V'C=S

te t btainedfrom a microwave from a microwave te ohtained tubes.) liarrr\\ave receivers?

M I C R O W A VF E IELDS
First, electricand magneticfieldsare described. The electricfield is produced by stationaryelectriccharges,and the magneticfield is producedby moving electric charges.A time-changing magneticfield producesan electric field, and vice versa. Theseelectric and magneticfields are represented by Maxwell's equations. The solutions of Maxwell'sequations are electromagnetic wavesin which electric and magneticfieldstravel togetherthrough spaceat the speed of light. The characteristicsof electromagnetic waves are frequency,wavelength, impedance, power density,and phase.Formulasare given for calculatingthesecharacteristics. All microwavesystems, such as thosedescribed in Chapterl, transmit microwavesfrom their transmitter through spaceto a receiver. However, insidethe transmitterand the receiver,microwavescannotbe conductedby wires, so they are transmittedor broadcastfrom one componentto another insidemicrowavetransmission lines.The three types of transmission lines (coaxialcable,waveguide, and microstrip)aredescribed, andthe erectromagnetic field configurations inside these transmissionlines are shown. These electromagneticfields have the same characteristicsas electromagnetic wavestravelingin space,but their valuesare modifiedwhen the microwaves are forced to travel through the transmissionlines. Transmissionlines are discussed in Chapter 7, andformulas for the various characteristics aresiven. However,the topic is introduced briefly here.

2,1 ELECTRIC AND MAGNETICFIELDS Electric fields are definedin Figure 2.1. The left-handsketch shows two electrons. They both have negative charges, so they repel eachother. The
19

20

MICROWAVE FIELDS

Figure 2.1 Electric fields. force exertedon the upper electronby the lower electroncan be represented by an arrow in the direction of the force. In the right-handsketch,the effect of the lower electronon any other electronat somedistancefrom the lower electron can be representedby arrows. The direction of the arrow again showsthe direction ofthe force, and the strengthofthat force is represented by the density,or number,of arrows in a unit area.The effect of the electron as a force field is more thanjust a visual aid. Its presence can be detectedas a form of energy, and the electric field is as real as the electron itself. Magneticfields are definedin Figure z.2.The magneticfierd is the force on a mouing charge (such as an electron current flowing in a wire) due to othermovingcharges. The magneticfield hasno effecton a stationarycharge. The upper sketch shows the magneticfield around a wire, generated by the electronsflowing in the wire. The lower three sketchesshow the magnetic field around a loop, or several loops, of wire that are wound into a coil. winding the wire into a coil concentrates the magneticfield alongthe center of the coil. Figure 2.3 shows combinedelectric and magneticfields. In the upper sketch,a lO-v battery is connectedto a 100-o resistorthroughtwo large wires.one wire is connected to the positiveterminalof the batteryand thus is at * l0 V; the other wire, connected to the negative, or ground,terminal is at 0 v. current flows through the wire from the positive terminal of the battery, through the resistor, and returns to the battery through the other wire. The electric and magneticfields around thesewires are shown in the lower sketch.Sinceone wire is positivelycharged, andtheotherisnegatively charged,a positive charge would be repelled from the positive wire and attracted to the negative wire, as shownby the solid arrows.The electrons are moving in oppositedirectionsin the wires, so the magneticfields are oppositely directedaroundeach wire, as shownby the dottedlines. Low frequencyelectronicsis concernedwith the voltageand currents in the wire, and is lessconcerned aboutthe electricand magnetic fields.However, at microwavefrequencies the voltageand current are difficult to define, and the electricand magnetic fieldsare dealt with directly.

r' Current

2.2 ELECTROMAGNET

In Figure 2.3 eventhough tt generating a magneticfield. If the magneticfield were This is the principle of oper generates electricity by mo

2.2 ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES

21

(o)

)r*e: electron can be represented th; :ight-hand sketch, the effect distance from the lower 3i :--11 be :r:ection of the arrow again !ng:r rri that force is rePresented I a::,. The effect ofthe electron c a n b e d e t e c t e da s . l:. nresence itself. the electron as re=r I is the force field magnetic - T:,: wire) due to in a tlowing ur:.:'!: charge. a stationary on e tTect I n"arl-rd a wire, generatedbY the ree .xetches show the magnetic nr. :rilt are wound into a coil' B ::gnetic field along the center d ::,gnelic fields. In the uPPer 0-.1: :esistor through two large I le::.:nal of the batterY and thus be ::gative, or ground, terminal it:. :ne positive terminal of the ki ::e battery through the other nd ::r3se u'ires are shown in the 1rg..:. and the other is negativelY [eJ :;.-'m the positive wire and r tl,t :.'rlid arrows. The electrons Flri: !o the magnetic fields are f.r,,i: r,1 the dotted lines. r * : : : . : h e r o l t a g e a n d c u r r e n t si n eci:i; and magnetic fields. Howmd :urrent are difficult to define, ilr ri r:h directly.

r' Cunent

(c)

Flgure2.2 Magnetic fietds.

