Littlejohns Chapter 2 and 3 Chapter 2 The Idea of a Theory Theories are the academic foundation of every discipline; they

ey are important because they are the means by which we codify and organize what we know (16). Theories function as guidebooks (16). Theories also help us communicate knowledge (16).

Beginning to Know Theory The book uses theory in its broadest senseany organized set of concepts, explanations, and principles of some aspect of human experience (17). All theories are abstractionsno single theory will ever reveal the whole truth or be able to totally address the subject of investigation (17). Theories are also constructionsthey represent various ways different observers see the world. Questioning a theorys usefulness, then, is wiser than questioning its truthfulness (17). Theories are intimately tied to actionthey guide how we act (18).

Basic Elements of a Theory Philosophical Assumptions: knowing the assumptions behind a theory is the first step to understanding any given theory (18). A. Epistemology the branch of philosophy that studies knowledge, or how people know what they claim to know (18). Epistemological Questions: (18-19) 1. To what extent can knowledge exist before experience? (do we have innate capacity to know?) 2. To what extent can knowledge be certain? (is knowledge absolute or relative?) 3. By what process does knowledge arise? (Four positions: rationalism, empiricism, constructivism, and social constructionism). 4. Is knowledge best conceived in parts or wholes? (holistic or analytical) 5. To what extent is knowledge explicit? (articulated or tacit) B. Ontology branch of philosophy that deals with the nature of human being. In communication, this centers on the nature of human social interaction because being is intricately intertwined with issues of communication (20).

Four issues: 1. To what extent do humans make real choices? (determinists-state that behaviour is caused by many prior conditions that determine human behaviour; pragmatists-state that people plan their behaviour to meet future goals) 2. Is human behaviour better explained through states or traits? (state view-humans are dynamic and go through numerous states in the course of a lifetime; trait view people are mostly predictable because they display more or less consistent characteristics across time) 3. Is human experience primarily individual or social? (what determines the human behaviour most: individual or society) 4. To what extent is communication contextual? (whether behaviour is governed by universal principles or depends on situational factors) C. Axiology branch of philosophy concerned with studying values. Questions: (20-21) 1. Can theory be value free? 2. To what extent does the process of inquiry itself affect what is being seen? 3. Should scholarship be designed to achieve change or to reveal knowledge without intervention? (use of theory) 4. To what extent should scholarship attempt to achieve social change? (whether to be objective or otherwise)

[two general positions: scholars who seek value-free knowledge and those which are conscious of the value-laden characteristic of theory] Concepts terms and definitions that tell us what the theorist is looking at and what is considered important (22). Explanations statements about how the variables relate to one another (22) Two Types (22): A. Causal Explanation events are connected as causal, with one variable seen as an outcome or result of the other B. Practical Explanation explains actions as goal related, with the action designed to achieve a future state Principle a guideline that enables you to interpret an event, make judgments about what is happening, and then decide how to act in the situation.

Not all theories have this element; some stop at explanations. For other theorists, however, generating principles that can be used as the basis of action in the world is the whole purpose for engaging in theoretical enterprise (23).

Theoretical Ideals Nomothetic Theory (23-26) Defined as that which that seeks universal laws Dominant in the experimental natural sciences Goal: to depict accurately how social life works Research process is well-codified (scientific method, esp. Experimentation)

Philosophical Assumptions (24): Epistemology: reality (and knowledge) is something that people discover outside themselves; objectivity is important Axiology: take a value-neutral stance; science is value-free Ontology: behaviour is determined by and responsive to biology and the environment

Concepts (25): Concepts are operationalized in traditional science Operationalism means that all variables in a hypothesis should be stated in ways that explain exactly how to observe them. Validity and Reliability (See Pernia)

Explanations: Causal they posit a linear relationship between cause and effect Causal explanations are expressed as covering laws Laws predict what will happen when a causal variable is in play

Practical Theory opposite nomothetic; designed to capture the rich differences among situations and to provide a set of understanding that lets you weigh alternative courses of action to achieve goals (26)

Five Tenets of Alternative Paradigm to Traditional Science (by Robyn Penman) 1. Action is voluntary (humans are self-motivating; you cannot predict behaviour based on outside variables). 2. Knowledge is created socially. 3. Theories are historical. They reflect the settings and times in which they are created 4. Theories affect the reality they are covering (27). 5. Theories are value-laden, never neutral. Philosophical Assumptions: Epistemology: People take an active role in creating knowledge; Knowledge is known not by discovery but from the interaction between knower and known; knowing is interpreting (27). Ontology: tend to take an actional approachindividuals create meanings Axiologically: tend to be value conscious

Concepts: Concepts are not represented as universal; people respond differently in different situations

Explanations: It tends to use practical necessity as a basis for explanation

Principles: When a theory includes principles, it is practical theory (28). Vernon Cronen: practical theory offers principles informed by engagement in the details of lived experience that facilitates joining with others to produce change (cited in Littlejohn 28).

Evaluating Communication Theory (29-31)

Theoretical scope if the theory is comprehensive in scope; To be theoretical, an explanation must go beyond a single instance to cover a range of events.

Two types of generality: (a) theory that covers a sufficiently broad domain and; (b) theory that deals with a narrow range of events but their explanations of these events apply to a large number of situation Appropriateness whether the theorys claims are consistent or appropriate to their assumptions Heuristic Value if the theory can aid discovery and can be used to generate new ideas for research Validity truth value of a theory Parsimony If two theories are equally valid, the one with the simplest logical explanation is said to be the best Openness the theory is open to other possibilities; It admits to diversity, invites dialogue with other perspectives, acknowledges its own incompleteness.

Chapter 3 Traditions of Communication Theory Robert Craig divides the world of communication theory into seven traditions: (1) the semiotic; (2) the phenomenological; (3) the cybernetic; (4) the sociopsychological; (5) the sociocultural; (6) the critical; and (7) the rhetorical (35). The Semiotic Tradition Semiotics the study of signs Key Ideas: 1. Basic concept is sign, a stimulus designating something other than itself (35) 2. The triad of meaning asserts that meaning arises from a relationship among the object (referent), the person (interpreter), and the sign (36) 3. Semiosis a relationship among a sign, an object, and a meaning (Charles Saunders Peirce). The sign represents the object in the mind of an interpreter. Variations in the Semiotic Tradition (37) A. Semantics addresses how signs relate to their referents, or what signs stand for (What does a sign represent?) - Basic tenet of semiotics: representation is always mediated

by the conscious interpretation of the person, and any interpretation of the sign will change from situation to situation B. Syntactics study of relationships among signs. Semiotics believe that signs are always understood in relation to other signs. C. Pragmatics looks at how signs make a difference in peoples lives, or the practical use and effects of signs. People can communicate if they share meanings. From semiotics, we learn that signs (outside ourselves) come to represent objects, but only through our internal perceptions and feelings (38). The Phenomenological Tradition Assumption: people actively interpret their experience and come to understand the world by personal experience with it (38). Key Ideas 1. Phenomenology features direct experience as the way in which human beings come to understand the world. 2. It uses direct experience as the basic data of reality. All you can know is what you experience. 3. Stanley Deetz summarizes three basic principles of this tradition: (a) knowledge is conscious; (b) how you relate to an object determines its meaning for you; and (c) language is the vehicle of meaning. 4. Interpretationassigning meaning to an experienceis central to this tradition (39). Variations in the Phenomenological Tradition A. Classical Phenomenology (Edmund Husserl) truth can only be ascertained through direct experience, but we must be objective in order to experience the thing as it really is (39). B. The phenomenology of perception (Maurice Merleu-Ponty) People give meanings to the world, and any phenomenological experience is necessarily a subjective one. We know things through our personal relationship with them. C. Hermeneutic Phenomenology (Martin Heidegger) also known as philosophical hermeneutics; for Heidegger, the reality of something is not known by careful analysis or reduction but by natural experience, which is created by the use of language in everyday life (39-40). The Cybernetic Tradition Cybernetics is the tradition of complex systems in which many interacting elements influence one another. Communication is understood as a system of parts that influence one another (40). Key Ideas (40-41) 1. Systems are sets of interacting components that together form something more than the sum of the parts.

