2009

Optoelectronics and Microelectronics Systems Applications

1616 -6759
Lecture 1 Module description Introduction to solid state p physics y
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Module description

20 Credit points, Course work/ exam marks ratio: 40/ 60 % Lecturer: Dr. Alexei Nabok (room 9419, tel: x6905, a.nabok@shu.ac.uk) Semester 1, , Lectures (10 ( x 1 h), ), Tuesdays, y , 1800 - 1900 ( (EMB 3213) ) Lecture 1. Module description. Introduction into solid state physics Lecture 2 Basics of semiconductors physics Lecture 3. 3 Semiconductor devices (MS contact, contact p p-n n junction) Lecture 4. Semiconductor devices (MOS structures, MOSFET, CMOS logic) L t Lecture 5. Silicon Sili planar l technology t h l ( id ti (oxidation, d doping, i fil film d deposition, iti and patterning) Lecture 6. Silicon planar technology (ICs fabrication) Lecture 7. ICs design (comparison of logic designs, hierarchy of design, ASICs, yield, cost calculation, IC testing) Lecture 8. Modern microelectronics, nanotechnology Lecture 9-10. Optoelectronics devices and systems (optoelectronic systems, light sources, light detectors, optoelectonic devices, memory)
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Seminars (6 x 1 h, Tuesdays, 1700 - 1800, Furnival 9006

Seminar 1. Basic calculations in semiconductor physics Seminar 2. MS contact and pn junction. Calculation of current. Seminar 3 3. MOS structure and MOSFET Seminar 4. Silicon planar technology, ICs fabrication Seminar 5. ICs design, cost calculation Seminar 6. Optoelectronic devices and systems

Lab. works (4x 2h)

Lab. work 1-3. Semiconductor devices: CV characteristics of MOS structures, characteristics of MOSFET , characteristics of LED (electronics lab, Furnival , 9335) Lab. ab work o 4. S Silicon co planar p a a tec technology o ogy (c (clean ea room, oo , Owen O e 827) 8 )

Assignment 1 (20% from total mark) Comprehensive reports on all four lab. works (including theory, results and analysis) Deadline of submission (Week 20, Tuesday, 8 Dec, 2009, 4pm)
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Recommended literature

S.O.Kasap, Electrical Engineering Materials and Devices, McGrawHill, 1997 S.M Sze, Physics of semiconductor devices, John Wiley & Sons, 1981 B.G.Streetman, Solid State Electronic Devices, Prentice-Hall Inc, 1972 F.J.Bailey, Introduction to Semiconductor Devices, George Allen & U i Ltd Unwin Ltd, 1972 Kanaan Kano, Physical and Solid State Electronics, Addison-Wesley, 1972 C R M Grovenor Microelectronic Materials C.R.M.Grovenor, Materials, in Graduated Student Series in Materials Science and Engineering, Ser.Edit. B.Cantor, IOP Publishing Ltd, 1989 M.J. Morant, Integrated Circuit Design and Technology, Chapman and Hall,1990 Hall 1990 N.Weste, K. Eshaghian, Principles of CMOS VLSI design, AddisonWesley, 1985 Large g Scale Integration, g , Ed. M.J.Howes, , D.V.Morgan, g , John Wiley y& Sons,1981 D.Hodges, H.G.Jackson, Analysis and Design of Digital Integrated 5 Circuits, McGraw-Hill, 1988

Introduction t oduct o to solid so d state physics p ys cs

Electrical conductivity. Classical theory of conductivity. Classification of solids regarding their conductivity: conductors (metals), semiconductors and insulators (dielectrics). Electron in quantum box Electrons in atom. Periodic system of elements Electronic structure of solid state Conduction by y electrons Electric current density is the net amount q of charge flowing across a unit area per = unit time At
6