2.2 ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES In Figure 2.3 eventhough the electronswere moving through the wires and generating a magneticfield, the field did not changebut remainedconstant. If the magneticfield were changed,an electric field would be generated. This is the principle of operationof all motors and generators. A generaror generates electricity by moving a coil of wire through a magneticfield, so

22

MICROWAVE FIELDS

,;i:1>--$i-l=
I I I

Flgu

r\\t - iili

I
I

i1-::-;-{<*Jt-_::l

_)_-#,1l>-{$f='-,,

ELECTRIF CI E L D

rigu,;

rierds "H:|^::::l.1'. "". masnetic

field, as seenby the coil of wire, is continuallychanging, that the magnetic an electricfield that will push and this changingmagneticfield generates currentthroughan externalload. The four laws that completely describeelectric and magneticfields are calledMaxwell's laws: charges' on stationary The electricfield depends (current)' charges moving on depends field The magnetic field' magnetic on a changing The electricfield depends field' electric changing a on field depends The magnetic and they can be demonThe first three laws have alreadybeendiscussed, field depends The last law statesthat the magnetic experimentally. srrared

on a changingelectric fiel symmetry. The solutionsof Maxwel togetherthrough spacein waves are thus called elect electromagnetic wave trave the left-handsidethe electri out ofthe planeofthe pap right angles to eachother. Tl directions, so in the middle ward and the magneticfield along the wave, the electri then increase in the directi with the electric field point paper.This wave behavior consequence of the simult describeelectric and mag charges, movingcharges, a the otherfield.Maxwell'sla and shortly thereafterelect stratedby the generation, tr

2.3 CHARACTERISTICS

Characteri sticsof electroma ance,power density,and pl

2.3 CHABACTERISTICS OF ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES

23

E l e c t r i c( E ) f i e l d

( H )f i e l d Magnetic

Direction of propagation

Figure 2.4 Electromagnetic waves.

fields' y: -agnetic

r.l ,il:e. is continuallY changing, s :- electric field that will Push I e e.:ric and magnetic fields are

on a changingelectric field and was added by Maxwell to complete the symmetry. The solutions of Maxwell'slawsareelectricandmagnetic fieldsthat travel togetherthrough spacein a wavelike fashion at the speedof light. These wavesare thus called electromagnetic waues.The field configurations in an electromagnetic wave travelingfrom left to right are shown in Figure2.4. At the left-handsidethe electricfield pointsupwardand the magnetic field points out of the plane of the paper. The electric and magneticfields are alwaysat right angles to eachother. They decrease to zeroandthenincrease in opposite directions,so in the middle of Figure 2.4 the electric field is pointingdownward and the magneticfield is pointinginto the planeof the paper.proceeding alongthe wave, the electric and magneticfields againdecrease to zero and then increase in the directionthat they originallyhad on the left-handside, with the electricfield pointingup and the magnetic field pointingout of the paper.This wave behaviorof the combinedelectric and magneticfields is a consequence of the simultaneous solutionof Maxwell's equations, which describeelectric and magnetic fields individually, based on stationary charges, movingcharges, and the effecton one ofthe fieldsby changing of theotherfield.Maxwell'slawswereconceived approximately yearsago, 100 and shortly thereafter electromagnetic waveswere experimentally demonstratedby the generation, transmission, and reception of radio signals.

I il::Sei.

ct',:::es tcurrent). g i-:gnetic field. i n g < i e c t r i cf i e l d . su:-cd. and theYcan be demons :nri lhe magnetic field dePends

2.3 CHARACTERISTICS OF ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES Characteristics of electromagnetic wavesarefrequency, wavelength, impedance,power density,and phase.

24

MICROWAVE FIELDS

l
Frequency

PERIOD

'

Figure2.5 Frequency.

Frequencyand periodare definedin Figure2.5. In low frequencyelectronics, where electron currents flow through wires, frequency is defined as the numberof oscillationsthat an electricalsignalcompletesin one second.An waves' is that alternativedefinition,which is more usefulforelectromagnetic point in given pass a that waves of electromagnetic the number is frequency of (Hz); number is the it hertz the is frequency of The unit second. ons oscillationsper secondor the numberof wavesper second'Typical frequencies in electronicsare 1000Hz, which is one kilohertz (kHz); I million Hz, (MHz); and I billion Hz, which is a gigahertz(GHz). which is one megahertz The reciprocal of frequency is called the period, which is the time for an electrical signal to complete one oscillation, or the time between one wave passinga given wave and the next electromagnetic electromagnetic point. For example,if the frequencyis | (Hz), the period is I second;if the ir"qu"n"y is I (kHz), which meansa thousandwaves come by in a second, then the periodis I millisec(ms),which meansthat the durationof eachwave

paper-clipwire) at the hig at the middleof the micrc Above the microwavet is a millionthof a meter.\ is 0.5 micron.the electro called light. Radiobroadcast origina is very large.The first mic the wavelength was extr microwaues. However,al comparedwith low-frequ large comparedwith that Formulasfor calculatin givenin Table2.1.

isfts.
Wavelength Wavelengthis definedin Figure 2.6 as the distancein which the fields of an Frequencyand wavelengthare wave repeat themselves. electromagnetic formula by the related Frequencyx Wavelength: Velocity waves travel at the velocity of light, 3 x In free space,electromagnetic physical into Maxwell'slawsdescribconstants of the lS m/s, a consequence particles.At I MHz, the forces on charged magnetic ing the electric and wavelength is 3 m; at 300MHz, the the MHz, r.ravelength is 300 m; at 100 is I mm. Thus, across wavelength GHz, the at 300 uavelengthis I m; and varies from I m (300 wavelength the GHz) MHz-300 band the microwave raboutthe lengthof a yardstick)at the low end to I mm (the diameterof a

Table 2.1 For of mlcrowavcr

Free-Space Wavelength Meters Centimeters Millimeters

Any one of the

For example: .