2. A system takes in inputs from the environment, processes these, and creates outputs back into the environment. 3. Systems monitor, regulate, and control their outputs in order to remain stable and achieve goals. 4. One system is a part of a larger system, forming a series of levels of increasing complexity. 5. A series of feedback loops or networks exist within and among subsystems. Variations in the Cybernetic Tradition (42) 1. Basic System Theory this approach depicts systems as actual structures that can be analyzed and observed from outside. 2. Cybernetics (Norbert Wiener) the branch of system theory that focuses on feedback loops and control processes. It challenges the idea that one thing causes another in a linear fashion. 3. General Systems Theory (GST) (Ludwig von Bertalanffy) uses system principles to show how things in many different fields are similar to one another, forming a common vocabulary for communication across disciplines. 4. Second-order Cybernetics (the cybernetics of knowing by Heinz von Foerster) holds that observers can never see how a system works by standing outside the system itself because the observer is always engaged with the system observed. The Sociopsychological Tradition the science of communication Key Ideas (43) 1. It views the single human mind as the locus for processing and understanding information and generating messages, but it acknowledges the power that individuals can have over other individuals and the effects of information on the human mind. 2. The mechanisms of human information processing are beyond our awareness, but communication scientists seek to describe and discover these. Variations (44) 1. Behavioral theories that concentrate on how people actually behave in communication situations as affected by other variables such as personality traits 2. Cognitive Theory centering on patterns of thought, this branch concentrates on how individuals acquire, store, and process information in a way that lead to behavioural outputs. 3. Biological (psychobiology) Many of our traits, ways of thinking, and behaviours are wired biologically and derive not from learning or situational factors, but from inborn neurobiological influences.

The Sociocultural Tradition These theories address the ways our understandings are worked out interactively in communication (45). Key Ideas (45) 1. Interaction is the process and site in which meanings, roles, rules, and cultural values are worked out. 2. Reality is constructed by language. Knowledge is highly interpretive and constructed. 3. Interests and focus of study: (a) to understand ways in which people create realities together; (b) how meaning is created in social interaction; (c) how identities are established through interaction; and (d) how identity is negotiated from one situation to another 4. Context is crucial in understanding the forms of communication and meanings that occur. Variations (45-46) 1. Symbolic Interactionism - Herbert Marcuse and George Herbert Mead emphasized importance of participant observation in the study of communication (basic ideas are not discussed in this chapter) 2. Social Constructionism (Peter Berger and Thomas Luckmann) The identity of a thing results from how we talk about that object, the language used to capture our concepts, and the way in which social groups orient to their experience 3. Sociolinguistics study of language and culture; people use language differently in different social and cultural groups Ludwig Wittgeinsteins language game and JL Austins speech acts

4. Ethnography observation of how actual social groups come to build meaning through their linguistic and non-linguistic behaviours 5. Ethnomethodology (Harold Garfinkel) careful observations of microbehaviors in real situations. In communication, it influenced how we look at conversations. The Critical Tradition Key words: power, power relations, power structure, oppression, privilege Key Ideas (47) Three essential features: 1. It seeks to understand taken-for-granted systems, power relations, and ideologies that dominate society.

2. It is particularly interested in uncovering oppressive social conditions and power arrangements in order to promote emancipation, or a freer and more fulfilling society. 3. It makes a conscious attempt to fuse theory with action. Variations (47-50) 1. Marxism (considered as the originating branch) In communication, Marxism will assert that only when individuals are truly free to communicate can liberation occur. The dominant language defines and perpetuates the oppression of marginalized groups. 2. Frankfurt School Marxist in leanings; reliance on reason established through science, individual as the agent of change, and the discovery of taken-for-granted but knowable facets of culture 3. Postmodernism rejects elitism, Puritanism, and sterility in favour of pluralism, relativity, novelty, complexity, and contradiction. Proponents: Jean Francois Lyotard (rejection of grand narratives) and Jean Baudrillard (insistence on the separation of signs from their referents) 4. Cultural Studies Culture is worthy of investigation; it has made available for academic study a range of subjects and subcultures traditionally not deemed suitable for academic attention. 5. Poststructuralism (Jacques Derrida) postmodern; seeks to deconstruct the study of signs rather than generate a unifying theory; focuses on the instability of meaning in texts 6. Postcolonial theory (Edward Said) postmodern; study of all cultures affected by the imperial process from the moment of colonization to the present day ; seeks not simply to describe processes of colonization but to intervene with an emancipatory political stance 7. Feminist studies have examined, critiqued, challenged the assumptions about and experiences of masculinity and femininity that pervade all aspects of life to liberate women The Rhetorical Tradition The meaning of rhetoric changes through time. However, it is basically the art and practice of human communication (52). Key Ideas: (50-51) 1. Five Canons of Rhetoric: Invention (conceptualization; assigning meaning to data through interpretation), Arrangement (organizing symbols), Style (considerations involved in the presentation of symbols), Delivery (embodiment of symbols in some physical forms), and Memory (cultural memory and processes of perception)

2. It involves a rhetor, or a symbol user. Variations (51-52) 1. Classical Era concerned to define and codify the art of rhetoric. 2. Middle Ages concerned with matters of arrangement and style (for letter writing, primarily) 3. Renaissance rhetoric as philosophical art 4. Enlightenment rhetoric became the means to communicate truth once known through rational methods 5. Twentieth century rhetoric shifted from oratory to every kind of symbol use 6. Contemporary rhetoric as epistemic: as a way to know the world, not simply a way to communicate about the world 7. Postmodern rhetorics explore alternative frames outside the mainstream rhetorical traditions --end Chapter 4: The Communicator Core Questions: Who am I as a communicator? What resources enable me to communicate? How am I different from other communicators? How do other people see my behaviour? How do I change from one situation to another?

(refer to chapter map page 63) A. The Sociopsychological Tradition To understand how and why individual human beings behave the way they do What predicts how individual communicators will think and act in communication situations? The theories under this tradition focus more on the individual, the use of research methods of psychology and a goal of prediction 2 theories under this tradition: 1. TRAIT Theory a. Traitis a distinguishing quality or characteristics; an individuals consistent way of thinking, feeling and behaving across situations

common traits discussed in comm. literature: a. Conversational narcissism(narcissism means self-love) The tendency to be self-absorbed in conversation Conversational narcissists tend to want to control the flow of conversation b. Argumentativeness---the tendency to engage in conversations about conversational topics, to support your own view and to refute opposing beliefs c. Social and communicative anxiety---people afraid of communication 3 aspects: 1. Psychologicalheart rate, blushing 2. Behaviouralavoidance and self-protection 3. Cognitiveself-focus and negative thoughts; the strongest of the three aspects Social and comm.. anxiety has mostly to do with how we think about ourselves in regard to communication situations.

5 Trait Factor Models: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Neuroticism---tendency to feel negative emotions and distress Extraversion---tendency to like groups, assertive and optimistic Opennessbe reflective, have imagination Agreeablenessto like and be sympathetic Conscientiousness---to be self-disciplined

Traits, Temperament and Biology how we experience the world is very much a matter of what is happening in our brain, and is therefore largely genetically determined --- McCroskey and Beatty Temperamentally based traits are caused by activity deep in the brain. 2. Cognitive theory ( Cognition and Information Processing) a. Attribution Theory---deals with the ways people infer the causes of behaviour; this may be : i. situational causes or being affected by the environment ii. personal effects iii. ability iv. effort v. desire vi. sentiment vii. belonging viii. obligation ix. permission

b. Social Judgement Theoryfocuses on how we make judgements about statements we hear; tries to predict how you will judge a message and how this judgement will affect your own belief system social perceptionthe process by which we use anchors that are based on our own experiences or reference points ego involvement---is your sense of the personal relevance of an issue; makes a great difference on how you respond to a topic individuals judge the favourability of a message based on their own internal anchors and ego involvement

contrast effect---occurs when individuals judge a message to be farther from their point of view than it actually is assimilation effectoccurs when people judge the message to be closer to their own point of view than it actually is attitude change---is facilitated when messages fall within the latitude of acceptance Latitude of acceptance---statements you can agree with Latitude of rejection---statement that you cannot agree with Latitude of noncommittant

c. Elaboration likelihood theory Essentially a persuasion theory because it tries to predict when and how you will and you will not be persuaded by the message Explains the different ways you evaluate the message you receive Is the probability that you would evaluate a message critically Central route---where elaboration or critical thinking occurs Peripheral routewhere the lack of critical thinking occurs Critical thinking depends on ones motivation and ability B. The Cybernetic Tradition----emphasize the interrelationship among parts of system 1. Information-Integration theorycenters on the ways we accumulate and organize information about persons, objects, situations, and ideas to form attitudes or predispositions to act in a positive or negative way toward some object 2 variables that affect attitude change

a. Valence--- refers to whether information supports your belief or refutes them b. Weight---is a function of credibility A. Expectancy-Value Theory---attitudes are a function of complex combination of beliefs and evaluations Attitude change can occur from 3 sources: information can alter believability; information can change the valence of a belief; and information can add new beliefs to the attitude structure B. Theory of reasoned action----behavior results in part from intentions, a complex outcome of attitudes 2. Consistency Theories---begins with the premise that people are more comfortable with consistency than inconsistency Consistency is the primary organizing principle in cognitive processing, and attitude change can result from information that disrupts this balance. A. Theory of Cognitive Dissonance B. Theory of beliefs, attitudes and values C. Problematic integration theory C. The Sociocultural Tradition--- assumes that social relationships prefigure individual differences; while sciopsychological and cybernetic theories assume that individual differences come before social relationships

> shows how communicators come to understand themselves as unified beings w/ individual differences and how these differences are socially constructed > through interaction, we construct a unified but flexible sense of the self.

