5 Zj =2.5 Zi
Z
Zi = 2.5
Z = M (or M ) //
Obc Obt t'
safety, we get
...(8.38 b)
... (8.38)
FIG. 8.23.
Thus",section modulus of the primary is known from 8.38.
It should be noted that Eq. 8.38 (a) is applicable for all symmetrical shapes such as I-sections,
, channels etc. while Eq. 8.38 is applicable for I-section only.. .
, Example 8.8. A beam, simply supported over an effective span of 9 m, carries a uniformly
distributed load of 60 kN/m, inclusive of its own weight. The depth of the beam is restricted
to 500 mm Desigr,t the beam, assuming that the compression flange of the beam is laterally supported
by floor construction. Take fY= 250 Nlmm2 and E =2 x UfNlmm2. Assume width of suppoit
'=200 mm.
Solution
Step 1. Effective span= L = 9 m
Total w =qo kN/m.
DESIGN OF FLEXURAL MEMBERS: BEAMS
WL2 60(9i
B.M. M =-8- = 8 =607.5 kN-m= 607.5 x 10
6
N-mm
S;F .
V = w L = 60 (9) = 270 kN
\ 2 2
I,
Step 2. The beam is laterally supported.
Hence Obe = Obt =O.66fy =0.66 x 250 =165 N/mmz
Z ;= M = 607.5 X 10
6
=3681.8 x IcY mm
3

Hence
Obe 165
Step 3. Since the total depth of beam is restricted to 500 mm, try
kg/m, .with cover plates. The properties of the section are as follows :
. Ixx =35057.6 X 10
4
mm
4
; Zxx= 1558.1 x 10
3
mm
3
= Zi
h =450 mm; b=200 mm; hz=33.0 mm; hl=384.0 mm
tw = 9.2 mm; tf = 15.4 mm; g= 100 mm.
The area af plate is approximately given by Eq. 8.27
A = Z - Zi = (3681.8 - 1558.1) IcY = 471933 mm
2
p 450' .
Provide 10% more area for rivet holes. Hence
2
Ap = 1.1 x 4719.33= 5192 mm .
Using 16 mm thick plates, B= 5i:Z =324.5 mm.
Provide trial width 10% more than this.
Hence provide, 16 x 360 mm thick plate on each flange.
Step 4. Check for out stand: Projection of cover plate beyond
the rivet line in compression flange .
ISWB 450@ 79.4
FlO. 8.24.
= i (B - g)= i(360 - 100) = 130 mm.
Maximum permissible outstand = 16 t = 16 x 16 =256 mm. Hence OK.
Step 5. Check of bending stresses : Let us use 20 mm dia. rivets.
2
Gross area of each tension flange = (200 x 15.4)+ (360 x 16) = 8840 mm
2
Net area of each tension flange =8840 - 21.5(15.4 + 16)= 8165 mm
Gross moment of inertia of built-up section :
1 =Ixx=35057.6x 10
4
mm
4
0. = 607.5 X 10
6
x 241 = 150 < 165.
be ,cal 97598.5 x
Gross area of tension flange 150 x 8840
Obt ,cal = Obe, cal X Net area of tension flange = 8165
=162.41 N/mm2 < 165 N/mm
2
. Hence safe.
Step 6.; Check for shear
I
j
:I
ova, cal = V ",; 270 x 10 = 65.2 N/mmz
x tw 450 x 9.2
. z
ova =0.4t;. = 0.4 x 250 = 100 N/mm. Hence safe.
276.
DESIGN OF STEEL S:rRUCIURES
. Step 7. Check for deflection
4
mDl! = wL = x (60 X 1000)(9)4 x (1000)3:::: 263
Y 384 E I 384 2 x lOs x 97598.5 X 104 . mm.
L 9000
mm. Hence safe.
Yal/ow. = 325 = 325 = 27.7
Step 8. Check for web crippling
Reaction R = V = 270 kN.
b = width of support =200 mm,
h2 = 33.0 mm.
Web crippling stress = R . = 270 x 1000 = 114 N/mm2
(b + h2 ..(3 ) tw (200 + 33..(3) 9.2
Permissible value = op = 0.75fY = 0.75 x 250 = 187.5 N/mm
2
. Hence safe.
Step 9. Check for web buckling
'. h
Aw = where hI = 384 mm
tw V 3
384
Aw = . V3 = 24.1
9.2
Hence for fY= 250 and A = 24.1, oac=148-(148-145) = 146.77
:. Allowable reaction, Ra =Oac tw B,
1 482
where B =b +'2h=2oo+T=441 mm
Ra = 146.77 x9.2x441 x 10-
3
= 595.5 kN (R=270 kN)
Hence safe.
Step 10. Design of riveted joint
The flange plates will be riveted to the flange by two rows of rivets, with staggered pitCh.
Using 20mm dia. power driven rivets:
Strength. of rivet in single shear = (21.5)2 X 10-
3
=36.3 kN
Strength,lof rivet in bearing = 300x21.5x15.4xlO-
3
=99.33kN
I, Rivet value R = 36.3 kN. :
The pitch of rivets is given by Eq. 8:32 : l
4IR
p = VB tp (h + t )
p
where I = 97598.5 X 10
4
; R = 36.3 kN; B= 360 mm
tp = 16 mm; h = 450 mm; V= 270 kN
4 I
= 4 x 97598.5 x 10 x 36.3 =
mm.
P 270 x 360 x 16 (450 + 16)
MaximuIIl pitch in compression flange = 12 t = 12 x 16 = 192 mm, or 200 mm whichever
is lmyer. Maximum pitch in tensio.n flange = 16 t = 16 x 16 = 256 mm or 200 mm, whichever
is lower. . .
DESIGN OF FLEXURAL MEMBERS; BEAMS 277
Hence provide p :::: 190 mm for compression flange
and p :::: 195 mm for tension flange
Note: 1. Since both the values of p are practically the same; it is desirable to provide an uniform
pitch of 190 mm in both the tension flange as well as compression flange.
2. An alternative method to design the riveted joint will be to find the value of shear force per unit
length, at the level of rivet as follows :
V 270 x 10
3
q :::: Tv. Z :::: -[ (AY) :::: - 4 (360 x 16) (225 + 8) = 371.3 N/mm.
97598.5 x 10
Force in each rivet =! qp, where p is the pitch in each row
R =!qp
3
= 2R :::: 2 x 36.3 x 10 =1955 b "
or
P q 371.3 . . mm, as elore.
3. If it is required to design a welded jOint, proceed as follows :
q =371.3 Nlmm
Unit stress in weld =220 N/mm2
Hence q =220 t, from which t = = =1.688 mm

s = size of fillet weld = = =2.41 mm.
Example 8.9. A laterally supported beam having an effective span of 8 m consists of ISMB
550 @ 103.7 kg/m and cover plate of 250 mm x 16 mm connected to each flange by' 20 nun
dia. rivets. Determine the safe U.D.L. which the beam can carry in addition of its own weight
Solution
ISWB 550 @ 103.7 kg/m has the following properties :
Ixx = 64893.6 X 10 mm
4
3
4
T
5011WIl-tn
..
Zxx = 2359.8 X 10
3
mm
h = 550 mm, b = 190 mm 190
tf = 19.3 mm ; tw =11.2 mm Ciill'l
N ....
E E
a = 13211 mm
2
E E
Ix of built-up section = [64893.6xI0
4
+2x250x 16 (8 + 275)2)J

++ 11111'1
= 128965 X 10
4
mm4.
(neglecting the moment of inertia of the plate about their own axes)
Gross area of flange = Afg=(190x 19.3) + (250 x 16)= 7667mm
2
Net area of flange= Afh = 7667 - 21.5 (16 + 19.3)= 6908 mm
2

(only one rivet hole has been deducted since the pitch is staggered
on the two rows of rivets on each flange)
FIG. 8.25.
. 'M)
Obc, cal = l7 , YmDl!
M = Obc,cal X I
.( YmDl!