2 . 3 C H A R A C T E R I S T I CO SF E L E C T R O M A G N E T IW C AVES

25

WAVELENGTH

tlr

:.

--------> DISTANCE Figure 2.6 Wavelength.

electronics, l--<,: low frequencY is definedas the F. ::equencY in one second'An la.l-..mpletes waves,is that eiectromagnetic !r a givenPointin $:'. es that Pass be:-.2rHz): it is the number of frequenTYPical Ie: :!'second. E r.,rhertz(kHz); I millionHz, I H: :ihich is agigahertz(GHz). r :ei-r.rd.which is the time for !r..:r. rtr the time betweenone a given m.inetic wave Passing lz ::,e period is I second;if the ln\l '.{d\ es come by in a second, of eachwave n: ir.;! the duration

paper-clip wire) at the high end. Threecentimeters, which is the wavelength at the middle of the microwave band is about I in. Above the microwavebandat lOlaHz, the wavelength is I micron,which is a millionth of a meter. When the wavelengthof the electromagnetic wave is 0.5 micron, the electromagnetic wave can be detected by our eyesand is called light. Radiobroadcast originallybeganin the | -MH zrangewherethe wavelength is very large.The first microwavesignalwas generated at l0 GHz, and here the wavelengthwas extremely short, and thus these waves were called microwaues.However, althoughmicrowaveshave a very small wavelength comparedwith low-frequency radio waves, their wavelength is extremely large comparedwith that of light. Formulasfor calculatingthe wavelengthof microwavesin free spaceare givenin Table2.1.

Table 2,1 Formulas for the free-space wavelength ol mlcrowaves

dr.:.:;e in which the fieldsof an are Fre;renc1 and wavelength g1 = \ elocity of light,3 x l\, et the velocitY describlaws an:: intoIlaxwell's the MHz, At I larged particles. the MHz, 300 reieigthis 3 m; at across Thus, is I mm. are,ength the i'.ar elengthvaries from I m I mm (the diameterof a r eni te-r

Free-Space Wavelength Meters Centimeters Millimeters

Frequency MHz GHz

300 f _ 30,000 f _ 300,000 f

= 0.3 f 30 f 300 f

Any one of theseformula can be inverted. For example : f(GHz) : =19I(cm)

26

MICROWAVE FIELDS

lmpedance field' (Z) is definedas the ratio of the electricfield to the magnetic Impedance the unit of (V/m), the and Thi unit of the electric field is volts per meter is ratio their of unit the magneticfield is amps per meter (A/m). Therefore, by divided volts in is equal to voltage ohms. (Low frequency impedanc.e is ohms,just as in the microwave impedance of unii the io amps, current'in
case') qn e -norlqnna n f an le wave ls 3 7 7 d l , a s electromagnetlc of In free space, the iimpedance magneticfields and determinedby Maxwell'. lu*.. The ratio of the electric and the waves' is determinedby the fundamentalnature of electromagnetic In contrast' fields. the express valueof377 O resultsfrom the units chosento and material on the dimensions depends line the impedance in a transmission line transmission the by can be controlled of the line. Therefore,impedance

Theseformulasseem\ the magnetic field to cr the low frequency fol impedance.

Example 2.1 Given (approximately the siz and f1 : I A/m. Find Solution

designer.Morewillbesaidaboutthissubjectinlaterchapters. Power DensitY wave power density is definedas the power carried by an electromagnetic (//): field magnetic the by and is equal to the electric field (E) multiplied PowerdensitY:ExH

Powerdensity P

Example 2.2 The rec areaof 2 m2,E = 377p density, and total powe Solution

The unit of power densitYis thus (V/m) (A/m) : VA/m2 : W/m2 The low frequencydefinitionof power by Ohm's law is voltagetimescurrent' field an electromagnetic by considering Powerdensitycan be appreciated space' through from a satelliteio earth. As the microwavetravels broadcast out so that by the time it reachesthe earth's surfaceit coversthe it spreads entire area of the United States,which permits the signalfrom the satellite at any locationin the United states.The powerdensityof the to be received the earth's microwavesignaldefinesthe amountof power in a squaremeterat surface. : EIZ' so By definition,power density : E x 11,but H Powerdensity: E x H Powerdensity =

P:3.77x : 754pW Phase

= E ,xZ 2 Z =4
or
PowerdensitY : E x H :H Zx H :H 2Z

Phase(seeFigure 2.7) is at the samefrequency. , frequency,wavelength,i to be specified, thesemu to the other wave or to tl time. Phaseis expresse one period. In the figure when the two electroma signalA reaches its maxi reaches its maximum.

