The Geology of Indonesia/The lesser Sunda Islands

< The Geology of Indonesia

The Lesser Sunda islands (LSI) are defined as a group of small islands situated between east of Java Island and Banda Islands, which are part of Western Banda Arc. Geologically, they constitute the inner outer arc built by Tertiary volcanic arc and some of the young volcanoes are still active. The arc is a south-facing island arc, which is the eastward continuation of the Sumatra-Java island arc system of Indonesia (Cardwell and Isack 1981). In terms of Plate Tectonic theory, the series of volcanoes built in the LSI is due to the subduction of Indo-Australian Oceanic crust beneath the LSI, and it is interpreted that the sources of melted magma from the subducted oceanic is about 165-190 Km depth (Hamilton 1979). The oldest rock exposed in LSI is of Miocene age. Whereas to the western part of the islands (Sunda Arc) Mesozoic sequences are common (Foden and Varne 1981, Katili 1975). This indicates that the arc is relatively young tectonic product in the Indonesian Archipelago. The systematic relationship between volcanoes, earthquake and active tectonics features at the region can give a better understanding of the present tectonics of the LSI. Although these phenomena are mainly considered due to the fact that the lithosphere of the Indian-Australian plate is being subducted beneath the Banda Arc, but the tectonic process are different from one place to other places along the subduction. These result in different type of volcanic composition and tectonic style along the arc.

Contents
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1 I. INTRODUCTION 2 II. TECTONIC SETTING 3 III. TECTONO-STRUCTURAL UNITS 4 IV. VOLCANIC ACTIVITY AND COMPOSITION 5 V. EARTHQUAKE 6 VI. CONCLUSIONS 7 BIBLIOGRAPHY

[edit]I.

INTRODUCTION

The Lesser Sunda Islands (LSI) are defined as an area situated between eastern part of Java Island and Western part of Banda Arc, consisting of group of small islands and basins (Figure 1). Physiographically, It is bounded to the west by the Java Island, to the east by the Banda arc, to the north by the Flores Sea and to the

south by Indian Ocean. Geologically, the Lesser Sunda Islands (LSI) is located in the center of Banda Arc, which were built by the young volcanoes forming geanticline. On the basis of Plate Tectonic Theory, the series of volcanoes built in the LSI is due to the subduction of Indo-Australian oceanic crust beneath the LSI, and it is interpreted that the sources of melted magma is about 165-200 km depth based on Hamiltons tectonic map (1979).

[edit]II.

TECTONIC SETTING

In terms of Plate tectonic setting the Indonesian archipelago is situated in the triple junction of the three major plates, they are the Indo-Australian, the Eurasian and the Pacific Plates (Figure 2). The interaction of the three major plates creates a complex tectonic especially in the plate boundary that is situated in Eastern Indonesia. The LSI is mainly form as a result of the subduction of the Indo-Australian plate beneath the Sunda-Banda Arc during the upper Tertiary in which this subduction formed the inner volcanic arc of the LSI. However, there are differences in relation to the chemical analyses among the volcanic rocks in the LSI. The volcanic arc in the east Sunda region, which rests directly on oceanic crust and is bounded by ocean crust on both sides, has lavas with chemical characteristics that distinguish them from lavas in the western parts of the arc (Barber et al 1981). Hamilton (1979) suggested the inner ridge is formed of upper Cenozoic calc-alkalic rocks. The volcanic rocks in the inner Banda Arc of the LSI in which the oldest known rocks are Early Miocene are found about 150 Km above the inclined zone of earthquake (Hamilton 1979, Audley-Charles 1981). The very active Benioff Zone was contoured by Hatherton and Dickinson (1989) and updated by Hamilton (1978) (Figure 3). Seismicity in the Java Sector extends to a maximum depth of about 600 Km. This indicates subduction of sub-ocean lithosphere belonging to the Australian/New Guinea Plate below the Banda Arc, and the cessation of volcanism in the Early Pliocene opposite Timor suggests collision of Timor with Alor and Wetar, after all the oceanic lithosphere had been consumed by subduction. The size of the islands of this volcanic chain gradually is getting smaller eastward from Java through Bali, Lombok, Sumbawa, Flores, Wetar to Banda. This decreasing, which is most noticeable east of Wetar, may reflect the amount of ocean floor subducted, implying either that dip-slip motions have been more important westwards from Wetar and strike-slip motions increasingly important eastwards. Alternatively, it may be that the present volcanic arc east of Wetar is younger and perhaps that the original volcanic arc east of Wetar has been overridden by the Australian continental margin (Bowin et al. 1980)

[edit]III.

TECTONO-STRUCTURAL UNITS

Based on Plate Tectonic Theory, the LSI can be divided into four tectono-structural units consisting of from north to south (Figure 4); The back arc unit which is occupied by the Flores Sea; The inner arc unit which is built by a series of volcanic island consisting of Bali, Lombok, Sumbawa, Komodo, Rinca, Flores, Adonora,

Solor, Lomblen, Pantar, Alor, Kambing and Wetar; The outer arc unit which is formed by non volcanic island of Dana, Raijua, Sawu, Roti, Semau and Timor; And the fore arc unit which is situated between the inner arc and outer arc and is part of deep basins consisting of Lombok and Savu basins. In this paper, the author will mainly discuss the geology and geophysics of the inner arc and back-arc of the LSI. Whilst the rest will be discussed somewhere in this book by another author. III. 1 BACK ARC REGION III.1.1 Introduction The back arc region of the LSI is mainly occupied by the Flores Sea which can be divided into three morphological units (van Bemmelen 1949); the NW Flores sea, The central Flores Basin, the east Flores Sea (see Figure 1). Bathymetric contours in the Flores Sea are oriented E-W (see Fig. 1). The most prominent phenomena is the symmetrical Flores Depression, where the water depth exceeds 5000 meters. Towards the volcanic arc, the continental shelf is narrow and very steep, suggesting structural control. The NW Flores Sea is the broad and shallow platform connecting the south Arm of Sulawesi and Sunda Shelf with the water depth less than 1000 m. The Central Flores Basin has a triangular form with the top of triangular pointing to the direction of the Lampobatang volcano. Whilst the east Flores Sea comprise the ridges and interjacent trough, which connect the South Arm of Sulawesi with the submarine Batu Tara Ridge in the west of South Banda Basin.

III.1.2 Back-arc thrusting In the Flores Sea, the phenomena of back-arc thrusting have attracted considerable attention and various hypotheses have been proposed to explain its initiation and driving mechanism. Silver et al. (1983) listed some of these hypotheses, including gravitational body forces as the sole mechanism, gravity spreading as a result of existing relief or injection of magma in the volcanic arc, low angle subduction resulting in back arc thrusting and collisional stress. Silver et al.(1983; 1986) considered back-arc thrusting to be a precursor of arc polarity reversal. There are two major zones in the back-arc region of the LSI where back arc thrusting occurs (Silver et al. 1986; Prasetyo and Dwiyanto 1986); one is to the north of Wetar and Alor (Wetar Thrust), the other is to the north of Flores and Sumbawa islands (Flores Thrust). Hamilton (1979) proposed that these back arc thrusts indicated subduction polarity reversal due to the difficulty of subducting the buoyant continental margin of Australia, whereas Silver et al. (1983) related the distribution of back arc thrusts to the thickness of the forearc crust. Thick forearc crust, represented by Sumba Island and Timor Island, respectively is correlated with the formation of the Flores and Wetar thrusts. III.1.3 stratigraphy and structure

Stratigraphy Silver et al. (1986) divided the outer slope and trench sediments in the Flores Basin into five recognizable seismic stratigraphic units (Fig. 5), but not all units appear on all sections. The following divisions are based on their description. The lowest reflector (B) is irregular, hummocky, and considered to be acoustic basement. It was suggested that on Line 14, at least, this basement may consist of young (Pliocene ?) lava flows, consistent with the occurrence of volcanic products on the islands of the Bonerate Group to the north. Unit 1, which immediately overlies basement, is highly reflective and very variable in thickness. On Lines 8-12 this unit can be seen clearly and may thicken westward. Above Unit 1 is a poorly reflective Unit 2 which is inferred to have been deposited under pelagic or hemipelagic conditions. Unit 3 is well layered with variable thickness and is interpreted as a turbidite deposit. Above Unit 3 is another poorly bedded hemipelagic layer that generally forms the top of the slope sequence. This unit appears on all sections and is very thick in some places, although the average thickness is nearly constant at a few hundred meters. Unit 5 consists of trench turbidites. These are present on all profiles but vary greatly in thickness and lateral extent. The stratigraphic framework in the western part of Flores Sea near the Bali Basin can be described in terms of four major units(Guntoro 1999), these being metamorphic basement, pre-rift sediments, syn-rift sediments and post rift sediments (Figure 6a and b). In some places diapiric intrusions reach up to the post rift sediments. The movement of diapirs was associated with Neogene compression, which resulted in the formation of thrust faults. Structure The structure of the western part of the Flores Sea as shown in Figure 6a and b is based on seismic refelection profile (Guntoro 1999). The interpretation indicates the presence of rift structure in the Palaeogene which later on experienced compressional tectonics in the Pliocene forming inverse structure. This seismic section can be described in terms of two major depressions (north and south), separated by the Lombok High. Structures can be recognized as due to folding, thrusting, block faulting, diapiric intrusion and igneous intrusion. The older thrust faults, extending from basement through the pre-rift sediment units, were associated with Cretaceous compression which caused uplift of the region which was followed by erosion. Normal faults, extending from basement through the syn-rift sediments, were associated with the Paleocene-Eocene extension which produced horst and graben structures. Younger thrusts, extending from basement into the post-rift sediments, were associated with the reactivation of normal faults. The timing of inversion can be deduced from flexures observed in seismic sequences identified as post Middle Miocene to Pliocene. Figure 7 shows seismic, bathymetric and gravity data obtained along the Mariana 09 line which crossed the Flores Sea from south to near Kabaena Island in the northeast, a total distance of about 400 km. The seismic profile shows that the region is dominated by series of down thrown basement blocks and magmatic activity. The Flores Ridge, the Flores Thrust, the Flores Basin, Selayar Ridge, Selayar Basin, Bone Ridge, Kabaena