Definition of conductivity
n = N/V is the A concentration of free 3) vdx electrons l t ( n 1028 m-3 During time t electrons Jx move a distance of x = vdxt N and total charge g crossing g vxi the area A is vx1 +vx2 +vx3 +...+vxN i vdx = = q = enA x N N Thus current density Fig. 2.1: Drift of electrons in a conductor in the presence in the x direction is: of an applied electric field. field Electrons drift with an average q enAvdx t velocity vdx in the x-direction. = Jx = = envdx A t A t
Ex x

(a)

Electron drift velocity

v dx
u Vibrating Cu ions Ex
+

e = E me

where is the time between collisions (or relaxation time) The drift mobility can be introduced as

dx
x V

e = me

Therefore

(b)
Fig. 2.2: (a) A conduction electron in the electron gas moves about randomly in a metal (with a mean speed u) being frequently and randomly scattered by by thermal vibrations of the atoms. In the absence of an applied field there is no net drift in any direction. (b): In the presence of an applied field, Ex, there is a net drift along the x-direction. direction This net drift along the force of the field is superimposed on the random motion of the electron. After many scattering events the electron has been displaced by a net distance, x, from its initial position toward the positive terminal

J = end E = E

and conductivity can be defined as:

= e d n

Conductivity: = e d n Resistivity: =
1

, Units: []= (cm)-1, (m)-1 or S/cm , S/m , Units: [] = cm , m Sheet resitance : Units [/ ]

Resistance: Units []
w d l
J

l l R= = A wd

rs =

w
w

C d ti it and Conductivity d resistivity i ti it values l for f different diff t materials t i l

Conductivity (S/cm) 107 - 10-2 10-8 - 10-14 1 - 10-8

Resistivity ( cm) 7 10-7 - 102 108 - 1014 1 - 108 0

Type of solid cond ctors (metals) conductors insulators (dielectrics) semiconductors superconductors

Free electron

Electron is an elementary negative charge. According to basic principles of quantum mechanics, electron is a particle ti l and d a wave at t th the same ti time. Free electron: 2 is wavenumber, - wavelength, k = h momentum can be defined as: p = h k = , where

h = 2h = 6.626 1034 J s = 4.135 1015 eV s is Planks constant,

p 2 (hk ) 2 E= = 2m 2m

is the energ energy of a free electron

There is no restriction on energy of a free electron.

Electron in a quantum box

V (x ) Electron l

The box must contain an integer number of electron half-waves f

a = n

V= 0 Energy levels in the well n=4 0

V=0 a

V= x Probability density | (x)|2

Thus

(x) sin(n x/a )

E4

2a 2 n , k = = n a

3
E3 n=3

where n = 1, 2, 3, .. is the quantum number

2
E2 n=2 E n e r g y o f e l e c t r o n

E1 0

n=1
x=a

1
0 a0 a x

h2k 2 2h2 n2 En = = 2m 2m a2

x=0

Fig. g 3.15: Electron in a one-dimensional infinite PE well. The energy of the electron is quantized. Possible wavefunctions and the probability distributions for the electron are shown.

The energy of the electron in a quantum box is quantized, e.g. has certain energy values

Electrons in atom
V(r) r n=4 n=3 n=2

V =

Ze 4

2 0r

potential energy

Energy of the electron in atom is quantized

me 4 Z 2 (13 3 .6 eV ) Z 2 E= 2 2 2 = 8 0 h n n2
Actually, y, electrons in atom are characterized by four quantum numbers: n principal quantum number characterises an electron shell K, L, M, N, in respect to n = 1 1, 2 2, 3 3, .

n=1 +

l - orbital angular quantum number [ l = 0, 1, 2, , (n-1) ] characterises sub-shells (s, p, d, f, ) of different spherical symmetry ml orbital magnetic quantum number (projection of l on the external magnetic field axes) ms spin (intrinsic magnetic quantum number), ms = 1/2 (analog of the intrinsic rotation of electrons) Pauli Exclusion Principle: No two electrons within a given system (e.g. an atom) may have all four identical quantum numbers, n, l, ml and ms

Electron energy, En.