2.3 CHARACTERISTICS OF ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES

27

field. tle;:ric fieldto themagnetic Dl.r {\''m), and the unit of the the unit of their ratio is lerefr'rre. t| r.. ,,oltage in volts divided by just as in the microwave s q-hns. rt:rrrlagnticwave is 377 O, as fields f :re electricand magnetic waves,and the f eie;tromagnetic the fields.In contrast, I tr' e\prSS and material ls t n rhe dimensions pn::.iiled line by the transmission chapters. .n later i;:

Theseformulasseemvery familiar. If the electricfield is changed to voltage, the magneticfield to current, and the power density to power, thesearejust the low frequency formulas for power in terms of voltage, current, and impedance. Example 2.1 Given a transmissionline of cross section 2 cm by I cm (approximately the size of a waveguideoperatingat l0 GHz), E : 50 V/m, and 11 : I A/m. Find the impedance, power density,and total power. Solution

z=!=5,0Y,/t:5oo
H lA/m Powerdensi= tyE x H:50W/mx I A/m:50W/m2 P : Power density x Cross-sectional area : 50 W/m2 x 0.02m x 0.01m = lOmW Example 2.2 The receiving antennaof a microwave relay systemhas an areaof 2 m2,E = 377p.Ylm, and F1 : I p.Alm. Find the impedance, power density, and total power receivedby the antenna. Solution

'br an electromagnetic wave ne.r rheo ri the magnetic field (ll): H

n: = \\' ml timescurrent. hr: . larr is voltage field nng an electromagnetic tsr\re nr.:J',\ave travelsthroughspace, it coversthe I l:.e earth'ssurface mr:i ihe signalfrom the satellite of the lS:":e.. The powerdensity meterat theearth's r: :- J square .:-'.H = ElZ,so
, H
r -

p.vtm: z : ! _ 377 377 a H I p.Alm

Powerdensity: E x H : 377 p . Y l m x I p A l m : 3 . 7 7x l 0 - r o w / m 2 P : 3 . 7 7x l 0 - r 0 W / m 2 x 2 m 2= 7 5 4 1 x l0-r2W : 754pW Phase Phase(see Figure 2.7) is the time differencebetweentwo electricalsignals at the samefrequency. A single electromagnetic wave is characterized by frequency, wavelength, impedance, and powerdensity.However,for phasl to be specified, thesemust be two waves.The phase of one waveis relative to the other wave or to the sameelectromagnetic wave at anotherinstant in time. Phaseis expressed in degrees,with 360"equal to a time differenceof one period. In the figure, signalA leads signalB by 90', which meansthat when the two electromagnetic waves are comparedon the sametime scale, signalA reachesits maximum one quarterof a cycle, or 90o,beforesignalB reachesits maximum.

E= -E :
Z

H ' H = H l Z

28

FIELDS MICROWAVE

A SIGNAL

Therefore,in traveling wave wih a frequencyc

Example 2.5 The freq 60 Hz. The typical dis l0 km (6 mi). What is tt
SIGNALB

Solution

Peric Time for signalto tra

SHIFT :<_ PHASE Flgure 2.7 Phase.

Example 2.3 If two equal microwave signalsare added, what is the total signalif (a) the signalsare in phase(phasedifferenceof 0"), (b) 180"out of pliut", (c) 270"out of phase,and (d) with a phasedifferenceof 360"? Sotution (a) The signalsare in phaseso their total strengthis simply the I + | : 2. sum of their individualstrengths: its maximumwhen the one signalreaches (b) For a 180'phase difference, I - I : 0' cancel: signals the Hence, its minimum. reaches other (c) For a 270'phasedifference,the uector sum of the signalsis taken: V l + l : V 2 : 1 . 4 1 6 . (d) When the phase shift is 360", the signals are again in phase, so + l : 2 . | Example2.4 A l-GHz microwave signalmovesfrom point I to point 2, a distanceof 3 cm. what is the phasedifferencebetweenthe points? Solution The phasedifferenceis the time requiredfor the signalto travel betweenthe pointsdividedby its period.Thus, Traveltime = = x 360" Phasedifference period _ Distance/Velocity x 360" I /frequency cm/s) - (3 cm)/(3 x -l0ro x 360" 1 / 1 0s e to : lo

The 0.7" phaseshift is ir 2.4 MTCROWAVES ti

i-: 36"

x 360'

Until now, microwaves from the transmitting al are transmitted from or considered. Low frequencycomp below the microwaveral wire carriesthe electri cannotbe conductedthn microwaveequipment,n with their wavelike char are only a fraction of an microwavepower must I guiding is called a micro Although there are hr only threebasictypes(F In Figure2.8, a drawing left, and a cross section The arrows in the cross Awaueguideis just a sectionbut can have a ci the microwavesin the sa wavesactually travel as waveguide.