Basin and Kabaena Ridge can all be identified. The sediments accumulated in several sub basins separated by oceanic topographic highs. There are two principal types of reflectors. The first is characterised by rounded, conelike structures, irregular surfaces and high morphology, can be seen in the Selayar Ridge, Bone Ridge and Kabaena Ridge. The second reflector type is sub-parallel to horizontal. In the Kabaena and Selayar basins this reflector is interpreted as indicating flat-lying sediments but in the Flores Basin, where reflectors are smoother than in the Kabaena and Selayar basins, they probably mark basaltic lava flows with thin sedimentary cover.

Summary From stratigraphic and structural point of views, it is clear that the back arc unit of the LSI have different history and evolution. The western part of the Flores Sea show similar to the basin in the Java Sea in which the history started since Mesozoikum. In contrast, the central Flores Sea indicates young basin of Pliocene age.

III.2 INNER ARC REGION III.2.1 Introduction The inner arc region of the LSI is situated on a geanticlinal ridge (van Bemmelen 1949), which has a width of about 100 km in its western end, gradually diminishing eastward to about 40 km. It consists of a row of young volcanic islands, 1400 km long, connecting the volcanic inner arc of the Banda system with the volcanic JavaSumatra arc, they are of Bali, Lombok, Sumbawa, Komodo, Rinca, Flores, Adonora, Solor, Lomblen, Pantar, Alor, Kambing and Wetar; Van Bemmelen (1949) divided this volcanic inner row into an eastern and western part. The eastern part (from Romang to Komodo) represents the volcanic inner arc of the Timor orogene. Whereas the western part (From Sumbawa to Bali) is more closely related with the Java sector of the Sunda Mountain System. III.2.2 Geology of the LSI The geology and tectonic setting of the Lombok and Sumbawa are descibed below (qf. Foden and Varne 1981b). The islands of Lombok and Sumbawa lie in the central portion of the Sunda Arc. The oldest exposed rocks are Miocene, suggesting that subduction and volcanism began considerably later than in Java and Sumatra to the west, where there are abundant volcanic and intrusive rocks of Late Mesozoic age. The islands are located on the eastern edge of the Sunda shelf, in a zone where crustal thickness is apparently rapidly diminishing, from west to east (Curray et al, 1977). The seismic velocity structure of the crust in this region is transitional between typical oceanic and continental profiles and the Moho appears to lie at about 20 km (Curray et al. 1977). These factors tend to suggest that there has been limited opportunity for crustal contamination of magmas erupted on the islands of Lombok and Sumbawa. In addition, these islands lie to the

west of those parts of the eastern-most Sunda and west Banda arcs where collision with the Australian continental plate is apparently progressing. The volcanoes considered are located between 165 and 190 km above the benioff Zone (Hamilton 1979) (see Fig. 3). Rinjani, Tambora and Sangeang Api Volcanoes are still active, while Sangenges and Soromundi are eroded cones of Quaternary age (Sudrajat 1975). There is a marked offset in the line of active volcanoes between the most easterly Sumbawa Volcano (Sangeang Api) and the line of active volcano in the Flores. This suggests that a major transcurrent fault cut across the arc between Sumbawa Island and Flores. AudleyCharles (1975) considered that this feature represented a major tectonic discontinuity between the east and west Sunda Arcs (the Sumba Fracture). Further, Hedervari (1978) and Ritsema (1954) found a market absence of shallow and intermediate earthquake activity in the region to the south of Lombok and Sumbawa, a feature they interpreted to represent a marked break in the Sunda Arc Zone. Faulting and folding caused strong deformation in the eastern part of Lombok Basin and is characterized by block faulting, shale diapirs and mud volcano (Prasetyo 1992). Abbot and Chamalaun (1978) suggested that Wetar formed island as part of island arc by the Late Miocene and great uplift occurred during Plio-Pleistocene.

III.2.3 Stratigraphy The stratigraphy of the inner arc region of the LSI can be seen in Tables 1 and 2 (Suwarno and Noya 1985). The following stratigraphy description is quoted from these authors. The oldest rock exposed is Early Miocene volcanic rocks consisting of andesitic-basaltic breccia volcanic unit deposited in the marine environment. This unit is interfingering with tuffaceous sandstone unit (occur in Ruteng, Ende, Lomblen and Sumbawa islands) and limestone unit (occur in Komodo and Sumbawa), both units are also interfingering. Conformably, but in some other areas are unconformable, overlying the Early Miocene volcanic rocks is the reef unit (occur in Bali, Lombok, Sumbawa, Komodo, Ruteng) and lava dacitic unit (occur in Lombok, Komodo, Ruteng, Alor & Wetar Barat). Reef unit and lava dacitic units are interfingering with upper part of tufaceous sandstone (in Bali). Late Middle Miocene basaltic-granitic dykes intruded all rock units above. Unconformably overlain tufaceous sandstone unit, reef unit, and dacitic lava are andesitic-basaltic tuff unit (occurred in Sumbawa, Ruteng, Ende, Lomblen, Alor and Wetar Barat), coral reef unit (occurred in Sumbawa, Komodo, Ruteng, Ende, Lomblen), and andesitic- basaltic lava unit (occurred in Alor, Lomblen, Alor & Wetar Barat, Wetar) in which those three units are interfingering and also Naumantang Formation (in Wetar). The age of andesitic-basaltic tuff unit, coral reef unit, and andesitic-basaltic lava range from Late Miocene to Pliocene, whereas the age of Naumantang Formation is Late Miocene. In the eastern part of LSI, some dioritic - granodioritic intrusion rocks are part of andesitic-basaltic lava unit and Naumantang Formation. Toward the western part (Bali), equivalent with andesitic-basaltic tuff unit, coral reef unit and andesitic-basaltic lava unit is Selatan Formation (Msl) consisting of limestone covered conformably

Ulakan Formation (Mu). It is suggested that conformably above the Selatan Formation is Prapatagung Formation (Ppa) and Pulaki volcanic rocks (Pp). Above Prapatagung Formation and Pulaki volcanic rocks are conformably overlain by Asah Formation (Pa) consisting of volcanic rocks and locally calcareous. Covered unconformably most of the area is the old volcanic products (Qtv, Qot, and Qv) consisting of lava, breccia, agglomerate and andesitic sandy tuff of Plio-Pleistocene age. The volcanic activity in the LSI continues up to the present time. The result can be seen as volcanic cones built by andesitic-basaltic rocks (qhv, Qyt, A, B, P, Qbb, Qvb, Qvc, Qvd, Qve). Those volcanoes grow well in land as well as on offshore. The rocks which are considered as young products are coral reef (Ql), Terraces (Qt, Qct, Qalk), and alluvium deposits and beach (kW/qAL). All those rocks are deposited unconformably above the surrounding rocks. Volcanic activity with strong explosion can be seen in Bali and Lombok with the result of caldera such as Buyan-Bratan Caldera, Batur Caldera, Rinjani Caldera. Th occurrence of batur Caldera is approximately 22.000+/-1500 years.

III.2.3 GEOLOGICAL HISTORY Based on stratigraphical and structural data above, Suwarno and Noya (1985) proposed the geological history of the inner arc of the LSI. The geological history started in Early Miocene when the area constitutes a basin. The first deposition was clastic sediments forming tufaceous sandstone and limestone which were deposited in the marine environment with the depth of about 20-100 m (neritic). Before these clastic sediments were deposited, the area is influenced by marine volcanic activity forming andesitic-basaltic volcanics which were called andesitic-basaltic breccia volcanics. This volcanic activity indicates the subduction resulting volcanic arc in the LSI initially occurred in pre-Miocene and at least in Oligo-Miocene (Katili 1975). In the mid Miocene, the andesitic-basaltic volcanic activity decreased, but it was replaced by the appearance of dacitic -rhyolitic composition material. They are represented by dacitic lava unit, upper part of tuffaceous sandstone unit, reef limestone unit and upper part of Mulakan Formation (Mu). In Middle Miocene, locally in Sumbawa and Komodo there was tectonic activity indicated by unconformity between andesitic-basaltic volcanic breccia and reef limestone unit and dacitic lava unit. In late Middle Miocene to early Upper Miocene, there were tectonic activity causing uplifting, faulting, and folding trending in NE-SW to NNW-SSE and also was associated with magmatic activity of various compositions. From Lombok up to Wetar, this event caused an obvious gap, but in Bali, this event is not clear. In Bali, marine sedimentary deposition continues up to Pliocene and even Quaternary producing Surga Formation, Selatan Formation, Prapatagung Formation and Pulaki volcanic rocks. from this fact, it is suggested

that between Lombok and Bali, it was cut off by a fault trending in N-S with upthrown in the Lombok and downthrown in Bali.