E = KE
0

Continuum of energy. Electron is free

0.38 0.54 0.85 1.51 6 5 4 3

n=

Excited states

3.40

Ionization energy, EI

10 10

13.6 eV

1 Ground state n

n=1

15

Fig. 3.23: The energy of the electron in the hydrogen atom (Z = 1).

Electron structure of atoms

z z

L shell with two subshells

x

y x Y fo r a 1 s orbital z Y for a 2 p x orbital z

Nucleus 1s K L 2s 2p

y x Y for a 2 p y orbital z x

(a)

Y for a 2 p z orbital (m l = 0) z

y x x |Y |2 for a 1 s orbital z |Y |2 fo r a 2 p x orbital z

1s22s22p2 or

[He]2s22p2

y x |Y |2 for a 2 p y orbital (b ) x

Fig. 1.1 : The shell model of the atom in which the electrons are confined to live within certain shells and in subshells within shells.

|Y |2 for a 2 p z orb ital (m l = 0)

F ig ig. 3 .2 2 2 : (a) T he p olar p lots of Y n ,l ( , ) for 1 s and 2 p states. (b ) T he angular dep endence of the p rob ab ility distrib ution which is p rop ortional to |Y n , l ( , ) |2 .

Magnetic quantum numbers (ml, ms)

Bexternal z Bexternal z

Sz (along B )
Lz
z

Spin Up

L Lz

y x

Orbiting electron 0 ( ) (a) Bexternal ml 2 1 z

ml cos = l(l+1)

+h/2
3 2h

ms = +1/2 S

(b)

0
3 2h

S ms = 1/2

l=2
L = h 2(2+1)

h/2

Spin Down
(c) 1 2

Fig. 3.26:(a) The electron has an orbital angular momentum which has a quantized component, Lz , along an external magnetic field, B external. (b) The orbital angular momentum vector L rotates about the z -axis. Its component Lz is quantized and therefore the orientation of L, the angle , is also quantized. L traces out a cone. (c) According to quantum mechanics, only certain orientations () for L are allowed as determined by l and ml .

Fig. 3.28: Spin angular momentum exhibits space quantization. i i Its I magnitude i d along l z is i quantized i d so that h the h angle of S to the z-axis is also quantized.

Energy

O
5g

The ladder of electron l levels l in i atom t By filling these levels with electrons one by one and following the Pauli Exclusion Principle you can build b ild periodic i di system t of elements Electrons on outer shell (valence electrons) determine the chemical properties ti of f the th element l t

5f

N
4f 5d

6p 6s 5p 5s

4d

M
3d 3p 3s 4p 4s

L
2p 2s

K
1s

Fig. 3.33: Energy of various one-electron states. The energy depends on both n and l

17

C p L s

F p L s

Ne

Fig. 3.36: Electronic configurations for C, N, O, F and Ne atoms Notice that Hund atoms. Hund's s rule forces electrons to align their spins in C, N and O. The Ne atom has all the K and L orbitals full.

19

ro Molecule

r=

Bonding and types of solids lid E = EA + ER, EA due to attraction force , ER due to repulsion force F = dE/dr

Separated atoms FA = Attractive force

..

A t t r a c t i o n

FN = Net force ro Interatomic separation, r

0 F o r c e

FR = Repulsive force R e p u l s i o n

(a) Force vs r

E ( r

R) e p u l s i o n

A t t r a c t i o n

P o t e n t i a l E n e r g y ,

Fig. 1 Fi 1.2: 2 (a) ( ) Force F vs interatomic i t t i separation ti and d (b) Potential energy vs interatomic separation

+
ER = Repulsive PE E = Net PE

ro - bond length,
r

0
Eo

ro

EO - bond energy

EA = Attractive PE

(b) Potential energy vs r

Covalent bonding
Covalent bond

H-atom Electron shell 1s

H-atom
H C H H
L shell K shell

H C H

H
covalent bonds

1s

(a)
109.5

(b)

Covalent bond
H

H-H Molecule 2 1
C

2 1 2

1
H H (c)

Fig. g 1.3: Formation of a covalent bond between two H atoms leads to the H2 molecule. Electrons spend majority of their time between the two nuclei which results in a net attraction between the electrons and the two nuclei which is the origin of the covalent bond.

