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Flaw size evaluation in immersed ultrasonic testing

J . D. Hislop*

T h e f a c t o r s which affect the e v a l u a t i o n of flaw s i z e by echo a m p l i t u d e m e a s u r e m e n t s a r e d i s c u s s e d and f u n d a m e n t a l w e a k n e s s e s in the f i a t - b o t t o m e d hole t e s t b l o c k s y s t e m a r e outlined. The n e e d f o r knowledge of o p e r a t i n g f r e q u e n c y i s s t r e s s e d and the c o n s e q u e n t c o r r e c t i o n s r e q u i r e d a r e explained. F i n a l l y s c a n n i n g m e t h o d s r a t h e r than a m p l i t u d e m e a s u r e m e n t s a r e p r o p o s e d a s o f f e r i n g a way of e l i m i n a t i n g m o s t of the u n c e r t a i n t i e s in flaw s i z e e v a l u a t i o n

F L A T - B O T T O M E D HOLE STANDARDS In the m a n u f a c t u r e of f o r g i n g s a n d wrought p r o d u c t s , i n c l u s i o n s and s h r i n k a g e pipe in the o r i g i n a l c a s t ingot a r e f l a t t e n e d by the u p s e t t i n g a c t i o n of t h e forging p r o c e s s . T h e r e s u l t i n g flaws g e n e r a l l y lie a l o n g the d i r e c t i o n of g r a i n flow and a r e often s u b s t a n t i a l l y flat and p a r a l l e l to the m a j o r f o r g i n g s u r f a c e s . Ndt w o r k e r s soon saw t h a t a r t i f i c i a l f l a w s m i g h t be u s e d in n o n - d e s t r u c t i v e a s s e s s m e n t of flaw s i z e , p r o v i d e d t h e i r g e o m e t r y s i m u l a t e d that of a c t u a l flaws. F l a t b o t t o m e d h o l e s d r i l l e d in m e t a l b l o c k s h a v e long b e e n e s t a b lished, e s p e c i a l l y in the a l u m i n i u m and a i r c r a f t i n d u s t r i e s , for e s t i m a t i n g flaw s i z e and e s t a b l i s h i n g quality a c c e p t a n c e levels. T h e f i r s t a l u m i n i u m b l o c k s w e r e m a d e and t e s t e d in 1952 by W. C. Hitt, 1 and a f t e r e x t e n s i v e p r a c t i c a l t e s t s z w e r e s t a n d a r d i z e d by the A m e r i c a n Society f o r T e s t i n g and M a t e r i a l s . 3 The s y s t e m i s now widely used, a l t h o u g h t h e m u l t i p l i c i t y of b l o c k s which a r e n e e d e d in p r a c t i c e , and the difficulty of p r o ducing s t a n d a r d i z e d s e t s ( p a r t i c u l a r l y in the h e a v i e r alloys) have b e e n r e s p o n s i b l e f o r a t t e m p t s to r e p l a c e the f l a t b o t t o m e d hole s t a n d a r d by o t h e r t y p e s of r e f l e c t o r . H e m i s p h e r i c a l - e n d e d h o l e s in m e t a l b l o c k s 4 and s m a l l p l a t i n u m d i s c s in f u s e d g l a s s b l o c k s h a v e b e e n s u g g e s t e d , and b o t h have t h e i r own m e r i t s a n d d e m e r i t s . It i s unlikely t h a t t e s t b l o c k s will be c o m p l e t e l y e l i m i n a t e d f o r u l t r a s o n i c c o n t a c t t e s t i n g , a l t h o u g h t h e i r p e r f o r m a n c e can c e r t a i n l y b e i m p r o v e d by c o n s i d e r i n g s o m e of the o p e r a t i o n a l c o r r e c t i o n s which will b e d e s c r i b e d in t h i s p a p e r . A t t e m p t s have b e e n made, notably in G e r m a n y , to quantify the flat r e f l e c t o r s y s t e m without a c t u a l l y u s i n g t e s t b l o c k s . The K r a u t k r ~ m e r AVG d i a g r a m a l l o w s flaw s i z e e s t i m a t i o n s b a s e d on o b s e r v e d echo h e i g h t s and a s e r i e s of s i m p l e c a l c u lations. THE D E C I B E L UNIT It h a s b e e n c o m m o n ( e s p e c i a l l y in the USA) to r e f e r to flaw e c h o e s in t e r m s of t h e i r height on t h e cathode r a y tube screen, as measured in millimetres or inches, or expressed as a percentage of the m a x i m u m screen height or of the height of a fixed datum. The reproducibility of all these methods depends on always using the s a m e type of flaw detector, or relying on the Unearity of the amplifier response. * D i v i s i o n a l Quality E n g i n e e r (NDT), Rolls Royce Ltd, A e r o Engine Division, Derby, E n g l a n d

E l a b o r a t e c h e c k s h a v e b e e n d e v i s e d to t e s t l i n e a r i t y , 3 but t h e r e i s a m u c h e a s i e r way. The i n t r o d u c t i o n in E u r o p e of the c a l i b r a t e d a t t e n u a t o r , which c a n r e d u c e the s i z e of the d i s p l a y e d s i g n a l in a way which i s i n d e p e n d e n t of a m p l i f i e r l i n e a r i t y , h a s o v e r c o m e t h e s e p r o b l e m s of c o m p a r i s o n . When a flaw s i g n a l i s d e t e c t e d , the a t t e n u a t o r i s u s e d to a d j u s t i t s height to a fixed d a t u m level s o t h a t t h e flaw echo a m p l i t u d e c a n be e x p r e s s e d u n a m b i g u ously, and r e p e a t e d l y , a s d e c i b e l s above o r below t h i s level. If the e q u i p m e n t h a s b e e n s e t up so that a s t a n d a r d t a r g e t a l s o g i v e s a n echo to t h i s l e v e l then flaw e c h o e s can all be r e f e r r e d b a c k to t h e s t a n d a r d a s so m a n y dB above o r below it. The dB s c a l e h a s a floating z e r o , s i n c e it i s a unit of c o m p a r i s o n , and t h i s z e r o c a n be c h o s e n to c o r r e s p o n d to the echo f r o m a c o n v e n i e n t s t a n d a r d t a r g e t . I h a v e u s e d t h i s s y s t e m t h r o u g h o u t t h i s p a p e r , except w h e r e m a k i n g s p e c i f i c c o m p a r i s o n with f l a t - b o t t o m e d h o l e s . All d i s c u s s i o n s can be c a r r i e d out in the s a m e language, i n d e p e n dently of the c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of t r a n s d u c e r s and flaw d e t e c t o r s . Fig 1 shows a c u r v e r e l a t i n g the d e c i b e l s c a l e to t y p i c a l f l a t - b o t t o m e d h o l e s . T h e r e i s a gap of 6dB between t a r g e t s with a r e a s in the r a t i o 2 : 1 and of 12dB b e t w e e n t a r g e t s with l i n e a r d i m e n s i o n s in the r a t i o 2 : 1. The f i g u r e i s m a r k e d to show the dB l e v e l s c o r r e s p o n d i n g to the s t a n d a r d t a r g e t s of 2, 3, 4, 5 and 6/s4in d i a m e t e r f l a t - b o t t o m e d holes; 15 10
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0"020 0.030 0040 00.500060 0.070 0"0800"090 0.100 0"110 F|ot-bottomed hole diameter[in] F i g 1 T h i s c u r v e r e l a t e s the bottomed holes. There with a r e a s in the r a t i o with l i n e a r d i m e n s i o n s d e c i b e l s c a l e to typical f l a t i s a 6dB gap between t a r g e t s 2 : 1, and 12dB b e t w e e n t a r g e t s in the r a t i o 2 : 1 183

n o n - d e s t r u c t i v e t e s t i n g August 1969

t h e s e d i f f e r e n c e s apply to all m a t e r i a l s . Fig 2 shows how the c o m m o n l y u s e d p e r c e n t a g e s c a l e i s r e l a t e d to d B s . The gap b e t w e e n the 100% and 50% e c h o e s is equal to that between 50% and 25/o, and s o on. The s a m e 6dB d i f f e r e n c e is found for all e c h o e s with a r e l a t i v e amplitude of 2 : 1. BEAM PATTERNS DISTANCE AND VARIATION O F SENSITIVITY W I T H

