Tribology

0301-679X( 95)00097-6

International Vol. 29. No. 5, pp. 415-423, 1996 Copyright 0 1996 Elsevier Science Ltd Printed in Great Britain. All rights reserved 0301-679X/96/$15.00 +O.OO

Characteristics of wear results y pin-on-disc at te to high speeds

H. So The use of a pin-on-disc configuration for investigating the wear mechanism or behaviour of solid materials is examined carefully since the results of such configurations differ from published data and some existing theories cannot be applied to such a configuration directly. The obvious contradictions include the following. The results between the arrangements of the rotating pin and the stationary pin under the same load and speed are different. The bulk temperatures of the rubbing specimens increase with the duration of testing, which may eventually arrive at a steady state. However, before the wear condition reaches a steady state, it will have continuously varied. Moreover, the friction coefficient increases with sliding speed when the applied load on the rubbing specimens is over certain levels. All these contradictions can be reasonably explained with the accurate prediction of bulk and flash temperatures at the contact area. To this end, this paper provides a more reasonable method for the calculation of temperatures and the real and apparent contact areas. Copyright 0 1996 Elsevier Science Ltd Keywords:
friction characteristics, pin-on-disc, rotating (stationary) pin, wear,

Introduction The pin-on-disc configuration is commonly used for wear tests in laboratories because of its simple arrangement. However, some phenomena which affect the test results markedly are always overlooked. These include the fact that the bulk temperature of the pin is higher than that of the disc and that the temperature as well as the wear rate of a stationary pin forced on a rotating disc is higher than that of a rotating pin sliding on a stationary disc when the normal load is over some level. If the test is not limited to a single pass of rubbing, the pin and the disc will accumulate the rubbing heat and cause their bulk temperature to
Department of Mechanical Engineering, National Taiwan University. Taipei, Taiwan, 10617 Received 2 November 1994; revised 13 April 1995; accepted 6 June 1995

rise correspondingly, until they reach a thermal steady state. Therefore, the theoretical results for computing the flash temperature presented by Blok*,2, Jaeger3, Barbe? and Archard and for computing the mean surface temperature presented by Ashby and coworker@ cannot be directly applied to the pin-on-disc configuration for a long time test unless the bulk temperatures of the rubbing specimens are known simultaneously. A high bulk temperature at high rubbing speeds will decrease the yield strength of the material and lead to changes in the wear mechanism and the real contact configuration. Lim and Ashby noticed the rise of temperature in the pin and disc, but neglected the influence of the bulk temperature on the yield strength of the rubbing materials. Therefore, their predicted results for wear rate at higher speeds may deviate from the real wear mechanism. Based on the theory for predicting the flash temperature at contact surfaces, some investigator& presented
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Notation
A

4 CO c 1.2
F H

F K&o k
P

Qd.p
TEi TC TO
V

P
flf

apparent contact area or crosssectional area of the pin (m) real contact area (m*) circumference of the pin (m) constants (IS) normal load (N) hardness (Pa) Vickers hardness number convection heat-transfer coefficient (W/m* K) thermal conductivity (J/msK) length of the pin (m) asperity height or thickness of oxide film (m) apparent contact pressure (Pa) heat flow to disc and pin, respectively (W) room temperature (K) flash temperature mean surface temperature at apparent contact area sliding speed (m/s) wear rate (m3/m) friction coefficient flow stress (Pa)

Fig 1 Schematic diagram of pin-on-disc Left: rotating pin; right: stationary pin

configuration.

