Word Class

Word Class Noun Pronoun Adjective Preposition Verb Adverb Conjunction Interjection Determiner
Verbs and Tenses Simple Present (SPr) Active: Base form, + s Passive: am/is/are + past participle Present Continuous (PrC) Active: am/is/are + present participle Passive: am/is/are + being + past participle Present Perfect (PrP) Active: has/have + past participle Passive: has/have + been + past participle Present Perfect Continuous (PrPC) Active: has/have + been + present participle Passive: rarely used

Example House, John Him, His Beautiful, stupid On, At Cooking, Running Nicely, wonderfully And, But Wow! The, that

Collapses, throws Is swept, are formed Are (you) listening, is living Are being eroded, is being built

Has done, has provided Have been questioned

Has been wanting, have been watching

Simple Past (SPs) Active: Simple past form (-ed) Passive: was/were + past participle Past Continuous (PsC) Active: was/were + present participle

Collided, failed Were killed, was passed Was speeding, was raining

Passive: was/were + being + past participle Past Perfect (PsP) Active: had + past participle Passive: had + been + past participle Past Perfect Continuous (PsPC) Active: had + been + present participle Passive: Rarely used Active (FA) will/shall + bare infinitive (base form) Passive (FP) will/shall + be + past participle Continuous (FC) will/shall + be + present participle Perfect (FPe) will/shall + have + past participle Perfect Continuous (FPC) will/shall + have + been + present participle

Was being cut, were being hanged

Had lived, had torn Had been lost, had been fixed Had been looking

Will announce Shall be done Will be sailing Will have spent Will have been looking

DIRECT SPEECH SPs Tom said, I saw Mike at the cinema. PrP Tom said, I have lost my watch. PrPC Joe said, I have been waiting for hours. PsC Kate said, I was trying to help.

-> -> -> ->

INDIRECT SPEECH PsP Sue said that she had seen Mike at the cinema. PsP Tom said that he had lost his watch. PsPC Joe said that he had been waiting for hours. PsPC Kate said that she had been trying to help.

Subject-Verb Agreement

1. Countable Nouns = Singular noun -> singular verb, Plural noun -> plural verb - A movie ticket costs RM8 on weekdays. - They leave their office at 7 p.m. everyday.

2. All uncountable nouns -> singular verb - Permission is granted for Air Force to land. - Evidence shows that the suspect was in the room with the victim.

3. Indefinite Pronoun (everyone, everybody) -> singular verb - Everyone associated with the project is proud to be part of the effort. - Someone has to be responsible.

4. Some phrases may contain plural words -> just focus on the subject pronoun - Each of the project partners is responsible for writing a chapter summary.

5. All, some -> refer back to the subject whether is countable or not - Some of the students in the class have voted already. *students is plural = plural verb have is used+ - Some of the grain was ruined by the flood. *grain is uncountable = singular verb was is used+ None can have both plural and singular verb

o None of us have any idea where did he went. *plural+ o None of us has any idea where did he went. *singular+

6. Fractional -> refer to subject whether it is countable or not - Two-fifth of the grain is ruined. *grain is uncountable = singular verb is is used+ - One-half of the students were convinced that there would be no final exam this year. *students is plural = plural verb were is used+

7. Phrases together with, along with, as well as -> can be ignored - Some of the hay in the barn, as well as some major pieces of farm equipment, was ruined in the flood. *hay is uncountable = singular verb was is used+

8. Either, Neither when stands alone -> singular verb - Neither of these choices appears to be satisfactory.

9. Eitheror, Neithernor (as correlative conjunction) -> refer to subject closer to the verb - Neither the principal nor the teachers are at fault. - Neither the teachers nor the principal is at fault.

10.Empty subject (there is, there are) -> refer to subject that comes after the verb - There are several explanations for the problem.

- Here come John and his two brothers. Phrases Phrases Noun Phrases (determiner + noun) Adjectival Phrases (intensifier + adjective) Adverbial phrases (adverb + intensifier / other noun) Prepositional Phrases (Prep + det + noun) More clearly, quickly to the rubbish bin To the school, in the bin, in the city Examples The school, the crazy man Very beautiful, very small

Clauses Noun Clause can be replaced by other pronouns a) Type of Clause - Start with these words that Wh-word (who, when, what, where, which, why, how) Wh-ever word The prince will marry whoever walks through that door. Whether If I dont know whether he will recover. I dont know if Fadzil has a job. He thinks that this audition is easy. Everybody wondered where he lives.

b) Function of clauses As subject of sentence That he has disappeared is a mystery. (can be replaced with it) Object of the sentence Her friends didnt like what she was saying. (can be replaced with that) Subject complement Her mistake was that she kept lying. (can be replaced with this) Object of preposition The search party looks into whatever is applicable. (can be replaced with it) Adjective complement She is afraid that the search is a failure.

Adverbial Clause (the function is usually adverbial too) - Answers questions of: Why? When? Where? How? How Long?