Fig. 1 Fig 1.4: 4: (a) Covalent bonding in methane, methane CH4, CH4 involves four hydrogen atoms sharing electrons with one carbon atom. Each covalent bond has two shared electrons. The four bonds are identical and repel each other. (b) Schematic sketch of CH4 on paper. (c) In three dimensions, due to

Fig. 1.5: The diamond crystal is a covalently bonded network of carbon atoms. Each carbon atom is bonded covalently l l to four f neighbors i hb forming f i a regular l three h dimensional pattern of atoms which constitutes the diamond crystal.

Metallic eta c Bonding o d g

Positive metal ion cores

Free valence electrons forming an electron gas

Fig. 1.6: In metallic bonding the valence electrons from the metal atoms form a "cloud of electrons" which fills the space between the metal ions and "glues" glues the ions together through the coulombic attraction between the electron gas and positive metal ions.

Ionic Bonding
Na
3s

Cl
3s 3p

Na+ Cl Na+

Cl Na+ Cl

Na+ Cl Na+

Cl Na+ Na+ Cl Cl Na+

Cl Na+ Cl

Cl Na+

Cl Na+ Cl Na+

Cl Na+ Na+ Cl Cl Na+

Closed K and L shells

Closed K and L shells (a) Cl

Na+ Cl

Cl Na+ Na+ Cl

(a)
3s 3p

Na+ FA FA

r (b) Cl Na+

(b)

ro (c)

Fig. 1.7: The formation of an ionic bond between Na and Cl atoms in NaCl. The attraction is due to coulombic forces.

Fig. 1.8: (a) A schematic illustration of a cross section from solid NaCl. NaCl NaCl solid is made of Cl Cl and Na+ ions arranged alternatingly so that the oppositely charged ions are closest to each other and attract each other. There are also repulsive forces between the like-ions. In equilibrium the net force acting on any ion is zero. (b) Solid NaCl.

Formation of a molecule
Following g the Pauli exclusion principle p p the energy gy levels of electrons in the molecules split up
H rA e rB e H
Two hydrogen atoms approaching each other.
E (a)

E ( R ) 0 E (a ) 0
Bonding Energy

1s(rA)
A R= B

1s(rB)
r

E 1 s 1s

E (R )

SYSTEM 2 H-Atoms 2 Electrons 1 Electron/Atom 1 Orbital/Atom

a R=

R, I nteratomic
Separation

Bonding Molecular Orbital

= 1s(rA) + 1s(rB)
r a
E 1s E E E 1s (b) ( )

E = Bonding Energy

H -atom

H2

H -atom

* = 1s(rA) 1s(rB)
Antibonding Molecular Orbital

Fig. 4.1: Formation of molecular orbitals, bonding and antibonding ib di ( and d ) when h two H atoms approach h each other. The two electrons pair their spins and occupy the bonding orbital .

Fig. 4.3: Electron energy in the system comprising two hydrogen atoms. (a) Energy of and vs. the interatomic separation, R . (b) Schematic diagram showing the changes in the electron energy as two isolated H atoms, far left and far right, come to form a hydrogen molecule.

a
A B C

E c Ec

b Eb a

c b a
SYSTEM IN ISOLATION 3 H-Atoms 3 Electrons 3 Orbitals (1s) 6 States (with spin) Separation R=

E1s

Ea

R=a

(a)

(b)

Fig. 4 Fig 4.7: 7: (a) Three molecular orbitals from three 1s atomic orbitals overlapping in three different ways. (b) The energies of the three molecular orbitals labeled as a, b and c in a system with 3 H atoms.

Energy bands in solids

When bringing two or more atoms together to form a molecule, molecule a cluster, or a solid state, energy levels of electrons split up according to the Pauli exclusion principle. Metals:
E E

Energy band diagram

ro

Semiconductors: Energy band diagram

EE

E E

Conduction band

Band gap Valence band

ro