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A complete set of flat-bottomed hole test blocks provides: 1 Standard artificial targets at different depths in a set of blocks of the s a m e alloy as that under test so that comparisons can be m a d e between real flaws and artificial targets at equivalent positions in the ultrasonic b e a m A set of different target sizes so that reflection equality can be established between a detected flaw and a selected standard target.

50%

-12dB~ 2 5 % -18dB~ 12Yz%

The sound intensity in the ultrasonic b e a m varies with distance, so that the reflected signal from a given size of target varies with its separation from the transducer. W h e n b e a m patterns were explored in detail,5 the shape of the energy field radiated from an ultrasonic probe was divided into the now well-known near and far zones. Experiments showed significant differences between the theoretical b e a m shapes and reality. In general these were all due to non-uniform vibration of the transducer, and in particular the mechanical damping of the transducer necessary to produce pulses of energy short enough for adequate flaw resolution. Various methods have been used to assess b e a m characteristics, almost always by plotting the b e a m in water using small targets to delineate the intensity variations along the b e a m axis and in planes at right angles to it. Methods of b e a m visualization have been used, 6,7 with emphasis usually placed on the predictability and uniformity of the emitted beam. Both methods described in the references allow one to determine anomalies of b e a m pattern and hence select transducers for practical applications, but they are not calibration methods. A quantitative assessment is essential for evaluating probes for a particular job. Since most of the b e a m evaluation problems are geometrical, it helps to use a standard target which is relatively insensitive to incident angle--hence the widespread use of spherical targets, since they are easily reproducible and are insensitive to exact b e a m alignments.3, v Fig 3 shows a plot of the variation of sound intensity along the b e a m axis in water produced with such a target. This can conveniently be called a distance-amplitude curve since it represents the way the echo amplitude from a small target varies with distance in s o m e chosen medium. THE DISTANCE-AMPLITUDE CURVE Some f e a t u r e s of the d i s t a n c e - a m p l i t u d e c u r v e a r e i m p o r t a n t and need e l a b o r a t i n g . The point at which m a x i m u m s e n s i tivity i s achieved, and which can be d e s c r i b e d loosely as the end of the n e a r zone, i s c o m m o n l y d e s i g n a t e d in E u r o p e by the t e r m N-point and in the USA by ~o. The position of t h i s point in the b e a m i s d e t e r m i n e d by both the d i a m e t e r of the t r a n s d u c e r (D) and its effective o p e r a t i n g f r e q u e n c y (f). Its actual d i s t a n c e f r o m the p r o b e (N) i s g o v e r n e d by the velocity of sound (V) in the t e s t m e d i u m . The c o m m o n l y a c c e p t e d f o r m u l a N = D2f/4V g e n e r a l l y e s t i m a t e s N a s l a r g e r than the value d e t e r m i n e d e x p e r i m e n t a l l y ; the r e a s o n s f o r this will be d i s c u s s e d l a t e r . The e f f e c t i v e s e n s i t i v i t y f a l l s off on both s i d e s of the N-point but r a t h e r m o r e s t e e p l y n e a r e r the t r a n s d u c e r (near zone) than beyond the N-point (far zone). The p a r t of the b e a m in which the axial s e n s i t i v i t y n e v e r f a i l s m o r e than 6 dB below the m a x i m u m can conveniently be called the effective working r a n g e of the probe, s i n c e i n s i d e it the echo f r o m a given flaw will n e v e r be l e s s than 50% of the m a x i m u m . Thus a p r e f e r r e d w a t e r gap can be d e t e r m i n e d a s the d i s t a n c e to the n e a r e r '6dB down' point and a l i m i t s e t to the m e t a l thickn e s s which can be effectively t e s t e d by r e f e r e n c e to the f u r t h e r point. The g e o m e t r y of the c u r v e i s g o v e r n e d by the s a m e c o n s i d e r a t i o n s that d e t e r m i n e the position of the N-point. Thus if N i s g r e a t e r for a p a r t i c u l a r p r o b e the c u r v e is m o r e s p r e a d out; if N i s s h o r t e r t h e r e is a much

Fig 2 Relation of dB s c a l e s and the c o m m o n l y u s e d p e r c e n tage s c a l e . The s a m e 6dB d i f f e r e n c e i s found for all e c h o e s with a r e l a t i v e amplitude of 2 : 1

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6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 Depth of reflectorin wQter[in]

Fig 3 This d i s t a n c e - a m p l i t u d e c u r v e i s a plot of the v a r i a t i o n of sound i n t e n s i t y along the b e a m a x i s in water, p r o duced with a s p h e r i c a l t a r g e t . The N-point i s the point of m a x i m u m s e n s i t i v i t y ( P r o b e data: nominal d i a m e t e r 20ram, nominal f r e q u e n c y 6MHz, m e a s u r e d f r e q u e n c y 5.2MHz, effective d i a m e t e r 17. l m m )

s t e e p e r r e d u c t i o n in s e n s i t i v i t y on both s i d e s of the N-point. Fig 4 i l l u s t r a t e s this; note that c h a n g e s in the value of N can be c a u s e d by c h a n g e s in e i t h e r f r e q u e n c y o r d i a m e t e r . Two p r o b e s with d i f f e r e n t v a l u e s of D and f, but the s a m e value of the p r o d u c t Daf, would have, in the s a m e m e d i u m , exactly s i m i l a r d i s t a n c e - a m p l i t u d e c u r v e s , i g n o r i n g for the m o m e n t c h a n g e s of m a t e r i a l attenuation with f r e q u e n c y . Fig 4 l i s t s the v a l u e s of N, p r e f e r r e d w a t e r gap, and working r a n g e in w a t e r and in s t e e l for the t h r e e p r o b e s i l l u s t r a t e d . The working r a n g e f o r o t h e r e n g i n e e r i n g m e t a l s i s s u b s t a n tially the s a m e a s f o r s t e e l s i n c e t h e i r sound v e l o c i t i e s all a p p r o x i m a t e to that for s t e e l . DISTANCE-AMPLITUDE CURVES IN DIFFERENT MATERIALS The s h a p e of an u l t r a s o n i c b e a m in one m a t e r i a l i s exactly like that in a n o t h e r except that the h o r i z o n t a l s c a l e of the d i s t a n c e - a m p l i t u d e c u r v e i s expanded o r c o n t r a c t e d in p r o portion to the r e l a t i v e sound velocity. T h e r e f o r e one c u r v e can be u s e d to r e p r e s e n t b e a m behaviour in all m a t e r i a l s , c o n v e r t i n g f r o m one to a n o t h e r by multiplying the d i s t a n c e s c a l e by a s i m p l e f a c t o r . Fig 4 s h o w s t h i s f o r water, alumlnium alloys, s t e e l etc. F i g 5 i l l u s t r a t e s the point diff e r e n t l y by showing t r a n s v e r s e s e c t i o n s of the b e a m f r o m a given t r a n s d u c e r o p e r a t i n g r e s p e c t i v e l y in w a t e r and in a m a t e r i a l , such a s s t e e l , with a sound velocity four t i m e s