theoretical results for the friction coefficient of sliding contact at very high speed, but it can be shown that those formulae cannot be applied to the pin-on-disc configuration if the disc is made from metals of much lower melting point than that of the pin, because the whole disc is softened by frictional heat and deforms plastically over the whole contact area. Finally, the friction coefficient will increase with increasing sliding speed. Quinn pointed out that if the pin and the disc were made from any kind of steel, an oxide film might form on the rubbed area in accordance with the sliding speed. In such a condition both the wear rate and the friction coefficient would decrease correspondingly. In fact, this is not always true in many conditions. According to intensive test results conducted with a pin-on-disc configuration, this paper indicates some mechanisms of friction and wear, which are different from most published results. The present results can help to distinguish the applicability of the pin-on-disc configuration on wear tests. Experimental Wear test rig A Falex multi-specimen friction test machine was used as the wear test rig. Two arrangements of the pin and disc can be established as shown in Fig 1 in which, if the disc is mounted on the upper rotating shaft, the pin will be fixed to the lower stationary rod, and vice versu. The load is applied by means of dead weights or by an air cylinder through the stationary rod against
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the rotating specimen. The frictional torque is measured with a load cell fastened on the stationary rod. The rotating shaft is controlled by a dc servo motor to provide the sliding speeds ranging from 0.1 m/s to 10 m/s in the present tests. The load varied from 5 N to 400 N. The temperature of the pin that is mounted on the stationary rod can be measured with thermocouples welded on the pin. In the present tests two thermocouples were welded on the pin at distances of 2 mm and 6 mm from the top of the pin, respectively. The two thermo-couples give two readings for temperature, TI and T2 of the pin. In such an arrangement, the distances from the welded thermocouples to the contact surface may change at every moment as the pin is worn by rubbing action. The amount of wear is measured with a linear varied differential transformer (LVDT) and a data acquisition system. The average temperature of the rotating disc can only be measured approximately with an infrared microscope. If the disc is fixed to the stationary rod, its bulk temperature can be measured with thermocouples, while the temperature of the rotating pin can only be estimated by its colour if it is made of steel. The latter method is based on the fact that when a steel is heated to a specified high temperature and cooled in air, the surface of the steel will result in a specific colour. Comparing the colour between the pin and the sampled steel of the same type, the temperatures along the pin axis can be estimated. However, the error in temperature prediction by such a method will be within 30C. Specimens The pin specimens were made from several alloys including medium and high carbon steels, AISI 4140 Cr-Mo steel, 410 stainless steel and forging die steel. The disc specimens were made from medium and high
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so

carbon steels, AISI 4340 Ni-Cr-Mo steel, 410 stainless steel and 6061 aluminium alloy. The dimensions of the pins were 4.75 mm diameter and 15 mm length, and those of the disc were 55.5 mm or 31.78 mm diameter and 10.88 mm thick. The distance between the centres of the pin and the shaft was 23.4 mm or 11.85 mm. The hardness numbers of the specimens used in present tests are listed in Table 1. Test procedures The experiments were carried out at nominal sliding speeds ranging from 0.2 m/s to 8 m/s. The loads ranged from 9.8 to 392 N to yield an apparent contact pressure ranging from 0.55 to 22 MPa. The duration of each test depended upon the rubbing materials, the speed and the load. Each test was conducted as long as the thermal condition or the wear rate reached a steady state condition, unless the wear rate was too high either causing the pin to be shortened too fast or to making the rubbed track on the disc wear too deep; in such situations, the test was terminated. Temperature calculation

150-

To

10

20

30

40

50

60

Timefmin) Fig 2 Variation in temperature of the specimens with rubbing time for a 6061 aluminium alloy disc sliding on a die steel pin at 1 mls and 2.2 MPa. T,,: temperature at apparent contact area of the pin; Td: mean surface temperature of disc; T,, T2: measured temperature on the pin

According to Archard, the greater part of frictional heat is supplied to the moving specimen at high sliding speeds. This is not true in the pin-on-disc configuration while the pin is rotating, because the bulk temperature of the disc is much lower than that of the pin, and most of the frictional heat will be supplied to the stationary disc. On the other hand, by measurement of temperatures at the stationary pin and the rotating disc, both temperatures increase with increasing rubbing time (Fig 2), where To is the temperature at the apparent contact surface of the pin computed with the method described later. The temperature of the stationary pin is always higher than that of the rotating disc. Moreover, the mean temperature at the apparent contact surface is found to be different from that predicted by Ashby et al. 6,7. The discrepancy is caused by the different bulk temperatures of the pin and the disc, which Ashby et al. did not take into consideration. A modified calculation of the mean surface temperature at the apparent contact area is proposed as follows. If a natural convection condition is assumed for the stationary pin, the heat conducted away from the clamped end of the pin dominates that convected by

the air. Moreover, the diameter of the pin is less than its length. Therefore, one-dimensional heat conduction is assumed. From heat conduction in a one-dimensional condition, the energy balance between any two crosssections of area A separated by a small axial distance dx of a cylinder is given as:
$ i KA ; i - h&(T - T,) = 0