.. 2
Limiting Obt , cal = O.66fY =0.66 x 250 =165 N/mm
Afh 6908 2
Obc,cal = Obl,cal XAfg =165X =148.67 N/mm
7667
279 278 DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURES
. M = 148.67 x x 10
4
= X 10
6
N-mm= 659.87 kN-m
Now
w = 8M =8 x 659.87 = 82.359 kN/m
L2 (8)2
Mass of ISMB 550 = 103.7 kg/m.
Mass of 250 mmx 16 mm plates= 2 [ 7.85 x 25 x 1.6 x = 62.8 kg/m
Total mass/m == 103.7 + 62.8 = 166.5 kg/m
Weight/m = 166.5 x 9.81 x 10- 3 = 1.633 kN/m.
Permissible w = 82.359 - 1.633 =80.726 kN/m
Checks: The section should be checked for deflection and shear for this value of W. It'
is left on the students to carry out these checks.
Example 8.10. Determine the safe U.D.L. that could be placed over the beam designed in
Example 8.8 if ,built-up beam is not laterally restrained. Assume that each end of the beam is
restrained against torsion, and ends of the compression flanges are fully restrained against lateral
bending. (b) What will be the safe U.D.L. if the ends of the compression flanges are unrestrained
against lateral bending while each end of the beam is restrained against torsion ?
Solution For ISWB 450 @ 79.4 kg/m, we have
Iyy =1706.7 X 10
4
mm
4
and a = 10115 mm
2
.. Iy of built-up section = x 10
4
+ 2 x x 16 (360)3= 14148.3 x 10
4
mm
4
Ix of built-up section = 97598.5 x 10
4
mm
4
Zx of built-up section = 10
4
= 4049.7 x mm
3
Total area of cross-section of built-up beam= 10115+2x16x360= il.635 mm
2
4
.. ry of built-up section = {7j = V 10 = 80.86 mm
Overall D = 482 mm.
Case (a) : Ends of compression flange fully restrained against lateral bending:
Since the ends of the compression flange are fully restrailled against lateral bending, i.e.
they are not free to rotate in plan at the bearings, effective length, (l) of compression flange
=0.7x span.
1 = 0.7 L =0.7 x 9 =6.3 m
i = 6.3 x 1000 = 78
ry 80.86
Mean thickness of compressian flange
= T =(360 x 16) + (200 x 15.42 =24.56
360
D482
T = 24.56 = 19.63
D I
Hence from Table 8.3, for T =19.63 and - =78, we get
ry
DESIGN OF FLEXURAL MEMBERS: BEAMS .
x == 584.85 and y== 436.8
C1 == C2 == 241; C1/C2== 'I
\II = 1.0 and hence kl = 1.0
(l) =0.5 and hence kz = 0.0
Now fd> ::;:: k1(X+kzy) (584.85+0)x 1= 584.85 N/mm
2
T == 24.56 == 2.67 > 2
Ratio
tw 9.2
d1 =h - 2'tf = 450 - 2 x 15.4 == 419.2 mm.
d
1
== d
1
= 419.2 =45.56
t tw 9.2
1344 = 1344 == 85
VJ; V250
Since d
1
is not greater than 85 but T is greater than 2, value of feb is not increased .

by 20%.
feb =584.85 N/mm
2
From Table 8.4, for feb = 584.85 and h = 250, we get
(Jbe = 136 + (137 - 136) 136.24 N/mm2
.. M,= (Jbc.Zx = 136.24 X 4049.7 x 10
3
= 551.74 X 10
6
N-mm= 551.74 kN-m.
WL2
M=Mr =-8
w = 8 Mr = 8 x 551.74 = 54.493 kN/m.
L2 (9)2
Mass of I-section = 79.4 kg/m
. (360 1 )
Mass of 16 mm thIck flange plates = 2 251.2 x 1000 x 2" = 90.43 kg/m
(from section tables).'
.... Total mass of section/m = 79.4 + 90.43 = 169.83 kg/m
Self weight/m = 169.83 x 9.81 x 10- 3 1.665 kN/m
Permissible super-imposed load =54.493 - 1.665= 52.828 kN/m
Checks : This value of w should be for (i) deflection (ii) average shear stress
(iii) web crippling and (iv) web buckling. These checks have not been applied here because
this built-up section is safe against these for w= 60 kN/m.
Case (b) : Compression flanges unrestrained against lateral bending:
Since the ends of the compression flanges are unrestrained against lateral bendings, Le. .
they are free to rotate in plan at the bearings, the effective length of the compression flange
is equal to the effective span.
I=L=9m.
,
..
. i = 9 x 1000 = 111.3
ry 80.86
284 . DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCIi.!RES
2R
P =
q
Here, the rivet is in single shear, R = x 72.6 = 36.3 kN.
= 2 x 36.3 x 1000 = 184 mm
p 394.2
But Maximum permissible p = 12 x t = 12 x 12 = 144 mm
Hence keep p= 140 mm, from support to .the point of cut off.
Step 9. Design of riveted joint beyond point of cut off (towards mid span)
Here the S.F. is less and R is more (since rivets are in double shear). Hence p will
come out to be still more. However, keep p =140 mm.
Example 8.12. A beam of 9 m span consists of ISWB 450 @ 79.4 kg/m, with two flange
plates of 300 mm x 12 mm each, provided on the compression side, and no additional flange plate
on the tension side. Determine the moment of resistance of the beam section at the mid-span,
if it is proposed to curtail one of the two plates at 2 m from either end. Assume that the
compression flange is torsionally restained at the ends only, and the beam is laterally unsupported
throughout the length. The flange plates are connected by 20 mm dia. rivets.
Solution. The composite beam has (i) un
symmetrical section, and (ii) its moment of inertia
(ly) changes. Hence the factors kl' kz and r--300 ---1
C1 , C2 are to determined. IOO--+joo....!;ool
(i) Properties of primary section T .. ! T
For the primary beam ISWB 450 @ 79.4 . yc.cl
kglm, we have the following properties x x t
4 4 x x
Ixx = 35057.6 X 10 mm ; 225_. __
Iyy = 1706.7 X 10
4
mm
4
:: t
a := 10115 mm
2
., h= 450 mm', .
y,-
c
2
. b 200 mm; g = 100 mm . 1 1
tf = 15.4 mm; tw = 9.2 mm; ry= 41.1 mm 225
D := 450 + 2 x 12 = 474 mm
1
...
r-
!t"'4
200
-l
1-2 0-1
T = 2 x 300 x 12 + 200 x 15.4 34.27 mm
Iy
300
(0' SECTION AT (b) SECTION AT
T 34.27
MID-SPAN SUPPORTS
,'. - = -92 =3.72 >2.0
tw .
(U) Determination of k1 FIG. 8.28.
Area of both flanges at max. section =' (2 x 12 x 300) + (2 x 15.4 x 200) = 13360 mm
2
Area of both flanges at min. section =(12x3OO)+(2xI5.4x200)= 9760cm
2
' = O.'ZlJ., forwhich k1= 0.931 (from
(iii) Determination of kz
. 1 3 1706.7 04 6253 104
Iyy of compressIoN flange =2x 12 x 12(300) +-2-.x1 = x
.. 1 3 4 7 06 04 4
Iyy of whole sectlOn = 2x 12XI2(300) + 1706.7x 10 = 1 .7xl mm
4
w = 6253 X 10 :::0 0.88. Hence k2 = 0.38 (From Table 82)
7106.7 x 10
4
DESIGN OF FLEXURAL MEMBERS: BEAMS 28S
(iv) Determination of ry
z
Total area A = 10115 + 2 x 12 x 300 =17315 mm
4
ry =V?i =V 10 =64.07 mm
.!... = 9000 = 140.5
ry 64.07
(v) Determination of C1 and C'1..
C1 = lesser distance of extreme fibre from N.A.= Yc
Cz =greater distance of extreme fibre from N.A.= Yl
To determine Ye, take moments about top fibre.
_ (2x12x3OO)12 + 10115(225 + 24) 150.4 mm = C
Ye - (2 x 12 x 300) + 10115
1
Yl = 474 - 150.4 = 323.6 mm =C2
(vi) Determination of 1u and Zu .
Ixx = {35057.6 X 10
4
+ 10115(323.6 - 225)2}+ 2 x 12 x 300(150.4 - 12)2
=58682.6 X 10
4
mm
4
.
4
j . fl - 58682.6 X 10 3901.8 X 10
3
mm
3
(Zxx)e with respect to compression ange - 150.4
. 58682.6 x 10
4
3
(ZXX)1 with respect to tenSIon flange = 323.6 1813.4 x 10
3
mm
Note that there are no holes in the tension flange.
(vii) Determination of critical stress feb
C2
. feb =k 1(X +k2 y) C
1
5 5
Y = 26.5 X 10 = 26.5 X 10 = 134.24
where
(1Iry)2 (140.5)2
X - y- '1+ .1.. (i T)2 = 13424
4
'I + .1.. ( 140 5 x 34.27 ) 2 =333.16
- r V 20 r
y
' D . V 20 . 474,
Alternatively, X and Y can be found from Table 8.3,
D 474 I
for - =--= 13.83 and - = 140.5.
T 34.27 ry
323.6 9 55 NI 2
Hence feb =0.931(333:16+0.38X 134.24) x 150.4 ::::;;76 . mm
T
Since - > 2.0, no increase in feb is allowed.
tw
feb = 769.55 N/mm2
(viii) Determination of abc
feb .fY 0.66 x 769.55 x 250
144.23 N/mm2
Obc =0.66 = 1
[ (j'ebr + (fYr]iI [(769.55)1.4 + (250)1.4] 1.4
(Alternatively, abc can be determined from Table 8.4, for feb =769.55 and fY =250;
DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURES
(i) MULTIPLE NORTH LIGHT TRUSS
(k ) MULTIPLE FINK TRUSS
FIG. 25,17. VARIOUS TYPES OF TRUSSES USED IN INDUSTRIES.
Plastic Analysis and Design
26.1. INTRODUCTION
liThe ability to carry the load is termed as 'structural strength' of the member. There are
three methods of structural design (i) the elastic design (ii) the limit state design, and (iii)
the plastic design or ultimate load design. The elastic design or the working stress design limits
the. usefulness of the structural material upto a certain load at which the maximum stress
in extreme fibres reaches the yield stress of the material in bending. In such a method, the
rest of the cross-section remains under-stressed. The working load or stress is determined by
applying a certain factor of safety to the guaranteed minimum yield stress of steel, and this
factor of safety accounts for the unpredictable overload, imperfections of the structure, defective
material, residual stresses etc. Broadly speaking, the structural strength or design loaf.! is controlled
by a number of factors - factors that have been called limits of structural usefulness. These
factors are (i) first attainment of yield stress (conventional design or elastic design). (ii) brittle
fracture, (iii) fatigue, (iv) instability, (v) deflection, and (vi) attainment of maximum plastic
strengh. Strictly speaking, a design based on anyone of the above six factors is known as
~ limit design. The plastic design is an aspect of limit design which is based on the attainment
of maximum plastic strength. The unique feature of the .plastic design is that the ultimate
load (rather than the yield stress) is regarded as the design criterion. The term 'plastic' is
used because the ultimate load is found from the strength of steel in the plastic range. The
method is also known as the load factor design or ultimate load design. The concept of ductility
of structural steel forms the basis for the plastic designv,::::.-
The rigorous analysis of a structure according to the theory of elasticity demands that
the stress satisfy two sets of conditions : (1) the equilibrium condition and (2) compatibility
conditions. The first set of conditions m.!,lst be invariably. satisfied in any material. However,
the second condition ceases to be valid as soon as plastic yielding occurs. The dastic method
of design assumes that a frame will become useless as soon as yield stress is reached. The
working stress is, therefore, kept much below the yield stress. The design so produced gives
a structure of unknown ultimate strength. The elastic methods of analysis are also very cumbersome,
specially for redundant frames. In plastic method of design, the limit load of a system is a
statically determinate quantity. The limit load is independent of all imperfections of the structure,.
such as faulty length of bars, settlement of supports and residual stresses caused by rolling
or welding. The plastic method of design gives an economical design. The margin of safety
provided in this method is not less than that provided according to . the past practice.,
(797)
798
DESIGN OF STEEL STRUcruRES
The need1'or /the study of plastic behaviour was appreciated by A.E.H. Love in 1892.
The possibility of the development of plastic hinge was first suggested by G.V. Kazinczy in
1914. Prof. H. Maier-Leibnitz of Germany carried out load tests on encastre and continuous
beams, carrying them out of the elastic into the plastic range, and showed that the ultimate
/y capacity was not affected by settlement of supports of continuous beams. Further work was
done by Vander Brock in United States and J.F. Baker and his associates in Great Britain.
26.2. THE DUCTILIlY OF STEEL
V
lV
The plastic theory is based on the ductility of steel. Through ductility, structural steel
G.; has capacity of absorbing large deformation beyond elastic limit without the danger of fracture.
However, in the plastic range,
the behaviour of steel depends
strongly not only on its chemi
cal composition but also on
the mechanical and thermal
treatments to which it has been
subjected.
Fig. 26.1 (a) shows the
complete stress-strain curve of
, mild steel. Fig. 26.1 (b) shows
the portion ABC enlarged. It
will be seen that the stress
strain relation is linear in the
elastic range. The upper yield
is reached at pointA, and then
the stress suddenly drops to
lower ,yield stress at B. The
strain then increases upto C , 3
'at constant stress. This' rep 3
resents the plastic range.
Beyond C the strain increases
N
E 25
E
z200 with further increase of stress
and the material is said to be
in strain hardening range. For
ordinary steel the elastic strain
is about 1/12 to 1/15 of strain
;:;:; 150
(/)