Post

early

Upper

Miocene,

all

area

from

Sumbawa

to

Wetar

experienced

subsidence. In contrast Lombok was part of a high separated basin in the eastern part (Sumbawa to Wetar) and in the western part (Bali), so it is suggested that Lombok was a high. In the eastern basin, there were deposition of tuff, tuffaceous sandstone and limestone, which are grouped in the andesitic-basaltic tuff unit and reef limestone unit with neritic-bathyal environment. producing Whilst in Wetar and Bali occurred marine volcanic activity breccia, agglomerate and tuff in basaltic-andestic and lava,

dacitic composition with calcareous intercalation. These rocks are grouped into andesitic-basaltic lava unit and Naumantang formation. This deposition activity lasted up to Early Pliocene whereas in general volcanic activity on Early Pliocene wanned and produced tuff only.

In Plio-Pleistocene, the basins in Sumbawa-Wetar were uplifted with the formation of moderate-strong folding on late Pliocene or early Pleistocene. In that time, volcanic activity was increasing again producing andesiticbasaltic volcanic rocks (Qtv, Qot) and locally produced tephrite-lesit (Qv ls/le) like in Sumbawa. In Late Pliocene to Pleistocene, Bali was also uplifted followed by volcanic activity producing non-marine andesitic-basaltic volcanic rocks (Qd, Qba, Qsv). This also occurred in Lombok (v1, v2, v3) and in SumbawaWetar (upper part Qtv and Qvb, Qvs, Qvsa, Qvl, Qvm, Qvyo, Qv ls/le, Qvd dan Qvg). Locally in Bali was also deposited conglomerate, sandstone, and coral reef of Palasari Formation (Qp). In Late Pleistocene, all area was uplifted and was followed by faulting and folding. Miocene to Pliocene rock units show faulting trending in NE-SW to NW-SE. Late Pleistocene or Early Holocene volcanic activity lasts up to present day marked by the presence of 17 active volcanoes (Figure 3). This fact cannot be separated by the movement of Indo-Australian oceanic plate. Volcanoes in Bali-Sumbawa occupy northern part of the arc, whilst in Flores occupy the southern part of the arc. This volcanic activity produces andesitic-basaltic volcanic rocks which are grouped into young volcanic rocks (Qhv, Qyt, Qpb, Qvb, Qvc, Qvd, Qve, A, B, P) and cover some of the older rocks. The presence of beach and river terraces (Qt and Qct), uplifted lacustrine deposits (Qalk) and coral reef (Ql), indicate that this area is still uplifting up to now. For Bali, the Quaternary uplifting produced Palasari Formation. The uplifting movement maybe still continue and cause the tilting of Bali island in which the northern part is steeper than the southern part.

[edit]IV.

VOLCANIC ACTIVITY AND COMPOSITION

IV.1 Introduction Frequent earthquake shocks and active volcanoes in the LSI indicate to the active tectonic process, which are currently in progress in response to the continued movement of the Indo-Australian Plate beneath the arc. However toward the eastern of the subduction, in Alor and Wetar, the volcanoes is no longer active since the Pleistocene and it is interpreted due to the cease of subduction as the collision of the northern margin of Australian beneath the arc occurred. Many authors assumed that the Sunda arc and Banda arcs are continues. However, some other authors suggested as discontinues. Some hypothesis have been put forward to support this opinion as explained below. Cardwell and Isack (1978) show no evidence of a major discontinuity in the seismic records. However; Audley-Charles (1975) proposed the Sumba fracture between Sumbawa and Flores as the structural discontinuity of the two arcs. Nishimura et al. (1981) proposed that a major tectonic discontinuity separates Eastern Indonesia from Western Indonesia between Sumbawa and Flores, this view being based on investigations of the differences in geophysical, geochemical and submarine morphological features. The regional Bouguer gravity anomaly patterns change considerably in the area between Sumbawa and Flores (Chamalaun et al. 1976). East of Flores Island, there are east-west gravity anomalies along the outer Banda Arc with high positive values in the north. West of Sumbawa Island there are also east-west gravity anomalies associated with the Java Trench system, but in the field decreases from high positive values to the south to low or negative values to the north. Between these two regions of opposite gradient is a region in which contour lines trend north-south. In geochemical studies, there are differences in the chemical characters of the Quaternary volcanic rocks of Lombok, Sumbawa and Bali on the one side and Flores on the other side. Discontinuity in the distribution of earthquake shocks beneath the Sunda Arc indicate that the underthrusting of the Indian ocean plate is actively in progress in this segment of the arc. Whist, shallow shocks are absent in the western segment of the Banda arc, indicating that to the east of Sumba underthrusting has ceased. Discontinuity in the trend of the volcanic arc, with volcanoes on eastern side of the discontinuity displaced southward with respect to those on the west. This offset occurred along an extension of the Palu-Koro transcurrent fault recognized in Sulawesi.

IV.2 Volcanic composition The Sunda Arc is complicated by the change in the converging Indian Ocean Australian Plate, which is oceanic west of Timor and to the east is of 40 km thick continental crust, depressed by 3 km at the axis of the Timor trough (Bowin et al. 1980). The presence of active volcanoes from Bali to Flores indicate subduction related subduction. However, toward Alor and Wetar the volcanism is no longer active. This suggests that the geometry of subduction is not homogeneous along the arc. Volcanism in the islands of Alor and Wetar in the

inner Banda Arc ceased in Early Pliocene time, it is due to the Australian continental margin had collided with this part of arc (Audley Charles 1980). Hutchison (1981) found that the chemical characteristics of volcanoes around the arc systems could be correlated directly with their tectonic environment. Factors which influence the composition of the lavas included depth to the underlying Benioff zone, and whether the volcanoes are constructed on continental or oceanic crust. Petrography and geochemistry of the Quaternary-recent volcanoes of Lombok and Sumbawa arc is unusual in which the volcanic arc rests directly on oceanic crust (Foden and Varne 1981b). The oceanic crust occurs on both sides of the arc. The depth to the underlying Benioff Zone beneath the volcanoes is 165 km - 190 km. The volcanic rocks vary in composition from calk-alcaline to highly potassic, but there is no correlation between their composition and depth to the underlying Benioff Zone. Since there is no continental material in the surrounding of the arc, the highly potassic potassic leucitites cannot be attributed to contamination by continental material. He concluded that variations in the compositions of the lavas can only be attributed to inhomogenities in the source region. In Lombok, Rinjani Volcano lies approximately 300 km north of the Java trench and is situated about 170 km above the active north dipping Benioff seismic zone (Hamilton 1979). Foden and Varne (1981) based on the composition of andesites which have very low Ni concentrations and low Mg/Mg+Fe, he suggested that the Rinjani suite is of mantle origin, but that all the andesites and dacites as well as many of the basalts have probably been modified by fractional crystallization processes. In brief, Foden and Varne concluded that the Rinjani calc-alkaline suite, which in many respects is typical of many suites erupted by circum-pacific volcanoes, probably originated by partial melting of the peridotite mantle-wedge overlying the active Benioff Zone beneath Lombok Island.

[edit]V.

EARTHQUAKE

The LSI and its surrounding area is considered as an area of high seismicity, and several large earthquakes associated with tsunami have been recorded in this area. Figure 3 show the distribution of earthquake in this area from 1900 to 1988 with the magnitude varying from 3 to 7 Richter scale ((Ismanto and Prajuto 1989). Figure 2 also shows the depth and magnitude of the earthquake in north-south direction with the depth of epicenter reaching 550 km but other reports mentioned the depth up to 720 Km. The distribution of the earthquake indicate that the Australian Plate has been subducting to the north at an inclination of about 63 degree, and also the subduction of the oceanic crust in the Flores Sea to the south due to the subduction reversal polarity (See Figure 1 from Ismanto and Prajuto, 1989).

[edit]VI.

CONCLUSIONS

1. The LSI can be divided into four structural tectonic units, they are; The back-arc unit, the inner arc unit, the foe arc unit, and the ouetr arc unit. Each unit has different stratigraphic and structural styles. 2. From the

information of Well JS 25-1, basement complexes are present in the Central Lombok Block. These are suggested to be part of the Late Cretaceous accretionary complexes formed at the southeastern margin of the Sundaland. Whilst, the basement in the Flores Sea may consist of young (Pliocene) lava flows (Silver et al. 1986), and thin sedimentary covers. 3. The western part of Flores Sea has experienced three major tectonic events, these being Cretaceous crustal compression, Palaeogene crustal extension and Neogene inversion. The changes between these structural regimes, indicated by distinct basin geometries, styles of faulting and structural deformation since the Cretaceous, imply changes in the intraplate stresses or plate boundaries and movements which can be linked to the evolution of subduction and collision around the SE Sunda Shelf. 4. The presence of back-thrust in the Flores Sea associated with high seismicity in this area of about 30 km depth indicates the initial stage of arc reversal polarity with the subduction of oceanic crust in the Flores Sea to the south toward the LSI. This has been interpreted due to the choked subduction of the Indo-Australian plate in the south towards the LSI. 5. Based on the similarity of lithology, depositional environment and age, it is interpreted that the area in the LSI is a basin during Early Miocene - Late Miocene. After the Late Miocene, Bali Island became a separate basin to the basin in the eastern part and were separated by a ridge in the Lombok Island. 6. The seismic velocity structure of the crust in this region is transitional between typical oceanic and continental profiles and the Moho appears to lie at about 20 Km (Curray et al. 1977).