184

n o n - d e s t r u c t i v e t e s t i n g August 1969

g r e a t e r than in w a t e r . T h i s p i c t o r i a l view of b e a m s p r e a d i s r e l a t e d to the s h a p e of the d i s t a n c e - a m p l i t u d e curve; the m o r e r a p i d s p r e a d c o r r e s p o n d s to a s m a l l e r value of N and a s t e e p e r f a l l - o f f of s e n s i t i v i t y in the f a r zone. It i s a l s o p o s s i b l e to deduce the b e a m s h a p e and p e r f o r m a n c e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s for c o m p o s i t e sound p a t h s of two or m o r e d i f f e r e n t m e d i a . The s i m p l e s t way i s to c o n v e r t all m a t e r i a l t h i c k n e s s e s to an equivalent w a t e r t h i c k n e s s , so that all d i s t a n c e s can be added s i m p l y . A typical e x a m p l e i s the c a l c u lation of an effective N-point p o s i t i o n in a m e t a l block to be i m m e r s i o n t e s t e d . The w a t e r path (W) m u s t be s u b t r a c t e d f r o m the e x p e r i m e n t a l value of N in water, and the d i f f e r e n c e divided by 4 . 0 (ratio of v e l o c i t i e s ) to c o n v e r t a w a t e r t h i c k n e s s to an equivalent one in s t e e l . F i g 6 s h o w s how t h i s i s done. The d i a g r a m of a longitudinal b e a m s e c t i o n in Fig 7 s h o w s how to a r r i v e at the s a m e r e s u l t by c o n s i d e r i n g r e f r a c t i o n at the w a t e r / m e t a l i n t e r f a c e . THE KRAUTKRAMER AVG DIAGRAM Fig 8 shows the K r a u t k r ~ m e r AVG d i a g r a m , f i r s t d e s c r i b e d in 1959.8 This a p p r o a c h to flaw evaluation, d e s i g n e d to e l i m i nate the need f o r actual t e s t blocks, has been slow of a c c e p tance, except p o s s i b l y in G e r m a n y and by s o m e m o r e a d v e n t u r o u s individuals in B r i t a i n . The d i a g r a m i s s t r a i g h t f o r w a r d

once the p h y s i c a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of b e a m s h a p e s a r e a p p r e c i a t e d . The b a s i c c o n c e p t s a r e r e d u c e d r a n g e (A} ( d i s t a n c e of t r a n s d u c e r to flaw e x p r e s s e d a s a multiple of N), r e d u c e d s i z e (G) (flaw d i a m e t e r e x p r e s s e d a s a f r a c t i o n of the p r o b e d i a m e t e r ) , and c o m p a r i s o n of the flaw echo with that f r o m the r e a r s u r f a c e of a flat plate (Y) f o r s t a n d a r d i z a t i o n p u r p o s e s . This g r e a t l y s i m p l i f i e s flaw s i z e evaluation in t e r m s of an ideal f l a t - b o t t o m e d t a r g e t . T h e r e a r e a n u m b e r of v a r i a n t s of the d i a g r a m to suit p a r t i c u l a r t y p e s of i n s p e c t i o n .

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Fig 4 D i s t a n c e - a m p l i t u d e c u r v e s f o r t h r e e p r o b e s , showing how the shape of the c u r v e v a r i e s with the N-point Curve 1--N = 4in, p r e f e r r e d w a t e r gap = 23/4in , Working r a n g e = 33/4in w a t e r (lin s t e e l approx) Curve 2--N = 6in, p r e f e r r e d w a t e r gap = 41/4in , Working r a n g e = 53/4in w a t e r (lZ/2in s t e e l approx) Curve 3--N = 10in, p r e f e r r e d w a t e r gap = 7in, Working r a n g e = 9~/2in (21/2 s t e e l approx)

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< 50 6O
i I i I i i i ii ! I I

F i g 5 B e a m s p r e a d i s r e l a t e d to the s h a p e of the d i s t a n c e amplitude c u r v e . T h i s figure shows, in a d i f f e r e n t way f r o m Fig 4, how one c u r v e can be u s e d to r e p r e s e n t b e a m behaviour in all m a t e r i a l s , c o n v e r t i n g f r o m one to a n o t h e r by multiplying the d i s t a n c e s c a l e by a simple factor

0"1

0"2

0'4 06

1"0

2 4 6 810 20 Distance in near zones

40 60 80

Fig 8 The Krautkr~/mer AVG diagram is designed to eliminate the need for actual test blocks non-destructive testing August 1969 185

T h e r e is not s p a c e h e r e to d e s c r i b e the u s e of the d i a g r a m in detail; t h o s e i n t e r e s t e d should r e f e r to the E n g l i s h t r a n s l a t i o n s of the original and s u b s e q u e n t publications by Dr Krautkr~'mer.9, zo T e s t r e s u l t s have b e e n published z z p u r p o r t i n g to show that the method i s not a c c u r a t e , and a n u m b e r of unpublished i n v e s t i g a t i o n s have a l s o shown evid e n c e of u n r e l i a b i l i t y . As B r a d f i e l d has pointed out, Z2 s o m e of t h e s e r e s u l t s a r e due to c o n c e n t r a t i n g i n v e s t i g a t i o n work on the n e a r zone; Dr K r a u t k r h ' m e r has h i m s e l f w a r n e d that e r r o r s a r e likely to be l a r g e in t h i s region. It i s a l s o in t h i s zone that t e s t blocks a r e i n h e r e n t l y l e a s t useful, owing to the r a p i d fluctuation of p r o b e s e n s i t i v i t y f o r a s m a l l change of m a t e r i a l t h i c k n e s s . T e s t s in my own d e p a r t m e n t have shown that, p r o v i d e d the p r o b e i s c h o s e n s o that t a r g e t s a r e s i t u a t e d in its far zone, the r e s u l t s given by the AVG d i a g r a m a g r e e well with actual t a r g e t s i z e s . It i s always easy in i m m e r s i o n t e s t i n g to adjust the w a t e r path until a d e t e c t e d flaw l i e s in the f a r zone; the s a m e r e s u l t can be a c h i e v e d in contact t e s t ing, if n e c e s s a r y by changing the p r o b e for one of s m a l l e r d i a m e t e r . Flaw d i s t a n c e s b e t w e e n 1.5 and 3N a r e found to be the m o s t s a t i s f a c t o r y . Two p r o b e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s m u s t be known b e f o r e the AVG d i a g r a m can be used, the d i a m e t e r D and the value of N. O t h e r w o r k e r s have a p p a r e n t l y b e e n content to a c c e p t the nominal values for t h e s e , a s c a l c u l a t e d f r o m the r e p u t e d f r e quency and d i a m e t e r of the t r a n s d u c e r . We have found it e s s e n t i a l to d e t e r m i n e both by p r a c t i c a l m e a s u r e m e n t . T h i s i n v o l v e s c o n s t r u c t i n g a d i s t a n c e - a m p l i t u d e c u r v e in water, p r e f e r a b l y with a s p h e r i c a l t a r g e t and by a m e a s u r e m e n t of effective f r e q u e n c y a s outlined l a t e r . F r o m t h e s e two quantit i e s , and a knowledge of the velocity of sound in w a t e r , it i s e a s y to calculate the effective p r o b e d i a m e t e r f r o m the r e lationship N = D2f/4V. We have found that D i s a l m o s t always l e s s than the nominal d i a m e t e r , s o m e t i m e s by a s much a s 15/o,and Fig 3 i l l u s t r a t e s a ' 2 0 m m ' p r o b e which i s effectively only 17. l m m in d i a m e t e r . Table 1 s h o w s typical r e s u l t s of t e s t s to check the AVG d i a g r a m . The left hand column s h o w s the t r u e t a r g e t s i z e , column 1 the e s t i m a t e f r o m the AVG d i a g r a m using the nominal value of D and the c a l c u l a t e d value of N, and column 2 the r e v i s e d e s t i m a t e using a m e a s u r e d N and a c a l c u l a t e d D b a s e d on a d i r e c t f r e q u e n c y m e a s u r e m e n t . T h e s e r e s u l t s a r e s e l e c t e d f r o m many made in my own d e p a r t m e n t , all of which a g r e e r e m a r k a b l y well with f l a t - b o t t o m e d hole s i z e s . Thus we believe that anyone who i s s t i l l convinced of the value of f l a t - b o t t o m e d t a r g e t s for s t a n d a r d i z a t i o n should s e r i o u s l y c o n s i d e r using one p i e c e of p a p e r i n s t e a d of 72 o r m o r e metal t e s t blocks.