1. Symbolic interactionism and Development of Self--- is a way of thinking about the mind, self and society; sociology is the foundation of this theory SI teaches that as people interact with one another, they come to share meanings for certain terms and actions. Self is the important outcome of interaction; self is at the center of social life 2. Social Construction of self Rom Harre---the self is structured by a personal theory

 the person is publicly visible that is characterised by certain attributes and characteristics established within a culture or social group. The self is your private notion of your own unity as a person 3. Social construction of emotion Harre suggests that emotions are socially constructed because they are determined by the local language and moral orders of the culture or social group According to Averill emotions are belief systems that guides ones definition of the situation. The ability to make sense of emotions is socially constructed 4. The presentational self Erving Goffman ---everyday settings are viewed as a stage and people are actors who use performances to make an impression on an audience. Self presentation is very much a matter of impression management Performance then is not trivial, but literally defines who you are as a communicator The communicator is the presentation of the self, and any one person may have many selves, depending upon the many ways in which they present themselves
D. The Critical Tradition > highlights the importance of power relations in society in determining where you position yourself vis-a vis mainstream or marginalized society. Assumptions about identity categories: a. Members of an identity category share a similar analysis of their shared oppression b. Shared oppression supersedes all other identity categories c. Identity group members are always each others allies. Core of these assumption is the conception that identity is stable, intact and largely based on sex, race and class 1. Standpoint theory----focus on how the circumstances of an individuals life affect how that individual understands and constructs a social world. notion of layered understandings we have multiple identities that overlap to form our unique standpoints, including intersections of race, class, gender and sexuality. Also introduces the element of power to the issue of identity: marginalised individuals not only see the world in multiple standpoints---they also see it in the standpoint of those who are in power. 2. Identity as constructed and performed

 No identity exists outside the social construction of that category by the larger culture Identity is also performed according to or against the norms and expectations for that identity Identity politics is now seen as an effort to set identities in motion. They are moment-by moment performances that can change 3. Queer theory---argues that not only gender but also sex are social constructions that can and should be challenged Deliberately confronts the binary in all of its forms The focus of queer theory is on the voluntarism of identity Queerness is about process, focusing on the lines of movement across ideas, expressions, relationships, spaces, and desires that innovate different ways of being in the world. It is in the differences, the interactions and junctions where meanings dont line up perfectly that are most intriguing. Chapter 5: The Message THE SEMIOTIC TRADITION the study of the structure of language treats signs as a bridge between the world of experience and the world of experience and world of understanding 1. Symbol Theory (Susanne Langer) Langer considers symbolism to be the central concern of philosophy because it underlies all human knowing and understanding Human feeling mediated by conceptions, symbols and language Sign---is a stimulus that signals the presence of something else Symbol---is an instrument of thought; allows a person to think about something apart from its immediate presence. Meaning---is the complex relation among the symbol, the object, and the person. Meaning consists of logical and psychological aspects a. Denotation---logical relationship between the symbol and referrant b. Connotation---psychological meaning is the relationship between symbol and the person 2. Classical Foundations of Language (Ferdinand de Saussure)---sees language as a structured system representing reality ---Saussure believes that all a person knows of the world is determined by language ---Signs do not designate objects but rather constitutes them Langue---formal language (language) Parole---actual use of the language in communication (Speech)

3. Theories of nonverbal behaviour Nonverbal Codes---are clusters of behaviours that are used to convey meaning ; are analogic which means that nonverbal codes are continuous forming a spectrum or a range Iconicity---resemblance; iconic codes resemble the thing being symbolized Nonverbal codes have semantic, syntactic and pragmatic dimensions Symantics-refer to the meaning of the sign Syntactic---refers to the ways signs are organized into systems with one another Nonverbal codes enable simultaneous transmission of message with the face, the body, voice and other signals Nonverbal codes are classified into 2 types of activity used in the code: Kinesics (bodily activity) and proxemics THE SOCIO CULTURAL TRADITION---concerns about the ways in which message create connections across individuals in social groups and cultures Addresses how messages achieve social purposes and how they function in creating bonds of various types. 1. Speech Act Theory (John Searle) Is designed to help us understand how people accomplish things with their words Identifies what it takes to make a successful statement, to have an intention understood Utterance act---simple utterance or pronunciation of the words in the sentence Propositional act--- asserting something about the world Illocutionary act---fulfilling an intention, designed to have an actual effect on a persons bahavior. Prelocution---is an act in which the speaker expects the listener not only to understand the intention, but act on it. 2. Kenneth Burkes Theory of Identification There is a distinction between action and motion Action---consists of purposeful, voluntary behaviours Motionare non-purposeful, non-meaningful ones. Believes that people are symbol-creating, symbol-using and symbol-misusing animals People filter reality through a symbolic screen; reality is mediated through symbols; a person can symbolize symbols Language is always emotionally loaded. No word can be neutral, as an effect your atitudes, judgements and feelings appear in the language you use

 Language can bring us together or divide us Identification---is when symbol brings us together into a common way of understanding Division---language can also promote separation and division 3 Overlapping sources of identification: a. Material identification b. Idealistic identification c. Formal identification Identification through mustification---this explains why people from lower strata often identify with people on top of the hierarchy. 3. Language and Gender (Cheris Kramarae) Any language system has power relations embedded in it, and those who are part of the dominant linguistic system tend to have their perceptions, experiences, and modes of expression incorporated into language. Feminine Style---closely linked to craft learning THE SOCIOPSYCHOLOGICAL TRADITION---bridges the individual and the message 1. Action Assembly Theory--- examines the ways we organize knowledge within the kind and use it to form messages You form messages by using content knowledge and procedural knowledge Whenever you act, you must assemble appropriate behaviors and procedures 2. Strategy choice models a. Compliance gaining---involves trying to get other people do what you want them to do. Compliance is an exchange for something else supplied by the compliance seeker. Maxwell and Schimtts Compliance Gaining Strategies: Promising Threatening Showing expertise about positive and negative outcomes Liking Pregiving Applying aversion stimulation Calling in a debt Making moral appeals Attributing positive and negative feelings Positive and negative altercasting Seeking altruistic compliance Showing positive and negative esteem

b. Constructivism---says that individuals interpret and act according to conceptual categories of the mind; reality does not present itself in raw form but must be filtered through the persons own way of seeing things. Recognizes that constructs have social origins and are learned through interaction with other people. c. Politeness strategystates that in everyday life we design messages that protect face and achieve other goals as well (120) 3. Message design modelsimagine a more complex scenario in which communicators actually design messages that are in line with their intentions within the situation they are in. a. Planning Theory---acc. To Berger, plans are hierarchical cognitive representations of goal-directed action sequences; plans are mental images of the steps one will go through to meet a goal. b. Message Design logic----people think differently about communication and messages, and they employ different logics in deciding what say to another person in given situation. 4. Semantic meaning theory (Osgood) Deals with which the ways in which meanings are learned and how they relate to thinking and behaviour. Begins the assumption that individuals respond to stimuli in the environment forming a stimulus-response relationship S-R association is responsible for the establishment of meaning, which is an internal, mental response to stimulus. THE PHENOMENOLOGICAL TRADITION See interpretation as a conscious and careful process of understanding Basis is hermeneutics---- careful and deliberate interpretation of texts Texts are any artifacts that can be examined and interpreted. Paul Ricoeur like musical interpretation, the meaning of a text is always a pattern of the whole, never just a composite of individual elements his hermeneutic circle consists of explanation and understanding Explanation---is empirical and analytical, it accounts for events in terms of observed patterns among parts Understanding----is synthetic, accounting for events in terms of overall interpretation Agrees that an intimate interaction between text and interpreter exist The reader is always testing his interpretation by looking at features of the text to find the meaning

Stanley Fish Concerns himself with where meaning resides; denies that any meaning can be found in texts For him meaning lies entirely on the readerwhich leads to the term READER RESPONSE THEORY Fisher teaches that readers are members of interpretative communities--so meaning really resides in the interpretative community of readers. The reader always projects his or her own meaning into features of the text and only comes up with the readers meaning in the end. Hans-Georg Gadamer Teaches that individuals do not stand apart from things in order to analyze and interpret them, we interpret naturally as part of our everyday existence We cannot be human without interpreting Our experience and the world we interpret are so closely intertwined that they are virtually the same thing. Language itself prefigures all experience, the world is presented to us through language, thus communication involves a triad of two individuals and a language. Language is like a game. We play them, just as we experience life, but they come to us performed and remain intact after our particular playing is finished Chapter 6: conversation 2 major themes about conversation: 1. focused on the condition in which individuals manage uincertainty about other people 2. organization, coordination and meshing of behaviour in interactional episodes Uncertainty and Anxeity Chalres Berger's theory: 1. URT (uncertainty reduction theory) - focused on how we gain knowledge about other people - according to berger, people have a difficult time with uncertainty that they are motivated to seek information about others.