[edit]BIBLIOGRAPHY
Audley-Charles, M.G., (1980). Geological history of the region of Wallaces line: In Wallaces line and Plate Tectonics, Edited by T.C Whitmore, Clarendon Press, Oxford 1981. Audley-Charles, M.G., (1980). Geometrical problems and implications of large scale overthrusting in the Banda Arc Australian margin collision zone. In thrust and nappe tectonics (ed. K. McClay and N.J. Price). Geological Society of London Special Publication 9, 407-16. Barber et al. 1981. The geology and tectonics of Eastern Indonesia: Review of the Seatar workshop, 914 July 1979, bandung, Indonesia. In the geoogy and tectonics of Eastern Indoensia, GRDC, Special Publication, No. 2, 1981, pp. 7-28. Cardwell and Isack, 1981> Specoial publication grdc Ismanto, W., and Prajuto, 1989. Penyebaran gempa bumi di nusa tenggara dan sekitarnya. Majalah Ikatan Ahli Geologi Indonesia, vol. 12, No. 1, July 1989. Katili, J.A., 1975. Volcanism and plate tectonics in the indonesian island arrc. Tectonophysics, 26, 165-188. Suwarno, N., and Y. Noya., 1985. Stratigraphy regional wilayah Busur Bergunungapi Nusatenggara. Proceeding PIT XIV Ikatan Ahli Geologi Indonesia, Jakarta 10-11 Desember 1985, pp. 71-79. Category:

The Geology of Indonesia

Geology Islands with vulcanos and corals Nusa Tenggara forms the cental chain in the vast Indonesian chain of islands: it connects the Bigger Sunda Islands in the west with the Maluku islands and Papua in the east. The Lesser Sunda Islands form two separate bows. The long northern bow - Lombok, Sumbawa, Komodo, Flores, Lembata - has an vulcanic origin. The islands of the shorther, southern bow - Sumba, Savu, Roti, Timor - consist of raised coral reefs and deposits. The islands in the vulcanic bow are relatively fertilel in the eastern part it can be dry in periods. The southern islands are branded by limestone plateaus and poor savannah's, on which cattle can hardly find any food. The western islands Lombok and Sumbawa are covered in wealthy vegetation which is characteristic for the humid tropical areas. The other islands have a dry season which lasts longer when you go to the east; parts of Timor have the lowest percipation of Indonesia. On the whole the islands are remarkable less populated than Jawa and Bali, and the villages and cultures are located far from eachother. The agriculture of 'wet' rice on irrigated sawah's, just like elsewhere in Indonesia, is the most productive form of agriculture. On places where farmers depend on rain, corn, maniok and other crops are grown. On the dry islands of Roti and Savu the population survives the dry season with help of the nutricious juice from the lontar-palm. A difficult start

The islands of Nusa Tenggara just appear from a clear, deep sea in the form of smoking vulcanoes or layered coral platforms. They have been created in the Late-Tertiairy period, about 70 milion years ago, and are fairly young for geologists. Pushed by magma flows, the Austratian-Indian Ocean Plate ( also called Sahul-plate ) steadily moved towards the west, until it collided with the Eurasian ( Sunda ) Plate. The less compact Sunda Plate was pushed up by the more heavy Sahul Plate, while the weight of the first forced the Sahul Plate to go down, where it was compressed and heated. Picture: Colored lakes

When the plate had reached a depth of over 50 km, the rock formations melted, which found it's way up under big pressure through cracks and holes along the damaged border of the Sunda Plate. When reaching the surfave, the molten rock forms vulcanoes. Over the course of thousands of years the vulcanoes have increased in size and eventually they melted together in the form of the northern islands of Lombok, Sumbawa, Flores and the Solor- and Alor-archipelago. The bigger vulcanoes consist of layers of lava, ash, andother materials from eruptions. The eruption of Gunung Tambora, on the island of Sumbawa, from 5-7 April 1815 was the biggest of the modern geological era. The force of the explosion was much bigger than the famous eruption of the Krakatau, of the western coast of Jawa in 1883. The eruption of the Tambora caused the release of 150 kubic km of ashes and rocks. The hight of the vulcano was brought down from 4200 to 3090 meter in just one day. The number of casualties is not exactly known, some say 12,000, others reported as much as 50,000. Of the almost 40 identified vulcanoes in Nusa Tenggara, about 25 are in some form active. In 1988 a new vulcano emerged: Anak Ranaka. The southern Chain

The islands of the shorter, southern chain - Sumba, Savu, Roti and Timor - contain old vulcanic material but are now totally not vulcanic. They mainly consist of geologically young, raised coral reefs from the Quarternary and somewhat older marine deposits from the Tertiary. The composition of the sediments varies from foulded and mixed coral limestone, marl and the strange 'flaking clay', named because this material flakes when it is exposed to the air. The clay soils contain small particles of all kinds of stone. The deposit stones mainly originate from the zone where the two plates collided. While the Sahul-plate got under the Sunda Plate, the relatively soft marine deposit layer was scratched off and piled on top of eachother. On Timor you can find some remains of the Sunda Plate which broke off, and got stuck between the softer parts of the Sahul Plate.The findings of old, granite-like stone under younger sediments indicates that Sumba probably has another origin. Geologists thing that the island was torn from the Australian mainland, and was then transported to the north by a magma-flow. Varied Landscapes

The northern chain is overseen bu vulcano's in all shapes and sizes, varying from the massive Tambota, a crates with a diameter of seven kilometer, to cones which don't even reach 100 meters in hight. Most, like the Rinjani, Tambora, Sangeang, Kimang ans Ujolewung have classical cone shapes. Several vulcano's raise above the 3000 meter level

and some contain deep craterlakes. The most known of them are the mysteriously colored threesome on Gunung Keli Mutu on Flores. The colors are decided by minerals which are dissolved in the lake's water. Most of the times the lakes are black, lightgreen, turkois, but also sea-green, dark-blue and red are seen. Other craterlakes, like the magnifique, five km long Danu Segara Anak on Gunung Rinjani in Northern Lombok, contains miniature vulcanic landscapes in the form of new daughter cones, complete with fresh lava flows. A view on just a map of the area learns us that the northern and southern islands have completely different coastlines. The irregular coast of the northern islands consists of small and large protected sandy bays and open peninsulas. Off the coast are attractive islands surrounded by coral reefs. The southern islands in contrary, have much more regular coastlines. They are branded by long stretches of rocky coastline, and sometimes small stretches of sandbeach, protected by ridges of coral reef. Big parts of the coast of the southern islands consists of wide, hilly plateaus and terraces of reef limestone. These are especially remarkable north of Sumba, and along the eastern and western ends of Timor and Roti. The inlands of Sumba and Timor are rough and cut by deep valleys with steep sides. Around the summit of the highest mountain in Timor, the 2963 meter high Tata Mai Lau, clouds form. The mountains of Sumba are remarkably lower, the highest peak measures 1220 meter. These islands have only a few rivers which are permanently filled with water; often the grid-filled areas are dry, to be used after a heavy thundershower. The islands of Nusa Tenggara know a big variety of soils. The vulcanic soils of the northern islands are on the whole young and fertile, however the youngest deposits contain too much ashes and are too porous to hold water. The reddish clay which covers several of the older vulcanic rocks, is heavily eroded and not fertile. The alluvial plains of the northern islands and the soils around the feet of the hills, built by mountain rivers, are best used for agriculture. On the southern islands, the soil mainly consists of limestone and marl, with on top the usual thin layer of red or brown-like soil. On some places you can find dark soils, which have developped from a clay mineral which reacts with water and expands or declines. On some places this has lead to problems with construction; roads sometimes crack, as well as canals and sometimes even buildings. The most dry Region of Indonesia

In total, the regioon forms - together with Malukku Tenggara - the most dry part of Indonesia. Nusa Tenggara is on the border of the ares where the northwest monsoon still has it's influence, and the wind which contains the rain from the southeast - only reach the southern coasts. The inlands of the biggest islands are mountainous enough to catch some humid air, which causes some rain, which causes them to be the most wet parts of the islands. In Nusa Tenggara the seasons are decided more by the changing patterns of wind and rain during both monsoons than by the temperature. The intensity of the two wet periods varies with the topographical situation, but rains never last long and most visitors which remind the islands as sunny and windy. The places located in the south have most rain in May and June, when the southeastern winds from Australia pick up humid air from the Timor Sea. During this period the northern coasts, which are on the other sides of the mountains, are almost dry. During the northwest monsoon, from december until march, the winds over the Jawa Sea take humid air over the northern slopes of Lombok, Sumbawa and Flores. The most dry areas in this season are the protected southeastern slopes and the coastal areas. During both seasons, the mountains from the biggest islands which catch the 'humid' air, get the most rain; furthermore little rain is left for the other areas. During the southeast monsoon, the areas of eastern Flores, Lembata and Alor are less wet than the southeastern coast of Timor, because they are in the shade of the high Timorese mountains. On similar way, the northern coasts of Sumba and Timor are protected by the mountains of Sumbawa and Flores during the northwestern monsoon. Picture: Gunung Inerie

