National Art Education Association

Art History Inquiry Methods: Three Options for Art Education Practice Author(s): Jacqueline Chanda Reviewed work(s): Source: Art Education, Vol. 51, No. 5, Critical Lenses (Sep., 1998), pp. 17-24 Published by: National Art Education Association Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/3193717 . Accessed: 20/10/2012 09:38
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connectedwith andthinkingaboutart.Eachdiscipline to teaching,learning, approach the studyofthe visualarts-production,criticism, aesthetics,andhistoryof art-offers a numberof modes of inquiry. The historyof art,in particular, different provides

andmindsets, and thatenablehistorians to questiontraditional diversemodesof inquiry assumptions These samemodes of inquiry canofferarteducato new issues andproblems. openunderstandings torsnewwaysof thinkingabout,lookingat,andanalyzing pictorial phenomena.

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have modesofinquiry Arthistorical the sameovertime.Each notremained viewofartandhistory generation's outlook theprevailing determines on, inthevisual andinterests andproblems & arts(Antal, 1949; Holly, Bryson, in of The mode inquiry Moxey,1994). examfor the 16thand17thcenturies, theartist biography. ple,emphasized wasinitiated Thisapproach by Giorgio artist andwriter. anItalian-born Vasari,
In his book, TheLivesof thePainters, firstpublished andArchitects, Sculptors,

ofwellhe wrotebiographies in 1550, artists from the 14thto the 16th known The 18thcencenturies 1963). (Vasari, ofcultural art turysawthe development withtheworksof in Germany history Winckelmann Winckelmann. Johann wasthefirstto putthewordsartand a andthusformulated history together, whichexamined the historical process of anddownfall process, change, origin, a cultural context. The 19th artwithin sawthe emergence ofaesthetic century Formalist art andformalist approaches. anart-for-art's-sake followed history andemphasized doctrine gathering ofthe fromthecloseexamination data ofcontextuworkofartto the exclusion Thegoalof information. alorextrinsic wasto determine the thisapproach of chronology stylecycles(Antal, sawan Theearly20thcentury 1949). on style,andpsyemphasis formalism, modes of as choanalysis primary Formal and stylistic analysis inquiry. the excluded naturalistic standards, and cultural context (Ferie, cycle, Onceagain, livesofindividual 1995). aswellas artists becameimportant, to stylesandmovetheircontributions ments,determined bypsychoanalysis

mental theunconscious whichstudied the artist. of processes of avariety century, Bythemid-20th iconolomethods suchas iconography, hadbeen gy, andsocialarthistory the systematIconography, developed. ofsubject ic studyandidentification to style,hadalways matter as oppose ofart(Femie, beenusedinthehistory a Erwin However, 1995). Panofsky, a German-born arthistorian, brought ananewdimension to iconography by it andcorrelating lyzingit theoretically withhumanist ideaswhichpostulate thatworksofartcommunicate meaning andsocieties. about artists, cultures, Thiscombination iconology, produced via ofsubject-matter theinterpretation andhiscultural the studyofthebroad arthistory, an torical context. Social therelawhichemphasized approach oftheworkofartto socialand tionship from economic histories, developed inthe Marx theories ofKarl prominent workof Itwasthe seminal 19thcentury.
ArnoldHauser,TheSocialHistory ofArt

derived fim e sx..e oia tatomy - teten ofanobje- sii-po

and (d) feivd froma femalai ve (Minor,

lite Eventh6oug 1994). approaches arecalled"new," theyarenothistoricalsuch for,in otherdisciplines ly recent have as literature andhistory, they beeninuse sincethelate19thandeary T h howe w 20thcenturies. to arthistory becausetheybeginwith Theartistic different notions about art. buta is no the solution product longer to be historical andideological problem studied(Rees&Borzello, 1986). from learnCanarteducators benefit arthistorical modesof ingabout AddisandErickson (1993) inquiry?
roaches and agree tha l ?smetho aog -s 'ti`s-:ory can

