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c
V
t t
H c
the magnetic field
Fundamentals of
Electromagnetics
Wave Equation
Electromagnetics
In a time-invariant, linear, isotropic medium:
V
~ ~
H B
E
c
=
c
= V
In a time invariant, linear, isotropic medium:
V
~
E D
t t
E
c c
c c
V
~
~
~ ~
~
~
E
t
J E
t
H
i
c +
c
= + +
c
= V
( )
t
H
E E E
c
cV
= V V + V = V V
~
~ ~
2
~
t c
0
~ ~
2
2
=
c
c
V
E E
E c
Wave equation for
th ti fi ld
6
0
2
~
=
c
c
V
t t
E c
the magnetic field
Fundamentals of
Electromagnetics
Wave Equation
Vector wave equation for the
Electromagnetics
0
~
2
2
=
c
V
a
a c
Vector wave equation for the
electric field or for the magnetic
field (in the absence of loss
0
2
~
=
c
V
t
a c
terms)
) , , , (
2
c t z y x a
0
) , , , (
) , , , (
2
2
~
~
2
=
c
V
t
y
t z y x a
x
x
c
|
.
|
\
|
=
z y x
a a a a
~ ~ ~ ~
, ,
0
) , , , (
) , , , (
2
~
2
2
=
c
c
V
t
t z y x a
t z y x a
y
y
c
. \
0
) , , , (
) (
~
2
2
~
c
V
c
t z y x a
t
t
z
y
c
Three scalar equations
7
0 ) , , , (
2
~
=
c
V
t
t z y x a
z
z
c
Fundamentals of
Electromagnetics
Wave Equation
( ) 0 0 ) ( ) ( assume s Let' t z a t z y x a =
Electromagnetics
( ) 0 , 0 ), , ( ) , , , ( assume s Let
~ ~
t z a t z y x a
x
=
m/s 10 3 v is vacuum in speed light The .
1
v
8
= =
a a
di t ti l
1
2 2
c c
p g
c
t
a
v z
a
x x
coordinate t temporal
coordinate spatial z
, 0
1
2
~
2 2
~
=
c
c
c
c
( ) vt z a a solution. a is it , = = ( )
( )
x x
,
~ ~
8
( ) v vt z a
x
velocity with z along g propagatin a wave is
~
Fundamentals of
Electromagnetics
Wave Equation
Electromagnetics
`
vdt dz d = = 0
z
( ) 5v z a
)
v
dz
vdt dz d
=
0
t=5
( ) 5
~
v z a
x
)
dt
The propagation speed is the constant v
z
z=5v
9
The propagation speed is the constant v
z 5v
Fundamentals of
Electromagnetics
Wave Equation
I bl h l i i h i d i i i l
Electromagnetics
In many problems, the analysis in the time domain is unpractical.
We start by studying monochromatic signals in the frequency
domain.
1
2 2
2 2
c
c c
a
a a
e
0 0
1
2 2 2
~
2 2
~
= +
c
c
=
c
c
x
x x x
a
v z
a
t v z
e
Helmholtzs equation:
0
2 2
a k a V
quantity complex a is
0
2 2
k
a k a
c e
c
=
= V
10
quantity complex a is
c
k c e
c
Fundamentals of
Electromagnetics
Wave Equation:
frequency domain
2
d
Electromagnetics
frequency domain
Going back to the scalar equation:
0
2
2
2
=
x
x
a k
dz
a d
c
The solution reads as the sum of two waves:
( )
k k
0 | k
( )
z k z k
x
e V e V z a
c c
+
+ =
0 , > + = o | o
c
j k
wave backward the is
wave forward the is
| o
| o
z j z
z j z
e e V
e e V
+
h h i
constant n attenuatio the is
wave backward the is
|
o
e e V
11
constant phase the is |
Fundamentals of
Electromagnetics
Wave Equation:
frequency domain
Electromagnetics
frequency domain
z j z
e e V
| o
+
|V
+
| e
-oz
The wave is attenuated along z
j|
z
|V
-
| e
oz
z j z
e e V
| o
z
The backward wave is attenuated, as well
In absence of obstacles the forward wave can propagate alone
Forward wave in the time domain o wa d wave e e do a
{ } ) ( R ) (
0 Re,
V V V
V
t j z j
|
o
e |
= e
+
+
12
{ } ) cos( Re ) , (
~
z t V e V t z V
t j z j
| e
e |
= =
+
+
+
Fundamentals of
Electromagnetics
Wave Equation:
frequency domain
Electromagnetics
frequency domain
is the position vector
r k j
e E E
=
0
r
is the position vector
is a constant amplitude vector
r
0
E
is the phase vector, and its modulus is:
k
e
| |
e
c e = =
c
n k
medium the of index refractive the is
0
c
c
= n
13
Uniform plane
waves in
Fundamentals of
Electromagnetics
waves in
lossless media
Electromagnetics
k
Plane A Plane B
Travelling from plane A to plane B, one can observe:
z
z=L
z=0
a variation in the phase
a variation in the amplitude a variation in the amplitude
Amplitude and phase are constant in each plane orthogonal to
th t k
14
the vector k
Uniform plane
waves in
Fundamentals of
Electromagnetics
waves in
lossless media
Electromagnetics
The phase changes along the direction of
k
It can be proved that and are orthogonal to
It can be proved that q is the wave impedance
E H
k
| | | | H E q =
It can be proved that , q is the wave impedance
If is linearly polarized, then and are mutually
orthogonal
| | | | H E q =
E H E
orthogonal
The plane wave is TEM:
Transverse ElectroMagnetic
15
Uniform plane