Due to these patterns the spread of percipation is very complex. It's mainly created by the local topography. In the higher parts of Lombok, Sumbawa, Flores and Timor sometimes gets more than 3000 mm a year, while the coastal plains or protected areas in the inlands often get less than 1500 mm. Some areas are even more dry: parts of Solor, Adonara, Lembata, Pantar, Alor, North Timor, East-Sumba and the northern coast of Flores get less than 1000 mm a year; the most dry places only get 500 to 750 mm a year. Most rain falls in the form of short, heavy thundershowers in the afternoon. In the night and mornings it hardly rains. A continuous wet period is rare. Cyclones only reach the Timor- and Arafura Sea; the islands west of Timor and Alor are usually not touched. Sun and Wind

The region is known for it's refreshing winds and high number of hours with sun, and therefore is a paradise for sunlovers and wind-surfers. In most coastal areas the sun shines for seven or eight hours a day from June until October, and in December and January at least four to five hours a day. The inlands on the whole are more wet and less

sunny. Timor is the island with most sunshine; even the inlands gets at least four to five hours, and sometimes ten hours a day. On the northern islands, winds are refreshing the biggest part of the year, at least along the coast; the strongest wind blow from June until September, and quiet from December until March. Along the coast the average wind speed is 9 to 14 km an hour. On Timor however, an possibly also on Roti and Savu, the wind is more powerfull on the whole. On all islands, the wind decreased more inland. The most windy times are in the morning and late in the afternoon. In all low areas the temperatures are high throughout the year. The months October and November are the warmest, with about 33C, but this doesn't say much, since the temperature is only 3 degrees lower in the coolest period, June and July. The temperatures at night reach 16 to 21 degrees, while humidity is between 70 and 80 per cent all year round; only on Timor, they are little more extreme.. The elevated areas are cooler and more bearable; the nights can even be cold. It stimulates to travel around at daylight. But don't forget the chance for sunburn is rather big.

Kondisi Geologis Nusa Tenggara

KAMIS, JANUARI 07, 2010 Diterbitkan oleh Ichwan Dwi Kondisi Geologi Nusa tenggara berada diantara bagian timur pulau Jawa dan kepulauan Banda tediri dari pulau-pulalu kecil dan lembah sungai. Secara fisik, dibagian utara berbatasan dengan pulau Jawa, bagian timur dibatasi oleh kepulauan Banda, bagian utara dibatasi oleh laut Flores dan bagian selatan dibatasi oleh Samudra Hindia. Secara geologi nusa tenggara berada pada busur Banda. Rangkaian pulau ini dibentuk oleh pegunungan vulkanik muda. Pada teori lempeng tektonik, deretan pegunungan di nusa tenggara dibangun tepat di zona subduksi indo-australia pada kerak samudra dan dapat di interpretasikan kedalaman magmanya kira-kira mencapai 165-200 km sesuai dengan peta tektonik Hamilton (1979). Lempeng tektonik kepulauan Indonesia terletak di penggabungan tiga lempeng utama diantaranya lempeng indo-australia, Eurasia dan pasifik. Interaksi dari ke tiga lempeng tersebut menimbulkan kompleks tektonik khususnya di perbatasan lempeng yang terletak di timur Indonesia. Sebagian besar busur dari kepulauan Nusa Tenggara dibentuk oleh zona subduksi dari lempeng Indo-australia yang berada tepat dibawah busur Sunda-Banda selama diatas kurun waktu tertier yang mana subduksi ini dibentuk didalam busur volcanik kepulauan Nusa Tenggara. Bagaimanapun juga ada perbedaan-perbedaan hubungan dari anlisis kimia diantara batuan volkanik pada kepulauan Nusa Tenggara. Busur volkanik pada bagian timur wilayah sunda secara langsung dibatasi oleh kerak samudra yang keduanya memiliki karakteristik kimia yang membedakanya dari lava pada bagian barat busur Nusa Tenggara. Menurut Hamilton dibagian barat barisan pegunungan Nusa Tenggara dibentuk pada massa Senozoic. Batuaan Volkanik didalam busur Banda dari kepulauan Nusa Tenggara yang diketahui lebih tua dari batuan pada awal miocene, ditemukan pada kedalaman 150 km dibawah zona gempa. Wilayah seismic di Jawa terbentang pada kedalaman maksimal 600 km ini

merupakan indikasi dari subduksi dari sub-ocean lithosfer milik lempeng Australia.yang terletak dibawah busur Banda. Pada awal pleistosen di seberang Timor menunjukkan adanya tabrakan dari Timor dengan Alor dan Wetar, setelah semua lautan dimusnahkan oleh zona subduksi. Ukuran dari deretan kepulauan volkanik perlahan-lahan akan semakin kecil dari timur pulau Jawa, Bali, Lombok, Sumbawa , Flores, Wetar sampai ke Banda. Penurunan ini sangat terlihat nyata pada bagian timur Wetar, kemungkinan ini karena pantulan jumlah subduksi dari kerak samudra, Yang secara tidak langsung gerakannya berupa dip-slip di bagian barat Wetar dan gerakan strike-slip dibagian timurnya. Kemungkinan busur vulkanik dibagian timur wetar lebih muda dan kemungkinan busur volkanik yang asli di bagian timur Wetar telah disingkirkan oleh pinggiran batas benua Australia. Peta Kepulauan Nusa Tenggara

Sumber:

Microsoft

Encarta

Sesuai dengan teori tektonik lempeng, Nusa Tenggara dapat dibagi menjadi menjadi 4 struktur tektonik yaitu busur belakang yang terletak di laut Flores, busur dalam yang dibentuk oleh kepulauan vulkanik diantaranya Bali, Lombok, Sumbawa, Cmodo, Rinca, Flores, Andora, Solor, Lomblen, Pantar, Alor, Kambing dan Wetar. Busur volkanik luar yang dibentuk oleh kepulauan non-volkanik diantaranya Dana, Raijua, Sawu, Roti, Semau dan Timor, dan dibagian depan busur dibagi kedalam dua bagian yaitu inner arc (busur dalam) dan outer arc (busur luar) dan bagian dalam ialah lembah yang dalam diantaranya lembah (basin) Lombok dan Sawu. a. Nusa Tenggara Bagian Barat Struktur Geologi NTB. Kondisi geologi wilayah NTB dengan batuan tertua berumur Tersier dan yang termuda berumur Kuarter, didominasi oleh Batuan Gunungapi serta Aluvium (recent). Batuan Tersier di Pulau Lombok terdiri dari perselingan batupasir kuarsa, batulempung, breksi, lava, tufa dengan lensa-lensa batugamping, batu gamping dan dasit. Sedangkan di Pulau Sumbawa terdiri dari lava, breksi, tufa, andesit, batupasir

tufaan, batulempung, dasit, tonalit, tufa dasitan, batugamping berlapis, batugamping tufaan dan lempung tufaan. Batuan Kuarter di Pulau Lombok terdiri dari perselingan breksi gampingan dan lava, breksi, lava, tufa, batuapung dan breksi lahar. Sedangkan di Pulau Sumbawa terdiri dari terumbu koral terangkat, epiklastik (konglomerat), hasil gunungapi tanah merah, gunungapi tua, gunungapi Sangeangapi, gunungapi Tambora, gunungapi muda dan batugamping koral. Aluvium dan endapan pantai cukup luas terdapat di Pulau Sumbawa dan Lombok. Berdasarkan tatanan geologi Indonesia, Wilayah Nusa Tenggara Barat terletak pada pertemuan dua lempeng besar (Lempeng Hindia-Australia dan Lempeng Eurasia) yang berinteraksi dan saling berbenturan satu dengan yang lain. Batas kedua lempeng ini merupakan daerah yang sangat labil ditandai dengan munculnya tiga gunungapi aktif tipe A (Rinjani, Tambora dan Sangeangapi). Struktur geologi yang kita jumpai di Jawa dapat ditelusuri sampai di pulau Flores. Hanya geantiklinalnya sebagian besar telah mengalami Tektonik Sekunder Dermal meluncur ke dasar laut di sebelah utaranya. Stutterhein (1922) mengemukakan bahwa berdasarkan sejarah Hindu, pulau Bali terpisah dari Pulau Jawa pada tahun 280M. Perluasan ke timur dari busur dalam vulkanis adalah rangkaian pulau-pulau Bali-Lombok-Sumbawa-Flores. Di setiap pulau tersebut dijumpai Zone-zone seperti di Jawa Timur misalnya zone Solo yang terisi vulkan kuarter menempati bagian utara Pulau Bali (G. Batur, G Agung), bagian utara pulau Lombok (G. Rinjani), mulai tidak nampak di Pulau Sumbawa karena geantiklinalnya tenggelam di dasar laut membentuk teluk Sholeh, di P. Flores bekas geantiklinalnya masih nampak Di pulau Komodo dan P. Rinca dan juga Teluk Maumere di Flores Timur. Busur luar non vulkanisnya berupa punggungan dasar laut sebelah selatan deretan pulau-pulau tersebut.

b. Nusa Tenggara Bagian Timur Bagian timur Nusa Tenggara mulai dari Alor-Kambing-Wetar-Romang, disebut orogene timor dengan pusat undasi di L. Flores. Evolusi orogenik daerah Nusa Tenggara bagian timur ini agak kompleks karena pada masa Mesozoikum muda terjadi penggelombangan yang termasuk sirkum Australia menghasilkan busur dalam dari P. Sumba kearah timur laut dan busur luar melalui P. Sawu ke timur laut, Namun memasuki periode tertier daerah ini mengalami penggelombangan dengan pusat undasi di Laut Flores sebagai bagian dari sitem Pegunungan Sunda. Keganjilan-keganjilan yang nampak seperti posisi pulau sumba di interdeep, garis arah busur luar Rote-Timor ke arah timur laut nndan sebagiannya, menurut Van Bemmelen adalah warisan dari evolusi Geologis terdahulu yang tidak dapat dikaitkan dengan sistem penggelombangan masa tertier dari pegunungan Sunda.