IN TRANSMISSION 2.4 MICROWAVES LINES

29

tu tu
FT
E

Therefore,in traveling 3 cm (slightly more than I in.), an electromagnetic wave wih a frequencyof I GHz undergoes a 36'phaseshift. Example 2.5 The frequencyof the ac power lines in the United Statesis ffi Hz. The typical distance between a householdand the power plant is l0 km (6 mi). What is the phaseshift betweenthe householdand the plant? Solution Period at60Hz

TIME

TIME

:*:'u

x 10-2 s

points= Time for signal to travel between

= 3 . 3 x l 0 - 5s

i**ulk
1.6

: ? 1 " l9- : x 360' :0.7o Phaseshift x

l0-2 The 0.7'phase shift is insignificant and can be ignored. LINES 2.4 MICROWAVES IN TRANSMISSION

p:.- are added,what is the total c c . : i e r e n c eo f 0 " ) , ( b ) 1 8 0 "o u t o f a ::rse difference of 360"? ) r : e : r t o t a l s t r e n g t hi s s i m P l Yt h e ta. :rjihes its maximum when the p : ; . : J a n c el l- :l - - 0 . !(.' , .Llm of the signals is taken: ! : ;rdls are again in Phase, so

es from point I to Point 2, a I r'-.-', ri.:- ret\\een the Points? ts -;;-.]rred for the signal to travel

T: -. 5 ' ,i6o'

/\: .-crt) x 360" Pe:., . .', cm s) x 360"

1,,) 1fr t'

Until now, microwaveshave been consideredas transmittedthrough space from the transmitting antenna to the receiving antenna.How microwaves are transmitted from one part of the equipment to the next will now be considered. Low frequencycomponents like transistorsand capacitorsat frequencies below the microwaverangeare connectedby wires. The electronflow in the wire carries the electrical signal from part to part. Microwaves however, cannotbe conductedthrough wire, as was explainedin Chapter l. Insidethe microwaveequipment,microwavesare still considered aswaves.They travel with their wavelike characteristics from part to part. Even thoughthe parts are only a fraction of an inch apart, the microwavestravel as waves,and the microwavepower must be guidedfrom part to part. The devicethat doesthe guiding is called a microwave transmissionline. Although there are hundredsof microwave transmissionlines, there are only threebasictypes(Figure2.8):waveguide, coaxialcable,andmicrostrip. In Figure2.8, a drawingof each type of transmission line is shownon the line is shownon the right. left, and a crosssectionthroughthe transmission The arrows in the cross sectionare the microwave fields. cross A waueguide isjust a hollow metalpipe.It usuallyhasa rectangular The hollow pipeguides but can havea circularor oval crosssection. section the microwaves in the sameway that a water pipe guideswater.The microwavesactually travel as wavesfrom one componentto the next through the waveguide.

30

MICROWAVE FIELDS

I
WAVEGUIDE
I

F-cul

CABLE COAXIAT

co 2.9 Field Figure

ff

MICROSTFIIP

lines. transmission Figure 2.8 Microwave Coaxial cable consistsof an inner conductor surroundedby an outer conductor.The word coaxial meansthat the inner conductor is locatedon somesort this alignment In orderto achieve the axisof the outer conductor. coaxial The conductor. the inner to support of insulatingmaterialis needed outer inner and the between the space in cable is filled with an insulator In contrast, insulator. the through travel and the microwaves conductors, the travel,is emptybecause wherethe microwaves the insideof waveguides, waveguidewalls are self-supporting. in a complexmicroTolimplify the problemof makingmany connections Microstripconused. would be lines wave circuit, microstriptransmission ground plane. the plate called a flat and sists of a conductor, an insulator, laid out flat and cut been that's cable Note that microstrip is like a coaxial The strip conductor. outer the like is bottom so that the ground plun. on the is the between in space the and on the top is like the inner conductor, inside is carried field microwave of the most As the arrowsshow, insulator. the insulator. lines of microstrip is that severalmicrowavetransmission The advantage the of top surface the on putting them by can be easily connectedtogether ground common the as plane the bottom on ground insulatorand using the planefor all the circuits. fieldsof a microwavetravelinginsidea waveThe electricand magnetic line at a given instantof time are shown in Figure2'9. guidetransmission

Microwavepower is tran by the solid lines, the mi the waveguidewalls by t The upper sketchsho left end, the electric fie the bottom to the top of waveguide.Further alon then reachesa maximun reversesand reachesa n The distancealongthe selves is calledtheguide equal to the wavelength slightlymodifiedby the p tric materialthat fills the is two guide wavelength The lower sketch sho electric field lines. The < walls of the waveguide. The electricfield, mag by solving Maxwell's eq Figure 2.10 shows th during a microwavecycl The upper sketch,at tl that in Figure 2.9. The e upward. One quarter of electricfield configuratio field is now zero. One-h guide,the maximumele sideofthe sketch,at the I