- Introduced by subordinating conjunctions as if he is so smart Wherever he likes

while she is free Adjectival Clause Pattern of clause - Relative Pronoun + Subject + Verb that she likes

although he loves her so much

(Rel. Pro) (Subject) (Verb)

- Relative Pronoun + Verb who sits beside me

(Rel. Pro) (Verb) Common relative pronouns and adverbs who that which where whom when Whose why

Function of Clause - Answers question: what kind? Which one? How many? - Provides extra information to the sentence - Subject complement Faiz, who scored high marks in the exam, lives in Selangor.

Cohesive Devices a) Logical connectors - Are usually conjunctions - Connects two ideas so they have a flow between them - FANBOYS, subordinating conjunctions, correlative conjunctions

The TV programme CSI is very popular among the young. As a result, many of them are interested in forensic science. b) Grammatical Devices - Are usually pronouns - This, That etc. Artists have great imagination. This helps them to produce amazing works. c) Lexical Devices - Words that replaces others - Synonyms, words that link to each other

Sentence Types a) Simple Sentence - One clause - Made up of 1 subject + 1 predicate - Noun phrase + Verb phrase - Only have 1 verb, but can have compound subject - E.g. Joe has two brothers. I wanted to have some cakes and sweets. The fish died.

b) Compound Sentence - Made up of two different simple sentences (independent clauses) - Have two subjects + two verbs - Joined by FANBOYS (for, and, nor, but, yet, so)

- E.g. I went to the market and bought some vegetables. Sally picked up the cat and stroked it gently.

c) Compound Sentences - Made up of 1 independent clause (main clause) + 1 dependant clause (subordinating clause) - Joined by subordinating conjunctions (because, since, after, although, before, if, while etc.) and relative pronouns (that, who, whom, which, whose etc.) - E.g. The earthquake struck while we were at the study hall. Although he had studied hard, he still fails the test. Sentence Patterns 1. Subject + Verb (SV) The chair breaks. The bird flies. Fahri smiles.

2. Subject + Verb + Object (SVO) Joseph kicked the ball. The boys build the tree-house. The men captured the thief.

3. Subject + Verb + Adverbial (SVA) My parents are at the bank. Miss Florence has been here before.

We were in the forest.

4. Subject + Verb + Complement (SVC) Miss Joanne was my music teacher. The boys are hungry. My sister is in a bad mood.

5. Subject + Verb + Object + Object (SVOO) *(2 objects = Indirect + Direct) I gave my mother a bouquet of flowers. Our boss gave us some bonus. Jimmy cooked some spaghetti for his guests.

6. Subject + Verb + Object + Complement (SVOC) The warden found the prisoner dead. Everyone calls Fahri a genius. We elected her the president.

7. Subject + Verb + Object + Adverbial (SVOA) Mother cooks for us every day. John is baking some muffins for his children. Amy is donating some books for the new library.

Direct Speech -> Indirect Speech 1. Change in punctuation marks. 2. Change in reporting verbs. 3. Change in pronoun.

4. Change in tense DIRECT SPEECH SPs Tom said, I saw Mike at the cinema. PrP Tom said, I have lost my watch. PrPC Joe said, I have been waiting for hours. PsC Kate said, I was trying to help. INDIRECT SPEECH PsP Sue said that she had seen Mike at the cinema. PsP Tom said that he had lost his watch. PsPC Joe said that he had been waiting for hours. PsPC Kate said that she had been trying to help.

-> -> -> ->

5. Change in modal verb forms Direct Speech am/is/were was/were has/have will/shall can may Indirect Speech

-> -> -> -> -> ->

was/were had been had would could might

6. Change in time references Direct Speech tomorrow Today Indirect Speech

-> ->

the next day/the following day That day/the same day

Tonight Yesterday

That night The day before/ the previous day

Last night/week/month/year

->

The previous night/ week/month/year

Next night/week/month/year

The following night/ week/month/year

The day before yesterday The day after tomorrow Two days ago Now

-> -> -> ->

Two days before In two days time Two days before Then

Sentence Moods 1. Declarative mood - Stating facts to give details, facts, information - Ends with a period (.) - E.g. Bangkok is the capital of Thailand. I have completed my work.

2. Interrogative mood - To ask, to require information, to investigate, to request - Starts with modal verbs (will, should) or wh-questions (what, who etc.), ends with a question mark (?) - E.g. Is this your son? Do you need my help? What is happening?

3. Imperative mood - To instruct, give order, give command - Usually the subject of sentence is dropped Watch out! (You watch out!) - E.g. Let them go. Dont pluck the flowers! Do be careful.

4. Exclamatory mood - To express admiration, strong emotions and feelings - Ends with an exclamation mark (!) - E.g. How lovely you look! Isnt that a shame!

5. Subjunctive mood - Express doubt, conditions that may or may not happen - Express hope, suggestion - Usage of modal verbs (could, should, might, may, would) - Usage of subordinate conjunction if - E.g. If I should see her, I will tell her the decision. If I were you, I would be so happy. I wish that we will have a better leader.