Adapun daerah undasi di Orogene Timor sebagai berikut: Busur dalam: Alor-Kambing-Wetar-Romang, tidak memperlihatkan tanda-tanda vulkanis. Palung Antara: Pulau Sumba-L. Sawu Busur Luar: Dana-Raijua-Sawu-Rote-Semau-Timor. Backdeep: Punggungan Batutaza Brouwer (1917) mengemukakan absenya aktivitas vulakanisme didaerah ini karena jalan keluarnya magma tersubat sebagai akibat dari pergeseran lempeng Australia ke utara. Pendapat Brouwer ini mendapat tantangan dari para ahli belakangan ini termasuk Van Bemmelen karena tidak ada tanda-tanda yang menunjukkan adanya pergeseran secara lateral ke utara disekitar P. Bantar-P. Alor, tempat mulai absenya aktivitas vulkanisme kearah timur. Juga tidak ada perubahan arah struktural pada busur luar yang menandakan pengaruh tekanan blok Australia, padahal busur luar inilah yang akan terlebih dahulu tenderita tekanan tersebut. Lebih jauh, Van Bemmelen mengemukakan alasannya bahwa bila ditelusuri terus ke timur maka deretan busur dalam yang tidak vulkanis ini tidak bersambung dengan deretan busur dalam Damar-Banda yang vulkanis, tetapi dengan zona Ambon yang tidak vulkanis. Menurut Van Bemmelen absennya aktivitas vulkanisme dari alor ke timur dan juga zona Ambon terjadi karena berbatasan dengan dangkalan sahul. Faktor lokal lainnya yang mungkin berpengaruh adalah: 1. Gaya endogen dari lapisan tektonosfer telah habis 2. Puncak asthenolithnya mungkin mengalami pembekuan sehingga saluran magma

yang keluar tersumbat. Sumbu geantiklin di Nusa Tenggara makin ke timur makin tenggelam. Hal ini dapat dilihat dari selat-selat antar pulau yang makin ke timur makin dalam (di sebelah barat pulau Tampar rata-rata kurang dari 200 meter, sedang sebelah timurnya makin dalam yaitu antara Pantar-Alor= 1140m, Alor-Kambing=1260m, Kambing=1040 m, WetarRoman=lebih 2000 m, sebelah timur Roman kira-kira 4000 m). P. Rote, tersusun dari sedimen-sedimen yang telah mengalami pelipatan kuat, tertutup dengan karang kuarter sampai ketinggian 430 m. P. Sawu, terdiri dari batuan praterrier, dikelilingi oleh karang koral setinggi 300 m. P. Timur, puncak genatiklinalnya mengalami depresi memanjang mulai dari teluk Kupang sampai dengan sungai Lois. Brouwer (1935) mengemukakan bahwa menurut cerita penduduk asli Timor, dahulu hampir seluruh pulau merupakan laut. G. Lakaan 1525 m dahulu merupakan pulau saja. Ini berarti pengangkatan P. Timor telah terjadi Belum lama ini. Adanya pengangkatan tersebut didukung oleh bukti-bukti ditemukannya sisa-sisa karang pada ketinggian 1000 m lebih. Pulau ini banyak mengalami over thrust, batuan intrusi banyak yang tersingkap di permukaan bumi. Bahan galian seperti emas, tembaga, chromium, dan uranium ditemukan di sana namun dalam jumlah yang tidak ekonomis. Sebaran struktur batuan geologi yang ada di wilayah propinsi ini, adalah : a. Batuan Silicic (acid) Rock (batuan berasam kersi asam), terdapat di Kabupaten Alor, Kabupaten Lembata, sebagian besar Kabupaten Flores Timur, Kabupaten Sikka, Kabupaten Ende, sebagian besar Kabupaten Ngada, sebagian Kabupaten Manggarai, sebagian besar Manggarai Barat dan sebagian kecil Kabupaten Kupang; b. Batuan Matic Basic Rocks (batuan basa); c. Batuan Intermediate Basic (basa menengah); d. Batuan Pre Tertiare Undivideo (pra tersier tak dibedakan); e. Batuan Paleagene (pleogen); f. Alluvial Terrace Deposit and Coral Reets (alluvium undak dan berumba koral); g. Batuan Neogene (neogen); h. Batuan Kekneno Series (deret kekneno); i. Batuan Sonebait Series (deret sonebait); j. Batuan Sonebait and Ofu Series Terefolde (deret sonebait dan deret terlipat bersama); k. Batuan Ofu Series (deret ofu); l. Batuan Silicic Efusives (efusiva berasam kersik); m. Batuan Triassic (trias); n. Batuan Crystalline Shist (sekis hablur).

VII. BANDA, LESSER SUNDA ISLANDS

This chapter of the bibliography contains 111 pages and about 975 titles on the Banda Sea and the area of the Lesser Sunda Islands, including Sumba and Timor. The key feature of this southeastern part of Indonesia is the East Sunda- Banda volcanic arc, with a young 'back-arc' marginal oceanic basin to the North (Banda Sea) and a 'non-volcanic outer arc' to its S and E. The outer arc is a fold-and-thrust belt, mainly composed of sediments scraped off the subducting Indian Ocean and distal Australian continental margin. Where Australian continental crust has arrived at the subduction zone (Roti-Timor and farther East), the collision zone includes uplifted parts of the forearc of the overriding Banda Arc plate ('Banda Terrane'). It is subdivided into five chapters: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. VII.1. Banda Sea, East Banda Arc (incl. Tanimbar, Kai, Aru) VII.2. E Sunda- W Banda Volcanic Arc ( Lombok- Wetar) VII.3. Sumba, Sumbawa, Savu, Savu Sea VII.4. Timor, Roti, Leti, Kisar VII.5. Timor Sea, Indonesian Sahul Platform

Download pdf - Chapter VII. BANDA SEA, LESSER SUNDA (1.83 MB) VII.1. Banda Sea, East Banda Arc (incl. Tanimbar, Kai, Aru, etc.)
There have been several theories on the origin of the deep Banda Sea. Verbeek (1908) noticing major extensional features along the islands surrounding the Banda Sea, saw it as a collapsed structure. Abendanon (1919), struck by the presence of crystalline schists in much of E Indonesia, saw it as a sunken part of a large old Paleozoic continent that he named Aequinocta. In the 1980's it was suggested to be underlain by oceanic crust, but this was interpreted by most authors as a trapped piece of Indian Ocean plate, of Cretaceous age (Bowin et al. 1980, Lee & McCabe 1986, Hartono 1990). Hamilton (1978) was the first to suggest a Tertiary age for the oceanic crust of the Banda Sea, formed by backarc spreading, a view shared by Norvick (1979) and Nishimura and Suparka (1990). Particularly since the work of French groups in the 1990's, the interpretation of the creation of the Banda Sea basins by Late Miocene- Pliocene spreading is prevalent today (Rehault et al. 1994, Hinschberger et al. 1998, 2001, 2003). The driving force of the extension is rollback of old, N-ward subducting Indian Ocean slab (Milsom 1999, 2000, 2001, Hinschberger et al. 2003, Harris 2006, Spakman & Hall 2010). Indian Ocean crust has now been consumed completely between Sumba and New Guinea. Remnants of small blocks of continental crust (some with Late Triassic limestones) and Late Miocene arc volcanics have been documented in the Banda Sea oceanic basin (Banda Ridges, Lucipara, Sinta and Rama Ridges, etc.)

W-E cross-section through Kai Besar, showing weakly folded, mainly 10 W-dipping, Eocene marly limeston overlain by uplifted Miocene and younger reefal limestone terraces (Verbeek 1908).