2.4 MICROWAVES IN TRANSMISSION LINES

31

l-WAVEGUIDE
I : l : l l l

CUrOe WlVelepCrx-.|

COAXIALCABLE

@
in waveguide 2.9 Field configurations at a given instant Figure of time. Microwavepower is transmittedfrom left to right. The electricfield is shown by the solid lines, the magneticfield by the dotted lines, and the current in the waveguidewalls by the dashedlines. The upper sketch shows a cross sectionthrough the waveguide.At the left end, the electric field has a maximum value and points upward from the bottom to the top of the waveguide.The electric field varies along the waveguide.Further alongthe waveguide,the electric field goesto zero and then reachesa maximum with the field pointing downward. The field then reversesand reachesa maximum with the field pointing upward again. The distancealongthe waveguide in which the field patternsrepeatthemselves is calledthe guidewavelength. The guidewavelength is approximately equal to the wavelengthof the electromagnetic wave in free space,but is slightlymodifiedby the presence of transmission line walls and by the dielectric materialthat fills the transmission line. The sectionof waveguideshown is two guidewavelengths long. The lower sketch shows the magneticfields (dotted lines) encirclingthe electric field lines. The dashedlines show the electron current flow in the x'alls of the waveguide. The electricfield, magnetic field, and the currentdistributionsareobtained by solvingMaxwell's equations in the regioninsidethe hollow waveguide. Figure 2.10 shows the electric field in the waveguideat severaltimes duringa microwavecycle. The upper sketch,at the beginning of the microwavecycle, is the sameas that in Figure2.9.The electricfield linesare at maximumand are pointing upward.One quarterof a cycle later, at the samereference position,the electricfield configurationhas moved down the waveguide,and the electric neld is now zero. One-halfcycle later, as the wave movesfurther down the guide, the maximum electric field that had previously occurred at the left sideof the sketch,at the beginning of the cycle,hasnow movedto the center

'-<.-::-

1gs.

bY an outer ld*::..r surrounded is he .-rer conductor locatedon somesort a.:r.-\ e thtsalignment The coaxial conductor. d:: r:ner outer and inner the rt\\een x. In contrast' insulator. lhe ro-a: the because la , =. :rar el. is emPtY micror.!.:iections in a comPlex .-Lj conMicrostriP used. ; te 5 ground the called Plane' b: :."te B :::: > beencut and laid out flat The strip conductor. ike ::.e '-ruter is the between in space :he mc inside is carried field ; 3. ;-1r\\3!' lines ?r". :lcrowave transmission the of surface toP the on ng :rem ground common the as h :!rttrrm a waveinside ic',-'iare traveling 0i :rme are shown in Figure2'9'

32

MICROWAVE FIELDS

TEor
TIME

1/4CYCLE

TErz

1/2 CYCLE

3/4 CYCLE

Figure 2.10 Field configurationin waveguideat differentinstantsin time.

of the sketch,and the electricfield is at maximumand pointingdownwardat the left edgeof the guide. Three quarters of a cycle later, as the field configurationmoves further down the guide, the electric field is again zero at the referenceposition' Finally, one full cycle later, the electric field configurationis the sameas it was at the beginningof the cycle. The complete electric field, magneticfield, and the current distribution patternsmove down the waveguide,but for simplicity, only the electricfield is shownin Figure 2.10. waves of electromagnetic Figure2.9 showeda singlemode of propagation exist in each throughthe waveguide.Actually, severalmodesof propagation type of transmissionline, and each mode has a unique field configuration. at a particularfrequency,determinedby the Each mode beginsto propagate line dimensionsand the dielectric supportmaterials.The electransmission of severalof thesemodes,in rectangular field configurations tric and magnetic and in coaxialcable,are shownin Figure2'll and and circularwaveguides 2.12. waveguides. Microwaves Figure 2.ll shows the modes in rectangular cannot be propagatedin any mode below a critical frequency, called the mode cutoff frequency.The cutoff frequencyfor each mode dependson the width and heightof the waveguide'scross section.The cutoff frequencyfor 0'90 in. wide by each mode is shown below each sketchfor a waveguide Below 6.6GHz, no modeswill propagate 0.40in. high(internaldimensions).

in this sizewaveguide,so thesefrequencies.If mic lower frequency,a larger From 6.6 to 13.l GHi Microwavesstart to prop guideis one half of the fre waveguide is 0.90in., is ( At 13.t GHz the TE, TEo,mode.As shown,th field configuration.At 16 gated.At 19.7GHz, all : waveguide. If poweris pul into the other modes and quently,waveguide is no onemodeexists,which fo the characteristicsof the range,this examplewavep The labeling of the mor modes have electric fields waveguide.The magnetic axially along the wavegu magneticfields extend ac itself, can be seenclearly pattern in all directions.Tl neticfieldsthatexistonly ir the electric fields extend guide. The subscript after the magneticfield variationsa

2.4 MICROWAVES IN TRANSMISSION LINES

33

TEor

TEoz

TEt t

6.6GHe (0.900" r 0.400"!