- as communicators discover similarities between them their attraction to one another goes up and their need for information goes down. - 2 kinds of uncertainty: predictive(what to expect) explanatory(why) - ways of getting information: passive strategies (observational ie. observing a person), active strategies (ie. asking others for information about the person), interactive strategies (asking the person for information) 2. AUM (anxiety management theory) - all cultures seek to reduce uncertainty but they do so in different ways: 1)high-context cultures rely on the overall situation 2)low-context cultures rely more on the explicit verbal content - the less you know and the more anxious you are, the less effective. - different individuals have different thresholds for uncertainty and anxiety. - the ideal intergroup situations then is for uncertainty and anxiety to be between your upper and lower thresholds which would lead to motivation to communicate and the adoption of uincertainty reduction strategies. Accommodation and adaption - speakers frequently adjust their behavior to one another. Accomodation theory - explains how and why we adjust our behavior to the actions of others. - communicators often seem to mimic one another's behavior. this is called Convergence - the opposite is Divergence - moving apart - Convergence - happens when seeking for approval of others. people tend to to appreciate convergence from others that is accurate, well intended, and appropriate in the situation. - Divergence - happens to accnetuate in-group identity vis-a-vis members of an out-group. sometimes too, speakers will dverge in order to affect other's behavoir in some way.

Interaction Adaptation theory - communcators have interactional synchrony(coordinated back and forth pattern)

- Interactional position or your starting point in a conversation is determined by 3 points R - requirements; your needs in the ineraction E - expectations; the pattern you predict will happen D - desires; what you want to accomplish - normally, you will reciprocate your partner's behaviour as a kind of default response - when reciprocal pattern is disrupted, it leads to a second kind of response - compensation Interpersonal deception theory - deception ivolves dircet manipulation of information, behavior and image leading the another person to fals belief - deception apprehension and suspicion come out in strategically controlled behavior. this process is called leakage. - when we are relationally close, also have a degree of familiarity between us. - truth bias make us less inclined to see deception.

Conversational Analysis - how things are done in language conversational maxims - cooperative principle (cooperating in a conversation) a. quantity maxim - how much information b. quality maxim - how truthful c. relevancy maxim - how pertinent - deception occurs by violating the maxims a. quantity - information withdrawal b. quality - lie c. relevancy - distract sequencing approach - focuses on the adjacency pair

utterance - first pair part (FPP) speech act - second pair part(SPP) - presequence is an adjacency pair whose meaning depends on another series of acts that has not yet been uttered. - insertion is an adjacency pair between two parts of another pair and is subordinate to the main pair. - expansion is an adjacency pair to include additional or subsidiary intentions. Rational Approach. - the second approach to conversational coherence assumes that conversations are practical acts that achieve goals. for this reason, such approaches are called rational. - if the squence of acts appear rational, in relation to agreed on goals, it is judged coherent. validity rules - establish the conditions necessary reason rules - adjust statements to the belief and perspective of others. - coherentist theory of meaning - communicaiton is possible only because commincators possess shared meanings. understanding is based on 3 characterisitics - intelligibility. - organization - verification Conversational Argument - Each turn must be a rational move toward bringing agreement. - requires communicators to cooperate in creating a dispute resolving episode. - to have an argument, you must put forth an opinion that you do not expect the other person to initially accept. (standpoint) confrontation stage opening stage argumentation stage concluding stage

Face negotiation theory - face referes to one's self image in the presence of others. - facework is the communcation behavior people use to build and protect their own face or threaten th face of another person. locus of facework - whether it is directed to you or another person face valence - whether it is positive or negative temporality - in the future or now - preventive facework invloves communcation designed to protect a person from feelings of threat to personal or group face. - restorative facework is deisgned to rebuild one's face after loss.

Coordinated management of meaning - CMM states that poeple interpret and act on the basis of rules. individuals first want to understand and then act on the basis of understanding - types of rules Constitutive rules are essentially rules of meaning, used by communcators to interpret regulative rules are rules of action

Language-centered perspective on culture 6 assumptions a. all comm occurs within cultural framework b. all individuals possess tacit cultural knowledge through which they communicate. c. in multicultural societies, there is a dominant linguistic ideology that in turn marginalizes other cultural group. d. members of the marginalized possess knowledge about both their culture and the dominant culture. e. cultural knowledge is both preserved and passed down. f. when cultures coexist, each influences and affects the other.

Invitational Rhetoric

- uses the idea of invitation as a conversational mode. - primary goal is the clarification of ideas among all people involved. not persuasion Conquest Rhetoric - goal is winning. Conversion Rhetoric - change other's perspective. Benevolent Rhetoric - help others - environment conducive to all parties reacheing grater understanding consists of four factors: freedom, safety, value, and openness. Chapter 7 : The Relationship CVBERNETIC Relational patterns of interaction - people define their relationship by the way in which they interact. - Patterns get established in part because any behavior is potentially communicative. - when it comes to relationships, actions speak louder than words. - if two people act on the same way, they are said to be engaging in a symmetrical relationship. - complementary relationships, two people are acting in opposing ways. - assertions can be repsonded to in 3 ways one-up - reject one-down - accept one-across - neither accept nor reject - complementary exchange happens when one asserts one-up, another, onedown. - symmetrical exchange calls for both parties to act similarly.

Relational Schemas in the Family - ways in which family members think about their families. - your relational schemas consist of your knowledge of yourself, others, and relationships you have known. - your family schema includes:

a. what you know about relationships in general b. what you know about family relationships c. what you know about your relationship wiht other members of your own family. - kinds of orientation predominant in family schema. conversation orientation conformity orientation types of families: consensual - high conversation, high conformity pluralisitc - high conversation, low conformity protective - low conversation, high conformity laissez-faire - low conersation, low conformity

Social Penetration Theory - process of increasing disclosure and intimacy within a relationship. - accdg to the theory, you get to know the person by penetrating his or her sphere - four stages of relational developement 1) orientation 2) exploratory affective exchange 3) affective exchange 4) stable exchange - social penetration is a cyclical dialectical process. SOCIOCULTURAL Bakhtin's Theory of Dialogics - Prosaic - which refers to the ordinary taken for granted familiar world. - 2 kinds of forces Centripetal (seek to impose order on apparent chaos), Centrifugal (disrupts order) - Dialogue is something that happens within a specific situation among specific participants.

- heart of dialogue is the utterance - in contrast with Monologue which is finalization when interaction becomes closed, static, dead. - "to live means to participate in dialogue"

A Dialectic Theory of Relationships - dialogical theory of relationships - relationships are defined through dialogues. - dialogue is the coming together of 2 voices in a conversation. - BAxter's 3 vantage points a. it is in dialogue that you define your relationships with others b. dialogue affords opportunity for unity within diversity. c. dialogue involves a sense of balance, of coherence, of form, of wholeness d. dialogue is discourse - 5 qualities that change as relationships develop 1. amplitude - strength of feelings 2. Salience - focus on past, present or future 3. scale - how long patterns last 4. Sequence - order of events 5. Pace/ Rythm - rapidity of events.

Communcation Privacy Management (CPM) - the central concen of this theory is the management of the tension betwen openess and privacy. - information sharing allow co-ownership of information. - co-ownership has its own set of negotiated rights and responsibilities. - risk assessment means thinking about costs and rewards of revealing the information. - Boundary rules change as circumstance change.