~ " ' o
~-8
-12 "\

o=
""'"'".. "',. Steel. ~ \ \ ~ ""-. ater "'.... \Inco 901
I 3 I 4 i 5 I 6

-16
-2C
I I

_Wa~r_JO pa~n -, , 1 Dept2hin steer ond Inco 901[in]


8

12 16 20 24 Depth in water [in]

28

I 32

36

Fig 9 D i s t a n c e - a m p l i t u d e c u r v e s for the s a m e probe in s t e e l (attenuation 0dB/in), w a t e r (0.22dB/in) and Inco 901 ( 2 . 0 d B / i n ) . The d i f f e r e n c e s in the f a r zone a r e due to the d i f f e r e n t attenuation in the t h r e e t e s t m e d i a

all t h r e e h o r i z o n t a l d i s t a n c e s c a l e s have b e e n r a t i o n a l i z e d to a p p r o x i m a t e l y coincident N - p o i n t s and the f l a t - b o t t o m e d hole t a r g e t in s t e e l has been chosen to equate, at the t e s t f r e quency, with the s t a n d a r d s p h e r i c a l t a r g e t u s e d to d e t e r m i n e the c u r v e in w a t e r . We have found f o r e x a m p l e that at 5.0MHz, the r e f l e c t i v i t y of a 0. 050in f l a t - b o t t o m e d hole in s t e e l i s equivalent to that of a 0.100in d i a m e t e r s p h e r e in water. Although the c u r v e s a g r e e c l o s e l y in the n e a r zone and n e a r the N-point, they d i f f e r i n c r e a s i n g l y in the e x t r e m e f a r zone. T h i s i s due to the d i f f e r e n t attenuation in the t h r e e t e s t m e d i a . A good quality f o r g e d s t e e l has, for all p r a c t i c a l p u r p o s e s , z e r o attenuation; in n i c k e l - b a s e a l l o y s attenuation can be s u b s t a n t i a l , e s p e c i a l l y at h i g h e r f r e q u e n c i e s . Water usually l i e s s o m e w h e r e between the two. The d i f f e r e n c e s a r e f r e q u e n c y - s e n s i t i v e , s i n c e attenuation d e p e n d s on f r e q u e n c y , and the d i v e r g e n c e s shown would i n c r e a s e at higher f r e q u e n c i e s and d e c r e a s e at l o w e r f r e q u e n c i e s . It i s d e s i r a b l e t h e r e f o r e that, a s in the c a s e of the AVG diag r a m , a d i s t a n c e - a m p l i t u d e c u r v e d e t e r m i n e d in w a t e r should be c o r r e c t e d f o r w a t e r attenuation to p r o d u c e what is e s s e n tially a c u r v e f o r a m e d i u m in which the attenuation i s z e r o . Since attenuation in w a t e r i s t e m p e r a t u r e s e n s i t i v e a s well a s v a r y i n g with f r e q u e n c y the d e t e r m i n a t i o n of w a t e r attenuation involves m e a s u r e m e n t of the w a t e r t e m p e r a t u r e in the tank u s e d for obtaining the d i s t a n c e - a m p l i t u d e curve. M a t e r i a l s such a s f o r g e d a l u m i n i u m alloys and f e r r i t i c s t e e l s have i n h e r e n t l y low attenuation, and few s u b s t a n t i a l e r r o r s a r e p r o d u c e d by p r o v i d i n g s t a n d a r d t e s t blocks in one alloy to r e p r e s e n t all s i m i l a r m a t e r i a l s . Usually any component made f r o m a s i m i l a r alloy will have attenuation a l m o s t i d e n t i c a l to that of the t e s t - b l o c k m a t e r i a l ; t h i s i s the t a c i t a s s u m p t i o n in any t e s t - b l o c k s y s t e m of flaw evaluation. T h i s a s s u m p t i o n has been e x p l o r e d p r a c t i c a l l y , and t e s t s on o t h e r c o m m o n l y u s e d a l l o y s - - p a r t i c u l a r l y n i c k e l - b a s e and titanium-show c o n s i d e r a b l e v a r i a t i o n of attenuation, not only b e t w e e n f o r g i n g s of nominally s i m i l a r type, but a l s o between d i f f e r e n t points in a single forging. T a b l e 2 g i v e s r e p r e s e n t a t i v e f i g u r e s f o r typical alloys in the f o r g e d condition, but wide v a r i a t i o n can o c c u r depending both on the forging t e c h n i q u e s and heat t r e a t m e n t p r o c e d u r e s . The only g e n e r a l solution to this p r o b l e m i s to m e a s u r e the attenuation of m a t e r i a l p r e s e n t e d to the p r o b e , at all points, so that a p p r o p r i a t e c o r r e c t i o n s can be m a d e to the working s e n s i t i v i t y f o r t e s t s c a n n i n g and to the s i z e of e c h o e s a s c r i b e d to p a r t i c u l a r f l a w s when they a r e d e t e c t e d . This i s dealt with m o r e fully l a t e r . INTERFACE EFFECTS Interface effects are much less predictable than attenuation. Essentially, they are associated with the electronic design of the flaw detector. All amplifiers, and to some extent the

Table I T y p i c a l r e s u l t s of t e s t s to check the A V G d i a g r a m (see text) 1 True size [in] 0.047 0.078 0.125 0.188 Estimated s i z e [in] 0.036 0.065 0. I00 0.146 2 Estimated s i z e [in] 0.045 0.080 0.122 0.180

E r r o r [%1 20 16 20 22

E r r o r [%1 4 3 3 4

P r o b e data: n o m i n a l f r e q u e n c y 4.0MHz, n o m i n a l d i a m e t e r 20mm, c a l c u l a t e d N 10.6in, m e a s u r e d N 8.0in, m e a s u r e d f r e q u e n c y 3.5MHz, e f f e c t i v e d i a m e t e r 1 8 . 5 m m