Two rows of islands surround the Banda Sea, the Banda volcanic 'inner arc' and a non-volcanic 'outer arc'. The size of the Banda volcanic arc islands appears to diminish in an easterly direction, but it should be remembered that these islands are built on progressively deeper sea floor and the vertical relief of the volcanoes is as high as, or higher than, the volcanoes on Java, Sumatra, etc. The 'non-volcanic outer arc' includes the islands of the Tanimbar and Kai groups. These are relatively little studied. They are mainly a continuation of the forearc-accretionary system of Timor, with Triassic-Jurassic and younger sediments, folded and thrusted towards the Australian craton. On the islands closest to the Banda Sea metamorphic and ultrabasic rocks are common, a pattern similar to that seen on the Banda Sea sides of Timor and Seram. The eastern side of the Kai islands (Kai Besar) was not involved in thrusting. Instead, it appears to be a fragment of the Australian continental margin that experienced large scale extensional faulting and underwent 2km of uplift in the last 10 My (Van Marle & De Smet, 1990). It looks like a rift shoulder at the W side of the Aru Trough, which is a very young and deep extensional basin.

Suggested Reading Banda Sea region: Banda Sea Umbgrove (1948), Bowin et al. (1980), Jongsma et al. (1989), Rehault et al. (1994), Villeneuve et al. (1994), Milsom (2000, 2001), Hinschberger et al. (1998, 2003, 2005), Cornee et al. (2002). region Circum Banda Brouwer (1923, Schluter & Fritsch (1985), Van Marle & De Smet (1990) Charlton et al. (1991), Milsom et al. (1996), Honthaas et al. (1997) Sea Islands

VII.2. East Sunda- West Banda Volcanic Arc ( Lombok- Flores - Wetar)

The islands of the East Sunda- W Banda 'inner arc' East of Bali represent a young, active volcanic arc system, mainly of latest Miocene- Recent age. Most or all of the volcanics in this eastern part of the Sunda- Banda Arc system formed on oceanic crust.

The westernmost of these islands (southern parts of Bali- Lombok- Sumbawa- Flores) are underlain by an Early Miocene arc system, which is the continuation of the 'Old Andesites' arc of the S coast of Java, but continues from here towards W Sulawesi instead of the E Banda Arc. Volcanism and shallow earthquakes are no longer active in the segment North of Timor, probably because the subduction zone is locked there, after the collision of the Australian continental margin and the Banda Arc. This resulted in a belt of N-directed thrusting N of the Banda Arc, that can be traced West to N of Flores, Bali, then into Madura Straits and East Java This also resulted in widespread young uplift, with Pleistocene reef terraces up to 700m and the exposure of commercial ore bodies like the large porphyry copper-gold deposit of Batu Hijau on SW Sumbawa (probably formed at ~5 km depth around 7- 3.7 Ma; Garwin 2002) and stratiform sulfidebarite-gold deposits on Wetar (formed on flanks of submarine volcano at ~2 km depth around 4.8 Ma; Sewell & Wheatley 1994, Scotney et al. 2005).

Suggested Reading E Sunda- Banda Arc: General

Brouwer (1940), Nishimura et al. 1981, Abbott & Chamalaun (1981), Silver et al. 1983, 1986,.Elburg et al. (2005).

VII.3. Sumba, Sumbawa, Savu, Savu Sea

S-N cross sections of S Sumba island, showing intensely folded Cretaceous, unconformably overlain by l deformed Eocene and Miocene, and intruded by granite. (Laufer & Kraeff, 1957)

The origin of the Sumba as a detached micro-continental fragment from SE Sundaland has been suggested by numerous authors, including Hamilton (1978), Djumhana & Rumlan (1992), Simandjuntak (1993), Wensink (1994, 1997), Soeria-Atmadja et al. (1998), Satyana (2003), Prasetyadi et al. (2006), etc. This was mainly based on the stratigraphic succession that is very similar to that of SW Sulawesi (granitoids, Late Cretaceous flysch, Paleo-Eocene arc volcanics, Eocene-Miocene shallow water carbonates, etc.). A frequently quoted presence of a Jurassic Aegoceratid ammonite from West Sumba by Roggeveen (1928) has never been substantiated, and is suspected to be a Cretaceous species. An Oligocene angular unconformity separates Late Eocene- earliest Oligocene (zone Tb-Tc) limestones, with dips of 30 or more, from more horizontal earliest Miocene(Te5) sediments (Caudri 1934). This is also observed in the 'Banda Terrane' of Timor and may be related to the midOligocene faulting-erosional event in the Tonasa Lst of SW Sulawesi (Wilson et al. 2000, etc.). Paleomagnetic work suggests clockwise rotation of Sumba (60 between Jurassic and Miocene, Nishimura et al 1981, 90 since Cretaceous, Wensink 1997).

Several authors (mainly Australian) suggested Sumba was part of the Australian NW shelf (Chamalaun et al. 1982, Harrowfield et al. 2003, etc.), but there are no similarities with Australian NW margin stratigraphy. Raised Quaternary coral reef terraces up to 475m above sea level suggest very young uplift of Sumba (Jouannic et al. 1988, Pirazzoli et al. 1993)

Suggested Reading: General

Caudri (1934), Von der Borch (1983), Djumhana & Rumlan (1992), Fortuin et al. (1997), Wensink (1997), Soeria-Atmadja et al. (1998), Lytwyn et al. (2001), Rutherford et al. (2001), Satyana (2003)

VII.4. Timor, Roti, Leti, Kisar

The complex geology and many unique rock types and rich fossil assemblages of Timor and adjacent islands have attracted numerous researchers since the early 1900's, resulting in some 480 papers in this bibliography for the combined territories of Indonesian West Timor, Timor Leste, and the adjacent smaller islands. This group of islands is part of the Sunda-Banda 'non-volcanic outer arc', where Australian margin continental crust collided with the Banda Arc subduction system. It is a fold-and thrust belt that continues West into the Java accretionary prism and to the East into the Moluccas chain of Babar, Tanimbar, Kai, and eventually Seram-Buru.

SW-NE cross-section N Central Timor from Marks (1961)

Timor island was first recognized as an alpine style fold-and-thrust belt by Wanner (1913) and Molengraaff (1913, 1915). Although on an Indonesia-scale map it may look like a relatively small system, the length of Timor island is ~500km, making it of similar size as the French and Swiss Alps combined. The question of how much of the Timor rock record is nappes of Asian origin ('allochtonous') and how much of it represents the folded sedimentary cover of the Australian continental margin ('paraautochtonous') has been debated for almost 100 years and is still not entirely settled.

Imbricated thrust slices along the S coast of Timor are composed of deep water TriassicCretaceous sediments, and may reasonably be interpreted as distal slope sediments scraped off the N-ward subducting Australian continental margin (e.g. the Kolbano fold-thrust belt of SW Timor)

Diagrammatic stratigraphy of 'Mutis Overthrust Unit (= Banda terrane) of W Timor from Marks (1961);

Scattered across the central zone of W Timor and E Timor are 15 complexes of the so-called 'Banda Terrane' (the Schist-Palelo complex of Brouwer (1942) = Mutis Unit of De Waard (1957) = Lolotoi Complex of Audley Charles (1965)). These are outcrops of metamorphic rocks (Mutis, Boi, Mollo, Lolotoi, etc.) often associated with ophiolitic rocks, stratigraphically overlain by Palelo Group Upper Cretaceous- Eocene arc volcanics and 'flysch-type' sediments. There are also Eocene shallow water carbonates with SE Asian Pellatispira forams, unconformably overlain by latest Oligocene- Early Miocene shallow water Cablac Limestone. This 'active margin' series does not tie to any rocks or events on the NW Australian margin, but it is very similar to the stratigraphy of SW Sulawesi and SE Kalimantan (Meratus). These complexes have therefore long been interpreted as 'allochtonous'. Banda terrane stratigraphy suggests mid-Cretaceous metamorphism in a subduction zone, presumably at the SE Sundaland margin, followed by exhumation and onset of Cretaceous marine sedimentation. It formed part of the Late Cretaceous- Eocene 'Great Indonesian volcanic arc' of Harris (2006), probably at the Sundaland margin. It was affected by an Oligocene folding-uplift event during a period of carbonate deposition (also seen on Sumba and SW Sulawesi), and must have broken away from the Sundaland margin in Miocene-Pliocene time, to end up in the Banda forearc after opening of the S Banda Sea (see also Barber 1979, 1981, Earle 1979, etc.). It may be noted that radiometric ages of the Banda Terrane metamorphics vary widely. Some are Early Cretaceous, but most of them appear to be of Eocene ages (~35-45 Ma), some even younger. Given its stratigraphic position below Late Cretaceous sediment, the post-Cretaceous ages must be