Ii; 50
00
N
E
E
"
t:;
STRAIN
(0) COMPLETE STRESS-STRAIN CURVE
(JL =cry
C
05 1'0 2-0 0 0-5 1'0
I
N I
10 _I
><.

.:..,
11'1
.... ,
<1)1
I.VI
I
STRAIN (%) STRAIN (%)
1'5
at the beginning of the strain
hardening and about 1/200 of
I118ximum strain.
Experience shows that
the metal of rolled beams does
(b) PORTION A 8 C ENLARGED (c) IDEALISED CURVE
not usually exhibit any upper FIG. 26.1. STRESS-STRAIN CURVES .
yield point and that even when an upper yield pO.int it. can be removed by cold. working
sUcch as -straightening. Hence the theory of plastIC .bendmg IS based on the a
steel without upper yield point. The strain upto point C is about 1.5%. In deSign,
at ultimate load the critical straining will' not have exceeded about 1.5% elongatIOn. Hence
the strain hardening range is neglected in simple theory of plastic bending. This reduces complicati<?ns
in the calculations, and still leaves available a major portion of reserve ductility of steel which
can be used as an added margin of safety. Fig. 26.1 (c) shows the indealised stress-stain curve
which forms the basis of plastic design:/ /
PLASTIC ANALYSIS AND DESIGN
26.3. ULTIMATE LOAD CARRYING CAPACIlY OF MEMBERS CARRYING
AXIAL TENSION
799
1. Single member carrying axial tension. 'Fig. 26.2 (a) shows. a member (such
as an eye bar), subjected to axial tension P . If A is the area of cross-section of the member,
Stress (I = PIA
As the load P is increased, the elongation
A of the bar takes place elastically and its value
is given by
A =PL
AE
, The load versus deflection is shown in Fig.
26.2 (b). The relationship between load and
deflection will be elastic until the yield point
to reached corresponding to the load P'I . The
deflection of the bar is given by
A _Py.L
'1 AE
where P
y
is the load at yield point.
Since the stress distribution is uniform at
the cross- section, unrestricted plastic flow will
,set in. The value of this load is the ultimate
load Pu , given by
p
(0 )
(c l
UNRESTRICTED
PLASTC FLOW
-I::.
(b)
Pu =Py =(ly.A ...(26.1) FIG. MAXIMUM STRENGTH 0F AN
The ultimate load ( Pu ) is the maximum EYE BAR (DETERMINATE STRucruRE)
load the structure will carry without the onset
of the unrestricted plastic flow. The deflection bar is about I.? perce!lt of the length
of the bar. The bar does not remain structurally lusefql after the yIeld pomt.
2. Three parallel bars I
structure T
' Fig. 26.3 (a) shows a sys a
tern consisting ofthree parallel
bars 1, 2 and 3. The structure 0 L
is statically indeterminate. 1 2
Consider the elastic state first. C====t====:=:J
Let the loads in bars 1 and
3 be P
t
each and that in bar
2 be Pz . From equilibrium
condition, ,we have
2Pt +Pz =P ...(i)
From compatibility of
deflection,
PtL1 P;Lz
AE = AE
But L2 =kL
.. P1L =PzkL
'or Pl = kP2 ...(ii)
PCP
y
(0) (b ) PARTIALLY PLASTIC