(1)

where K is the thermal conductivity of the pin material, h the convection heat-transfer coefficient, C, is the circumference of the pin, and T, is room temperature. If the thermal conductivity and convection heattransfer coefficient are assumed to be constant and equal to the average values, respectively, the general solution for Eq. (1) is
T = T, + C, exp(mx)

+ Cz exp( -mx)

(2)

where
(3)

If the temperatures at any two positions of the pin, T, and T,, are measured, the constants C, and C2 can

Table 1 Hardness

of the alloys used in the present

High carbon steel 410 stainless steel 160

tests
4140 steel 4340 steel Die steel 6061 aluminium

Medium carbon steel

Vickers hardness number (4)

160 annealed 560 quenched

210 annealed 800 quenched

970

750

600

100

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be obtained and the temperature pin can be determined as well. The convection mated as: heat-transfer

at any point on the coefficient is approxi-

(4)
if the pin is stationary. The mean temperature TO is found to be:
T,, = T, + C1 + C,

at the apparent contact area,

(5)
I

The heat flow Q,, transferred to the pin is:

Q,, = K AmC2 - K AmC, (6)

015

1.k

P (MW Fig 3 Computed results for temperature of rubbing pairs made from medium carbon steel at a constant sliding speed of 4 mls against different apparent contact pressure p, MPa. T,: flash temperature based on the hardness of the rubbed material at the required temperature T,; TL: flash temperature based on hardness at room temperature

The flash temperature T, at the real contact area A, can be obtained by the energy balance in the contact zone of the pin and is: T, = To + !@E (7) KOA, where KO is the thermal conductivity of the material in the contact area or of the oxide film; Ii is the average height of surface asperities or the thickness of the oxide film. If oxide film can hardly be found on the contact surface of the pin, I, is given by the mean peak-to-valley height, R,(DIN), measured with a profiling type proficorder. The real contact area is difficult to determine12, but the usual calculation can be employed as follows. A, = -F
H

Temperature

of the disc

(8)

where F is the normal load, and H is the smaller of the hardness numbers of the two contacting specimens at the flash temperature. H can be replaced by the value of 3~7r,, where af is the flow stress of the specimen at the flash temperature. Therefore:
Tc = To + -%Q F K. I p

To determine T,, one should assume a value for T, at first, then, obtain H at the assumed T, from the published data elsewhere13*14, and compute the result on the right-hand-side of Eq. (9). If the computed result is equal to the assumed T,, then T, is the required flash temperature. Although the shear strain rate on the real contact asperities may be very high, it has little effect on the flow stress of the material under compression because of the anisotropic behaviour in plastic deformation. This is because the planes that suffer frictional shearing are different from the planes that are subjected to maximum shear stress due to normal compression. However, for more accurate calculation, the normal load F can be replaced by the resultant load obtained from the normal and frictional forces. Figure 3 indicates typical results for the flash temperature computed with Eq. (9). The flash temperatures based on the hardness at room temperature are also shown for comparison.
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The bulk temperature of the disc is always neglected by many investigators, but this temperature does affect the rate and mechanism of wear of the rubbing bodies. Figure 4a indicates the wear loss of the discs made of 410 stainless steel sliding on a stationary pin made of die steel. One of the discs was cooled by a water jacket, while the other experienced natural heat transfer, and all other conditions were the same in the tests. As the temperature rose to a certain level in the latter condition (Fig 4b), the wear rate of the disc increased suddenly. Although the wear rate in the cooled condition was quite steady, the wear loss was heavier. This was caused by the lower contact temperature in the water-jacket-cooled condition, which inhibited the pin from forming oxides. In the natural heat-transfer case, as the temperature of the disc rose the disc was softened, allowing heavier wear loss. Because of sharing the same interface, the flash temperature of the rubbing bodies should be the same, while the mean surface temperature at the apparent contact area of the two contacting bodies may be different from each other and should be computed separately. The temperature at any position on the rubbing track but outside the current apparent contact area of the disc will be much lower than the mean temperature inside the current contact zone. The mean surface temperature at the current apparent contact area is:

