Section 1 Water o Polarity The electrical layout of a water molecule is unevenly distributed due to the deeper charge of the

he Oxygen atom. The region that the two hydrogen atoms are located has a slight positive bias. Polar refers to the dipole-dipole intermolecular forces between the slightly positive ends of one molecule to the negative end of another or the same molecule. Water shares hydrogen atoms unevenly; hence, the presence of only two hydrogen atoms leaves one side of the atom predominantly negative. In Methane hydrogen atoms are distributed evenly, hence the compound is nonpolar. Hydrogen Bond the type of attraction that holds two water molecules together. A hydrogen bond has energy comparable to that of a weak covalent bond, but is easily breakable. Attractive forces: o Cohesion the attractive force between particles of the same kind. Cohesive forces resulting from waters hydrogen bond cause water to act as if it has a skin due to surface tension. o Adhesion the attractive force between unlike substances. Water droplets, for example, stick to cobwebs and blades of grass.

v. Capillarity is the ability of a substance to draw another substance into it. c. The temperature of water does not experience any significant change until after hydrogen bonds have fallen apart. d. Temperature moderation water molecules can absorb a lot of energy before its temperature changes. Section2CarbonCompounds Organic compounds compounds containing carbon atoms that are covalently bonded to other carbon atoms and to other elements as well. Carbon Bonding o Carbons tendency to bond with itself and other elements results in an

enormous variety of organic compounds, hence the term carbonbased life form. o A single Carbon atom can form up to four covalent bonds with other atoms, as it has four valence electrons. Functional groups clusters of atoms that influence the properties of the molecules they are part of. For example, the hydroxyl group. o Alcohol an organic compound with a hydroxyl attached to one of its carbon atoms. o Because hydroxyl is polar, alcohol has the ability to form hydrogen bonds with other molecules. Large Carbon Molecules o Forms of Carbon molecules: Monomers are smaller, simpler molecules built up from Carbon. They can bond with one another to form more complex compounds. Polymers consist of repeated, linked units. They may be identical or related to each other. Macromolecules are larger, more complex polymers.

o Condensation reaction (dehydration synthesis) a chemical reaction in which two molecules combine to form one single molecule. o Hydrolysis the process by which some large molecules, such as polymers, break down. Hydrolysis is a reversal of a condensation reaction. o The addition of water to some complex molecules can cause them to break down the bonds that hold them together. Section3MoleculesOfLife Carbohydrates organic compounds composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen in a ration of about 2 hydrogen atoms to 1 oxygen. They are the most abundant of the four biomolecules. o Monosaccharides are the most basic unit of carbohydrates

(monomers). They are simple sugars. The most common monosaccharides are glucose, fructose, and galactose Glucose is the main energy source for cells. Fructose is found in fruits and is the sweetest monosaccharide. Galactose is found in milk and is usually combined with the other two.

Isomer compounds with the same molecular formula but different structural formulae.

o Disaccharide two monosaccharides combined through a condensation reaction. Sucrose is a disaccharide. o Polysaccharide a complex molecule composed of three or more monosaccharides. Glycogen is a polysaccharide. Starch and Cellulose are other polysaccharides. Animals such as cows can digest cellulose because of the presence of microscopic organisms inside.

Proteins organic compounds composed mainly of carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, and oxygen. The two types are structural proteins and enzymes. o Amino acids the monomer building blocks of proteins. There are 20 amino acids. o Dipeptide a molecule consisting of two amino acids joined by a single peptide bond. Peptide bonds form through condensation reactions. o Polypeptide short polymers formed from the linking, in a defined order, of amino acids. o Substrate a molecule upon which an enzyme acts. o Enzyme organic molecules that act as catalysts. Enzymes work by

adding pressure to bonds (twisting), reducing the amount of activation energy needed. o Proteins change shape with shifts in the environment. For example, the proteins in an egg reshape when fried. Lipids large, nonpolar organic molecules that do not dissolve in water. Lipids have a higher ratio of carbon to hydrogen atoms than carbohydrates. They store more energy than C O bonds. o Fatty acids unbranched carbon chains that make up most lipids. Fatty acids have a COOH group on one end. o Reaction to Water Hydrophilic substances are water-loving and tend to stay close to and form hydrogen bonds with water molecules. Hydrophobic substances do not interact with water and are repelled by it. Nonpolar substances, or groups, are generally hydrophobic. Saturated Fatty Acids have high melting points, and are therefore solid at room temp. Unsaturated Fatty Acids are liquid at room temp. Phospholipids have two fatty acids joined by a molecule of glycerol. 3. Wax consists of a long fatty-acid chain joined to a long alcohol chain. They are highly waterproof and can serve as structural lipids. 4. Steroids four fused carbon rings with various functional groups attached. Cholesterol is a steroid. 4. Nucleic acids very large and important complex organic molecules that store information within cells. Forms of Nucleic Acids o DNA - nucleic acid that contains the genetic instructions used in the development and functioning of all known living organisms.

o Ribonucleic Acid (RNA) stores and transfers information that is essential for the manufacturing of proteins. Nucleotides linked monomers composing both DNA and RNA. DNA and

RNA themselves are polymers. They are composed of three primary parts: o A Nitrogen-containing base, o A 5 Carbon sugar, o And a Phosphate group.