ATTENUATION EFFECTS ON PROBE PERFORMANCE CURVES Attenuation is the property inherent in all material of absorbing and scattering energy from a beam of ultrasound. Fig 9 shows three curves of the performance of a given probe. The solid line is the distance-amplitude curve in water determined by any small target, the dotted curve is the probe performance in such materials as forged steel, and the dashed curve is the corresponding performance in a heavily attenuating material e.g. one of the nickel-base alloys. For clarity, 186 non-destructive testing August 1969

Table 2 Typical attenuation values in d B / i n c h f o r alloys in the f o r g e d condition


F r e q u e n c y [MHz] 2.25 4.0 Steel* Aluminium Inco 901 Titanium 5.0 5.5

0 -1 -2

0.0
0.0 0.5 0.0

0.0
0.0 1.5 0.8

0.0
0.0 3.0 I. 5

0.0
0.0 3.7 I. 8

~-3
-4 -5
I I I I I I I I I

* ' Z e r o - a t t e n u a t i n g ' s t a n d a r d (see text) t r a n s d u c e r itself, a r e ' p a r a l y s e d ' a f t e r r e c e i v i n g a l a r g e u l t r a s o n i c signal. Thus even a f t e r the m e c h a n i c a l v i b r a t i o n of the t r a n s d u c e r has been d a m p e d out the a m p l i f i e r cannot fully a m p l i f y a signal i m m e d i a t e l y following. The exact p h y s i c a l c a u s e s a r e complex, but the p h e n o m e n o n can usefully be t r e a t e d a s an a m p l i f i e r blocking and r e c o v e r y effect. This, r a t h e r than the s i m p l e t i m e duration of the blocking echo,.is the m a i n r e a s o n f o r the s e n s i t i v i t y dead zone in p r a c t i c a l flaw d e t e c t i o n . In contact t e s t i n g the initial p u l s e i s v e r y l a r g e , and even in i m m e r s i o n t e s t i n g the s u r f a c e echo i s much l a r g e r than any s m a l l flaw e c h o e s that might be c l o s e l y following. Echo amplitude i s m e a s u r a b l y r e d u c e d even a f t e r a d e g r e e of s e p a r a t i o n f r o m the s u r f a c e g r e a t e r than that n o r m a l l y c o n s i d e r e d a s the extent of the p r a c t i c a l d e a d - z o n e . Fig 10 shows the a m p l i t u d e of e c h o e s f r o m a s t a n d a r d t a r g e t at v a r i o u s d i s t a n c e s below an e n t r y s u r f a c e . The v a r i a t i o n shown i s e n t i r e l y due to the s u r f a c e blocking effect, s i n c e the w a t e r g a p s have been a d j u s t e d so that the t a r g e t i s always at the N-point in the g e o m e t r i c a l b e a m . The r e c e i v e d signal is s t i l l a f f e c t e d even down to depths of 11/2in or m o r e in s t e e l . This effect thus f u r t h e r a l t e r s the b e a m s h a p e d e t e r m i n e d in m e t a l s , and Fig 9 s h o w s the extent of the v a r i a t i o n in a t y p i c a l e x a m p l e . The axial s e n s i t i v i t y c u r v e i s d e p r e s s e d c l o s e to a m e t a l i n t e r f a c e , so that the dotted c u r v e f o r s t e e l l i e s slightly below the solid c u r v e d e t e r m i n e d in water, w h e r e t h e r e i s no i n t e r f a c e blocking. T h i s effect, coupled with w a t e r attenuation, c a u s e s the c u r v e d e t e r m i n e d in w a t e r to d i f f e r f r o m the equivalent o n e s in m e t a l . Fig 9 shows the sum of the two e f f e c t s ; h o w e v e r s e n s i t i v i t y d i f f e r e n c e s in the working r a n g e for p r a c t i c a l t e s t i n g a r e s m a l l , and n o r m a l l y r e s t r i c t e d to 2 o r 3dB. The i n t e r f a c e effect c a u s e s slight u n d e r - e s t i m a t i o n of flaw s i z e c l o s e to the i n t e r f a c e when using a c u r v e d e t e r m i n e d in w a t e r while in the f a r zone attenuation d i f f e r e n c e s can lead to e r r o r s in e i t h e r d i r e c t i o n . F l a w s tend to be o v e r - e s t i m a t e d in s t e e l s i n c e it i s g e n e r a l l y l e s s attenuating than water, but in a n i c k e l - b a s e alloy, f o r e x a m p l e , flaws could be u n d e r e s t i m a t e d . It i s however e a s y enough to c o r r e c t for t h e s e e f f e c t s once they have b e e n e s t a b l i s h e d quantitatively. EVALUATION O F MATERIAL A T T E N U A T I O N Variations of attenuation are to be expected in thick nickelbase alloy forgings, since each part of the forging is subject to a variable amount of hot work. The working temperature differs according to the different cooling effects of die surfaces and material sections. Hence it is impossible to evaluate flaw s i z e effectively without a full knowledge of the attenuation e x p e r i e n c e d by the u l t r a s o u n d b e a m , and t h e s e e f f e c t s m u s t be known in the r e g i o n i m m e d i a t e l y a d j a c e n t to any d e t e c t e d flaw which i s to be evaluated. T h e s e e f f e c t s can be c o r r e c t e d f o r in m e a s u r e m e n t s made in t e r m s of both f l a f - b o t t o m e d hole t a r g e t s and with the AVG d i a g r a m . At l e a s t one m a t e r i a l i s r e q u i r e d which can be made up in a r a n g e of d i f f e r e n t s e c t i o n a l t h i c k n e s s e s , and which i s effectively n o n - a t t e n u a t i n g at the f r e q u e n c y conc e r n e d . Within the r a n g e of p r a c t i c a l t e s t f r e q u e n c i e s f o r our i m m e r s i o n work (1.5-6MHz) good quality f o r g e d f e r r i t i c s t a i n l e s s s t e e l c o m e s into t h i s c a t e g o r y and all our a t t e n u a tion m e a s u r e m e n t s a r e made in t e r m s of this m a t e r i a l . ( ' Z e r o - a t t e n u a t i o n ' blocks a r e m a d e f r o m a 12/o c h r o m i u m c r e e p - r e s i s t i n g s t a i n l e s s s t e e l (Rex 448). S i m i l a r m a t e r i a l s p e c i f i c a t i o n s a r e S 62, AISI 410 and SAE 51410.)

1/4

1/2

3/4

11/4 I /2

Separation of 0-050 in fiat-bottomed ho!.e from surface Fig 10 V a r i a t i o n in the amplitude of e c h o e s f r o m a s t a n d a r d t a r g e t at v a r i o u s d i s t a n c e s below an e n t r y s u r f a c e , c a u s e d by the i n t e r f a c e r e f l e c t i o n and a m p l i f i e r blocking

10 Z "-:.... o Steel ' "'"'"'""" .........


~.,..
13

b"

----...

.o

....

.....

o .........

