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FLUENCY
Kunnampallil gejo john, maslp
KUNNAMPALLIL GEJO JOHN 1

THE CONCEPT OF FLUENCY:

In popular usage, the terms fluent and fluency normally refer to a general proficiency in the act of speaking or writing. According a general proficiency in the act of speaking or means a smooth and easy flow I readiness, no hesitations in beginning to speak, smoothness especially with regard to speech and readiness of utterance, flow of words.

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 Odhams Dictionary of the English Language (smith and OLoughlin 1946) offers a similar definition of fluent; having a ready command, confidence and flow of words; voluble (fluent), glib; spoken easily no effort involved, rapidly and without hesitation; flowing, smoothly and continuous; proceeding readily and naturally, spontaneously without effort. In thee definitions the temporal and sequential features are emphasized. These cover a considerably wide range including breaks in the smooth flow of speech such as pauses, interruption etc and repetitions of linguistic elements such as sounds, syllables, words and phrases. In addition, factors such as rhythmical patterning, stress and intonation characteristics and overall rate of utterance could be considered relevant features in an assessment of fluency
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The term fluency is used slightly differently in the context of language learning. Here fluency is used to describe a level of efficiency in a foreign language. A person popularly described as a fluent speaker of French, for eg is one who possesses the ability to express himself like a native speaker of French, to think in the foreign language or to have a good command of language. The latter quality that of having a good command of the language perhaps implies somewhat more than efficiency in speech and writing only. If may imply in addition an ability in comprehending the language (Crystal 1971). However, in the normal use of the term fluency in language teaching, emphasis is placed on KUNNAMPALLIL the production side of speech GEJO JOHN 4

Fluency (also called volubility and loquaciousness) is the property of a person or of a system that delivers information quickly and with expertise. Fluency indicates a very good information processing speed, i.e. very low average time between successively generated messages

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FLUENCY
DEFINITION: Fluency refers to the effortless production of long continuous utterance at a rapid rate, be it the first or second language. - Stark Weather (1980) Stark Weather (1987) considered fluency as a multidimensional behavior and the dimension of fluency are: - Continuity or smoothness of speech - Rate of speech -Effort a speaker makes in producing speech (Stark Weather 1981) -Rhythmic structures (Stark Weather 1981)
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 According to Perkins (1977), FLUENCY is a barometer for the entire speech system, with its limits apparently set by adequacy or performance of the other dimensions of speech.

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 Language fluency is proficiency in a language, most typically foreign language or another learned language. In this sense, "fluency" actually encompasses a number of related but separable skills: Reading: the ability to easily read and understand texts written in the language; Writing: the ability to formulate written texts in the language; Comprehension: the ability to follow and understand speech in the language; Speaking: the ability to speak in the language and be understood by its speakers
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 Reading fluency is often confused with fluency with a language (see above). Reading fluency is the ability to read text accurately and quickly. Fluency bridges word decoding and comprehension. Comprehension is understanding what has been read. Fluency is a set of skills that allows readers to rapidly decode text while maintaining high comprehension (National Reading Panel, 2001). A first benchmark for fluency is being able to "sight read" some words. The idea is that children will recognize at sight the most common words in the written form of their native language and that instant reading of these words will allow them to read and understand text more quickly. KUNNAMPALLIL GEJO JOHN 9

Dimensions of Fluency
Starkweather (1987): considered fluency as a multidimensional behavior and the dimension of fluency suggested are: The continuity or smoothness of speech The rate of speech

Effort a speaker makes in producing speech (Starkweather 1981)

Rhythmic structures (Starkweather 1982)
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 According to Perkins (1977), fluency is a barometer for the entire speech system, with its limits apparently set by adequacy or performance of the other dimensions of speech

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 Fillmore (1979) has described three types of fluency, which correspond to three of four major components of language syntax, semantics and pragmatics. According to him, syntactically fluent have the ability to encode highly complex sentences, which represent a wide variety of complex content form relations. Semantically fluent speakers have large vocabularies to which they have full and ready access. Pragmatically fluent speakers always know what to say under a wide variety of social circumstances. The fourth component, phonology was not described by Fillmore, but by Starkweather (1987) Phonologically fluent speakers, have the ability to pronounce correctly and accurately long strings of syllables in unfamiliar combinations.
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DYSFLUENCY:
The term dys denotes pathology or abnormal . Dysfluency abnormal instances of fluency failure, i.e. ; those most closely associated with stuttering. Dysfluencies have been broadly defined as including all instances of broken words ( i.e.; part-word, syllable, or sound repetitions or prolongations) and/or fluency disruptions associated with excess tension or struggle. KUNNAMPALLIL GEJO JOHN 13