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a iwould like to ed i.t ItnI-ar w: exire MIVeeiEe Tove-mentio. Ktir ^lrzricesses-iconology,

theideasofthe thatbrought (1951), ofarttotheforefront. sociology Inthelatter ofthe20thcentury, part "new arthistories" beganto develop Thenewart 1986). (Rees&Borzello, a commithistories emphasize stronger mentto studying cultural thebroader context ofworksofartfroma moretheA number ofdifferent oretical position. as reachave approaches developed tionsto formalism, connoisseurship, viewoficonography. anda simplistic Theseinclude: (a)deconstructionism orpoststructuralism, anapproach that and fixed interpretations challenges of deniesthegeniusandcontribution the theindividual artist; (b)semiotics, studyofhowsignsystemsproduce social andserveparticular meaning functions; (c) structuralism, meaning

iart historyaa iconlCeg to develop cane-e -:i5 tI:ors interesi andrelevant pedagogical the studyofart. :wr approacM Thethreeaoaches, eventhough notalla part ofthei":ne:w st:i e--" speakto someoftheissuesthatconcern"new arthistorians." Older methodslikeiconography andiconology, for to are and connected example, speak withthemorecontemporary concerns ofsemiology (Femie,1995; Holly,1984; Social arthistory 1989). Preziosi, intheformof"visual reemerges today the culture," studyofartintermsof socialuse andideologies(Heller, 1997).

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THREE ART HISTORY METHODS ANDICONOGRAPHY ICONOLOGY is Iconology usuallygrouped underthe generalheading of iconography.Manyhistoriansof artwill discuss iconographyin the same breath as iconology (Femie, 1995).Or, ignore iconologyaltogether(Preziosi, 1996;Roskill,1989).Kleinbauer as inquiry (1987)defines iconography into the contentof the visualarts, while Femie (1995)defines it as the studyof meanings of images. accordingto Panofsky Iconography, (1955),is the naturaland conventional meaningof objectsin a work of art. It is "adescriptionand classificationof images much as ethnographyis a descriptionand classificationof

denotes something descriptivewhile is derivedfromlogos,havingto "logy" do with thinkingand drawinginferences and conclusionsfromfacts. The iconographic/iconological inquiryrequiresthree steps. The first, entailsthe identifipre-iconographic, cationof the objects,motifs,and subject matterpresentin a work of art. The identification should be done throughpersonalinsights and imagination.If,however,personalexperience does not allowus to recognize the objectencountered,we must widen the range of ourpractical experience by consultingsources thatwill enable us to identifythe object.For example,in the paintingGiovanni Arnolfiniand His Brideby JanVan Eyck (Figure1), our personalexperi-

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humanraces"(Panofsky,1955,p. 31). on the otherhand,relates Iconology, of to the discoveryandinterpretation possible underlyingphilosophical ideas inherentin the compositions, forms,motifs,images, stories, and allegoriespresentin the work of art. Panofskygoes furtherto differentiate the two by consideringtheir suffixes and "logy." "Graphy" "graphy"

ence helps us identifythe objectat the feet of the womanas a dog. However, if we were froma countrywhere dogs were not prevalent, we might have to this that verify objecttrulyrepresents a dog by comparingit with objectsof the same sort foundin otherpaintings or with documentsthatdescribe and name the object. The second step is the iconographof conic analysis,the identification ventionalmeanings of the subject matterderivedfromtexts andhistorical and culturalcontext.An iconographicanalysisrequires,according