waves in
Fundamentals of
Electromagnetics
waves in
lossless media
Electromagnetics
In a cartesian orthogonal reference
frame we assueme that the wave
E
k
a
frame, we assueme that the wave
propagates along the z direction
H
a
x
a
y
a
z
H
( )
( )
( ) ( )
( )
n k a k k
z E
z H e E z E
a z E E
z
jkz
x
0
,
, ,
e
= = = =
`
=
( )
( ) ( )
c a z H H
z
y
0
, , ,
)
`
=
0
0
0
120 : is impedance wave the vacuum In t
c
q O = =
n
0
: as reads impedance wave the medium, generic a In
q
q =
Uniform plane
waves in
Fundamentals of
Electromagnetics
waves in
lossless media
Electromagnetics
By definition, the Poynting vector is:
( ) E z E H E
| |
| |
2
0
2 *
( )
z y x
a
E
a a
z E H E
P
2
| |
2
| |
2
0
q q
= = =
Electromagnetic energy is flowing along z (the real part of P is
the active intensity)
E
a
P
a
x
a
y
a
z
17
H
Plane waves:
reflections
Fundamentals of
Electromagnetics
reflections
Electromagnetics
We assume that there is a discontinuity in the wave
impedance along the propagation direction.
The material variation gives rise to a reflection: part of the
energy is reflected and the remaining part is transmitted.
q
1
q
2
1 2
q q
=
+
E E
incident wave
transmitted wave
E
+
E
t
1 2
1 2
q q
q q
+
=
reflected wave
transmitted wave
E
-
18
Plane waves:
reflections
Fundamentals of
Electromagnetics
reflections
Electromagnetics
The reflection coefficient depends on the angle of incidence.
E
+
The presence of obstacles gives rise to
E
t
E
-
p g
multiple paths between the transmitter and
the receiver: INTERFERENCE !
path 2 path 2
path 1
trx
observer
19
path 3
Spherical waves
Fundamentals of
Electromagnetics Electromagnetics
These waves have a spherical constant-phase surface.
S h i l l ti f M ll ti d Spherical waves are a solution of Maxwells equations under
the following hypotheses:
h di homogeneous medium
point source (located in the origin O)
o
r
The solution must exhibit a spherical symmetry: The solution must exhibit a spherical symmetry:
( ) ( ) G G u
20
( ) ( ) r G r G = u, ,
Spherical waves
Fundamentals of
Electromagnetics
B l i th ti i h i l di t t
Electromagnetics
By solving the wave equation in a spherical coordinate system
for a lossless medium (=0) and considering only the emitted
wave, we can write: wave, we can write:
( )
( )
jkr
G
r G k G
= V o
c
1
2 2
( )
jkr
e
r
r G =
t 4
We observe that the field intensity is inversely proportional to r
2
We observe that the field intensity is inversely proportional to r
( )
= =
r
GG P
t q
q
4 2
1
2
1
2
2
*
( )
}
= =
TOT
Pdxdy P
r t q
q
8
1
4 2
2
21
}
S
TOT
y
tq 8
First
Antenna
Antennas:
historical note
Antenna
historical note
First antenna for radio waves (=8m): First antenna for radio waves (=8m):
it was developed by Heinrich Hertz in1886.
The Hertzian dipole is a linear antenna whose The Hertzian dipole is a linear antenna whose
length is much shorter than the EM wavelength.
22
First
Antenna
Antennas:
historical note
First antenna for radio waves (=8m):
Antenna
historical note
First antenna for radio waves (=8m):
it was developed by Heinrich Hertz in1886.
The Hertzian dipole is a linear antenna whose The Hertzian dipole is a linear antenna whose
length is much shorter than the EM wavelength.
a
z
J
i
M
a
y
23
a
x
Hertzian dipole: its length is infinitesimal
It is a short electric-current element: L<<.
The current along this linear antenna can be considered as
constant.
The metallic spheres at the wire extremities
convert the electric current into displacement
current (by accumulating electric charges)
L
current (by accumulating electric charges)
Th t lli h k th l t f The metallic spheres work as the plates of a
capacitor.
24
Linear
Antenna Antenna
Radiation is caused
by the acceleration
of electric charges
25
Electric field lines generated by an
h lf i t
Linear
Antenna
half-wave wire antenna
Antenna
26
Antennas:
historical note
Guglielmo Marconi proved that it was possible to transmit EM
historical note
g p p
signals over transoceanic distances: in 1901 Marconi managed
to send the first message between US and England without
i th t l h bl ( i l i ti using the telegraph cable (wireless communications were
born)
27
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