An environment consists living organisms and non-living factor. The living organisms in an environment are called biotic components.

The non-living factors are called abiotic components. Living organisms interacts with one another as well with the non-living factors to form a stable and balance system known as ecosystem.

ABIOTIC COMPONENTS
i. ii. iii. iv. v. vi. Abiotic components are the non-living components. These are physical factors that are non-living in the ecosystem such as :pH temperature light intensity humidity topography and microclimate

pH
The distribution of organisms can be influenced by the pH value of the soil or water in habitat. Some plants such as pineapple plants and fern grow well in acidic soil. ther plants such as coconut palms and cacti grow better in alkaline soil. !ost organisms live well in neutral habitats !ost a"uatic organisms can be killed if the pH changes.

Temperature
Temperature affects the distribution of organisms as most physiological activities are affected by temperature. !ost living organisms live within the temperature range #$%c to &$%c 'hysiological activities come to a halt at temperature higher than &$%c as the en(ymes cataly(ing these activities are denatured.

 Light intensity
Light intensity affects the distribution of plants as plants use light for photosynthesis. Small animals such as earthworms and lice move away from light.

Humidity
Humidity refers to the concentration of water vapour in the atmosphere Humidity is usually higher at night !ost plant and animals prefer humid conditions.

!icroclimate
!icroclimate refer to the climate of a microhabitat such as under a rock or in a hole )t may be different from the climate of a macrohabitat

Topography
Topography refers to the physical features of the land such as the gradient* altitude and aspect of a region.

BIOTIC COMPONENTS
The organisms can be grouped into three :i+ 'roducer ii+ ,onsumer iii+ -ecomposer

'roducer 'lant* algae and certain bacteria are producer 'roducer or autotrophs can synthesise organic substance or food through photosynthesis using sunlight as the source of energy.

 ,onsumer Human and animal are consumer or heterotroph They unable to make their own food They obtain food and energy directly or indirectly from producer a+ 'rimary consumers are herbivores as they obtain food and energy from producers. b+ Secondary consumers are carnivores as they obtain food and energy by feeding on primary consumer c+ Tertiary consumers are carnivores as they feed on secondary consumer. -ecomposers .acteria and fungi are decomposers They break down the remains of dead organisms to obtain nutrients as well as to release simpler substance to be used by plants.

OO! C"AIN#

OO! $EB AN! T%OP"IC &E'E&S

/+ A food chain is a se"uence of organisms in which energy is transferred from one organisms to another #+ A food chain usually starts with a producer. 0+ The position of an organism in each level of a food chain is known as a trophic level. &+ A food chain can be represented using a pyramid of number. $+ )n an ecosystem* the feeding relationship is more complete. 1ach animal usually feeds on or eaten by more than one type of organisms. 2+ Hence* a few food chains are interconnected to form a food web. 3+ )n an ecosystem* the producer converts solar energy into chemical energy through photosynthesis. 4+ 5hen the primary consumers feed on producers* part of the energy stored is passed on. 6ormally* about /78 of the energy is transferred. About 978 of the energy lost to the environment lost to the environment 9+ 1nergy obtained is used for growth* reproduction* movement and other activities as well as to maintain body temperature. /7+ 1nergy is lost to respiration* e:cretion* and defaecation.

INTE%ACTION BET$EEN BIOTIC COMPONENTS Symbiosis

() Symbiosis is a close long-lasting interaction bet*een t*o or more +ifference species living toget,er. -) T,ree types of symbiotic relations,ips. a) Commensalism / one species benefits *,ile t,e ot,er is 0naffecte+ b) Parasitism- one species benefits *,ile t,e ot,er is ,arme+ c) M0t0alism / bot, species benefit ,ommensalism is an interaction between two organisms in which one organism ;commensal+ benefits from the interaction and other ;host+ neither benefits nor is harmed. The host often provides a habitat and transportation for the commensal. Two e:amples of commensals are epi(oic and epiphytes. 1pi(oic are animal which live as commensals on the outside of other animals. 1:amples of epi(oic : i+ .arnacles ii+ The remora fish 1piphytes are plants which grow on the surface of other plants to obtain sufficient sunlight and air. They do not absorb food from their host. 1:amples of epiphyte are: i+ .ird%s nest fern ii+ orchids 'arasitism is an interaction between two organisms in which one organism ;parasite+ benefits and the other ;host+ is harmed.