Pu ----..----
I I
: : Py -

(G) PLASTIC
(d )
FIG. 26.3. THREE BAR STRUcruRE (INDETERMINATE SYSTEM) /
804 DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURES
Taking moments about A, we get
PI + 2P2 =2.5 P ...(2)
Fig. 26.6 (b) shows the deformed shape
of the arrangement. If L11 and L12 are the vertical
extensions of the two bars.
or
or.
L11 1
L12 =2:
2 L11 =L1z
2 PI X 1 =Pz(1.5)
AE AE
2
CD
PI
A 8
1m -I
A 8
T
I

2m
1m
P2
C 0
(0 )
1m 1O5m P
C 0
i ,
... (3) or Pz =-PI
1.5
_ ;42 I
----J... I(b)
Eq. (3) shows that P2 is greater than Pl.
Since the area of sections of both the bars
are equal, it is evident that yield first occurs
in bar 2. As the load P is increased, the force
FIG. 26.6
Pz will go on increasing till yield occurs in it. Hence, at the first yield,
Pz =Oy A =250 x 200 =50000 N
Corresponding value of Pl is . PI = 1.5 P2 = 0.75 P
2
2
Substituting these in Eq. (2) the load at the first yield is given by
1
Pel 2.5 [PI + 2 P2]
= 2.75 P
2
= 2.75 X 50000 =55000 N
2.5 2.5
C ---..J
I 01
Thus according to the elastic solution, the load carrying capacity of structure is 55000
N.
(b) Load at complete coUapse
When the load P is further increased, the load in rod 1 increases while the load in rod
2 remains constant at a value of 50000 N. When yield is reached in bar 1, the whole structure
collapses. The force PI corresponding .to yield in the first rod is evidently equal to
Oy =250 x 200 =50000 N . Substituting these values of PI and Pz (each equal to 50000 N)
in Eq. (2), we get
Pu =_1_ [PI + 2 Pz] = 23
5
x 50000 ::::; 60000 N
2.5 .
It should be noted that in plastic analysis, compatibility equation 3 is no longe:
However, the equilibrium equations (Eqs. 1 and 2) still hold good. This shows the SimpliCity.
of plastic analysis.
Example 26.3. Compute the ultimate load P at the collapse of the structure shown in Fig.
, 26.7. All the four rods have equal area of cross-section. .
The structure will collapse when it is turned into a mechanism. There are two
and both of these should be investigated. In the first possibility, rods 1 and 2
and the collapse may take place by rotation about point C. In the second possIbIhty, rod
PLASTIC ANALYSIS AND DESIGN
4, 3 and 2 may become plastic
and failure may take place by rota
tion about A . The free body
diagrams for both these pos
sibilities are shown in Fig. 26.8
(a), (b).
The first possibility of col
lapse is shown in Fig. 26.8 (a).
By inspection, rod 1will yield first,
when the force in it is
A
2
B
. -I' L/3
PI= oy.A . With the further in- FIG. 26.7
805
2L13 -....j
crease in the external load, PI will remain constant at oy.A while P
z
will increase till it also
becomes equal to Oy. A . At this stage, the structure will turn into mechanism, and collapse
will take place by rotation about C . Just before such collapse, we get, by taking moments
about C .
or
Oy A . 2L + Oy A . L PLl ( 2;- )
9
hl=2: 0y .
A ...(1)
Let us now consider the second possibility, when the rod 4, --3 and 2 yield, and collapse
takes place by rotation about A. At
the yield stage, force carried by each
of these rods is equal to oy.A . Hence
we get by taking moments about A,
oy.A .L+ 2oy .A cos 8 . 2L

I
\A
1-1.,--- L ---+-!
4
=h2. '3 L ay.A\43!a/oy.
A
3 I I
or P
L2
=-4 Oy A (1 + 4 cos 8) A!..,I_______.2 8..1.:..:,..__,.-___ (b)
1-1"4<---- L -o.. -"I._-2L13---l
... (2) ;P
L2
It will be seen that PL2 is less
than hI for all values of 8 . Hence FIG. 26.8
the colipase load is given by Eq. (2).
3
Thus, Pu =4'0y.A(1 + 4 cos 8)
PLASTIC BENDING OF BEAMS
.'. . . Let a beam be subjected to an increaSing beading moment M (pure bending). The beam
. has atleast one axis of symmetry so that bending is symmetrical about that axis. When the
bending stresses are within the elastic range, the bending stress distribution will be as shown
in Fig. 26.9 (b - 1). The neutral axis will pass through the centroid of the section. As the
. is increased, yield stress will appear either in the top most or in the bottom most
fib.re as the case may be with the neutral axis still passing through the centroid of the section
[FIg. 26.9 (b - 2)]. The moment at which the first yield has occurred is called the yield moment
\. My further increase of M, the yield will also occur in the bottom fibre and it will
.. inwards in the top portion [Fig. 26.9 (b - 3)]. The neutral axis no longer passes through
.,.the centroid, its location being determined by the fact that the total compressive force is equal
to the total tensile force over the cross-section.
806
Further increase of
bending moment will cause
the yield to spread further
inwards towards neutral
axis. [Fig. 26.9 (b 4)]. A
stage is ultimately reached
when the yield spreads
right up to the neutral axis
and the section becomes
fully plastic [Fig. 26.9
(b 5)]. The corresponding
bending moment is called
thefuily plastic moment and
is denoted by Mp . Neglect
ing strain hardening in the
outer fibres, no further in
crease in the bending mo
ment can be attained. The
plastic moment, therefore,
represents the limiting
strength of the beam in
bending. The neutral axis
in case of'fully plastic sec
tion will pass through the
I a)

cr<cr
y
( t )
STRAIN
cr<.cry
12 )
DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTIJRES
cry
13 )
(b)
cry
(4 )
M=Mp
o-y
( 5)
Ie) STRESS-STRAIN CURVE
<1>:: J (CURVATURE)
(d) MOMENT-CURVATURE
. RELATIONHIP
FIG. 26.9. PLASTIC BENDING OF BEAMS
equal area axis. In case of sections having two axes of symmetry, the location of neutral axis
in elastic and fully plastic conditions remain unchanged. When the fully plastic moment is
reached, the section will act as a hinge permitting rotation. With further increase of the load,
the yield will spread in longit?dinal directi0o/ /
26.5. STAGES OF BENDING OF RECTANGULAR SECTIONS
Consider a beam of rectangular section, subjected to gradually increasing load. As the
load is increased, the maximum moment on the beam increases linearly. The fibre strains, as
well as the stress, also increase linearly with load so long as the beam remains elastic at all
sections. The moment at which first yield has occurred is known as yield moment (My). AS
the load is increased, plastiCity grows on the section from the extreme fibres towards the neutral
axis. As the load is further increased, the whole section ultimately becomes fully plastic, as
indicated in Fig. 26.9 (b - 5). The corresponding moment is known as fully plastic moment
(Mp ). At this stage, when the section becomes fully plastic, there is unrestricted flow of material'
and the resulting large deflections render the beam useless.
Thus, we find the follOwing three stages in the history of bending of the beam : (i) elastic
stage bending (it) elasto plastic stage bending, and (iii) fully plastic stage bending (Fig. 26.9d).
1. Elastic stage
In this stage, stress a < ay and strain e is less than Ey . Hence
M=aZ
where a is the extreme fibre stress and Z is the section modulus of the beam. When
a = ay , first yield occurs at the extreme fibres and the section develops its yield moment,
My given by
PLASTIC ANALYSIS AND DESIGN
bd
2
My =ay .Z=ay .
6
.
where b is the width and d is the depth of the section.
2. EJasto plastic stage. The elasto-plastic stage is
one in which is partially yielded or plas
tlclSed as shown III Fig. 26.10. The middle layer of
depth 2 yo remains elastic and this layer is known as
the elastic-core. The total moment of resistance consists
of the moment (Ml ) resisted by the elastic core plUS
the. moment ( M2 ) resisted by the fibres in the plastic
region.
Here,
M b(2yo)z 2 1
1 = ay 6 = a
y3
b yo ...(a)
Mz =a
y
[b:
2
[bt
...(b)
and
Hence
M = Ml + Mz = ay. b + ay (b:
2
- b )
FIG. 26.10
bd
2
, [2 ] bd
2
b
2
M = aY "4 +ay '3 - b =ay - ay t

or
or
The above relationship can also be written as
M = a
y
b d
2
_
. 6 2 d
2
807
... (26.6)
... (26.7)
...(26.8 a)
or
M =M y 2 dZ ...(26.8)
From Eq. 26.8, it is evident that M > My and its value increases as Yo decreases. The
value of Yo decreases as extreme fibre strain increases. At a particular stage, let e =12 e
y