 In contrast, Disfluency has been proposed as the appropriate term for normal non-disfluencies. Disfluencies or normal non-fluencies are considered to include - silent - non tense pauses - interjections - revisions - word or phrase repetitions without indications of stress or struggle.
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 Normal disfluencies have been cataloged by several authors, and there is general agreement among them as to what constitutes disfluency. Eight commonly used categories of disfluency are: - part-word repetition - single-syllable word repetition - multisyllabic word repetition - phrase repetition - interjection - revision- incomplete phrase - prolongation - tense pause KUNNAMPALLIL GEJO JOHN 15

 Some of the major distinguishing features that differentiate normal disfluency from stuttering are -The amount of disfluency

-The number of units of repetitions & interjections

-Type of disfluency, especially in relation to the age of the child.
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 Johnson (1961) classified the following types of speech behavior as disfluencies: 1. Interjection 2. Part-word repetition 3. Word repetition 4. Phrase repetition 5. Revisions 6. Incomplete phrases 7. Broken words 8. Prolonged sounds
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1. Interjection of sounds, syllables, words or phrases: This implies extraneous sounds uh, er hmm; - extraneous words such as well which are distinct, from sounds and words associated with the fluent text or with phonemes included one or more units or repetition of the interjected material; For eg: uh-uh-uh are each counted as one instance of interjection . The number of times the interjection is repeated within each instance is also noted, uh-uh is an example of an interjection; repeated once and uh-uh-uh is an example of an interjection repeated twice. KUNNAMPALLIL GEJO JOHN 18

2. Part- word repetition:

This category has repetitions of parts of words- that is syllables and sounds. Within each instance of repetition the number of times the sound or syllable is repeated is counted; box-buy involves one unit of repetition and guh-guh involves two units. This does not distinguish between sound and syllable repetitions. eg: ruh-ruh-ruh cuhcome, ba-ba-baby & a-bou -bout

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3. Word repetition:
This category includes repetitions of whole words including words of one syllable. Both the number of instances and number of repetition units within each instance are counted. I-I-I, was- was & going are samples of instances of word repetition; the first involves two units of repetition and each of other two involves two unit. A word repeated for emphasis as in very, very clear is not counted as a disfluency.
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4. Phrase repetitions: This category includes repetitions of two or more words. e.g.: I was I was going 5.Revisions : Instances of revision include those in which the context of a phrase is modified, or in which there is a grammatical modification. Change in pronunciation of a word is also counted as a revision. e.g.: I was- I am going
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6. Incomplete phrases : One which in the thought or context is not completed and Which is not an instance of phrase repetition. e.g.: she was- and after she got there he come. 7. Broken words : Words which are not completely pronounced and which are not associated with any other category, or In which the normal rhythm of the word is broken in a way that definitely interferes with the smooth flow of speech are characterized by this category. e.g.: I was g-(pause)- going home.
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8. Prolonged sounds : This category includes sounds judged to be unduly prolonged. If a sound is prolonged twice, it is counted both as a prolonged sound and a part- word repetition.

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 Yairi (1981) put forth two types of word repetitions single syllable word repetition and polysyllabic word repetition. The other six categories of disfluencies included part word repetition, phrase repetition; interjection, revision incomplete phrase, disrhythmic phonation (primarily sound prolongation or broken words) and tense pause (audible tense vocalization between words).

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 Janssen and Kraaimaat (1980) categorized dysfluencies into ten types which include fast repetition of a sound, syllable or monosyllabic words ; slow repetition of sound, syllable, word or phrase. The other disfluencies are prolongation of a sound, tense block and interjection of a sound.

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 Manning and Monte (1979) suggested two types of disfluency : motoric and formulative, Rudium (1984) reports of a speech phenomenon labeled articulation oscillation that is, when the final word of an expression ended in an unvoiced plosive (t.k.p), then one or two repetitions of the same phoneme was produced.

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 Carrell and Tiffany (1960) refer to the pauses, during encoding, as oral punctuations. Carrell and Tiffany (1960) ; Liberman (1967) and sholes (1968) consider pauses which do not perceptually disrupt the smooth flow of speech, that is, fluent pauses. However, pauses can disrupt communication. Martin and Strange (1968) proposed hesitation pauses that is pauses that disrupt the smooth flow of speech.
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 Clarke (1971) differentiates between conventional pauses and idiosyncratic pauses. Conventional pause is the one that a complete speaker makes for emphasis or to signal something linguistically important while an idiosyncratic pause is an aspect of performance reflecting hesitation or uncertainity over word choice, style or syntax

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 Kowal et al (1975) considered unfilled pause as a category of disfluency. They define unfilled pause as any silence beyond 270 msec.