"o-.

echo

Top

"-.. -. 25
I I

)under test] =

Inco 901 1 I

'

3 4 S Material thickness [in]

m easured 6 7

Fig 11 M e a s u r e m e n t of m a t e r i a l attenuation (see text). Z is the z e r o thickness point f o r steel and Inco 901. (Probe data: frequency 5.0MHz, d i a m e t e r 20mm)

E a c h p r o b e is e v a l u a t e d initially with this s e t of s t e e l blocks ranging in t h i c k n e s s f r o m 1 to 6in in lin s t e p s . A d i s t a n c e amplitude c u r v e is p r o d u c e d in w a t e r and the c o r r e s p o n d i n g w a t e r gap f o r the b e s t working r a n g e is d e t e r m i n e d . Using this w a t e r gap, a s e r i e s of m e a s u r e m e n t s i s made of the d i f f e r e n c e b e t w e e n f r o n t and back s u r f a c e e c h o e s f o r e a c h of the s i x blocks. T h e s e Points a r e plotted as in F i g 11, and it i s g e n e r a l l y found that a s t r a i g h t line can be drawn f a i r l y e a s i l y through the s i x points. This line is p r o j e c t e d to the left to cut the v e r t i c a l (dB) axis; the point of i n t e r s e c t i o n Z i s c a l l e d the z e r o - t h i c k n e s s point and the c o r r e s p o n d i n g dB f i g u r e g i v e s the r e l a t i v e r e f l e c t i v i t y c o r r e c t i o n at the w a t e r / metal interface. The s l o p e of the line r e p r e s e n t s the g e o m e t r i c a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of the b e a m with r e s p e c t to the echo f r o m an e x t e n d e d flat p l a t e and, p r o v i d e d that the s t e e l u s e d is e f f e c t i v e l y nonattenuating, no c o m p o n e n t of the slope will be due to the m e t a l as such. H o w e v e r , a m e a s u r e m e n t m a d e with the s a m e p r o b e on a n o t h e r m a t e r i a l , e.g. a n i c k e l - b a s e a h o y , g i v e s a point such as A in F i g 11, c o r r e s p o n d i n g to the d i f f e r e n c e b e t w e e n f r o n t and back e c h o e s f o r the 4in t h i c k n e s s of m a t e r i a l u n d e r t e s t . We can a s s u m e that the a c o u s t i c i m p e d a n c e f o r n i c k e l - b a s e alloys is equal to that of s t e e l (approximate impedances for some commonly used materials a r e given in T a b l e 3); s o if we join A to Z we get a line which is c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of the a v e r a g e attenuation of this m a t e r i a l .

Table 3 Approximate acoustic impedances for some commonly used materials


Steel, nickel alloys Aluminium alloys Titanium alloys Water 470-490 x 104 g / s e c / c m 2 170 x l04 g / s e c / c m 2 280 l04 g / s e c / c m 2 15 x 107 g / s e c / c m 2

n o n - d e s t r u c t i v e t e s t i n g August 1969

187

We can d e t e r m i n e the attenuation at any point such as B by m e a s u r i n g the s e p a r a t i o n of the s t e e l and n i c k e l - b a s e alloy l i n e s . In the e x a m p l e given the attenuation of the nickelbase alloy is 3dB/in. (Note that e n g i n e e r s c o m m o n l y r e f e r to attenuation in t e r m s of the ' r e f l e c t i o n i n c h ' . F o r p u l s e echo work the total path d i s t a n c e i s twice the indicated path, so that r e a l attenuation f i g u r e s a r e s t r i c t l y only half those quoted in this p a p e r . F o r flaw c o r r e c t i o n calculations they have to be doubled again, and on the whole it is e a s i e r for o p e r a t o r s to think in t e r m s of the o n e - w a y d i s t a n c e s . ) MEASUREMENTS IN M A T E R I A I ~ OF DIFFERENT ACOUSTIC IMPEDANCE F o r alloys with a d i f f e r e n t a c o u s t i c i m p e d a n c e the z e r o t h i c k n e s s point is d i f f e r e n t . F i g 12 shows the lines f o r aluminium and titanium alloys and in the a b s e n c e of s i g n i f i cant m a t e r i a l attenuation t h e s e a r e p a r a l l e l to the line d r a w n for s t e e l . This is to be e x p e c t e d s i n c e u n d e r t h e s e conditions the s l o p e of the c u r v e is s o l e l y a function of the g e o m e t r y of the b e a m , which is c o n s t a n t f o r a given p r o b e . The d i f f e r e n t i n t e r c e p t s on the v e r t i c a l axis r e p r e s e n t the r e l a t i v e c o r r e c tions that m u s t be m a d e f o r s u r f a c e r e f l e c t i v i t i e s c a u s e d by the d i f f e r e n t a c o u s t i c i m p e d a n c e s . Between s t e e l and titanium alloys the c o r r e c t i o n f a c t o r is a p p r o x i m a t e l y 3dB; a f u r t h e r 3dB a r e n e c e s s a r y to c o r r e c t f o r aluminium a l l o y s . If we now take a 4in s a m p l e of a titanium alloy with s o m e m a t e r i a l attenuation and make f r o n t and r e a r s u r f a c e echo m e a s u r e m e n t s as b e f o r e we obtain in g e n e r a l a point such as C in F i g 12. If we c o n n e c t C to the c o r r e s p o n d i n g z e r o t h i c k n e s s point we can d e t e r m i n e the m a t e r i a l attenuation just as b e f o r e . In the e x a m p l e shown it is 1 . 5 d B / i n c h . Note that we need not use a s e r i e s of titanium o r aluminium alloy blocks to d e t e r m i n e the a p p r o p r i a t e z e r o - t h i c k n e s s point. I n t e r f a c e c o r r e c t i o n f i g u r e s r e l a t i v e to s t e e l f o r the c o m m o n l y used alloys are: Nickel alloys T i t a n i u m alloys Aluminium alloys 0.0dB 3.0dB 6.0dB

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Once a s e t of s t e e l blocks has been u s e d to p r e p a r e the b a s i c line f o r e a c h p r o b e , the r e l a t e d lines for the o t h e r alloys can be drawn as in F i g 12. REAL FLAW SIZE AND THE EQUIVALENT F L A T BOTTOMED HOLE A n u m b e r of w o r k e r s have i n v e s t i g a t e d the r e l a t i o n s h i p b e tween a p p a r e n t flaw s i z e m e a s u r e d in t e r m s of f l a t - b o t t o m e d h o l e s , and the r e a l s i z e d e t e r m i n e d when the flaw is s u b s e quently f r a c t u r e d . Claydon ~ found that c o r r e c t i o n f a c t o r s f r o m x l to x5 w e r e r e q u i r e d f o r flaws in alumintum alloy f o r g i n g s when c o m p a r i n g the a r e a of r e a l flaws with the a r e a of the equivalent f l a t - b o t t o m e d h o l e s . S h a r p e ' s r e s u l t s 14 a r e given in F i g 13; the m e a n c o r r e c t i o n f a c t o r is x 4 . 4 for flaw a r e a (x 2.1 for d i a m e t e r ) in f o r g e d s t e e l r e l a t i v e to the equivalent f l a t b o t t o m e d hole. We have c a r r i e d out i n v e s t i g a t i o n s of this s o r t o v e r many y e a r s , and have always found that d e f e c t s a f t e r f r a c t u r e a r e c o n s i d e r a b l y l a r g e r than e x p e c t e d f r o m the f l a t - b o t t o m e d hole evaluation. Unfortunately we obtained many of the e a r l y r e s u l t s b e f o r e we a p p r e c i a t e d the s i g n i f i cance of f r e q u e n c y and we can no longer go back o v e r the r e s u l t s and c o r r e c t f o r f r e q u e n c y e f f e c t s . DISCREPANCIES IN FLAW ESTIMATIONS WITH D I F F E R E N T PROBES During r e c e n t i n v e s t i g a t i o n s into b e t t e r t e c h n i q u e s for e s t i mating flaw s i z e we noted c e r t a i n d i s c r e p a n c i e s in the s i z e of the f l a t - b o t t o m e d hole with a r e f l e c t i v i t y equivalent to one s e l e c t e d flaw, when t e s t s w e r e c a r r i e d out with d i f f e r e n t p r o b e / f l a w - d e t e c t o r c o m b i n a t i o n s . We i n v e s t i g a t e d t h i s m o r e fully, and the r e s u l t s w e r e much m o r e i n t e r e s t i n g than any obtained during f r a c t u r e e x e r c i s e s ; they led us to the c o n c l u sion that t h e r e w e r e g r e a t difficulties in using t e s t blocks (or any substitute f o r them) without p h y s i c a l m e a s u r e m e n t of o p e r a t i n g f r e q u e n c y , and that the r e s u l t s could in fact be quite i n a c c u r a t e .