Commensalism

Parasitism

 There are two types parasites* namely ectoparasites and endoparasites. 1:amples of ectoparasites include: i+ <leas ii+ Ticks iii+ Lice 1:amples of endoparasites include: i+ <lukes ii+ Tapeworms iii+ =oundworms

M0t0alism

!utualism is an interaction between two organisms in which both benefit. 1:amples of mutualism: a+ Lichen is an association between alga and a fungus. <ungus provides water* minerals and the protection to the alga. )n return* the alga performs photosynthesis to make food for itself and for the fungus. b+ Sea anemones usually attach themselves onto the shell of a hermit crab. They get free rides and leftover food. )n return* the hermit crab receives protection against predators from sea anemones. c+ =hi(obium sp. Lives in the root nodules of leguminous plants. )t fi:es atmospheric nitrogen into nitrate for the plants. )n return* =hi(obium receives carbohydrate and shelter from the plant.

Saprophytism

'rey-predator interaction

Saprophytism is a type of interaction in which a living organism obtain food from the dead and decaying remains of other organisms Saprophytes are plants which feed on decaying organic matter. 1n(ymes are secreted to digest the organic matter before the nutrients are absorbed. Sapro(oites are animal which feed on decaying organic matter 'rey-predator interaction is a type of interaction in which an animal;predator+ hunts and eats another animal;prey+ 'redators are usually bigger* stronger animals with sharp vision* sharp claws and canine teeth. They usually move fast. The prey-predator interaction is important in keeping the population of both the prey and predator in a dynamic e"uilibrium. ,ompetition is an interaction between organisms living in the same habitat and competing for same resource which are limited. 'lants compete for water* light* nutrients and space. Animal compete for food* space and breeding mates. There are two types of competition: a+ )ntraspecific competition b+ )nterspecific competition. )ntraspecific competition refers to the competition among organisms of the

,ompetition

)ntraspecific competition

Interspecific competition

same species. An e:ample for intraspecific competition is the competition among .ryophyllum sp. 'lants. The parent plant reproducer ase:ually by producing young plants from buds on fallen leaves. The young plant crowd around the parent plant* competing for water* space* nutrients and light. An intraspecific competition is usually more intense than an interspecific competition because the members of the same species share the same resources. )nterspecific competition refers to competition among organisms of different species. An e:ample of interspecific competition is the competition between to species of 'aramecium* '. aurelia and '. caudatum 5hen both species of paramecium are cultured separately* each population shows a sigmoid growth curve. 5hen they cultured together* '. Aurelia wins as it reproduces at a faster rate. '. caudatum loses in the competition and is eventually eliminated.

T"E P%OCESS O CO&ONISATION AN! S1CCESSION IN AN ECOS2STEM

o 1, S>ST1! /. An ecosystem is a dynamic system formed by the interactions of organisms with one another and with the non-living factor of the environment. #. The biotic components are in balance with one another as well as with the abiotic components. 0. 1:amples of ecosystem include a pond* a beach* a field* or a rainforest.

Nic,e
The niche of an organism is the roles and activities of the organism in its habitat. Two organisms sharing the same habitat may have different niches. An organism can be classified as a producer* consumer or decomposer based on its role in a food chain.

"abitat
A habitat in the natural environment in which an organism lives and obtains its basic resources such as food and shelter. 1:ample: a pond is a habitat for fishes prawns* planktons and other a"uatic organisms.

Comm0nity
A community consists of different populations of plants and animals living and interacting in the habitat of an ecosystem. A community is named after the dominant species or the physical feature of a habitat. 1:ample: rainforest community.