- partners must negotiate rules about boundary permeability(how open the information is) boundary linkage(who should know) boundary ownership (rights of the owners). PHENOMENOLOGICAL Carl Rogers - Your overall experience as a person constitutes your Phenomenal Field (Experiences). - As you mature, your field grows and a certain part becomes identified as the self. - when you feel strong and clear, you are in congruence with your self. incongruence is otherwise. - healthy relationships are characterized by (please refer to page 205 of Theories of Human Comm.) - Further, ones self is a product of a relationship and not the other way around. - in a dialogue, we come to relate to others by: 1. being present and connected 2. being congruent 3. showing positive regard 4. having empathy Martin Buber -I thou relationship is embodied in a conversation. because you are a whole person worthy of your own experiences opinions , ideas and feelings, you must stand by what is important to you at the same time, you must acknowledge the full life experiences of others and allow them to express what is important to them. -I It relationship -you think about the other person as an objetc to be labeled, manipulated, changed and maneuvered to your own benefit. Chapter 8 - The Group Chapter 8 is dedicated to group communication theories. The Sociopsyhological Tradition (216-218) 1. Interaction Process Analysis by Robert Bales (216-218)

a unified and well-developed theory of small-group communication, aiming to explain the types of messages that people exchange in groups, the ways in which these shape the roles and personalities of group members, and thereby the ways they affect the overall character of the group Bales groups the types of messages into twelve categories which are also group into 4 broader sets

Behavior Types: Behavior Type Gives information Gives opinion Gives suggestion Particular problem implied Asks for information Asks for opinion Asks for suggestion Result If ppl do not adequately share info If ppl do not share opinion If ppl fail to ask of give suggestions If the group cant come to agreement If there is insufficient dramatizing Problems of communication Problems of evaluation Problems of control Problems of decision Problems of tension

the category of dramatizing became important in this theory

Dramatizing relieving tension by telling stories and sharing experiences that may not always be related directly to the task of the group Two General Classes of Communication Behavior a. Socioemotional Behavior represented by seeming friendly, showing tension or dramatizing - the socioemotional leader worked for improved relationships in the group, concentrating on interactions in the positive and negative sectors b. Task Behavior represented by suggestions, opinions and information - the task leader facilitates and coordinates the task-related comments and directs energy towards getting the job done

An individuals positions in a group is a function of three dimensions: a. Dominant versus submissive b. Friendly versus unfriendly c. Instrumental versus emotional your behavior, or combined behaviors, determine the groups perception of you

2. Akala ko may theory pa under the Sociopsyhological Tradition, pero wala na pala. However, the books says this about Bales and his theory: Bales and his theory is no longer in the mainstream because the Cybernetic and the Sociocultural traditions are already the dominant traditions Even so, it had tremendous influence on how we think about groups Even if the theory was named interaction process analysis, it actually had little to do with interaction and processes because it is focused on an individuals behavior

The Cybernetic Tradition (218-225) it reminds us that groups are part of larger systems of interacting forces. A group gets fresh input from outside, processes this input in some way, and creates outputs or effects that influence the larger system as well as the group itself

1. Bona Fide Group Theory by Linda Putnam and Cynthia Stohl (218-219) - served as response to the critique on Bales theory which likened groups to a bottle separated off from the environment - a bona fide group is a naturally occurring group - they say all groups are part of a system - it is a perspective or way of looking at all groups (that not all groups are created artificially in labs, but are part of the environment from which it is created) Characteristics: a. Have permeable boundaries b. Interdependent with the environment Nexus the point of contact or overlap between two more groups 2,. Input-Process-Output Model (219-221)

a way of viewing or looking at groups as cybernetic systems in which information and influence come into the group (input), the group processes this information, and the results circulate back out to affect others (output)

Two types of problems encountered by the task group: a. Task obstacles the difficulties encountered by the group in tackling its assignment b. Interpersonal obstacles includes the need to make ideas clear to others, handle conflict, manage differences Assembly effect occurs when task and interpersonal work is integrated effectively Synergy a term Raymond Cartell uses to describe the energy that goes into solving task obstacle and dealing with interpersonal ones 2 kinds of Synergy: Intrinsic synergy energy devoted to interpersonal hassles Effective synergy the remaining energy available for the task 3. Fishers Interaction Analysis by B. Aubrey Fisher and Leonard Hawes (221-223) - also referred to as a human system model or the interact system model - focuses not on the acts but on the interacts Interact the act of one person followed by the act of another Classifications of Interacts: a. Content Dimension the answer b. Relationship Dimension the nonverbal manner by which the answer was made Four phases of Decision Emergence a. Orientation phases getting acquainted, clarifying and beginning to express points of view b. Conflict phase includes a great deal of dissent as attitudes are solidified and much polarizations results c. Emergence phase first inklings of cooperation begin to show d. Reinforcement phase the group decision solidifies and receives reinforcement from group members, the group unifies and stands behind its solution in this theory, the group, as it successively returns to a proposal, is seen to follow the pattern of stating the problem, discussing criteria for solution, introducing an abstract solution and moving finally to a concrete solution

the theory shows us how to better understand groups decisions by analyzing interaction, interaction being the basic process of communication that transforms inputs into outputs

4. Effective Intercultural Work Group Theory by John Oetzel (223-224) - established important variables that affect group functioning - Oetzel studies group that are culturally diverse, so he was able to determine cultural difference which he clustered into 3 areas: a. Individualism-collectivism many cultures tend to be individualists in orientation, its members thinking of themselves as independent and giving priority to their own goals over group goals b. Self-construal how members think about themselves 2 general types: independent and interdependent c. Face concerns differences in how members manage personal images Self-face ones own image Other-face involves the image of other people Mutual-face involved concerns about the relationship between self and other the more heterogeneous the group, the harder it will be to communicate effectively in terms of: a. equal participation b. consensus-based decision making c. non-dominating conflict management d. respectful communication - the degree to which a group is able to manage intercultural diversity is determined by several situational factors, including: a. a history of unresolved conflict among the cultural groups in society at large b. in-group-out-group balance, determined by the number of group members representing the different cultures c. the extent to which the groups task is cooperative or competitive d. status differences Conclusions: the Cybernetic tradition has had a clear impact on our thinking about communication in groups these theories tend to be descriptive in approach, showing how, in different ways, groups act as systems of interacting forces most of the theories in this tradition have sociocultural elements

The Sociocultural Tradition (225-233) as a group works on its task, it actually creates a structure, which in turn affects how it manages its task

the theory of structuration is a general social theory that can be applied to any number of situations (226) it has had most impact in the communication field in the areas of group and organization communication (226)

1. The Structurational Perspective by Anthony Giddens, with contributions from Donald Ellis and Marshal Scott Poole (225-230) - a general theory of social action - states that human action is a process of producing and reproducing various social systems Braided Entities term used by Donald Ellis to describe the close relation of interaction and structure we do act deliberately to accomplish our intentions but at the same time, our actions have the unintended consequences of establishing structures that affect our future actions - structuration saturates all social life, which are not limited in group situations only - these structures include power arrangements by which one group may dominate another 3 major modalities or dimensions that are involved in structuration: a. An interpretation or understanding b. a sense of morality or proper conduct c. a sense of power in action Ways by which structures can relate to one another: a. one structure can mediate another the production of one structure is accomplished by producing another b. through contradiction the production of a structure that requires the establishment of another structure that undermines the first one Marshal Scott Pooles work on Structurational theory of group decision making (with contributions from Jonelle Roth): Groups operate depending on 3 sets of variables: a. Objective task characteristics the standard attributes of the task such as the degree to which the problem comes with pre-established solutions, the clarity of the problem, the kind of expertise it requires, the extent of the impact of the problem, the number and nature of values implicit in the problem, and whether the solution is a one-shot action or will have broader policy implications b. Group task characteristics include the extent to which the group has previous experience with the problem, the extent to which an innovative solution is

required as opposed to adoption of a standard course of action, and the urgency of the decision c. Group structural characteristics include the cohesiveness, power distribution, history of conflict and group size Poole and Roths study revealed three general types of path which groups followed: a. Standard unitary sequence regular agenda b. Complex cyclic sequence problem-solution cycles c. Solution-oriented almost no problem analysis occurs here 3 Interwoven Activity Tracks elaborated in the theory: a. task-process track consists of activities that deal directly with the problem or task, including, for example, analyzing the problem, designing solutions, evaluation solutions, and getting off on tangents b. relations track involved activities that affect interpersonal relationships in the group c. topic-focus track a series of issues, topics or concerns of the group over time Breakpoint points of transition that occur from time to time, or interruptions 3 Types of Breakpoints: a. Normal breakpoints expected, natural points of termination or transition b. Delays unexpected problems that cause a pause in normal group functioning c. Disruptions consist of major disagreements and group failures

2. Functional Theory based on John Deweys work and developed by Randy Hirokawa (230-231) - view the process as an instrument by which groups make decisions, emphasizing the connection between the quality of communication and the quality of the groups output - uses the functional approach in viewing group communication - this research method may be placed under the sociopsyhological tradition but it is placed under sociocultural because of its strong kinship with the sociocultural approach which looks at how groups work - Hirokawa describes the group communication process like this: a. First, the group identifies and assesses a problem b. Second, the group gather and evaluates information about the problem

c. Third, the group generates a variety of alternative proposals for handling the problem and discusses the objectives it wished to accomplish in solving it d. Fourth, the group evaluates these objectives and alternative proposals, with the ultimate goal of reaching consensus on a course of action Factors contributing to a faulty decision: a. b. c. d. e. Improper assessment of the problem Inappropriate goals and objectives Improper assessment of positive and negative qualities Development of an inadequate information base Faulty reasoning from the information base