1 6 . 1G H z

TEt2

TMrr

TMt2

1 9 . 7G H z

1 6 . ' lc H z

i9.7 GHz

in rectangular waveguide. 2.11 Fieldconfigurations Figure

2' 2,fterentinstantsin time' 2122

Lrr;-,r:l and Pointingdownwardat moves further fier; cr-rnfiguration h le r.-rat the referenceposition. is the sameas it cl: ,.,nfiguration ,1. and the current distribution Ee field r .r:plicity. only the electric waves p?i;lirrfl of electromagnetic in each exist propagation > t-ri trlo\le configuration' i h;: -r unique field bY the determined ll": trequencY, elecThe Ri::.: supportmaterials. rectangular in modes, re:i. lri these ti; ,re shownin Figure2.ll and ang.rlar*aveguides.Microwaves called the n ; ;ntical frequencY, on the nc. it-rteachmodedePends for s !e;:ron. The cutoff frequencY bY wide in' 0.90 f.rp ; \\aveguide ,6 r. GHz. no modeswill ProPagate

in this sizewaveguide, so it can't be usedfor transmitting microwaves below thesefrequencies.If microwavesmust be transmittedin a waveguideat a lower frequency, a larger size of waveguidemust be used. From 6.6 to l3.l GHz, only the singleTE,s mode can be propagated. Microwavesstart to propagate at the frequencywhen the width of the waveguideis one half of the free-space wavelength, which, sincethe width of this waveguide is 0.90in., is 6.6 GHz. At l3.l GHz the TEo, mode beginsto propagate, as well as the original TEo, mode. As shown, the TEo, mode has a different electric and magnetic field configuration.At 16.I and 19.7GHz, still other modes can be propagated.At 19.7GHz, all six modesshown in Figure 2.ll can exist in the waveguide. If poweris put into the waveguide in one mode,it will be coupled into the other modes and cannot be removed from the waveguide.Consequently,waveguide is normallyonly used in a frequencyrangewherejust would be 6.6 to l3.l GHz. (Because onemodeexists,which for this example the characteristicsof the waveguidechangerapidly near the ends of this range, this example waveguide is normallyusedonly from 8.2to 12.4 GHz.) The labeling of the modes is as follows: The TE, or transverseelectric, plane,that is, only acrossthe modeshave electricfieldsin the transverse waveguide. The magneticfield in the TE modesruns both transverselyand axially along the waveguide. That electric fields are transverseand that magneticfields extend across the cross section and along the waveguide itself,can be seenclearly in Figure2.11,which showedthe completefield patternin all directions.The TM, or transverse magneticmodes,have magneticfieldsthatexistonly in thetransverse crosssection of theguide,whereas the electric fields extend in the transverseand axial directions along the guide. The subscript after the TE or TM refers to the number of electric or magneticfield variationsacrossthe height and width of the waveguide.For

34

FIELDS MICROWAVE WAVEGUIDE CIRCULAR T E rt

a certain critical frequency coaxial cable is 4.2 GHz. A coaxial cable is normally nc Electric and magneticfit are also shown waveguides

2.5 SKIN DEPTH

0.88GHr {10cM olA.l COAXIALCABLE

TEtt

4.2GHzFOR7/8" DlA' Flgure 2.12 Field configurationsin circular waveguideand coaxial cable.

example, in the TEo, mode, the electric field is uniform

with no variations

Microwavestravel insidethe They are not carried in the spacebetweenthe walls. If microwaveswould not pene the walls are not perfect t slightly into the walls. The depth. The skin depth depe materialof the transmissio walls at which the fields hav Skin depth is shown as a fu 2.13.At l0 GHz the skin dr The walls of transmissio carry microw to adequately in. This allo lessthan 0.0004 lines. It also al transmission

u"ro.i the heightdimension,but hasone variationacrossthe width' The field goesfrom ze-3at edgeof the guide to a maximumat the center and back to zeroal the oppositeend of the guide. mode, the electric field still has no variations across the For the T-E-0, goes height of the guide, but has two variationsacrossits width. The field maximum a to zero, to guide, maximum, to a from zero at the one edgeof the with the opposite field direction, and then back to zero at the other guide wall. ratio of approxiusea width-to-height waveguides rectangular All standard modeshave a TM11 TE,, and the that mately 2. This is requiredin order bandwidth useful gives a maximum This highei cutoff point than the TEo2. to 300GHz' MHz 300 from range frequency to-thewaveguiO..To cover the but the width different with a each 34 different rectangularwaveguides, standard these of characteristics The used. samewidth-to-heightratio, are are describedin Chapter7' waveguides rectangular Figure2.12showsthe two lowestmodesin coaxialcable.The TEM mode planeonly, and it propagates fieldsin the transverse haseiectricand magnetic has two conductors.Coaxial cable coaxial the from zero frequency,because wide bandwidth' cable thereforehas an extremely Coaxial cable also has other modesof propagation,the next being TE"' until modesthe TE,, modein coaxialcablecannotpropagate Like waveguide

2.5 SKIN DEPTH

35

a certain critical frequencyis reached.This frequency,for a t-in. diameter coaxial cable is 4.2 GHz. Above this frequency, two modesexist, and this coaxial cable is normally not used. Electric and magnetic field patterns for some of the modes in circular waveguides are also shown in Figure2.12.