to Panofsky,knowledgeof literary sources, themes, and concepts that appearin other artworks of the same time andplace. Returning to the dog in the portrayed paintingby JanVan what Eyck, meaningcan we attribute to the dog in this painting? This analysis wouldrequireconsultingother works of artthathave dogs in the foregroundand determining-based on writtensources or oraltradition-the meaningof the dog in that society at thatparticular time. In the case of and His Bride,a GiovanniArnolfini numberof meaningshave come to light.Accordingto Panofsky(1934), the dog may representthe concept of marital fidelity.Seidel (1993)indicates thatthe dog representsmore preciselythe fidelityof the wife to the husband,for "themedievalwife,like the dog....was expected to lick the handthat smote her"(p. 124). The thirdandfinalstep, iconology, is the interpretation of underlying philosophicalideas expressed throughthe composition,motifs, images, stories, or allegoriesfound duringthe iconographicstage. It is found the synthesis of the information in the previoustwo steps. Based on iconologicalstudies conductedby Panofsky(1934),Bedaux (1986)and Seidel (1993)we get a sense of the possible underlyingphilosophiesrelative to marriagein 15th-century Flandersas revealedin JanVan and His Eyck'sGiovanniArnolfini Bride.In Panofsky'sinterpretation, marriagewas a sacrament,a means of grace;for Bedaux,it was a ritualized domestic act thatfollowedthe laws of the church;andfor Seidel,it was an economicventurebetween two families.

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H: 197/16" New ofKing "Bom Bosh." c. 17th York. Museum, Wood, Zaire, (49.cm). Brooklyn Ndop century,

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CLASSROOM APPLICATIONS ICONOGRAPHY ANDICONOLOGY The pedagogythatwill be described in the followingsection has been developed fromold andnew arthistory inquiryprocesses. The instructional strategiesmay not look like arthistory as we have knownit, however,they typ ifythe arthistoricalprocess and can enrichthe waywe studyworks of art. How could teachers use the iconographicapproachin the classroom? Panofsky(1955)has provideda frameworkfor studyingworks of artthatcan be used with most childrenbeyond first grade. Childrencould startwith the pre-iconographic step, developingan inventoryof a work of artby identifying andlisting all the objectsfoundin the work.They couldjustifytheiridentifications by general knowledge or by comparingthe objectswith photographsof real objects,therebyverifyingor faciliThe motifs tatingtheir identifications. and objectsidentifiedcould then be categorized intogroups of attributesof a person or thing like characteristics the "S" that designates Supermanand/or symbolicicons-images that could standfor abstractideas, such as the heartshape that standsfor love. Since attributescan also be symbolic some objectsmight be mentioned twice. Once this is accomplished,childrencould begin to speculateaboutthe meanings of the attributesand icons, thus beginningthe iconographicanalysis stage. When I used this strategy with a group of second and third gradersin Columbus,Ohio,the childrenidentifiedthe swordfoundon a Kubastatue (fig.2)fromZaireas both and a symbol. an attribute aboutthe Studentscan brainstorm

ARTHISTORY SOCIAL Socialarthistoriansview works of artas objectsthatare connected to and conditionedby an economic base. They studyworks in light of their collective political,economic,religious,scientific, and social background. Aesthetic qualities are of minorimportance. Minor (1994)indicatesthree different approachesto a sociologicalstudy of art:the causal,the expressive,and the anecdotal.The casualapproachstates thatartexists for the benefitof a particularsocial class or economic base. Historiansof art,consequently,look at the contentof works of artand relate thatto some social event or circumstances.Whateconomic base provides the impetusfor the creationof and His Bride? GiovanniArnolfini to Seidel (1993),this paintAccording a ing represents testimonyof the numerouseconomic transactionsthat took place duringthe course of betrothalsand marriagesbetween two and wealthyfamilies,those of Arnolfini It is thus a productof the Giovanna. new bourgeois culturein Flanders (Antal,1949). The expressive method posits that works of artshould express some cul-

turalvalue or crisis. In short,artreflects social ills, problems,and triumphs. Whatsocial ill, problem,or triumphis and His depictedin GiovanniArnolfini Bride?Panofsky(1934)indicatesthata numberof lawsuitstook place during the medievalperiod"inwhich the validity of a marriagecouldbe neither provednor disprovedforwantof reliable witnesses" (p. 124).Apparently in those days a "valid marriage...wasone in which individuals freelyexchanged vows with one another,withoutconstraint,even if this act had been performedprivately, outside the church" (Seidel, 1993,p. 56). This lack of legal or ecclesiasticalevidence was conseand provoked quentlyproblematic manya maritallawsuitin the 15thcentury. The anecdotalmode drawsparallels between the social climateor mood. Historiansof artthus unveil,so to speak,the social climateor condition hidden in works of art.Froma feminist sociologicalperspective,the compositionalelements and motifsfoundin Van Eyck'spaintingparallelthe inferiorand submissive statusof women in 15thcenturyFlanders(Seidel,1993).