Species
A species is a group of organisms which can interbreed to produce fertile offspring. 1:ample: avicennia sp.* sonnneratia sp.* rhi(ophora sp.*

Pop0lation
A population consists of organisms of the same species living in the same habitat at the same time. 1:ample: a population of snails living in a garden.

CO&ONISATION AN! S1CCESION

/. The coloni(ation is a process in which living organisms arrive at a newly formed area to live* reproduce and take control of the area which was devoid of life earlier. #. The first species of organism to colonise a new area is called the pioneer species.

0. The pioneer species have special adaptation to survive in unfavourable land conditions &. The pioneer species gradually changes the conditions of habitat* modifying it into a conducive habitat for other species but not for themselves. The modified habitat is suitable for successor species which gradually replace the pioneer species. $. The succession species grows and changes the habitat* making it suitable for other better adapted species. 2. As time passes* a succession process continues until a clima: community is formed. 3. Succession is a process in which one community which is better adapted replaces another community which is less adapted to the change environment. 4. A clima: community is a balanced and stable community which is in e"uilibrium with the environment. 9. A clima: community takes many years to form. )t has little or no changes in its species structure.

Mangrove s*amps
Swamps are formed by deposition of mud and silt carried down by the river. )t is found at the estuary that is where the river meets the sea. nly mangrove tree are able to colonise the soft* water logged* muddy soil which has a low o:ygen level but high salt concentration. !angrove tree have adaptive structures to overcome the harsh conditions in swampy area.

Coloni3ation an+ s0ccession in a mangrove s*amp

'ioneer species
Avicennia sp. And sonneratia sp. Are pioneer species 1:tensive cable root systems trap mud and silt as well as organic matter from decaying plants. Soil becomes more compact and the shore level is slightly raised Soil is firmer and less waterlogged.

Succession by =hi(ophora sp.

The higher* drier and compact soil favours the growth of rhi(ophora which replace the pioneer species. 'rop root system of =hi(ophora sp. Traps more mud and silt. Humus is formed from dead pioneer species and decaying leaves from rhi(ophora sp. Soil firmer* more compact and fertile Shore level is raised. Soil is drier and is less saline.

Succession by .ruguiera sp.

.ruguiera sp. =eplace rhi(ophora sp. 5hen the soil is drier* harder and more compact. .uttress root system traps more silt and mud The shore e:tends futher to the sea.

Succession by terrestrial plants

1ventually a tropical rain forest which is the clima: community is formed.

Pop0lation ecology
This is a branch of ecology that studies the structure and dynamic populations A population%s si(e and how it change over time are determined by abiotic factors* biotic factors* birth rate* death rate* immigration and emigration of members of a population. To estimate the population si(e* a sampling techni"ue is used. This involves collecting* counting and making observations on the organisms studied. The sampling techni"ue to estimate the population si(e of plants is "uadrat sampling techni"ue. The sampling techni"ue to estimate the population si(e of an animal species is the method of capturemark release and recapture.

40a+rat sampling tec,ni50e

/. ?uadrat Sampling Techni"ue is used to estimate the population si(e of plants as well as immobile animals. A "uadrat is a s"uare frame made of wood* plastic or metals of a known area such as / m ;/ m : / m+. The si(e of the "uadrat depends on the si(e and type of organism. #. The area covered by the "uadrat is the sample to be studied. The "uadrat is placed randomly in the habitat studied. A number of samples* usually ten* are set up to obtain an accurate result 0. The distribution of organism can be determined in three ways as follows. a+ <re"uency )t is the degree of distribution of plant in an area of study. <re"uency is the number of times a particular species is found present when a "uadrat is thrown a certain number of times. 6umber of "uadrat containing the species

<re"uency @ /778

6umber of "uadrat

b+ -ensity This is the number of individual plant species per unit area in the habitat. Total number of individuals of a species in all "uadrat -ensity @ : /778 6umber of "uadrat : "uadrat area

c+ 'ercentage coverage This shows how much area of the "uadrat is occupied by the species. Aerial coverage of all "uadrat ;m+ 'ercentage coverage @ 6umber of "uadrat : "uadrat area : /778

The capture* mark* release and recaptured techni"ue

/. This method is used to estimate the population si(e of mobile animals such as woodlice* insects* small mammals and bird.