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 De Joy and Gregory (1985) have analyzed nine types of disfluencies. They are 1) part word repetitions. 2) Word repetitions 3) phrase repetitions 4) revisions 5) interjection 6) incomplete phrase and 7) disrhythmic phonations (William 1968) 8) grammatical pauses 9) Ungrammatical pauses.

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Minifie and Cooker (1964) have suggested that disfluencies can broadly classified into two basic categories disfluencies of syllable insertion including repetitions, revisions and interjections, and disfluencies of deliberations including pauses and prolongation.

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 Disfluencies may not occur singly. Two or more types of disfluencies can occur successively, they two referred to as compound disfluencies. There are two types of compound disfluencies.
Clustering: A term used by Silverman (1969) to describe the occurrence of more than one disfluency on the same word or consecutive words or both. 2) Oscillation: term used by Mysak (1976) to describe the number of repetitions per instance of disfluency silverman (1969) refers to the oscillation phenomenon as a duration of fluency.
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FACTORS AFFECTING FLUENCY

Several factors

continuity
rate effort rhythm physiological framework of fluency
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language complexity grammatical categories sex situation and environmental factors

motor and linguistic factors

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1. CONTINUITY
Pauses whether filled or unfilled are a common feature of speech. We pause on the average every 4.8 words and our perception of speech seems to be more continuous than the reality of it. Presumably, this happens because we focus on the content of communication we listen to the ideas and not contribute to these ideas is filtered out by our perceptual mechanism. (Stark Weather 1987).

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 There has been a presumption from the earliest days of research in this area, that the pauses were occasions on which language was being formulated and although it seems likely that this is true for some pauses it may not be true for all pauses. In support of the idea that the two types of pauses are different in kind, Clark notes that idiosyncratic pauses convey no information, and tend to be overlooked and concludes that conventional pauses are information bearing elements of sentences.
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2. RATE OF SPEECH
This is the rate in which continuous syllables can be produced as a function of speed of articulatory movement and the degree of co-articulatory overlap. ( Gay,1978; Stark Weather, 1981). Females produce utterance that are more variable in rate and longer utterances and they are more fluent than males ( Malecot, Johnson and Kizzias, 1972). Rate depends on the type of syllables produced, CCV and CVC syllables are produced at a faster rate than VCC KUNNAMPALLIL GEJO JOHN syllables.

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 Dauson (1929) studied 200 children of different grade levels who were required to perform a variety of speech tasks-counting repetition of a word, saying a nursery rhyme, a tongue twister, and an ordinary sentence as fast as they could.

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 The results indicated a clear developmental trend in rate. The rate is reported to development for more quickly in the early grade (1-3) than later on. In terms of sex, the girls are reported to talk faster in earlier years consistently up to age 12, where the first reversal occurs. Between age 12 and 17 there is a minor saving back and forth between the sexes until age 20

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 where boys seem to talk faster. However the boys and girls reacting differently to the competitive challenge to perform as fast as possible may cause the large sex difference at age 20 at least partly.

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 Utterance rate and linguistic properties as determinants of lexical dysfluencies in children who stutter Peter Howell, James Au-Yeung, and Lesley Pilgrim

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 Summary of the study:

Two important determinants of variation in stuttering frequency are utterance rate and the linguistic properties of the words being spoken. Little is known how these determinants interrelate. It is hypothesized that those linguistic factors that lead to change in word duration, alter utterance rate locally within an utterance that then gives rise to an increase in stuttering frequency.

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 According to the hypothesis, utterance rate variation should occur locally within the linguistic segments in an utterance that is known to increase the likelihood of stuttering.

The hypothesis is tested using length of tone unit as the linguistic factor.