Then yo =(1112) x dl2 = d/24
.. M = My 24 24 ] = 1.4965 My
(iii) Plastic stage
This stage occurs when the stress a , in both
tensile as well as compressive zones, at all points
of the section, is equal to ay , as shown in Fig.
26.11. '
or
The fully plastic moment is given by
Mp = force x lever arm
= ( a y b.i )i = a y b:
Z
... (26.10)
3 bd
2
.
Mp = 2" .ay 6""' = 1.5 My ...(26.10 a)
... (26.9)
l
d/2
___1
FIG. 26.11
808 DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURES
This fully plastic moment Mp is theoretically obtained when the strain e becomes infinite.
However, by comparing Mp =1.5 My (at e becoming infinite) to Mp = 1.4965 My ( at
e =12 ey ), we find that the difference between the two values is hardly 0.23%. We find from
Fig. 26.1 (c) that strain est (at strain hardening stage) is 12 times ey . Hence it can be concluded
that the beam section becomes almost fully plastic before the strain hardening of the material
occurs.
/x. 26.6. EVALUATION OF FULLY PLASTIC MOMENT
G / The moment of resistance developed by a fully plastic section is called the fully plastic
0moment My . The following simplitying assumptions are made for evaluation of fully plastic
moment (Baker, 1956).
1. The material obeys Hooke's law until the stress reaches the upper yield value; on further
straining the stress drops to the lower yield value and thereafter remains. constant.
2. The upper and lower yield stresses and the modulus of elasticity have the same values
of compression as in tension.
3. The material is homogeneous and isotropic in both the elastic and plastic states.
4. Plane transverse sections remain plane and normal to the longitudinal axis after bending,
the effect of shear being neglected.
5. There is no resultant axial force on the beam.
6. The cross-section of beam is symmetrical about an axis through its centroid parallel
to the plane of bending.
7. Every layer of the material is free to expand and contract longitudinally and laterally
under stress as if separated from the other layers.
Consider a cross-section of a beam subjected to a fully plastic moment Mp of sagging
nature. Under the action of this fully plastic moment every fibre of the cross-section will be
stressed to the yield stress Oy and the stress distribution will be rectangular as shown in Fig.
26.12 (c). The stress in the fibres above the neutral axis will be of compressive nature while
the stress of fibres located below the neutral axis will be of tensile nature. Let A I be the
area of the portion of the section situated above the neutral axis, its CO. ( gI ) being at
YI from the N.A. Similarly,
let Az be the tensile area,
with its CO. (gz ) situated
the neutral axis.
The compressive
force acting over the cross
section =Al x Oy
Total tensile force ac
ting over the cross-section
=Az x Oy ...(1)
.. AI0y=Azoy or
At A z . But
A =Al +A2 (total area)
A
:.At A2 =2"
<Ty
-) -
Mp
2
(a) (b) {e)
FIG. 26.12. EVALUATION OF FULLY PLASTIC MOMENT
'0
PLASTIC ANALYSIS AND DESIGN
809
Thus the neutral axis divides the section into two equal parts, ie. it passes through the
equal area axis.
Again these two forces should form a couple such that its magnitude is equal to the
externally applied moment Mp . Hence
,....
oJ'
But
Aloy .YI +AzoyYz =Mp
Al =Az =A
A
Mp =Oy 2 (yl +yz)
... (2)
... (26.11 a)
...(26.11)
where Zp = (yl +yz) ... (26.11 b)
Z is the first moment of'area about neutral axis is termed as plastic section modulus.
It be noted that the fully plastic moment Mp is constant for a particular cross-section
of a given material.
Also, yield moment My (Le., the moment at which the first yield occurs, section still being
elastic) is given by
My =OyZ
...(26.6)
where Z =elastic section mod:ulus
The ratio of plastic moment to the yield moment is
called the shape factor s.
S =Mp = Oy Zp =Zp
My OyZ Z
... (26.12)
26.7. EVALUATION OF SHAPE FACTOR
The shape factor is the property of a section and depends solely on
cross-section. We shall evaluate the shape factor of some of the standar
the shape of the
sections.
(a) Rectangular Section [Fig. 26.13( a)]
b d
2
Elastic section modulus, Zp =
Plastic section modulus,
A
Zp =2" (yt +Y2)
b xd [d dJ bd
2
=-- - +- = ...26.13(a)
2 4 4 4
Z bd
2
bd
2
S= 2. = + =1.5 ...(26.13b)
Z
(b) Triangular Section [Fig. 26.13 (b)]
1=
bh
3
The distance of extrme fibre from the
elas tic netural axis = h
. b h
3
3 b h
2
.. Z = x 2h = 24
IT
h

I-r ..o----b(b) 1
(0 )
(e)
(d)
FIG. 26.13.
812 DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTIJRES
The moment curvature relationship is of grest importance in the plastic theory. When
an unloaded beam is subjected to increasing B.M., the curvature first increases linearly with
the B.M., as represented by the line OA. This is elastic range. With the appearance of first
yield under the action of yield moment My -, the linear relation no longer holds good. As
the B.M. is increased further, the curvature will increase at the faster rate which corresponds
to the spread of yield in inward direction. As the B.M. approaches fully plastic value, the
curvature will tend to be infinity. This corresponds to fully plastic section. When at a particular
section, the B.M. reaches Mp, the B.M. on either side of it will be lesser than Mp. With the
attainment of fully plastic moment at a section, the curvature at this section becomes infinitely
large. Thus, a finite change of
_slope can occur over an infinitely
small length of the member at
- this section. This section will,
therefore, act as if a hinge has
been inserted in the member at
'this section.
(b) I-Section
The moment curvature
relationship may be developed for
wide- flange sections, by the
similar procedure outlined above
{or rectangular section. Due to
variation of width of section with
the depth, separate expressions
are necessary when yielding is
limited to the flanges and when
yielding has penetrated to the web
1-14
__ _
'-0 A

0'9
T*I1/- J2-cP
234 5 e 7 9 9
-l/()y
FIG. 26.16. MOMENT CURVATURE RELATIONSHIP
FOR WIDE FLANGE BEAM
II
Case I : For yield zones within flanges
M =!l!.. (1 _b d
2
) + b d
2
[1 _1. (12) 2 ]
My cpy 6 Z 4 Z 3 cp
... (26.19 a)
Case II : For yield zone extending into the web
M _ Mp _ td
2
(12)2
My - My 12Z cp
=f- td
2
(12)2
12Z cp
....(26.19 b)
Fig. 26.16 shows the non
dimensional M - cp curve for
a typical wide flange beam.
(c) Other sections
The moment-curvature
relationship for various shapes
of cross- section are shown in
Fig. 26.17.
2
MlMy
t
SHAPE Mp/My
__-------A TRIANGE 2'34
---------, DIAMOND 2'0
-----,------. ROUND "70
----------1 RECTANGLE 1'50
TUBE "27 IJ. I WF "14
- l/4ly
FIG. 26.17. MOMENT CURVATURE RELATIONSHIP
FOR VARIOUS SHAPES
PLASTIC ANALYSIS AND DESIGN
813
26.9. PlASTIC HINGE
O
A plastic hinge is a zone of yielding due to flexure in a structural member. At those
Q, (' se.ctions where plastic hinges are located, the member acts as if it were hinged, except with
a constant restraining moment Mp . Just like any ordinary hinge, the plastic hinge allows the
rotation of members on its two sides without change in curvature of members. The plastic
hinge is capable of resisting rotation until fully plastic moment is developed and then permitting
rotation of any magnitude while the bending moment remaing constant at Mp .
The hinge extends over a length of member that is dependent on loading and the geometry.
The hinge length AL is the length of the beam over which the bending moment is greater
than the yield moment My . However in -all of its length A L the sections are not plastic
to its full depth. To illustrate this we shall consider the case of a simply supported beam
loaded with a central point load W, the section of the beam being rectangular.
Let the yielded portion (i.e. the plastic hinge) extreme points be distant x from either
end. The moment at these extreme points is My and the moment at other points beyond these
is less than My . p
F'rom Fig. 26.18 (b) we get }:
Mp =L12 A c,!l ID :!_ B
My x [ I I
A 1-11L= ;; --: tol
Mp 3 .
But M =S == 2' for a rectangular section
y
or
3 L
2' = 2x
L
X=
3
Hence A L =L _ 2x = L _ 2 L = L
. 3 3
Similarly it can be shown that if the
beam is of I-section the length A L i<; about
The length /). L, in fact, represents the
length of elasto-plastic zone.
Because of the shape of the moment
""" : L.: '"I
1----1 'I" L/3 "I' 1---1