3. Groupthink Theory by Irving Janis (232-233) - referred to as groupthink hypothesis - this is a direct result of cohesiveness in groups which was seen as a crucial variable in group effectiveness Cohesiveness the degree of mutual interest among members - may be a good thing because it brings the members together and enhances the groups interpersonal relationships - it can also have its dangers 6 negative outcomes of groupthink (short version of page 232): a. The group limits its discussion to only a few alternatives without considering a full range of creative possibilities b. The position initially favored by most members is never restudied to seek out less obvious pitfalls. c. The group fails to reexamine those alternatives originally disfavored by the majority d. Expert opinion is not sought e. The group is so confident in its ideas that it does not consider contingency plans Symptoms that mark groupthink: a. b. c. d. e. f. g. h. Illusion of invulnerability creates an undue air of optimism Creation of a collective effort to rationalize the course of action decided on Maintenance of an unquestioned belief in its inherent morality Out-group leaders are stereotyped as evil, weak or stupid Direct pressure is exerted on members not to express counter opinions Self-censorship of disagreement Illusion of unanimity within the group Emergence of self-appointed mindguards

The answers to these problems are: a. Encourage everyone to be a critical evaluator and express reservations whenever the come up b. Do not have the leader state a preference up front c. Set up several independent and separate policymaking groups d. Divide into subgroups e. Discuss what is happening with other outside the groups f. Invite outsiders into the group to bring fresh ideas g. Assign an individual at each meeting to be devils advocate h. Spend considerable time surveying warning signals i. Hold a second-chance meeting to reconsider decisions before making them final] Conclusions: these theories emphasize the social construction of groups what they do and how this action results in something larger than individuals or even groups these theories have strong cybernetic base as well, as the consequences of action within a group create constraints or structures that further limit the group action

General conclusion for Chapter8 1. 2. 3. 4. Groups cannot be separated from the context in which they work Effective group work accomplishes tasks and builds interpersonal relationships Process and structure are intimately tied together Effective group work requires careful attention to the quality of communication, creative thinking and critical thinking

Chapter 9 - The Organization Three general defining dimensions of organization (241-242): 1. Organization structure, form and function 2. Management, control and power 3. Organization culture Metaphors for the first dimension: a. Machine an organization has parts and products b. Organism an organization is born, grows, functions and adapts to changes in the environment, and eventually dies Metaphors for the second dimension:

a. Brain organizations process information, they have intelligence, they conceptualize, and they make plans b. Political-system power is distributed, influence is exerted, and decision are made c. Culture an org has an identity because of shared values, norms, beliefs and practices The Sociopsychological Tradition (242-245) focuses on individual and group attributes or characteristics rather than communication patters due to this, the traditions is not very influential in the communication literature today

1. Webers Theory of Bureaucracy Max Weber (242-244) - part of Webers classical organizational theory - Weber defines an organization as a system of purposeful, interpersonal activity designed to coordinate individual tasks. This cannot be done without authority, specialization and regulation - Authority in an organization must be legitimate or authorized formally by the organization - According to Weber, the best way to organize rational-legal authority is by hierarchy, which is defined by regulation within the organization - In this structure, the head is elected or inherits the position, not appointed - In this structure, employees do not share ownership of the organization, as this would disrupt the flow of legitimate authority Principles of Bureaucracy a. Authority b. Specialization c. Necessity of rules 2. Likerts Four Systems Rensis Likert (244-245) - focused on the workers and their feelings and needs - most popular from the 40s to the 60s - looks at human relations as a management tool - the basic idea is that if you care for and nurture workers, employees will be more highly motivated and productive - According to Likert, an org can function at any point along a continuum of four systems: a. Exploitative-authoritative system the boss rules with an iron hand, no feedback from employees b. Benevolent-authoritative system the boss is sensitive to the needs of the worker c. Consultative system the authority figures still maintain control but seek consultation from below d. Participative management allow the worker to participate fully in decision-making

Likert says that system 4 is the best alternative because it leads to high performance and an increased sense of responsibility and motivation Likert sees communication as on intervening variable in these systems

Conclusions: the theories under this tradition are highly formal and linear

The Cybernetic Tradition (245-249) sees structure as emerging from patterns of interaction within the organization

1. Theories of Organizing by Karl Weick (245-247) - uses communication as a basis for human organizing and provide a rationale for understanding how people organize - according to this theory, organization are not structures made of positions and rules, but communication activities Act makes up the interaction that forms an organization Interact involves an act followed by a response Double interact consist of an act followed by a response and then an adjustment or follow-up by the original person (Weick believes all organizing activities are double interacts)

Organizing is an evolutionary process with 3 parts: a. Enactment we pay attention to stimuli, and we acknowledge that equivocality exists b. Selection here, organization members accept some information as relevant and reject other information c. Retention here, certain things will be saved for future use Choice Point faced by org members after retention, in which they decide first whether to reenact the environment in some way

Basic Elements of the Weick Model: a. Environment b. Equivocality c. Enactment

d. e. f. g.

Selection Retention Choice points Behavior cycles routines that enable the group to come to an understanding that clarifies thing for them h. Assembly rules guide the choice of routines used to accomplish the process being conducted 2. Network Theory (247-249) - examines patterns of action to see who communicates with whom Network social structures created by communication among individuals and groups Connectedness the basic structural idea of network theory - the idea that there are relatively stable pathways of communication among individuals Group network link between members of a group Organization network link between groups Analyzing networks: a. b. c. d. e. Analysis Analysis Analysis Analysis Analysis of of of of of dyads link between 2 individuals triads link between 3 individuals groups and its subgroups global networks networks multiplexity

Link basic unit of organizations Types of Links: a. b. c. d. e. f. Bridge a member of a group who is also a member of another group Liaison connect 2 groups but is a member of neither The Degree to which one is linked to another In-degree reflects the number of contacts other people make with you Out-degree involves the number of links you initiate with others Centrality the extent to which you are connected to everyone else

Links can be a. Direct a straight link between two ppl b. Indirect 2 ppl are connected through a third person Degrees of Separation the number of links between you and any other person

Links vary in a. frequency b. stability Qualities of Networks: a. Size sheer number b. Connectedness the ratio of actual links to possible links c. Centrality the degree to which individuals and groups are connected to just a few go-betweens d. De-centralized has more connectedness among member over-all, with no one group controlling those links Functions of Networks: a. b. c. d. e. Control information flow Bring people with common interest together Build common interpretations Enhance social influence Allow for an exchange or resources

The Sociocultural Tradition (249-261) less concerned with the network of connections among individuals and more focused on the shared meanings and interpretations that are constructed within the network and the implications of these constructions for organization life

1. Conversation and Text in the Process of Organizing Jame Taylor (250-252) - organizations are constructed in conversations - organizing is a circular process, with interaction and interpretation affecting one another - interaction leads to shared meaning which in turn shapes our interactions Conversations is the interaction or how participants behave toward one another Text what is said, the content and ideas embedded in the language used these two process cant be separated Double Translation the process by which the text is understood in terms of the text Co-orientation the idea that 2 ppl both orient to a common object and the communicators work at negotiating a coherent meaning toward the object

Surface structure the daily activities of the members within an org

Deep structure where surface structure are generated this is the grammar or structural arrangement that gives the organization its character and guides its actions a complex network of rules about the patterns of interaction that are permissible in the org, etc.

2. Structuration Theory Anthony Giddens, as applied by Marshall Scott Poole and Robert McPhee - structure is both a manifestation and a product of communication in the org 3 metaphorical sites or centers of structuration: 1. Site of conception - includes all those episodes of organization life in which people make decisions and choices that limit the site of conception 2. Site of implementation the formal codification and announcement of decisions and choices 3. Site of reception org members act in accordance with the orgs decisions

Climate also emerges from structuration has been viewed as one of the key variables affecting communication and the subsequent productivity and satisfaction of employees from Poole and McPhee, climate is the general collective description of the organization that shapes members expectations and feelings and therefore the organizations performance

Climates hierarchy of three steps: a. Concept pool the set of terms that members use to define and describe the organization b. Kernel climate a basic, highly abstract shared conception of the atmosphere of the organization c. Particular climate the groups translations of the kernel climate into more concrete terms affecting their particular part of an organization The three layers in the hierarchy are related in a linear way: a. the concepts create an understanding of what is going on in the org b. from these basic understandings, the kernel climate arises, then c. subgroups translate these general principles into specific elements of climate that in turn affect the thinking, feeling, and behavior of the individuals

Three interacting factors that enter into the development process of a climate: a. Structure of the organization itself this determines interaction and practices, etc. b. Climate-producing apparatuses mechanisms designed to affect employee perceptions and performance such as newsletters, training programs, etc. c. Member characteristics their skills and knowledge 3. Organization Control Theory Phillip Tompkins, George Cheney and team (254-257) - the theorists are interested in the ways in which ordinary communication establishes a certain amount of control over employees Forms of control: a. Simple control direct, open power b. Technical control use of machinery c. Bureaucratic involves the use of organization procedures and formal rules d. Concertive control the use of interpersonal relationships and teamwork Power can never be avoided and is always in the system, but power is not an external force. Instead, it is always created by various forms of interaction within the organization. Power, then, accomplished control, but by submitting to control, the workers themselves reinforce the same source of power In contemporary organizations, disciplinary control is best accomplished in four ways: a. b. c. d. Involves unobtrusive methods Collaboratively produced Part of social relations Based on the values that motivate organizational members