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 Three predictions are confirmed: Utterance rate varies locally within the tone units and this local variation affects stuttering frequency;

Stuttering frequency is positively related to the length of tone units; variations in utterance rate are correlated with tone unit length.
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3. EFFORT Speech being produced effortlessly, is a characteristic of fluent speech ( Stark Weather,1987). The two types of efforts are : - mental effort or concentration where the thoughts are focused on the content rather than on the processes of utterances and - muscular effort, where the effort provides a flow of air, opens and closes the glottis and moves the tongue, lips, jaw, velum and pharynx (Stark Weather,1987).
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 Among the speech sounds, stops & fricatives require more effort than nasals and glides. (Malecot,1955; Worth & Sakuda,1966). Effort is consequently related to rate, stress & duration of speech sounds. Effort of mind & effort of muscle are both aspects of fluency. It is difficult to measure the former.
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4. RHYTHM
Rather than being a dimension of fluency, rhythm seems to promote or enhance fluency. Speech rhythm serves fluency by making it easier for us to talk faster. It does this in several ways- unstressed syllables are shorter and thus require less time. Martin(1972) says that rhythmic patterning carries a heavy information load in ordinary connected speech
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5. PHYSIOLOGICAL FACTORS
Dejoy & Gregory (1985) indicated that during the later preschool years, children become more accomplished in the symbolic/ motoric selection.

They added that the forward flow of speech becomes relatively more automatic

The reduction in frequency may well reflect increased temporal precision and control and simplification of the control process (Sharkey & Polkins, 1985).
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 Van riper (1971) indicated that disruption of proper programming of the physiological movements necessary for fluent speech causes stuttering.

Spatial & timing co-ordination are essential physiological aspects of fluency (Stark Weather,1987).

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6. MOTOR FACTORS
Muscles that contract during a speech will receive a high frequency neural impulses at the proper movement. Muscles which are relaxed will receive a low frequency neural impulse. The capacity to relax antagonist muscles has more to do with frequency than the capacity to contract agonist muscles, which is proved in stutterers (Freeman & Ushijima,1978).
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 To produce speech, the brain must generate sets of neural commands to produce the right amount and timing of muscle activity in a large number of muscles, including those that control breathing, voice, and oral movements. During disfluent speech of children and adults who stutter, it is clear that the brain does not accomplish this task.
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 research, in combination with that from other laboratories, suggests that, although stuttering is expressed as a failure of the motor areas of the brain to generate the right muscle commands for speech to proceed, the explanation of why this happens involves the interaction of the brain=s motor areas with other brain systems, including those involved in emotional, cognitive, and linguistic processing

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7. LANGUAGE MATURITY It is one of the important factor which is related to fluency.

Increased ability in phonology, semantics, syntax & pragmatic knowledge influence fluency.
As these abilities grow, sentences become longer and more complex.
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8. LANGUAGE COMPLEXITY Analysis of language samples of Haynes & Hood (1978) who studied 20 males & 20 female children between 5 to 6yrs supported that language influences dysfluency especially in the complex modeling condition.

Significant increase in word repetition, revision, incomplete phrase and dysrhythmic phonations occurred in the complex modeling situation.
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 Watkins and Johnson (2004), however, pointed out that in many past studies reporting lower language skills in children who stutter, the comparison groups of normally speaking subjects were selected in biased ways, often coming from appreciably higher social groups known to have richer language.

In contrast, the Illinois studies addressed this problem by comparing the performance of the stuttering children to a much broader base of well-established normative data. It is possible, however, that further research with preschool children using more sensitive tools will reveal discrete language differences between groups

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9. GRAMMATICAL CATEGORY It is found that the frequency of occurrence of both unfilled & filled pauses is more before content words than function words (Fagen,1982). The words following filled pauses are difficult to predict and filled pauses occur mainly before words which are highly uncertain. Filled pauses are much more common at the beginning of clauses than within clause (Hawkings,1971) and they tend to occur before longer and more complex sentences (Smith & Lallijee, 1974).
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 Linguistic factors, such as grammatical complexity and utterance length have been found to make demands on childrens fluency More complex the utterence more is the moments of stuttering

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MEAN LENGTH OF UTTERANCE (MLU) The MLU is measured in morphemes it is an index of language development. When the MLU is measured in syllables per unfilled pause, it is an index of fluency, since speakers who are more fluent produce longer lengths of syllables without pausing.

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Kowal et al (1975) measured this variable across various age group. Though Kowal et al did not report of any difference between males and females. Brownwell and smith (1973) reported that girls produce longer utterances than boys of same age.

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10. SEX Some studies have indicated that males show greater disfluencies than females in the age groups 2-6yrs (Haynes & Hood,1977; Yairi,1981; Wexler & Mysak,1982).

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11. ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS The person to whom the child is speaking is also an important factor which influences fluency. It has been found that the child speaks more fluently with a puppet than with an experimenter.