: Mp :
E

Q
curvature diagram [Fig. 26.16] the curvature FIG. 26.18
remains very small near ends C and D of the plastic region, while in the neighbourhood of
point E, the curvature is extremely high as shown in Fig. 26.18 (c). The beam therefore, deforms
,very nearly as if it consisted of two rigid portions connected by a binge in E [Fig. 26. 18(d)].
In most of the analytical work, it is assumed that all plastic rotations occur at a point, i.e. length
Of the hinge approaches zero,#,
26.10. LOAD FACTOR
The load factor is the ratio of the collapse load to the working load
Q = We or W
L
or Wu
W W W
...(26.20)
DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURES 814
where Q = Load factor
We or WL = Collapse load or limit load
W =Working load
The value of load factor depends upon type of loading, the end conditions of the supports
and the cross-section of the member.
Let Mmax = maximum bending moment corresponding to working load W
Mp = fully plastic moment. corresponding to collapse load We
Since bending moment at a given section is directly proportional to load, we have
MaWor M = a W ...(1)
( For simply supported beam Mmax = W L/4 and hence a = L/4 )
Similarly, Mp a Wp
or Mp ;:::: a We = a . Q W ... (2)
Mp =Q ...(1)
Mmax
ow
. od I Mmax
N eIaStiC

section m u us reqUlr
. ed
;::::
Z
= -- ... (3)
It
where It = allowable stress in bending
Plastic section modulus required ;:::: Zp = Mp ... (4)
O'y
ZP _ Mp . Mmax _ Mp fi
...(II)
z - a; -:- - Mmax O'y
Mp =Q ;Zp =S
But
Mmax Z
and
O'y ;:::: F;:::: factor of safety in elastic method
It
Substituting these in (II), we get
S;::::Q
F
or
Q = S x F ...(26.21)
The above relation shows that the load factor is equal to the shape factor multiplied by
the factor of safety used in elastic design.
As per IS : 800 the conventional or elastic design factor of safety is 1.65. The
factor for WF beam varies from about 1.09 to about 1.23. Hence the load factor for vanous
WF beams works out as. under
Factor of safety Shape factor Load factor
1.65 1.09 1.65 x 1.09 ;:::: 1.80
1.65 1.12 1.65 X 1.12 = 1.85
1.65 1.14
1.65 X 1.14 1.88
1.65 1.23
1.65 X 1.23 ;:::: 2.03
Thus the load factor varies from 1.80 to 2.03.
A most common shape factor value of 1.12 is usually adopted corresponding. to which
load factor ;:::: 1.65 X 1.12 ;:::: 1.85 . '
PLASTIC ANALYSIS AND DESIGN \ 815
In case of wind, earthquake, and other forces, specification normally provide, a one-third
increase in stresses. Hence load factor for combined dead, live and wind loading would be:
Q = '4
3
x 1.85 =1.40. The load factors recommended by SP : 6(6) : 1972 are as follows :
(i) Dead plus live load Q =1.85
(ii) Dead plus live load, plus wind, earthquake etc: Q;:::: 1.40
In general, the load factor is selected in such a way that the real factor of safety for
any structure is at least as great as that afforded in the conventional design of simple beam.
IS 800-1984 recommends a min. load factor values of 1.7 and 1.3 respectively. See 26.14.
MARGIN OF 'SAFElY
The load factor Q accounts for the margin of safety in the plastic design. The Collapse
load or ultimate load is found by multiplying the working load by the load factor .
Thus We =FW
In the case of dead loads, live loads plus wind or earthquake
Wcw =FwWw
In the case of elastic design, the margin of safety provided is 1.65. For mild steel used
<"\ as structural steel, there is an additional reserve strength of 12% of yield load, due to ductility
steel. Hence in the plastic design also, there is a margin of safety of
Q;'- 1.12 X 1.65 ;:::: 1.85 . Thus, in plastic design, the margin of safety provided is in no way less than
" that provided in the elastic design.

b26.11. CONDITIONS AND BASIC THEOREMS OF PLASTIC ANALYSIS
lr"'.6/ 1. Conditions of plastic analysis .
T In the elastic mehtod of analYSiS, three conditions must be satisfied: (1) continuity condition,
(2) equilibrium condition, and (3) limiting stress condition. Thus, an elastic analysiS requires
that the deformations must be compatible, the structure should be in equilibrium and the bending
moments anywhere in the structure should be less than My (or the stress should be less than
O'y).
Compared to this, an analysis according to the plastic method must satisfy the following
,fundamental conditions : .
1. Mechanism condition. The ultimate load or collapse load is reached when a mechanism
. is formed. There must, however, be just enough plastic hinges that a mechanism is formed.
2. Equilibrium condition. The summation of the forces and moments acting on a structure
must be equal to zero.
3. Plastic moment condition. The bending moment anywhere must not exceed the fully
. plastic moment. .
Actually, these conditions are similar to those in elastic analysis which requires a consideration
?f (i) the continuity, (ii) the equlibrium, and (iii) the limiting stress condition. The similarity
IS demonstrated in Fig. 26.19.
regard to continuity, in plastic analysis, the situation is just the reverse. Theoretically, .
.. plastIC hmges interrupt continuity, so the requirement is that sufficient plastic hinges form
to structure (or past of it) to deform as a mechanism. This could be termed as a mechanism
COMmon. The equilibrium condition is the same: However, instead of initial yield, the limit of
DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTIJRES
816
Elastic Analysis Plastic Analysis
Continuity Condition Mechanism Condition 1...............::;:;;=1
'fIHHHHlp
Equilibrium Condition BUlB I Up
Less than My
.........-r--..