Qci=Hv-Qp-Q (10) where Qd is the heat flow supplied to the disc, Q is the rate of energy for creating new surfaces and for accelerating the debris. But Q is difficult to determine and is therefore neglected. Neglecting Q causes the computed result for the flash and mean surface
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1000

Slide Distance (m)

600

when the speed of the pin is higher than 0.2 m/s, the heat convected to the atmosphere increases with increasing speed. Consequently, the temperature of the pin and the disc is lower in the arrangement with a rotating pin than for a stationary pin. This affects the wear behaviour of the pin remarkably as shown in Fig 5, which indicates the wear appearance of a rotating pin and a stationary pin subjected to an apparent contact pressure of 5.5 MPa and at a sliding speed of 4 m/s. The stationary pin has a mushroom shape at the rubbing end. This implies that the temperature of the stationary pin was much higher than that of the rotating pin subjected to the same load and speed. The high temperature softened the stationary pin. By comparing the colours of the pin surface, the temperature distribution of a rotating pin at the end of a test can be estimated. The mean surface temperatures at the apparent contact area of some tested pins are listed in Table 2 in which the average temperatures on the rubbing track of the mating discs are also shown. Wear rate specimen
for the rubbing pair

Effect of moving
Same material

F L-J
0

If the pin and the disc are made of the same material, the amount of wear will be dominated by the pin, whichever is rotating (Fig 6). The wear of the disc is negligible.
Different
2000

materials

for the rubbing

pair

1000

Slide Distance (m)

Fig 4 (a) Comparison of wear loss between disc specimens in the conditions of water-jacket-cooled disc (+) and the natural heat-transfer (*); (b) variation of mean surface temperature at the apparent contact area of pin specimens with time in the conditions of water-jacketcooled disc (+) and natural heat-transfer (*)

temperatures to be slightly overestimated. Replacing Qr, by Qd and substituting the appropriate values for K,, I, and I-I for the disc in Eq. (9) gives the mean surface temperature To at the current apparent contact area on the disc. It is found that the temperature at any cross-section of the disc parallel to the rubbing surface only depends on the distance from the rubbing plane. The temperature is almost the same at the same crosssection. Effect of moving specimen

Hardness of the same order. If the hardness numbers of the two rubbing materials at room temperature are of the same order, the wear rate of the pin specimen will dominate that of the disc specimen, although the hardness of the pin is higher than that of the disc at room temperaature. In Fig 7 the pin and the disc were made from AISI 4140 and 4340 alloy steels and heattreated to Vickers hardness numbers of 970 and 750, respectively. It was found that the wear loss of the disc was less than one tenth that of the pin. Figure 8 shows a comparison of the wear loss of the four arrangements for the high and medium carbon steels corresponding to Table 2. In whichever arrangement all the wear loss is contributed by the pin specimen, while that of the discs is negligible. Such results are mainly caused by the much higher bulk temperature of the pins near the contact surface. High temperatures can markedly decrease the hardness of steels. Therefore, the pin specimen having a softer sub-surface results in heavier wear loss. The hardness of one specimen is much higher than that of the other. In such a condition the wear is dominated

Based on the dimensions of the pin used in the present experiments and the comparison of the convection coefficients between natural and forced convection,
Tribology

by the soft material, whether the soft material is machined to be the pin or the disc. Figures 4 and 9 indicate the wear loss of a stainless steel rubbed with a die steel whose wear loss is negligible. In Fig 9, the critical load (or the apparent pressure) for the transition from mild oxidational to severe wear is shown.
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Fig 5 Comparison of wear appearance between the rubbed surfaces of pin specimens in different arrangements. Left: stationary pin; right: rotating pin made of high carbon steel (Hv = 210) rubbed with medium carbon steel discs (Hv = 160) at 4 mls and 5.5 MPa