2.5 SKIN DEPTH Microwavestravel insidethe transmission line aselectricand magnetic fields. They are not carried in the metal walls of the transmission lines but in the spacebetweenthe walls. If the walls were madeof perfect conductors,the microwaveswould not penetrateat all into the walls of the guide. However, the walls are not perfect conductors, so the microwave fields penetrate slightly into the walls. The depth to which they extend is called the skin depth. The skin depth dependson the frequencyof the microwavesand the materialof the transmission line walls, and is definedas the distancein the walls at which the fieldshave decreased to 307o of their value at the surface. Skin depth is shown as a function of frequencyfor various metalsin Figure 2.13.At l0 GHz the skin depth in copperis only 0.5 micron. The walls of transmission lines needto be only about l0 skin depthsthick to adequately carry microwaves,which at l0 GHz is lessthan l0 micronsor lessthan 0.0004 in. This allowsthe useof very thin conductorson microstrip transmission lines. It also allows waveguideand coaxialcableto be madeof

TEtt

.:

GH: FOR 7/8" D|

^ : . + j u , d e a n d c o a x i a lc a b l e .

bl,c . ;nitorm with no variations the width. The field rk: - :. across Ir.- -::. at the centerand back to lt.l ::i no variations across the f :-r-':! ris u'idth. The field goes to zero,to a maximum Itr-:r..::.uIn. I r:-r lurZroat the other guide ratioof approxi! a * J:n-ro-height b - E and TM,, modeshave a re! : :Ia\imum usefulbandwidth 'ra:i. irom 300MHz to 300GHz, t .. :n a different width but the ! i::=cteristics of thesestandard
L h:::31-

cable'The TEM mode s rc Jr'r&rial ir er:3 planeonly, and it propagates Coaxial cabiehastwo conductors.
16jii ldth. prlrFagation, the next being TE11' oariol cable cannot propagate until

o . lp

0.3

l0 (GHz) Frequency Figure 2.13 Skin depth.

36

MICROWAVE FIELDS

and the materialand then platedon their inner surfaces, any convenient plating' fieldsextendonly into the mitrowaue BIBLIOGRAPHY ANNOTATED
l.T.Laverghelta,PracticalMicrowaves,HowardSams'Indianapolis'1984' Artech House' Dedham'MA' 1984' 2. F. E. Gardiol,Introductionto Microwaues' Maxwell's equations ReferenceI provides a simple mathematicalexplanationof analysisof mathematical thorough a provides 2 and microwave fields. Refeience fields' microwave

Frequenc 150GHz

6.8GHz

15.5 GHz 3 . 5G H z 1 . 5G H z

EXERCISES table' thefollowing 2.1. Complete

Frequency

2.3. Draw arrows whos frequencies: Period

Frequency (GHz) 4 8 l5 60

60 Hz 2kHz 5 MHz 500 MHz 2 GHz 5 GHz l0 GHz 100GHz l0 ms 20 p.s 5ps 100ns 50 ns 500ps

2.4. Completethe table

Electric Field (V/m)

250kHz 20 MHz
2.5 1ts 2.2. Completethe followingtable' Frequency Wavelength

754x l0-3

0.025

600MHz 5 GHz
2 GHz 15 GHz 75 GHz

2.5. How much microwa tric field at the ante l0-8 A/ m?

EXERCISES

and the o n lheir inner surfaces,

Frequency 150GHz

Wavelength 3cm l0 mm 3mm 50 cm 300 mm

ins

1984. la:: >ims. IndianaPolis, MA' 1984. D e d h a m , {--:h House, cr: i:lrrion of Maxwell's equations r :-..:-.,rgh mathematical analysis of

6.8 GHz 28 mm 15.5 GHz

25cm
3.5 GHz 1 . 5G H z

1.5 mm
Draw arrows whose length is equal to one wavelengthat the following frequencies:
Period Frequency (GHz) 4 8 l5 60 Wavelength (mm) Arrow Representing Wavelength

tr.,a: f!

2.4. Completethe table.

Electric Field (V/m) Magnetic Field (A/m) Power Density (W/m2)

D-f:i

Impedance

(())

0:.
7 5 4x l 0 - 3

0.02
2 x l0-3

l.'

0.025 0.04
l0-3

\\ :r elength

377

l0- l

2.5. How much microwavepower is received by a 3-m2 antenna if the electric field at the antennais l0-5 V/m and the magneticfield is 2.6 x l 0 - 8A / m ?

38

FIELDS MICROWAVE

2.6. What is the phaserelationshipof the following signals? A by _leads or lags degrees degrees degrees

C
leads or lags

A by --A by leads or lags

90.

MICRO
l80e

tr I I I I

t,

At low frequencies, the sl or current. These two qt are relatedby the impeda and power is the produc As shown in Chapte voltageand current are el their low frequency equi rectly measured.At micr and the electricand magn The rangeof power in systemto specify microu wave power are discusse

3.1 MTCROWAVE POW

2.7. Completethe following table.

Frequency (GHz) 2 6 l0 l0 30

Figure 3.1 showsthe rang Power is the strengthor a suredas electricalpower I ever, the referencelevel r
Skin Depth (microns)

Material Copper Gold Aluminum Copper Copper

to operatea telephone, or referencein the telecomm usemicrowave equipmen designed to operateat the However. microwave r

I mW,which is fr W. T