too young and possibly reflect an Eocene heating event from arc volcanism. Whichever of these ages age is favored, this metamorphism is much older than the present-day Australia- Banda Arc collision and could not have taken place along the NW Shelf passive margin. Along the North coast of Timor Island (and continuing East on Kisar, Leti, Moa, Sermata, W Tanimbar, and probably all the way to Seram) are remnants of the large 'Aileu Complex' ophiolites and associated metamorphic sole rocks. The ultrabasic complex was described by a.o. Molengraaf and Brouwer (1915; Leti), Berry & Grady (1981), Berry & McDougall (1986) (Late Miocene cooling ages ~8-6 Ma), Harris (1991) and Kaneko et al. (2007). The Aileu metamorphic complex appears to be metamorphosed 'Maubisse complex' Permian sediments and basic volcanics (Molengraaf & Brouwer 1915, Barber & Audley Charles 1977). Radiometric ages would suggest the North coast Aileu complex metamorphics/ ophiolites are younger than similar rocks of the Banda terrane of the central zone. Another 'suspect terrane' is the Maubisse/ Sonnebait series of authors. Like the Banda terrane it is one of the higher 'nappes' and contains Permian- Cretaceous rocks and faunas that are different from the Australian NW Shelf. The Permian is composed of marls and reddish limestones (very rich in crinoids, blastoids and solitary corals of much higher diversity and more tropical aspect than nearby NW Shelf Permian), interbedded with pillow basalts, and overlain by thin, condensed, Triassic cephalopod limestones of 'Tethyan' affinity and Jurassic- Cretaceous deep sea clays and pelagic marls. It may be viewed as an oceanic seamount assemblage that formed during a Permian breakup event, then drifted in oceanic setting until Cretaceous or Eocene collision with a subduction complex. Miocene and younger tectonics on Timor are primarily normal faulting and significant late uplift, as demonstrated by the presence of Pleistocene coral reef terraces up to 1300m elevation. Timor has been famous for over 100 years for its rich Permian- Triassic marine macrofossils. Beautifully illustrated paleontological studies include those on ammonites (Welter 1922, Diener 1922), corals (Gerth 1921), crinoids and blastoids (Wanner 1916-1949), brachiopods (Broili 1916), molluscs (Krumbeck 1921), etc.. Unfortunately much of this material was collected from loose blocks or obtained from villagers, so stratigraphic context is often unclear. Oil and oil and gas seeps on the island have been tied to bituminous limestones of the Triassic Aituti Formation. Due to the structural complexity of Timor island preservation of significant commercial hydrocarbon traps is unlikely and exploration is extremely challenging.

Suggested Reading: General, Tectonics

Wanner (1913), Brouwer (1942), De Waard (1954-1957), Audley Charles (1965), Carter et al. (1976), Brunnschweiler (1978), Hamilton (1979), Barber (1981), Bowin et al. (1981), Charlton (1989, 2002),Sawyer et al. (1993), Reed et al. (1996), Harris et al. (2000), Villeneuve et al. (2005), Harris (2006), Keep et al. (2009), Keep & Haig (2010)

PermianMesozoic many historic papers summarized in Charlton et al. (2002, 2009), Bird et al. (1989), Bird & Cook (1991), Haig et al. (2007, 2010) stratigraphy and faunas Banda terrane/ Aileu 1957), Berry & Grady (1981), Earle (1981, 1983), Sopaheluwakan (1990), Audley Charles metamorphic complexes
& Harris (1990), Harris (2006), Kaneko et al. (2007), Standley & Harris (2009) Molengraaff & Brouwer (1915), De Roever (1939), Tappenbeck (1940), De Waard (1954,

Australian margin accretionary prism/ Charlton (1987, 1989), Charlton & Suharsono (1990), Harsolumakso et al. (1995), Keep et Kolbano fold-thrust belt al. (2005). along S coast Roti Leti
Brouwer (1922), Krumbeck (1922), Roosmawati & Harris (2009) Molengraaff & Brouwer (1915), Kaneko et al. (2007)

VII.5. Indonesian Timor Sea, Sahul Platform

The area south of the Timor- Tanimbar islands comprises the South Timor accretionary prism (partly onshore, mainly offshore), the Timor Trench and the distal part of the Australian continental margin. Parts of the Australian continental margin are within the Indonesian Economic Zone and in the Timor Leste- Australia ZOCA joint operating zone. Significant gas fields are present in Middle- Late Jurassic and basal Cretaceous reservoir sands (Abadi, Bayu-Undan, Sunrise, Troubadour fields), similar to the 'Plover play' elsewhere in the Bonaparte Basin of the NW Shelf. The downwards bending of the downgoing plate causes widespread normal faulting (Harrowfield et al. (2003).

Suggested Reading Timor Sea General Hardjono et al. (1996), Nagura et al. (2003), Seggie et al. (2003), Barber et al. (2004), Zushi et al. (2009)

Perkembangan Tektonik Indonesia : Kepulauan Nusa Tenggara Perkembangan Tektonik Indonesia Kepulauan Nusa Tenggara Oleh : Zaka Lesmana Tarigan Presentasi dalam tugas kuliah Geologi Struktur Indonesia

Tektonik Indonesia Indonesia termasuk sebagai salah satu wilayah yang mempunyai tatanan geologi yang rumit. Hal ini dikarenakan letak Indonesia yang terdapat diantara tiga pertemuan lempeng besar yaitu: HindiaAustralia di selatan, Pasifik disebelah barat dan lempeng Asia d sebelah utara. Ketiga lempeng tersebut bergeser dari sumbernya di pematang-pematang tengah samudera (mid oceanic ridge), dengan arah dan kecepatan yang berubah-ubah, satu terhadap lainnya sejak Mesozoik hingga kini. Sebagai akibat dari gerak lempeng tersebut yang rumit, maka sifat dari wilayah Indonesia dicirikan oleh perubahanperubahan yang menerus dari susunan lempeng, jalur-jalur tumbukan, sesar transform dan busurbusur yang bergeser. Pola Tektonik Indonesia Tektonik di Indonesia terbagi menjadi dua karena terdapat adanya perbedaan lempeng penyusun. Indonesia bagian timur tersusun oleh lempeng-lempeng mikro kecuali daerah Nusa Tenggara, Irian Utara Timur dan Sulawesi Utara yang berbenturan dengan lempeng makro. Sedangkan Indonesia bagian barat merupakan daerah interaksi antara lempeng makro. Karena perbedaan tersebut maka pola atau tatanan tektoniknya pun akan berbeda pula. Pada wilayah Indonesia bagian barat, tatanan tektoniknya lebih sederhana daripada tatanan tektonik wilayah Indonesia bagian timur yang lebih rumit. Tektonik Indonesia Timur Kondisi struktur geologi wilayah Indonesia timur sangat rumit juga karena disebabkan Indonesia timur merupakan tempat terbentuknya system busur kepulauan yang unuk dengan asosiasi palung samudera, zona akresi, busur gunung api, dan cekungan busur belakang. Selain itu yang membuat rumit juga adalah busur-busur kepulauan nya yang dibatasi oleh lautan dengan kedalaman mencapai ribuan meter dengan palung-palung dalam yang terdapat diantara busur lengkung yang tajam dan beda relief yang sangat tajam. Secara tektonis, wilayah Indonesia Timur merupakan lokasi pertemuan tiga lempeng tektonik, yaitu Lempeng Pasifik yang bergerak dari arah timur ke barat, Lempeng Australia yang bergerak dari arah tenggara ke barat laut dan Lempeng Eurasia yang bergerak dari arah barat laut ke tenggara. Kepulauan Nusa Tenggara Kondisi Geologi Nusa tenggara berada diantara bagian timur pulau Jawa dan kepulauan Banda tediri dari pulau-pulalu kecil. Batas Barat : Pulau Jawa Batas Timur : Kepulauan banda Batas Utara : Laut Flores Batas Selatan : Samudra Hindia Berada pada Busur Banda Rangkaian pulau ini dibentuk oleh pegunungan vulkanik muda. Deretan pegunungan di nusa tenggara dibangun tepat di zona subduksi indo-australia pada kerak samudra dan dapat di interpretasikan kedalaman magmanya kira-kira mencapai 165-200 km sesuai dengan peta tektonik Hamilton (1979).

Lokasi, Bathimetri dan peta lokasi seismic rendahan Paparan Sunda Unit Tektono-Struktur Terbagi menjadi 4 unit dari Utara ke Selatan : Unit Belakang Busur : Laut Flores Unit Busur Dalam : Kepulauan Vulkanik Bali, Lombok, Rinca, Flores, Adonora, Solor, Lomblen, Pantar, Alor, Kambing & Wetar. Unit Busur Luar : Kepulauan Non-Vulkanik Dana, Paijua, Sawu, Roti, Semau & Timor. Unit Depan Busur : Cekungan Laut Dalam Cekungan Lombok dan Cekungan Savu (Herman Karman & F. Hasan Sidi, 2000)

Gambaran tektonik saat ini menunjukkan kerangka mega tektonik. (dimodifikasi dari Hamilton,1979; Parkinson,1991; dan Mathews,1992)

Penampang Tektono-Struktural paparan Sunda. (Rangin et All, 1993) Penaikan Busur Kepulauan Nusa Tenggara Pada unit ini dikontrol oleh Pengangkatan Balakang Busur. Pengangkatan ini terbagi dalam 2 unit, yaitu : Utara Wetar dan Alor (Wetar Thrust) Utara Flores dan Sumbawa (Flores Thrust) (Silver et Al, 1986)

Garis interpretasi seismic BP091- 037, BP091 010 dan BP091 11 menunjukkan adanya struktur horst dan graben dan struktur inverse. Silver et Al, 1986) Stratigrafi Basement Metamorfik Pre-rift Sediment Syn-rift Sediment Post-rift Sediment Terdapat juga Intrusi Diapir akibat kompresi Neogen (Guntoro, 1999)

Stratigrafi Paparan Sunda dan pulau Sumba (