'J
Plastic moment Condition
V
Initial Yield
[7 "'J
My. My
(Limiting Stress condition)
Mp Mp
. FIG. 26.19. CONDITIONS FOR ELASTIC AND PLASTIC ANALYSIS
usefulness is the attainment of plastic hinge moments; not only at one cross-section but at
each of the critical sections; this condition is termed as plastic moment condition.
It should however, be noted that all the three conditions cannot be satisfied in one operation.
Two theorem's have been evolved which must be satisfied to ensure that all the conditions
are fulfilled. The general method of plastic analysiS and design are based on the two fundamental
theorems evolved by Greenberg and Prager. The first theorem, called the static or lowe:
theorem, furnishes a lower boundary for the limit load, while second theorem, called the kinematzc
/ or upper bound theorem gives an uppper boundary for the limit
/-.?Z 2. Basic Theorems of Plastic Analysis
..( 1. Static theorem or lower bound theorem. The static theorem states that for a given frame
tr and loading, if there exists any distribution of bending moment throughout the frame which is
both safe and statically admissible, with a set of loads W, the value of W must be less than
or equal to the collapse load We . .
The distribution of bending moment, such that it satisfies all the conditions of equilibrium
is called statically admissible distribution. If the distribution of bending moment that
the fully plastic moment is not exceeded anywhere in frame, it is called safe dzstnbutwn.
2. Kinematic or Upper Bound Theorem. The upper bound theorem states that for a given
frame subjected to a set of loads W, the value
of W which is found to correspond to any assumed
KINEMATIC THEOREM
mechanism will always be greater than of equal
to the actual collapse load We. This theorem satisfies
the equilibrium condition as well as mechanism g
condition, and provides the upper bound or limit
of collapse load. If the values of W corresponding :)
to a number of mechanisms for a given frame 8
STATIC THEOREM
under given set of loading are found, the collapse t
Wr;;;.Wc
load We will be the smallest of all these found.
Uniqueness Theorem or Combined Theorem
_ CURVATURE
This theorem combines both static as well
as kinematic theorems The Uniqueness Theorem
FIG. 26.20. BASIC lBEOREMS OF PLASTIC
states that if for a given frame/and loading at
ANALYSIS
PLASTIC ANALYSIS AND DESIGN 817
least one safe and statically admissible bending moment distribution can be found and in this
distribution, the bending moment is equal to the fully plastic at sufficient cross-sections
to' cause failure of the frame as a mechanism due to rotations of the plastic hinges at these
. /: sections, the corresponding load would be the collapse load (i.e. W = We).
f All these theorems are represented diagramatically in Fig. 26.20.
\.. 7' 3. Methods of Analysis
0/
S
Based on the above two theorems, there are two basic methods of plastic analysis: (1)
Static (or equibrium) method (2) Kinematic (or mechanism) method.
Pla.StiC moment condition
(a) Static or equilibrium method
Equilibrium condition
(b) Kinematic or mechanism method
Mechanism condition
In the static or equilibrium method, an equilibrium moment diagram is drawn such that
M :5 Mp . The resulting ultimate load is only the correct value if sufficient plastic hinges are
assumed to create a mechanism. On the other hand, in kinematic (or mechanism) method,
mechanism is assumed and the resulting equilibrium equations are solved for the ultimate load.
This value is only correct if the plastic moment condition is also satisified.
1. Static method. Static method is based on the static or lower bound theorem according
to which a load computed on the basis of an assumed equilbrium moment diagram in which
the moments not greater than Mp, is less than or at best equal to the true ultimate load. In
this method, a mOlnent diagram is sketched in such a way that the conditions of equilibrium
are satisified. The moments must either be less than or equal to Mp . If a mechanism is
formed, then the solution of equilibrium equation will give true collapse load. If the mechanism
is not formed, the moment at some of the sections will have to be increased so as to obtain
a mechanism, i.e. the existing load will have to be increased ..The load will become equal to
the collapse load when a mechanism is formed. The procedure for application of static theorem
is as follows :
1. Convert the structure into statically determinate structure by removing the redundant
forces.
2 Draw free bending moment diagram for the structure.
3. Draw the bending moment diagram for the redundant forces.
4. Draw the composite bending moment diagram in such a way that mechanism is obtained.
5. Find out the value of collapse load by solving equilibrium equations.
6. Check the moments to ensure that M < Mp . If it is so, correct value of collapse load
is obtained.
The method is suitable only for simple structures. For complicated frames, the method
becomes very difficult and, therefore, kinematic method is preferred.
2. Kinematic or Mechnism method. Kinematic method is based on the kinematic or upper
bound. theorem according to which a load computed on the basis of an assumed mechanism
will always be greater than or at best equal to the true ultimate load. For / the application of
_ this methOd, it is very essential to know the possible types and number of mechanisms. There
are four types of independent mechanisms (Fig. 26.21) : (i) beam mechanism, (ii) panel mechanism,
(iii) gable mechanism, and (iv) joint mechanism. Various combination ofthe independent mechanisms
may be' made to obtain certain number of composite mechanisms.
818 DESIGN OF STEELSmUCTIJRES
For a particular structure
With a loading, the number of
independent mechanisms is given
by N =n T ... (26.22)
where N = Number of inde
pendent mechanisms
n = number of possible hinges
T= number of redundancies.
A number of possible col
lapse mechanisms may be ob
tained by the combination of
independent mechanisms. The
correct mechanism will be the one
which results in the lowest pos
___

(0) BEAM MECHANISMS
-v
\
\
\
sibleload(upperboundtheorem) (b) PANEL MECHANISM (c)GABLE MECHANISM (d) JOINT
and for which the moment does MECHANISM
not exceed the plastic moment
. at any section of the structure
(lower bound theorem). The pro
FIG. 26.21. TYPES OF INDEPENDENT MECHANISMS
cedure of application of the kinematic theorem is as follows:
1. Determine the location of possible plastic hinges.
2. Select possible independent and composite mechanisms.
3. Solve equilibrium equation by virtual displacements method for the lowest load.
4. Check that M s Mp
PrinCiple of virtual work. It is as follows :
"If a deformable structure in equilibrium under the action of a system of external forces is
subjected to a virtual deformation compatible with its conditions of support, the work done by
these. forces on the displacements associated with the virtual deformation is equal to the work
done by the internal stresses on the strains associated with this deformation. U This principle has
wide utility for the structure at collapse. During collapse there is no change in the elastic
strain energy stored in the beam since the bending moment and, therefore, the curvature remains
the same. So the work done during small motion of collapse mechanism is equal to' the work
absorbed by the plastic hinge. The work absorbed in the hinges is always positive irrespective
of the sign of B.M.
Note : From Eq. 26.22, we get n = N + T . In case of beams, only beam mechanism
is possible. Hence N (i.e. number of independent mechanisms) is equal to 1. Thus,
n = 1 + T , which means number of hinges required will be one more than number of
26.12. DETERMINATION OF COLLAPSE LOAD FOR SOME STANDARD CASES OF BEAMS
1. Simply supported beam carrying a concentrated load W
Let the beam section have a plastic moment of resistance Mp . We shall solve the pr9blem
by both the methods. Since the beam is statically determinate, T = 0 . Hence only one hinge
is required for the collapse of the beam. .
(a) Static MetIwd. The maximum bending moment of W b evidently occurs under the
load. When the load is increased to the collapse load We , the maximum bending moment
will be equal to WeLab , as shown in Fg. 26.22 (b). This should evidently be equal to the
piasticmoment of resistance Mp .
PLASTIC ANALYSIS AND pESIGN
We
ab
=M
p
L
or:
We =Mp.L
ab
Since the bending moment nowhere
in the beam exceeds Mp , the load given
by the above expression is the true col
lapse load.
(b) Kinematic Method: The col
lapse mechanism (beam mechanism)
is shown inFig. 26.22 (c). Collapse will
occur when a hinge is formed under
the load.
Let () angle of rotation of the left
portion of the beam.
Deflection below the load= a ().
W
E4:A .... __ (0 )
.' Mp -L (b)

e--------t------
09
b
(c)
FIG. 26.22
Hence angle of rotation of the right portion of the beam = ()t = a ()
819
Rotation of the hinge under the action of plastic moment = () + ()1 = () +' a () = () . ;
The work absorbed by the hinge = Mp . () L
The work done by
Equating the two, we get
or
the load =We. a ()
We . a () =Mp . () bL
We =Mp .L as before.
a b '
The value of B.M. anywhere does not exceed Mp , and hence above value of collapse
load is correct. If the load is acting at the centre of the beam, a =b =LI2 and hence
We =Mp . L = 4 Mp .
L L L
2. Simply supported beam carrying
nniformlydistributed load
Let WF total U.D.L.
Mp=full plastic moment of resistance
of the beam section
(a) Static method:
The maximum bending moment of
WL '11
T WI occur at the centre of the beam.
When the load Wis increased to the collapse
load We , the maximum bending moment
at the centre will' be equal to We. L
8
2'2
W=TOTAL LOAD
FIG. 26.23
824 DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTIJRES
7. Three span continuous beam with U.D.L.
Let the total uniformly
distributed load on each span
be W. A continuous beam will
collapse in the same manner
as fixed beam by the formation
of three plastic hinges, two at
the supports and one between
the supports of any span. the

failure of one span will result

in the failure of the whole struc
wcL Wc L
ture.
8 8
Fig. 26.28 (b) shows the
FIG. 26.28
bending moment diagram at
collapse. During the elastic stage the ordinates of bending moment diagram will be W L at
. WL. 10
. the mner supports and -8- at the mId span. When the collapse load is applied, the plastic
hinges. will form at E, B, C and F, and the beams AB and CD will collapse. The beam BC
can stIll take more load, but for all practical purposes the continuous beam has been rendered
useless. The spans AB and CD may be looked upon as propped cantilevers with uniformly
distributed loading. The collapse load is, therefore, equal to 11.656 and the hinges in the
end span form at 0.414 L from the outer supports. The plastic bending moment diagram can'
now be drawn as shown in Fig. 26.28 (b).
Example 26.4 Calculate the plastic section modulus, shape factor and plastic moment of
the following sections :
(a) ISMB 200 (Fig. 26.29 (a)] having the following properties :
IX!:< =2235..4 cm
4
; Zxx: = 223.5 cm
2
;A = 3233 cm
2
; Thickness of web =5.7 mm; Thickness of flange
= 10.8 mm. .
(b) ISHT 150 [Fig. 10.29 (b)] having the following properties :
Ixx = 7 cm
4
;A =37.42 sq. cm and distance of e.G. from the top is 26.6 mm.
Take the yield stress for mid steel as 250 N Imm
2