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oftheitemsontheirlist meanings andimagibasedontheirowninsights could nations. this,students Following to discover the opportunity be provided basedonthe interpretations probable conhistorical andcultural artwork's docucouldprepare text.Theteacher whatthe indicate thatwould mentation andiconsmighthave attributes various intheculture andsymbolized meant whichtheycame.Once andtimefrom cultural thepossible theyhavefound and ofthe attributes interpretations the coulddetermine icons,thechildren intheworkof themeorstorydepicted artandwhytheworkofartwascreatforexample, a group ed.InColumbus, ofsecondandthird analyzed graders elements onawooden the symbolic fromZaire Kuba usingthe figurine of Initially, processes iconography. ofthe meanings theydetermined For andsymbols. example, attributes wasan thatthe sword theydecided ofthekingandthatitrepreattribute the Thentheyidentified sentedpower. basedontheinterthemeofthe statue andsymofallthe attributes pretations thatthethemewas bols.Theydecided Whenaskedto synthesize kingship. theinformation theyhadgathered the andanswer fromthe discussion peoplecreate whywould question, stuonesecond-grade sucha statue, incase dentresponded, 'Well,maybe be a symbol to theydiedthiswould them." the courseof remember During werenotprothe students the study, the statue's about videdinformation & use orwhyitwasmade(Chanda 1994). Basinger, Inthe iconological stepchildren theinformation and wouldsynthesize conclusions about draw philosophical ideasexpressed bytheworkofartin timeandplace. relation to a particular couldbe askedsuchas, Questions whatdoesthisworkofarttellus about

orreligious thepolitical, economic, phiata culture ofthisparticular losophy time? Or,whatdoesthe particular of theperceptions about workreveal that during men,orchildren women, andwritten ofvisual Ananalysis time? oneorseveral data during gathered students to classsessionscanallow about worksofartinthe speculate ofthe arthistorian. manner
ARTHISTORY SOCIAL

theperspecThestudyofartfrom be would tiveofsocialarthistory orhigh moreforsecondary designed Likethesocialhistorischoolstudents. needto see would anofart,thestudent ofits theworkofartas a document timethatpossibly reflects: (a)theeconomicorsocialsystemsthatcaused theworkofarttobe created, (b)a culillustural crisisortriumphs possibly intheworkofart,or (c)the trated the socialmood between relationship orclimate orworkofart. andtheartist howthework Inorder to determine oneormoreoftheabove, ofartreflects the a student would haveto examine theworkof between interdependence artist and artandliterary evidence, socialandeconomrelationship, patron ic environment, andpractical purpose from evidence 1949). Literary (Antal, novels, newspapers, magapoetry, with zines,orletterscanbe correlated thecultural crisis, imagesto determine conditions socialmood,oreconomic thecreation of thatmayhaveinitiated theworkofart. Thereareplenty ofpast andpresent worksofartconnected I haveworked withliterary sources. withhighschoolstudents to study in order to deterworksofartvisually Thisactivity minethecontent. wasfol

a lowedbya gamewheretheymatched withthe artworks source they literary were Students hadstudied visually. athownearorfartheycame intrigued intheliterary to theevidence provided source. hasbeen Oncetherelationship a possible between established literary sourceandtheworkofart,students canbe askedto assessorspeculate mighthaveaskedan whya patron to createsuchanimage. artist canbe about thepatron Information intheformofaninterview provided to be the wheretheteacher pretends letorintheformoffictitious patron inanattic, thatreveal ters,discovered about thepatron. information the socialsetting Determining information about the meansfinding time,place,andsocialandeconomic inwhichtheworkofartwas conditions Thiskindofinformation can created. in sociology andhistory be located andteachers takean textsif students of the outside leap interdisciplinary art wallsoftraditional history. onceestablished, Thesocialsetting, information about thepracticanreveal oftheworkof art. calpurpose fordiscussion Questions might to exalta wastheworkcreated include: orclassofpeople, group particular a socialcrisis,describe a parbroadcast socialmood,ormockanimporticular Allofthe event? tantpolitical information gathered .sho!id.pojt o, t<;"h"'--'"-''.... nf backto thefom--d work. r.