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Fig 13 C o m p a r i s o n of actual d e f e c t s in s t e e l f o r g i n g s and f l a t - b o t t o m e d h o l e s giving identical indications. C o r r e c t i o n f a c t o r s : w o r s t line x 6 . 0 on d i a m e t e r , b e s t s t r a i g h t line 2.1 on d i a m e t e r , optimum line x 1.0 on d i a m e t e r

T h e s e anomalous r e s u l t s f i r s t c a m e to light during the evaluation of i d e n t i c a l d e f e c t s by d i f f e r e n t l a b o r a t o r i e s using nominally s i m i l a r flaw d e t e c t i o n equipment. E s t i m a t e d flaw s i z e s v a r i e d so m u c h that flaws c o n s i d e r e d fully a c c e p t a b l e by one i n s p e c t i o n d e p a r t m e n t w e r e being r e j e c t e d by a n o t h e r although e a c h w a s working to the s a m e s p e c i f i c a t i o n s and quality s t a n d a r d s . I n v e s t i g a t i o n of the p r o b e / f l a w - d e t e c t o r c o m b i n a t i o n s u s e d r e v e a l e d that nominally s i m i l a r p r o b e s , which should have been o p e r a t i n g at 5MHz, w e r e in f a c t

188

n o n - d e s t r u c t i v e t e s t i n g August 1969

o p e r a t i n g at 5.5MHz and 3.8MHz. Up to that time t h e r e had been no s u g g e s t i o n that it was not p e r f e c t l y valid to evaluate flaw s i z e s with any p r o b e and obtain an identical a n s w e r independently of the s p e c i a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of each p r o b e used. We found that when one s e l e c t e d flaw was subject to quantitative a s s e s s m e n t it a p p e a r e d equivalent to d i f f e r e n t s t a n d a r d t a r g e t s when t e s t e d at d i f f e r e n t f r e q u e n c i e s . F i g s 14, 15 and 16 show how the r e c e i v e d echo amplitude in t e r m s of a f l a t - b o t t o m e d hole v a r i e s with changing f r e q u e n c y , for a n u m b e r of d i f f e r e n t s i z e s and types of flaw. The c h a n g e s e x p r e s s e d in dBs a r e i n d e p e n d e n t of absolute flaw s i z e o v e r the range studied. In s t e e l (Fig 14) f o r e x a m p l e , the flaws a p p e a r l a r g e r at the h i g h e r f r e q u e n c i e s and s m a l l e r at the lower ones. F o r one typical flaw the equivalent flat-bottomed hole at 51/4MHz is 0.080in and at 2~/4MHz only 0. 030in--a difference of 18dB. Flaws in certain titanium forgings (Fig 15) show a precisely opposite variation. One selected flaw, for example, appears equivalent to the 0. 047in flat-bottomed hole at 51/4MHz and to 0. 125in at 21/4MHz, a 14dB difference but in the opposite sense to the results in steel. The results for nickel-base alloys (Fig 16) are equally surprising and similar to those in steel. We have made similar tests to examine this effect for typical flaws in aluminium alloys, and have found the results to be very like those for steel. The curves in Figs 15 and 16 were made by comparing real flaws with flat-bottomed hole test blocks making full correction for attenuation differences between the forging and the test block. Hence the variability in the size estimations is entirely due to the change of reflectivity with frequency. Over the range 2-5.5MHz differences in the size estimation of the same flaw are as much as 19dB (equivalent to a diameter ratio of almost 3 : 1) in the worst case. These and similar results for all flaws investigated in four alloy types show how much the test-block system is built on shifting sand--the shifting sand of varying relative reflectivity at different frequencies. POSSIBLE ALTERNATIVE R E F L E C T I O N STANDARDS Since t h e s e r e s u l t s u n d e r m i n e c o m p l e t e l y any r e m a i n i n g confidence in the use of f l a t - b o t t o m e d hole t a r g e t s for s t a n d a r d i z a t i o n , we s t a r t e d an e x e r c i s e to d e t e r m i n e w h e t h e r any o t h e r p r a c t i c a l a r t i f i c i a l t a r g e t would be any b e t t e r . We c o m p a r e d the r e f l e c t i v i t y of typical flaws in s t e e l with s t a n d a r d r e f l e c t o r s of v a r i o u s types: a s p h e r i c a l target, a f l a t - e n d e d rod, a s t r e t c h e d w i r e and a flat s u r f a c e . All the t a r g e t s w e r e i m m e r s e d in w a t e r , and a r a n g e of f r e q u e n c i e s was u s e d for each one. The r e s u l t s indicated s o m e d e g r e e of f r e q u e n c y s e n s i t i v i t y for e a c h r e f l e c t o r , m o s t m a r k e d f o r the s p h e r i c a l t a r g e t and c o m p a r a b l e to that for the f l a t b o t t o m e d hole for all the o t h e r s . The behaviour of the s p h e r i c a l t a r g e t is not unexpected; it is well known that s p h e r e s a p p r e c i a b l y l a r g e r than the w a v e length used r e f l e c t e n e r g y l a r g e l y independently of the f r e quency. O t h e r types of r e f l e c t o r , e s p e c i a l l y those with a flat c h a r a c t e r i s t i c shape, a r e to s o m e extent f r e q u e n c y s e n s i t i v e in t h e i r r e f l e c t i v i t i e s , and this explains why the d i s c r e p a n c y with f r e q u e n c y c h a n g e s is g e n e r a l l y g r e a t e r f o r the s p h e r i c a l t a r g e t . However, f o r the titanium f o r g i n g s i n v e s t i g a t e d , and b e c a u s e of the anomalous behaviour of the flaws in this alloy, v a r i a t i o n with r e s p e c t to the s p h e r i c a l t a r g e t is l e s s than f o r the o t h e r s . All t h e s e r e s u l t s u n d e r line how e s s e n t i a l it is to know the o p e r a t i o n a l f r e q u e n c y of a p r o b e b e f o r e making any a t t e m p t to a r r i v e at an i n t e l l i g e n t and r e l i a b l e e s t i m a t e of equivalent r e f l e c t i v i t y , w h a t e v e r type of a r t i f i c a l s t a n d a r d is used. MEASUREMENT OF FREQUENCY Our i n v e s t i g a t i o n s showed that we n e e d e d s o m e way of m e a s u r i n g the effective o p e r a t i n g f r e q u e n c y of p r o b e s . But what is m e a n t by the o p e r a t i n g f r e q u e n c y of a p r o b e working in a p u l s e - e c h o s y s t e m ? A full evaluation of the s u b j e c t would entail e l a b o r a t e s p e c t r u m a n a l y t i c a l work. However for our i n v e s t i g a t i o n s it was adequate in p r a c t i c e to display the echo f r o m a s t a n d a r d r e f l e c t o r 15 on a high quality o s c i l loscope with a c c u r a t e time c a l i b r a t i o n , and study the c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of the wave p a t t e r n s . The s t a n d a r d r e f l e c t o r can