Solution
(a) ISection : Given : Ixx: =2235.4 X 10
4
mm
4
; Zxx: =223.5 X 10
3
mm
3
and A =: 3233 mm
3
A
Zp ="2 (yt +Y2)
Since the equal area axis coincides with the centroidal axiS, Yl and Y2 are equal. To find
Yl of the upper half area, we have
Yl = 100 x 10.8 (100 - 5,4) + 5.7 (100 -10.8)(100 - 10.8) 102168 + 22676 = 78.6 mm
(100 x 10.8) + (5.7) (100 - 10.8) 1080 + 508,4
Zp =
A
2: 0'1 +Y2) =A .Yl =3233 x 78.6 == 254106 mm
2
Z = 223.5 X 10
3
mm
3
= 223500 mm
3
S = Zp =254106 =114
Z 223500 .
825
PLASTIC ANALYSIS AND DESIGN
Mp == ZpOy = 254106 x 250
1-0-- 250mm ---!J:.
=63.53 x 10
6
N-mm
26-61 T
IO
'6f
=63.53 kNm 57mm _._. LcENTFiolDALI
AXIS l50mm
(b) Tee Section T
Given Ixx:= 573.7 x 10
4
mm
4
;
200mm-'
A = 3742 mm
2
--It-
Elastic section modulus Z
=;;""';;;;;;::1-* 10'8 76 1
4
T
=573.7 X 10 =46491 l
(0 ) (b)
150 _ 26.6 mm
Let the equal area axis pass . FlO. 26.29
through the flange at distance x
below the top fibre.
250 x == 250 (10.6 - x) + (150 - 10.6) x 7.6 or 500 x = 3709
From which x = 7,42 mm
Y1 = distance of e.G. of the top area from equal area axis= 7.4212 =3.71 mm
Distance of bottom flange from equal area axis = 10.6 - 7,42 = 3.18 mm
Y2 = distance of e.G. of bottom area from the equal area axis
250 x 3.18 x (3.18) i + (150 - 10.6) 7.6 [(150 - + 3.18)]
= =41.94 mm.
i (3742)
A 3742 3
:. Zp == -'- 0'1 +Y2) =-2- [3.71 + 41.94] = 85417 mm

. Z 46491
Mp =ZpOy =85417 x 250 == 21.35 x 10
6
N-mm= 21.35 kN-m
Example 26.5. A beam of rectangular cross-section b x d is subjected to a bending moment
0.9 Mp . Find out the depth of the elastic core.
Solution. Let the total depth of the elastic core =2yo Therefore, the depth of the plastic
zone == - yo , on either side. Distance of c.g. of force on one side from N.A
2
d {ld} 02
_ b ( '2 - yo) x Oy x Yo + "2 ('2 - yo) + bYo T . "3 yo
- b - yo ) Oy + byo 1
b d _ bYo\ + yo) + b
t--- b---i
_
(
2 ,4 2 3
T
- bd b + bl'o
d/2 TT 2- yo 2
1.
OF
_ 3d
2
- 4yij
'-'f ELASTIC
-- -'-'-'--l-- _.
- 12 (d - yo) x CORE
______L 1 Total internal moment of the forces
about N.A.
=2x{b )+ x } d
2
- 4
.2 Yo 2' Oy 12 (d - yo)
3d
2
_ -
- 12 x b x Oy
FIG. 26.30
826 DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTIJRES
Externally applied t 0 9 M b d
2
b d
2
momen ;::::. p ;:::: 0.9
4
Oy ( since Mp ;:::: Zp . Oy ;:::: 4' Oy )
tx 3d
2
- 2
,\, Equating the two, we get b a ;:::: 09 x b d a
12 y' 4 y
or 3 d
2
- 4 ;:::: 2.7 d
2
'/:. = 0.3d
2
or Yo =0.274d
Hence of elastic core =2yo ;:::: 0.548 d
. Example FIXed beam of span L carries a uniformly distributed load W on the left half
l!0rtwn. Determme the value of W at collapse. The elastic moment of resistance of the beam
IS Mp .
Solution. Let the maximum
statics, RA ::::: W. Hence,
free bending moment occur at C, distant x from A. From
Mp ;:::: _ 3 Wx + 2 W x
2
4 L'2
= _ 3Wx + Wx
2
4 L
For maxima,
dMx =0= _ 3W + 2Wx
dx 4 L
w
Al 0 H H *H [7 II J I
11 4-j
\---- Ll2 .. I

:. x;::::
FIG. 26.31
3 W 3 W (3)2 9
Mmax;:::: -TXgL+y; 8
L
= - 64 WL
At collapse, it becomes equal to :4 We. L (Numerically)
Hence as per static method, the equilibrium equation is We L ;:::: Mp + Mp
We ;:::: 2
L
Mp x ,64 ;:::: 128 M
p
;:::: 1422 Mp (Answer)
9 9' L . L .
Example 26.7 A cantilever bea,m ABC, shown in Fig. 26.32 is subjected to a point load
W at the cantilever end. Find the vlaue
of the load at collapse.
Solution
There are two possible collapse
mechanisms. In the first mechanism
(Fig. 26.32 b), hinge may form at
B, corresponding to least plastic mo
ment of resistance Mp . The equi
librium equation is
L
We .
2
8 =Mp.8
From which We ::::: 2;!p ...(i)
/ 2MP. =--oJ :
E'

(0 )
A
A
----==:==-----_


....Jl
FIG. 26.32
PLASTIC ANALYSIS AND DESIGN
In the second mechanism, Qinge may form at A. Then
2Mp8;:::: We.L8
827
From which
We::::: 2M
p
L
...(ii)
The actual collapse mechanism is the one which gives the minimum of collapse.load (upper
bound theorem). However, in the present case, both mechanisms give equal collapse load of
2Mp/L .
Example 26.8. A beam ABC of span L is fixed at the ends A and C, and carries a point
load at a distance from the left end. Find the value of the load. at collapse if the left half
of the beam has a plastic moment of resistance 2 Mp and the right half has a plastic moment
.
Solution
There are two possible collapse mechanisms. In the rust mechanism [Fig. 26.32 (b)], hinges
may form at A, D and C. The equilibrium equation is
3
We''4
L8
We;:::: 20M
p
L
In the second mechanism (Fig.
26.33 (c)], hinges may form at A, B
and C. The hinge at B will work cor
responding to the least moment of res is
tance at B, i.e. Mp . The equilibrium
equation is
L
We. 4"8::::: 2Mp.8 + Mp. 28 + M
p
8
W
p
;:::: 20Mp
:Wc
-e-+1.
e
---;-----e-.-
M
4' P
_-....'.-('"> (c I
L FIG. 26.33
The actual collapse mechanism is the one which gives the minimum of the collapse load
(upper bound theorem). However, in the present case, both mechanisms give equal collapse
load of 20M
p
L .
Example 26.9. A fixed beam ABCD, with variable plastic moment of resistance is loaded
as shown in Fig. 26.34. Find the value of the collapse load.
Solution
There are two possible collapse mechanisms. In the first mechanism (Fig. 26.34b), hinges
may form at A, Band D. Then .
W.
3 Mp
e. 3 L 8 + We . 2 L e ;:::: Mp 3 e+ "2' 4 e+ Mp 8
From which
4Mp
We=-
3 L
...(1)