CONCLUSION teachers stillfocusonthe old Many structure ofarthistory usingthemes, andchronologies; concenbiographies, onremembering names,dates, trating ordisseminating andtimeperiods; versions ofexpert oversimplified knowledge. Usingthe studyofarthistoas avenues fordeveloping rymethods fortheKandmethodologies pedagogy 12classroom canchangeourunderandenliven ournotions ofart standing Itcanalsoallow us andstuhistory. knowldentsto:(a)engagewithexpert ofview;(c) edge;(b)see many points thinkabout artandhistory differently; theuse ofcogandreinforce (d)enrich nitive processessuchas closeobservaofinformation, tion,classification ofideas,inference communication ofdata, formulamaking, interpretation or tionofhypotheses, andconfirmation ofhypotheses basedon spacedenial inorder ingeneral, timerelationships ofan to thinkandworkinthemanner arthistorian; and(e) be moreopenand basedon truths tomultiple receptive historical contexts. inquiry Through we mightbe ableto revitalize methods in arteduarthistorical understanding cation. Chanda is anAssociate Jacqueline in theDepartment Professor, ofArt TheOhioStateUniversity, Education, Columbus.

M. (1993).Arthistory Addis,S., & Erickson, of Urbana: andeducation. University IllinoisPress. on the methodof Antal,F. (1949).Remarks arthistory.TheBurlington 91, Magazine, 49-52&73-75. Bedaux,J. B. (1986).The realityof symbols: in The questionof disguisedsymbolism JanVanEyck'sArnolfini portrait. theHistory Netherlands of Quarterlyfor Art,16(1), 5-25. Bryson,N., Holly,M.A., & Moxey,K (Eds.). andinterculture: (1994).Visual Images Press of London: pretations. University New England. A (1994,April). Chanda, J., & Basinger, art.PaperpresentAfrican Understanding Art ed at the meetingof the National Texas. Education Association, Houston, andits meth Arthistory Ferie, E. (1995). A criticalanthology. London: Phaidon Press Limited. J. (1951).Thesocialhistory ofaX Hauser, (vols,1-4).NewYork: VintageBo4S. Whatarethey Heller,S. (1997,January). 102-. ARTnews, doingto arthistory? andthefogn Holly,A. H. (1984).Panofsky tionsofarthistory. Ithaca,NY:Cornm6 Press. University W. E. (Ed.).(1987).Modern Kleinbauer, per An antholoarthistory: in western spectives on the writings gy oftwentieth-century ofToronto visualarts.Toronto: University Press. Arthistory's V. H.J. (1994). Minor, history. Cliffs,NJ:Prentice-Hall. Englewood E. (1934).JanVanEyck'sArolfini Panofsky, for portrait. Burlington Magazine 64, 117-127. Connoisseurs, in thevisual E. (1955).Meaning Panofsky, of Chicago arts.Chicago: University Press. arthistory. Preziosi,D. (1989).Rethinking Press. London: YaleUniversity Rees,A. L.,& Borzello,F. (Eds). (1991).The Press. London: Camden newarthistory. is arthistory? M. (1989).What Roskill, of The University Amherst: Press. Massachusetts Seidel,L. (1993).JanVanEyck'sArnolfini portrait:Stories ofan icon.Cambridge: Press. University Cambridge G. (1963).Thelivesofthepa:s, Vasari, andarchitects (W.G; sculptors i. A.B.Hinds,Trans.).Londo: X

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