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Pragmatic Speech
Pragmatic speech is intended to cause another person to do a specic action. This might be telling a co-worker how to send a fax. Don't say, "Let me do it for you." More stressful is asking someone to do something you want, when you're afraid that the person will say no. E.g., asking your boss for a raise, or asking an attractive person out on a date, or telling your housemate to wash the dishes. The listener is relatively powerful, and you're in a position of relative weakness.

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DURATION OF SOUNDS:
Duration of speech sounds is directly related to fluency in many ways. Like other aspects of fluency, the duration of speech sounds change in the growing child. As children grow the average duration of both vowels and consonants deceases along with the variability of duration (De simonies 1974

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 This suggests that as age increases, he tends to produce sounds that are briefer. Subsequently more development occurs in the 3-6 years than in the 6 and 7 range ( Simons 1974) VOT is also longer in children than in adults.

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 Early research has shown that people who stutter tend to be of lower thanaverage intelligence and are more likely to be bullied than their peers who do not stutter. Their self-esteem, however, is close to average. Studies have not looked at all of these factors in the same group of individuals. Consequently, this study investigated intelligence, selfesteem and experiences of being bullied in a sample of 29 young people who stutter. Participants were divided into a persistent and a recovered group as it was hypothesised that earlier findings might be more apparent with speakers who persist with their stutter
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 The Ravens Standard Progressive Matrices (Raven, Raven & Court, 2004), Harters (1985, 1988) self-perception profiles and a newlydesigned bullying questionnaire were used to assess intelligence, self-esteem and experiences of being bullied, respectively. It was found that the intelligence and self-esteem (when measured by competency alone in particular skill domains) for both groups were not significantly below the average for fluent people. However, it was found that the incidence of bullying reported to be experienced by people who stutter was much higher than estimates for bullying in school children ingeneral (not necessarily with fluency problems).

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 No difference was found in intelligence or experiences of being bullied between the persistent and recovered groups. However, the self-esteem of the recovered group was significantly lower than that of the persistent group, when measured by the mean discrepancy between the groups.

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Brain Correlates of Stuttering and Syllable Production

Gender Comparison This article reports a gender replication study of the P. T. Fox et al. (2000) performance correlation analysis of neural systems that distinguish between normal and stuttered speech in adult males. Positron-emission tomographic (PET) images of cerebral blood flow (CBF) were correlated with speech behavior scores obtained during PET imaging for 10 dextral female stuttering speakers and 10 dextral, age- and sex-matched normally fluent controls. Gender comparisons were made between the total number of voxels per region significantly correlated with speech performance (as in P. T. Fox et al., 2000) plus total voxels per region that were significantly correlated with stutter rate and not with syllable rate

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 Stutter-rate regional correlates were generally right-sided in males, but bilateral in the females. For both sexes the positive regional correlates for stuttering were in right (R) anterior insula and the negative correlates were in R Brodmann area 21/22 and an area within left (L) inferior frontal gyrus. The female stuttering speakers displayed additional positive correlates in L anterior insula and in basal ganglia (L globus pallidus, R caudate), plus extensive right hemisphere negative correlates in the prefrontal area and the limbic and parietal lobes. The male stuttering speakers were distinguished by positive correlates in L medial occipital lobe and R medial cerebellum. Regions that positively correlated with syllable rate (essentially stutter-free speech) in stuttering speakers and controls were very similar for both sexes. The findings strengthen claims that chronic developmental stuttering is functionally related to abnormal speech-motor and auditory region interactions. The gender differences may be related to differences between the genders with respect to susceptibility (males predominate) and recovery from chronic stuttering (females show higher recovery rates during childhood).

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 The male stuttering speakers were distinguished by positive correlates in L medial occipital lobe and R medial cerebellum. Regions that positively correlated with syllable rate (essentially stutter-free speech) in stuttering speakers and controls were very similar for both sexes. The findings strengthen claims that chronic developmental stuttering is functionally related to abnormal speech-motor and auditory region interactions. The gender differences may be related to differences between the genders with respect to susceptibility (males predominate) and recovery from chronic stuttering (females show higher recovery rates during childhood).

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Number of siblings
Catallata (1973) reported that severity of stuttering increased as siblings were born and more if the age difference is less than 3 years

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Semantic factors
Stressed syllables Novelity

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Syntactic factors
Phrase structure-final syllable lenghtened Pre pausal lengthening-syllable before pause will be lengthened

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Phonetic factors
Intrensic Extrensic Vowels and consonants

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