Wind load

The load produced on a structure by the action of the wind is a dynamic effect. In practice, it is normal for most types of structures to treat this as an equivalent static load. Therefore, starting from the basic speed for the geographical location under consideration, suitably corrected to allow for the effects of factors such as topography, ground roughness and length of exposure to the wind, a dynamic pressure is determined. This is then converted into a force on the surface of the structure using pressure or force coefficients, which depend on the buildings shape. In BS 6399: Part 2, for all structures less than 100 m in height and where the wind loading can be represented by equivalent static loads, the wind loading can be obtained by using one or a combination of the following methods: standard method uses a simplified procedure to obtain a standard effective wind speed, which is used with standard pressure coefficients to determine the wind loads, directional method in which effective wind speeds and pressure coefficients are determined to derive the wind loads for each wind direction. The outline of the procedure, for calculating wind loads, is illustrated by the flow chart given in Figure 2.2. This shows the stages of the standard method (most widely used method) as indicated by the heavily outlined boxes connected by thick lines. The stages of the directional method are shown as boxes outlined with double lines and are directly equivalent to the stages of the standard method. The wind loads should be calculated for each of the loaded areas under consideration, depending on the dimensions of the building. These may be: the structure as a whole, parts of the structure, such as walls and roofs, or individual structural components, including cladding units and their fixings. The standard method requires assessment for orthogonal load cases for wind directions normal to the faces of the building. When the building is doubly-symmetric, e.g. rectangular-plan with flat, equal-duopitch or hipped roof, the two orthogonal cases shown in Figure 2.3 are sufficient. When the building is singly-symmetric, three orthogonal cases are required. When the building is asymmetric, four orthogonal cases are required. In order to calculate the wind loads, the designer should start first with evaluating the dynamic pressure qs 0.613 Ve (2.1) where Ve is the effective wind speed (m/s), which can be calculated from Ve VsSb (2.2) where Vs is the site wind speed and Sb is the terrain and building factor.

Figure 2.2. Flow chart illustrating outline procedure for the determination of the wind loads (according to BS 6399: Part 2) The terrain and building factor Sb is determined directly from Table 4 of BS 6399: Part 2 depending on the effective height of the building and the closest distance to the sea. The site wind speed Vs is calculated by Vs VbSa SdSsSp (2.3) where Vb is the basic wind speed, Sa is the altitude factor, Sd is the directional factor, Ss is the seasonal factor and Sp is the probability factor. The basic wind speed Vb can be estimated from the geographical variation given in Figure 6 of BS 6399: Part 2. The altitude factor Sa depends on whether topography is considered to be significant or not, as indicated in Figure 7 of BS 6399: Part 2. When topography is not considered significant, by considering s , the site altitude (in meters above mean sea level), Sa should be calculated from Sa = 1+ 0.001 s. (2.4) The directional factor Sd is utilised to adjust the basic wind speed to produce wind speeds with the same risk of being exceeded in any wind direction. Table 3 of BS 6399: Part 2 gives the appropriate values of Sd . Generally, when the orientation of the building is unknown, the value of Sd may be taken as 1. The seasonal factor Ss is employed to reduce the basic wind speed for buildings, Which are expected to be exposed to the wind for specific subannual periods. Basically, for permanent buildings and buildings exposed to the wind for a continuous period of more than 6 months a value of 1 should be used for Ss. The probability factor Sp is used to change the risk of the basic wind speed being exceeded from the standard value annually, or in the stated subannual period if Ss is also used. For normal design applications, Sp may take a value of 1. The second step of calculating the wind loads is evaluating the net surface pressure p is p pe pi (2.5) where pe and pi are the external and internal pressures acting on the surfaces of a building respectively. The external pressure pe is pe qsCpeCa , (2.6) while the internal surface-pressure pi is evaluated by

pi qsCpiCa (2.7) where Ca is the size effect factor, Cpe is the external pressure coefficient and Cpi is the internal pressure coefficient. Values of pressure coefficient Cpe and Cpi for walls (windward and leeward faces) are given in Table 5 of BS 6399: Part 2 according to the proportional dimensions of the building as shown in Figure 2.3 and Figure 2.4. In these figures, the building surfaces are divided into different zones (A, B, C, and D). Each of these zone has a different value of Cpe and Cpi as given in Table 5 of BS 6399: Part 2. Values of size effect factor Ca are given in Figure 4 of BS 6399: Part 2 in which the diagonal dimension (a) of the largest diagonal area to the building category is considered. The category of the building depends on the effective height of the building and the closest distance between the building and the sea. Ca takes values between 0.5 and 1.0. The third step of calculating the wind loads is to determine the value of the load P using P pA . (2.8) Alternatively, the load P can be to compute by P 0.85 (Pf

Pr ) (1

Cr )

(2.9)

where Pf is the summation horizontal component of the surface loads acting on the windward-facing walls and roofs, Pr is the summation of horizontal component of the surface loads acting on the leeward-facing walls and roofs and Cr is the dynamic augmentation factor which determined depending on the reference height of the building Hr . The factor 0.85 accounts for the non-simultaneous action between faces.

(a) Load cases: wind on long face and wind on short face

(b) key to pressure coefficient zones Figure 2.3. Key to wall and flat roof pressure data

Figure 2.4. Key to wall pressure for irregular flush faces (taken from BS 5950)