Table 2 Mean surface temperature fC) at apparent contact 1200 m, sliding speed 2 m/s and contact pressure 5.5 MPa Rotating HC pin on MC disc MC pin on HC disc 430 348 pin Stationary 260 250

area measured disc Stationary 750 500

at a sliding pin

distance disc

of

Rotating 340 270

Effects of sliding

speed and normal

load

30

The individual effect of sliding speed on wear rate of the rubbing pair is ambiguous in experiments subjected to a wide range of combinations of speeds and loads. It is found that when the applied load is over some level but the sliding speed keeps increasing at that constant load, the wear rate of the pin specimen will rise suddenly at some speed. Higher than such a speed the wear rate increases with increasing sliding speed. Figure 10 indicates the typical results. On the other hand, if the sliding speed is kept constant but the load varies, there is a critical load over which the wear rate of the stationary pin increases to a much higher value (Fig 11). The rapid increase in wear rate in Fig 11 is caused by the massive volume in the pin undergoing plastic deformation as shown in Fig 5. The plastic deformation is caused by a decrease in flow stress at high bulk temperatures. It is found that in many tests, if the mean temperature at the apparent contact area is higher than 400C and the apparent contact pressure is higher than 5 MPa, the wear of the pin specimens will turn to a severe condition for most steels. 420 Tribology International Volume 29 Number

25

ms E $I
b

20-

5 1522 2 3 lo s
5-

I 0.00
1.00

I Pressure (MPa)

I
2.00

I
3.00

Fig 6 Comparison of wear rates between rubbing pairs made of medium carbon steel in different arrangements at a constant sliding speed of 2 mls: (+), stationary pin; (*), rotating pin

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10 0

Sliding

distance(103m)

Fig 7 Wear loss, W of a 4140 steel pin (Hv = 970) rubbing against a 4340 steel disc (H, = 750) at 2 mls and 2.5 M-Pa

50

100

150

Slide Distance(m) Fig 9 Wear loss of stainless steel pins rubbing against die steel discs at a sliding speed of 0.8 mls and under a contact pressure of 8.3 MPa (*) and 7.74 MPa (H)

1000

;E T

100

I
I I I I

a, E 10

300

600

900

1200

1500

Slide Distance (m)

Fig 8 Comparison of wear loss between the pin specimens in four arrangements indicated in Table 2 at 2 mls and 5.5 MPa. (*), HC disc sliding on stationary MC pin; (@), MC disc sliding on stationary HC pin; (El), rotating MC pin sliding on a HC disc; (O), rotating HC pin sliding on a MC disc. MC: medium carbon steel (Hv = 160); HC: high carbon steel (H, = 210)

Speed

(m/s)

Fig 10 Variation in wear rate with rubbing speedfor a HC pin (H, = 800) under a pressure of 4.43 MPa (A) and for a stellite pin (H, = 650) under 8.85 MPa (0)

Friction coefficient
Two important results for the coefficient of friction of the rubbing pair in the pin-on-disc configuration are obtained. First, the friction coefficient in a rotating pin arrangement is lower than that for a stationary pin, when the applied load is raised to certain levels (Fig 12). Secondly, when one of the rubbing bodies has a much lower melting point than the other, the friction coefficient increases with increasing speed (Fig 13). The variation in temperature of the stationary disc with rubbing time is also shown in Fig 13. These results are different from most published results and are caused by an increase in plastic zone size near the contact area subjected to the high bulk temperature which softens the lower melting point material. The real contact area therefore increases with increasing
International Volume 29 Number 5 1996

Oxidational

effect

The ranges of sliding speeds and normal loads employed in the present tests fall into the condition of oxidational wear1r,15. Therefore, in most cases the friction as well as the wear rate is controlled by the formation of an oxide film on the rubbing surfaces, especially when the speed is high enough. However, it should be pointed out that even in a severe wear condition there are oxide films created on the rubbing surfaces, and in such a case the wear rate is not affected by the formation of oxides.
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1.75 1.50 1 f 0 I /

3mls

,2mls

OC
0

4 P (MW

Fig 11 Variation in wear rate with apparent pressure p for different materials rubbed with AISI 4340 disc. HC, high carbon steel pin (Hv = 800) at 4 m/s; DS, die steel pin, (Hv = 600) at 2 mls; ST, MC pin laser cladded with stellite (H., = 650) at 4 m/s

10

15

20

25

30

35

Time (min) 400

3503009 ; 2503mls

0.8

5 2 200t a & 150k loo-

1 mls

0 0.2

I 5

1 10

1 15

, 20

I 25

6 30

I 35

Time(min)

0.0 0 300 600 900 1200 1500

Slide Distance (m) Fig 12 Comparison offriction coefficients between rotating pin and stationary pin corresponding to Fig 8 and Table 2: (O), stationary HC pin; (*), stationary MC pin; (O), rotating HC pin; (El), rotating MC pin plastic zone size. The increases in plastic zone size and real contact area hinder the rubbing motion. Consequently, the friction coefficient increases with increasing sliding speed.