- Among many things created through interaction in organization is identity Identification process of linking oneself with others occurs when individuals become aware of their common ground (Kenneth Burke)

Identity-identification duality who we are in the organization, our identities, determine to a certain extent the identification we gorge. At the same time, our identifications shape who we are, our identities

5. Organizational Culture John Van Maanen and Stephen Barley, with stuff from Gareth Morgan, Micheal Pacanowsky, Nick ODonnell-Trujillo, Vic Turner (258-260) - emphasizes the ways people construct an organization reality - this approach looks at the meanings and values of the members - it examines the way individuals use stories, rituals, symbols, and other types of activity to produce and reproduce a set of understandings Organization culture something that is made through everyday interaction within the organization not just task work, but all kinds of communication Four domains of organizational culture: a. Ecological context the physical world including the location, the time and history, and the social context within which the organizational operates b. Differential interaction consists of networks c. Collective understanding the common ways of interpreting events, or the content of culture d. Individual domain the practices or actions of individuals Performances those very actions by which members constitute and reveal their culture to themselves and others Indicators that organizational members use to create and display their understanding of events within the organization: a. b. c. d. e. f. g. relevant constructs related vocabulary perceived facts practices or activities metaphors stories rites and rituals

Suggestive list of organization communication performances: a. ritual something that is repeated regularly 1. personal ritual 2. task ritual 3. social rituals 4. organizational rituals b. passion workers put on performances that make otherwise dull and routine duties interesting or passionate 1. storytelling most common way 2. passionate repartee consists of dramatic interactions and the use of lively language

c. sociality reinforces a common sense of propriety and makes use of social rules within the organization 1. sociability performances that create a group sense of identification and include things like joking 2. privacies sociality performances that communicate sensitivity and privacy d. organization politics create and reinforce notions of power and influence, which may include showing of personal strength, cementing allies and bargaining e. enculturation process of teaching the culture to organization members Conclusions about the Sociocultural tradition: all theories in this section focus on the outcomes of social interaction in organizations because sociocultural theories rely mostly on an interpretive approach, they are influenced y the tradition of phenomenology

The Critical Tradition (261-266) concerned with culture, but more specifically with the power relations and ideologies that arise in organizational interaction

1. Hermeneutic of Suspicion by Dennis Mumby (261-262) - Mumby wanted an attitude of questioning about and an examination of the deep structure of ideology, power and control within the organization - Hermeneutics involves the process of interpretation - Mumby says we should look for interpretations that are suspicious of the normal order within organizations - Mumby undertakes such a critical examination using the concept of hegemony from classical critical theory Hegemony (in org comm) involves relations of domination in which subordinated groups actively consent to and support belief systems and structures of power relations that do not necessarily serve indeed may work against those interests. hegemony is rarely a brute power move, but is instead a worked out set of arrangements in which stakeholder buy-in actually contributes to domination hegemony is normally considered a negative influence in the critical tradition, but Mumby suggests that we have forgotten that resistance and transformation are also involved Managerialism and Organizational Democracy by Stanley Deetz (262263) shows that contemporary organizations privilege managerial interests over the interests of identity, community, or democracy

2.

Four dimensions of domination a. Naturalization the assumption of truth on the part of powerful stakeholders b. Neutralization - or the idea that information is neutral or value free c. Legitimation the attempt of the organization to privilege one from of discourse as the voice of authority within the organization d. Socialization the ongoing process of training employees to accept and follow the moral order of the organization these process constitute a systematically distorted communication that serves the interests of managerial capitalism managerial capitalism, permeating the modern organization, aims to reproduce the organization for the ultimate survival of management itself the effect of managerialism is to inhibit emancipatory democracy, discouraging autonomy and choice the solution to this state of affairs is a constant, everyday effort to create an ideal speech situation Ideal speech situation as proposed by Jrgen Habermas, is an ideal for communication in society in which all discourses are legitimized in open dialogue Real democracy a balanced responsiveness, does not involved truing to create any kind of permanent structure, but rather enactment is the attitude of constant critique and empowerment in everyday life 3. Gender and Race in Organizational Communication from Mumby and Deetzs studies, as enhanced by feminist theorists like Angela Trethewey, Karen Ashcroft, Brenda Allen, Patricia S. Parker, Elizabeth Bell, Linda Forbes, Robin Clair - says that organizations are gendered sites dominated by hegemonic masculinity Tretheweys study on professional women: The tendency to overflow women never know when their bodies may display messages and meanings that were not intended, the majority of these unintended messages have to do with femininity Ashcroft and Allens study on organizations: said that not only are organizations fundamentally gendered but they are also fundamentally raced Implicit message about race: a. race is a separate, singular concept, of interest only to ppl of color b. race is relevant when it serves organizational interests such as creativity or productivity c. cultural/racial differences are seen as synonymous with international differences

d. racial discrimination stems from personal bias and the lack of racial minorities in the workplace e. while workplaces and workers are the norm introducing gender and race into the study of organizational communication has been an important avenue pursued by critical communication scholars

Parkers study on African American senior executives discovery: these personnel have challenges related to their identity vis--vis white male colleagues and African American co-workers and clients feminist organizational communication scholars have taken seriously Mumbys definition of hegemony as a site both of domination and resistance

Different forms of organizational resistance by women: a. they made fun of the organizational mandate that they participate in counseling, suggesting that the organization simply make a cardboard cutout of Freud to whom they could talk b. they bitched about their social workers and the organization c. they transformed client-client relationships into mentoring ones, not sanctioned by the organization these formed of resistance enable women to feel empowered about themselves and to envision alternatives to the conditions of their everyday lives

Robin Claires study on organization resistance: silence and voice exists in a complex tension, and there can be voice in silence and silence in voice her work is on the paradoxes of the voice-silence tension with the issue of sexual harassment she found that resistance and oppression are a particular kind of voice and silence complicated communication phenomena that simultaneously contain and oppose the organization in which they occur feminist scholarship has led the way in investigating the pitfalls and possibilities of organizational life its gendered and raced dimensions and the interlocking ways communication functions to preserve and oppose dominant organizational ideologies

Conclusions for Chapter 9 All theories discusses in this chapter suggest that:

1. Organizations are made through communication 2. Organizational activities function to accomplish individual and joint goals 3. In addition to achieving goals, communication activities create patterns that affect organizational life 4. Communication processes create an organizational character and culture 5. the patterns of power and control that emerge in organizational communication open possibilities and create constraints Chapter 10 Media The Semiotic tradition Jean Baudrillard and the Semiotics of Media Jean Baudrillard believes that signs have become separated from the objects they represent and that media propels this to the point where nothing is real anymore. In our society, this statement has evolved from different stages in history 1) symbolic order (feudal society) signs had a clear connection with what it signified. 2) counterfeits (Renaissance Period) signs assumed a less direct relationship to the things in life. 3) production ( Industrial revolution) objects are independent of any human use of the signifiers. 4 ) simulation ( Present Day) signs create our reality. This is why he further states that the environment now tells us what we want. It forms our tastes, our choices, preferences and needs and that our behavior is constrained by this reality created by media. The Socio-Cultural Tradition Media productions respond to social and cultural developments and in turn influence those very developments...Media fulfill a variety of functions in society, including framing and information, influencing opinion, providing entertainment, setting and agenda of issues and others. Medium Theory Media has an impact on individuals and society. Supporting statements say that predominant media at any given time will shape behavior and thought . As media change, so do the ways in which we think , manage information, and relate to one another. The book then illustrates the evolution of writing, print to electronic media and its effects on the society. Media also fulfills a variety of functions in society and illustrated in this model of communication: Who Says what in which channel to whom with what effect (Laswell). Laswell also enumerates three functions of media. 1)

surveillance provides information about the environment. 2) correlation presenting options for problems. 3) and transmission socializing and education. The Agenda-Setting Function This refers to the potential of media to structure issues for the public. Agenda setting establishes the dominant issues in the minds of the public. It occurs because the press must be selective in reporting the news. New outlets act as gatekeepers of information, make the choices on what to report and how to report it. What the public knows about the current state of affairs is largely due to media gatekeeping. Two level occurs in media setting in that there is a need to first establish the general issues that are important and then determine the aspects of the issue that are important as well. This function also occurs in three parts of a process. 1) media agenda set the priority of issues that need to be discussed in media. 2) public agenda this is the effect of the interaction between the media and the public. 3) policy agenda public agenda then affects the policy makers priorities resulting in this. There are also power centers which is also partly responsible for the establishment of public agenda through its relationship with the public. Four type include 1) high power source high power media 2) high power source low power media 3) low power source high power media 4) low power source low power media. The agenda setting function shows that there is an interaction between the media and the public and that both are influencing each other. Social Action Media Studies This basically says that media content is interpreted within the community according to meanings that are worked out socially within the group, and individuals are influenced more by their peers than by media. There are six premises of this work. 1) Meaning is not in the message itself but is produced by an interpretative process in the audience. 2) meaning of media messages and programs is not determined passively, but produced actively by audiences. 3) the meanings of media shift constantly as members approach media in different ways.