#. )nitially* a number of animals is captured* marked and release into the general population. 0. After a few days* a second sample is taken and the number of marked animals is recorded. The population si(e of the animal is calculated using the following formula.

&. The assumptions made are as follows. i+ The marked organisms can freely mi: with unmarked organisms. ii+ The individuals of second sample and caught randomly. iii+ The substance use to mark the animal cannot be deleted easily* is not poisonous and does not affect the animal%s activity. iv+ The population sample is stable where the death rate and birth rate are the same. $. The abiotic factors that affect the population distribution of an organism are i+ Temperature ii+ Light intensity iii+ Humidity iv+ pH v+ Aspect

.iodiversity
/+ .iodiversity refers to the diverse species of organism on earth. #+ Since there are many organisms in the world* it is necessary to classify them. A systematic method of classification : <acilities research 1nables communication among scientists 1nables organisms to be identified easily and accurately Allows information about a particular organism to be found more readily.

Hierarchy in the classification of organism

The hierarchy in the classification of organisms is as shown below.

Linnaeus binomial system

1ach organism is given a scientific name according to the Linnaeus .inomial System. )n this system* each organism has two names* that is ;a+ The first name refers to the genus. )t begins with a capital letter* ;b+The second name refers to the species. )t begins with a small letter. .oth names are written in italics or underlined. 1:ample: Humans A homo sapiens Lion A 'anthera leo -urian A -urio (ibenthinus

The impact of microorganisms on life

/+ A microorganism is a tiny organism that can only be seen with the help of a microscope. #+ !icroorganism can be divided into five groups. 0+ !icroorganisms are* useful in decomposition* nitrogen cycle* alimentary canal of termites and digestive system in humans. &+ Harmful microorganisms are microorganisms that can cause diseases* spoilage of food and paint. $+ !icroorganisms that cause diseases are called pathogens.

6ro0p of microorganism
() Bacteria

eat0res
Bnicellular microorganism Have a cell wall* plasma membrane and -6A that is not enclosed in a membrane =eproduce ase:ually by binary fission <orm spore under unfavourable condition 1:amples: lactobacillus sp. And Staphylococcus sp. Bnicellular and multicellular ;filamentous+ 'hotosynthetic as it contain chlorophyll -o not have leaves* stem* or roots !any are flagellated and mobile

-) Algae

7)

0ngi

8) Proto3oa

9) 'ir0s

1:ample: phytoplankton* spirogyra* clamydomonas Bnicellular microorganism Heterotrophic* that is* as saprophyte or parasites Have no chlorophyll* stem *roots or leaves Have cell walls made of chitin 1:ample: yeast Bnicellular organisms Have a nucleus* cytoplasm and a plasma membrane* do not have a cell wall ,an carry out processes such as respiration* e:cretion and reproduction Heterotrophic 1:amples: paramecium* amoeba* euglena Smallest microorganism that can only be seen under an electron microscope ,onsists of nucleic acid that is ribonucleic acid ;=6A+ or deo:yribonucleic acid ;-6A+ surrounded by a protein layer 'arasitic. 1:ists as various forms* that is* spherical* rod-shaped* tadpole shape or other shapes 1:amples: bacteriophage* tobacco mosaic virus

The use of microorganisms in biotechnology

/+ !icroorganisms are used in production of antibiotics and vaccines. #+ Sewage from households and industries is channeled into large settling tanks in sewage treatment plants. -uring treatment* the aerobic bacteria in the sewage will decompose the organic matter. 0+ .ioplastic such as .iopol is a biodegradable plastic that can be broken down into inorganic compound by bacteria. &+ .io is a gas produced by the fermentation of organic matter in waste involving the use of microorganisms in a bioreactor. The biogas accumulated is collected and used as fuel.