Fig 13 (a) Variation in friction coefficient with rubbing speed of die steel pin sliding on stationary discs made of 6061 aluminium alloy under a contact pressure of 2.2 MPa; (b) variation in bulk temperature of aluminium discs with the speed of die steel pin corresponding to Fig 13(a) and stationary pins. This is caused by different heat-transfer conditions occurring in the two arrangements. A more accurate prediction of flash temperature and mean surface temperature at the apparent contact area can be achieved with the calculation proposed in the paper in accordance with the measurement of temperature on the stationary pin. The increase in bulk temperatures of the rubbing bodies decreases the flow stresses of the rubbing materials to a certain extent, which results in an increase in the plastic zone size in the subsurfaces of the rubbing bodies. Consequently, the friction coefficient as well as wear rate increases with increasing sliding speed when the normal load is over certain levels.

(2)

Conclusions
Some important conclusions can be drawn in accordance with the wear tests conducted with a pin-on-disc configuration. (1) The wear mechanism, friction coefficient and bulk temperature of the rubbing bodies are different between the arrangements with rotating
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(3)

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(4)

In order to avoid ambiguity in the presented results from the pin-on-disc configuration, it is sensible to point out the arrangement for the pin and the disc, and whether a steady state condition is reached, and if not, how long the sliding distance is. Moreover, the use of a dimensionless wear rate is preferable.

5. Archard, J.F. The temperature of rubbing surfaces. Wear 19581

59, 2, 438-455

6. Ashby M.F., Abulawi J. and Kong H.S. Temperature maps for frictional heating in dry sliding. STLE Tribol. Trans. 1991, 34,
577-587

7. Lim, S.C. and Ashby M.F. Wear-mechanism maps. Acta MetaN.

1987, 35, l-24

Acknowledgements
The author wishes to thank H. M. Chen, Y. A. Chen, W. S. Jean, C. T. Chen, and C. H. Chen for their assistance in the experiments.

8. Ettles, C.M.McC. The thermal control of friction at high sliding speeds. ASME Trans. J. Tribol. 1986, 108, 98-104
9.

Marscher W.D. A critical evaluation of the flash-temperature concept. ASLE Trans. 1982, 25, 157-174

10. Lingard S. Estimation of flash temperature in dry sliding. Proc. Instn. Mech. Engrs. 1984, 198C, 8. 91-97 11. Quinn T.F.J. Review of oxidational wear, Part I: The origins of oxidational wear. Tribol. lnt. 1983, 16, 257-271 12. So H. and Liu D.C. An elastic-plastic model for the contact of anisotropic rough surfaces. Wear 1991, 146, 201-218 13. Baragar D.L. The high temperature and high strain rate behaviours of a plain carbon and an HSLA steel. J. Mech. Work. Technol. 1987, 14, 295-307 14. Lange, K. Handbook
4.1-4.18

References
1. Blok H. Surface temperature under extreme pressure lubricating conditions. Proc. Second World Petr. Cong. 1937, 3, 471-484 2. Block H. Measurement of temperature flashes on gear teeth under extreme pressure conditions. Proc. Instn. Mech. Engrs.
1937, 3. 2, 14-20

Jaeger, J.C. Moving sources of heat and the temperatures at sliding contacts. Proc. Roy. Sot. N.S.W. 1942, 26, 203-224 4. Barber, J.R. Distribution of heat between sliding surfaces. J.
Mech. Eng. Sci. 1967. 9, 351-354

of Metal Forming, McGraw-Hill, wear. Wear 1995.

1985,

15. So H. The mechanism of oxidational

161-167

184,

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