4) the meaning of a program or a message in never individually establishes, but communal. 5) the actions that determine a group's meanings of media content are done in interaction among members of the group 6) researchers join the communities they study and therefore have an ethical obligation to open about what they are studying and share what they learn in those studied. The Sociopsychological Tradition Focuses on how media affects us as persons. The Effects Tradition The early part of this century saw an emphasis on the magic bullet theory that media media was powerful in shaping public opinion and heavily influenced the individual. Then the tradition then moved on to the two-step flow of communication where the dissemination of media involves opinion leaders and followers. Eventually, the focus moved back to the powerful-effects model of media. Apart from this, there is also the limited effects theory which states that the media is not a necessary cause of audience effects, but that is mediated by other variable. In this theory, media becomes a contributing cause. However, the author states that neither the limited-effects nor the powerful effects models have a great deal of credibility. So, he moves on to explain new theories. Uses, Gratifications and Dependency The uses-and-gratifications approach focuses on the audience member rather than the message and looks at the audience member as a discriminating user of media. The audience is assumed to be active and goal-oriented and is responsible for choosing the media that meets his needs. Expectancy-value theory according to this theory, you orient yourselves by your own attitudes. Thus your attitudes toward the media is determined by your beliefs about it. The gratifications you seek from media are determined by your attitudes toward the media. Dependency Theory predicts that you depend on media information to meet certain needs and achieve certain goals. But do not depend on all media equally. Cultivation Theory This theory states that television brings about a shared way of viewing the world. He coined the term cultivation since television acts as a homogenizing agent in culture. This theory also explain the difference in the

social reality of the heavy television viewers as opposed to the light viewers. Heavy viewers will believe in the reality shown on television which is the cause of the mean-world syndrome that the real world world is a violent world and no one can be trusted. The Cybernetic Tradition Public Opinion and The Spiral of Silence People mute their opinions rather than talk about them. The spiral of silence occurs when individuals who perceive that their opinion is popular express it, whereas those who do not think otherwise remain silent. This is usually caused by the fear of isolation - an attempt to avoid being isolated from one's social group. But there are people who do not fear isolation and will freely express their opinions in public. The spiral of silence is a phenomenon involving personal and media channels of communication. The media publicize opinion, making evident which opinions predominate. Individuals express their opinions or not, depending on the dominant points of view; the media, in turn, attend to the expressed opinion, and the spiral continues. The Critical Tradition For critical theorists, media are part of the culture industry that literally creates symbols and images that can oppose marginalized groups. Branches of Critical Media Theory Classical Marxism media are seen as instruments of the dominant class and a means by which capitalists promote their profit-making interests. Media disseminate the ideology of the ruling classes in society and thereby oppress certain classes. Political -economic media theory media content is a commodity to be sold in the marketplace, and the information disseminated is controlled by what the market will bear. Frankfurt School sees media as constructing culture, places more emphasis on ideas than on material goods. Hegemonic theory the domination of a false ideology thinking over true conditions. or way of

Sociocultural approach cultural studies is interested in the cultural meanings of media products. Looks at ways media content is interpreted, including both dominant and oppositional interpretations and sees society as a field f competing ideas in a struggle among meanings.

Chapter 11 Culture and Society The Semiotic Tradition The Semiotic tradition states that since there is rarely a natural relationship between language and reality, language indeed shapes reality. One of the key differences in culture is how language is used. Linguistic Relativity Also known as Sapir-Whorf hypothesis, states that the structure of a language determines the behavior and habits of thinking in that culture. This also suggests that our thought processes and the way we see the world are shaped by grammatical structure; that reality is already embedded in the language and therefore comes preformed. Elaborated and Restricted Codes Basil Bernstein theorizes that the relationships established in a social group affect the type of speech used by the group and that people learn their place in the world by virtue of the language codes they employ ( Bernstein is especially interested in social classes and the way class systems create different types of language) . These codes can be elaborated codes and restricted codes. 1) Elaborated codes are codes that are used when perspectives are not shared; are complex; are used by speakers who value individuality; 2) Restricted codes are codes used when there is shared meaning and little need to elaborate on an idea; are simpler and have a narrower range of options. The Cybernetic Tradition Dynamic Social Impact Theory This theory imagines society as a giant communication system consisting of numerous cultural subsystems, each of which include individuals interacting with one another. DSIT seeks to explain, in system terms how shared meaning and practices develop and how cultures form. People interact with one another in social spaces, where they meet , communicate and influence with each other. Consequently, a person will be more influenced by people close to him than by people far away. But the influence effected by people will vary on various factors such as race and class. Individuals then form groups and sub-groups based on this and interactions and influence will lead to diversity and to convergence or divergence depending their shared meaning. The Diffusion of Information and Influence This basically explains how media and technologies spread through society and at what rate. There are two theories that explain this concept of

diffusion. The first one is the two-step flow theory, which hypothesizes information flows from mass media to certain opinion leaders in community, who pass information on by talking to peers.

that the

The second theory then is the diffusion of innovation which occurs when the adoption of an idea, practice, or object spreads through a social system. /this rate of adoption is determined by perceptions of the innovation's relative advantage and its compatibility with existing values and experience. The Phenomenological Tradition This is the tradition which prefers to learn about culture through personal interpretation rather than from tests, experiments and questionnaires. Hermeneutics = process of interpretation. Cultural interpretation = ethnography. Cultural Hermeneutics This involves trying to understand the actions of a group or culture and requires observing and describing the actions of a group. Clifford Gertz describes two types of descriptions. Thick description describes cultural practices from the native's point of view. Thin description refers to the mere description of a behavioral pattern with little sense of what it means to the participants themselves. Cultural hermeneutics makes use of a circle which illustrates the process of moving back and forth between specific observations and general interpretations. This hermeneutic circle involves a movement from experiencenear concepts to experience-distant ones. Experience-near concepts are those that have meaning to the members of the culture. Experience distant concepts have meaning to outsiders. This principle now becomes the core of ethnography in which it makes use of these concepts so that the researcher experiences a culture and interprets its various forms. Ethnography's best approach for research is to live the culture firsthand. The Sociocultural Tradition The theories in this tradition assume that society itself is a product of social interaction, in which small and large social structures are constructed in everyday interactions. Ethnography of Communication This is the application of ethnographic methods to the communication patterns of a group. According to Dell Hymes, cultures communicate in different ways, but all forms of communication require a shared code,

communicators who know and use the code, a channel, a setting, a message form, a topic, and an event created by the transmission of the message. Performance Ethnography Culture is performed, similar to that of theater. Cultural performance involves not only the manipulation of the body itself but also the manipulation of the various media that may be experienced by the five senses. The book further explains this by comparing the performance of culture to social dramas, in which the group works out their relationships and ideas. because Performance ethnography is significant to the field of communication communication itself is easily understood as performance.

The Critical Tradition Explains that the critical tradition arose to counteract the tendency of theories to describe the outcomes of social interaction without questioning these outcomes. Modernism Centers on ongoing oppressive social structures, which are considered real and enduring structural. This theory is based on Marxism ( the society's means of production determine the society) , the theories of the Frankfurt School ( teaches that society must be understood in terms of work, interaction and power ) and Feminism ( looks at the structure of society as a patriarchal one. Post Modernism Post modernism focuses on the idea that social realities are constantly produced, reproduced and changed through the use of language and other symbolic forms. For cultural studies theory, communication has a special role in affecting popular culture through the dissemination of information. However, the irony of media is that they present the illusion of diversity and objectivity, when in fact they are clear instruments of the dominant order. The same with Feminist cultural studies, being an application of the cultural studies theory, it suggests that power relations are constructed in social interactions of various types and that the language and symbolic forms are constantly creating categories of thought as well as social relationship. Also Critical Race Theory puts forward the idea that race is a social construct -race and racism are products of social interaction that society invents, manipulates or retires when convenient..

Post Structuralism and the Work of Michel Foucault Objected to the idea that language structures are just natural forms to be used by individuals as forms of communication. The theorists of the school of thought wanted to deconstruct' language in order to show that language can be understood, used, and constructed in a limitless number of ways. Post Colonialism Looks at how colonialism embodies a discourse of oppression. Seeks to understand the ways in which a colonial experience can be an ideology of domination