usefully be a s p h e r e o r a flat plate in w a t e r . D i f f e r e n c e s between the e c h o e s f r o m this and o t h e r s t a n d a r d t a r g e t s a r e not s i g n i f i c a n t to the d e g r e e of a c c u r a c y r e q u i r e d . An a v e r age f r e q u e n c y can be d e t e r m i n e d by counting the c e n t r e group of individual c y c l e s ; typical p u l s e s a r e shown in F i g 17. AN ALTERNATIVE APPROACH TO FLAW SIZE MEASUREMENT T e s t s have been c a r r i e d out to e x a m i n e the p o s s i b i l i t y of a r e t u r n to the e a r l y technique of moving the p r o b e to s c a n the +lS

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point s e e m e d the most likely, since it represents the n a t r o w e s t p a r t of the b e a m e m i t t e d by a flat t r a n s d u c e r , and t e s t s c o n f i r m e d t h i s . In g e n e r a l , it is p o s s i b l e to a d j u s t the w a t e r gap between p r o b e and s p e c i m e n s o that the defect u n d e r i n v e s t i g a t i o n is s i t u a t e d at an e q u i v a l e n t depth equal to N. F i g 19 i l l u s t r a t e s how this a c h i e v e d f o r a p r o b e (with N = l l i n in w a t e r ) which is u s e d to e v a l u a t e two f l a w s , lin and 2in below the s u r f a c e . W a t e r g a p s of 7 and 3in r e s p e c tively p l a c e the two d e f e c t s at N, the point of m a x i m u m s e n s i t i v i t y . Since both f l a w s a r e at e q u i v a l e n t p o s i t i o n s in the b e a m , the e v a l u a t i o n c a n be c o m p a r e d d i r e c t l y with a c a l i b r a t i o n c u r v e b a s e d on m e a s u r e m e n t s of f l a t - b o t t o m e d h o l e s lying in the s a m e p o s i t i o n . We have c o n s t r u c t e d c a l i b r a t i o n c u r v e s f o r a r a n g e of p r o b e s to d e t e r m i n e the p o s s i b i l i t i e s of a p p l y i n g the t r a v e r s e t e c h n i q u e . A typical r e s u l t is shown in F i g 20. T h e t r u e d i a m e t e r of the flat t a r g e t is plotted a g a i n s t the c o r r e s p o n d i n g t r a v e r s e d i m e n s i o n between the '6dB down' p o i n t s . T h e c u r v e g e t s s t e e p e r a s the flaw g e t s s m a l l e r , and e v e n t u a l l y a p p r o a c h e s a l i m i t on the h o r i z o n t a l a x i s which d e p e n d s on the individual p r o b e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s . T h i s c u r v e i s t y p i c a l of a wide r a n g e of p r a c t i c a l e x a m p l e s . T h e b e s t p o r t i o n f o r flaw m e a s u r e m e n t is w h e r e the g r a d i e n t is n e a r 45 , w h e n a s m a l l c h a n g e in probe t r a v e r s e m e a s u r e m e n t c o r r e s p o n d s to a s m a l l c h a n g e in e s t i m a t e d flaw s i z e . W h e r e the c u r v e is s t e e p the e r r o r in the e s t i m a t e of r e a l d i a m e t e r would be too g r e a t . F i g 20 s h o w s that a p r o b e with a flat t r a n s d u c e r of 2 0 m m d i a m e t e r , o p e r a t i n g at a f r e q u e n c y of 5MHz, and with a c o r r e s p o n d i n g N - p o i n t at l l i n of w a t e r , can be u s e d to a s s e s s t a r g e t s down to 0. 100in (6/64in) in d i a m e t e r . H o w e v e r f r a c t u r e t e s t s h a v e shown t h a t r e a l d e f e c t s m a y be 2, 3 o r m o r e t i m e s the l i n e a r d i m e n s i o n s of the e q u i v a l e n t f l a t - b o t t o m e d hole g i v i n g e q u i v a l e n t r e f l e c t i v i t y , and t h u s a quality a c c e p tance s t a n d a r d b a s e d on the a m p l i t u d e of r e f l e c t i o n f r o m a :~/6.iin f l a t - b o t t o m e d hole could be m a i n t a i n e d when t r a n s f e r r e d to the flaw t r a v e r s e t e c h n i q u e , at the e q u i v a l e n t of a f l a t - b o t t o m e d hole at l e a s t 6/64in in d i a m e t e r . T h i s is j u s t within the r a n g e f o r which good a s s e s s m e n t s can be m a d e in practice. FOCUSSED PROBES

F i g 17 T y p i c a l p u l s e s f r o m a s t a n d a r d flat plate r e f l e c t o r in w a t e r . T h e s e c a n be u s e d to d e t e r m i n e a v e r a g e f r e q u e n c y by c o u n t i n g the c e n t r e g r o u p of i n d i v i d u a l cycles (calibration: 0.5 s e c / c m ) (a) 2 . 0 M H z p u l s e (b) 5 . 3 M H z p u l s e

edge of a flaw to d e t e r m i n e i t s o u t l i n e s and p r i n c i p a l d i m e n s i o n s . T h i s t e c h n i q u e , o r i g i n a l l y m a n u a l l y applied, w a s n e c e s s a r i l y c r u d e and i n a c c u r a t e . A good d e a l of r e f i n e m e n t h a s to be applied to e q u i p m e n t d e s i g n e d f o r flaw t r a v e r s e w o r k to obtain w o r t h w h i l e and r e p r o d u c i b l e r e s u l t s . N o r m a l i m m e r s i o n t e s t i n g e q u i p m e n t can t r a v e r s e a p r o b e with the m i n i m u m of b a c k l a s h to an a c c u r a c y of 0. 001in. It is c o n v e n i e n t to u s e a t e c h n i q u e like t h a t u s e d in c o n t a c t t e s t i n g ; the edge of the d e f e c t is e s t i m a t e d a s the p o s i t i o n w h e r e the r e c e i v e d flaw e c h o f a l l s to 6dB below the m a x i m u m . T h e flaw e c h o is m a x i m i z e d by tilting the p r o b e if n e c e s s a r y , and the p r o b e is t r a v e r s e d in both h o r i z o n t a l d i r e c t i o n s until the e c h o f a i l s to t h i s fixed level. Such an a p p r o a c h h a s one big a d v a n t a g e o v e r any m e t h o d that d e p e n d s on m e a s u r i n g r e f l e c t i o n a m p l i t u d e s . It i s r e a s o n a b l e to e x p e c t t h a t flaw s c a n n i n g m e a s u r e m e n t s a r e i n d e p e n d e n t of the a b s o l u t e r e f l e c t i v i t y of a d i s c o n t i n u i t y , p r o v i d e d t h a t i t s r e f l e c t i v i t y i s c o n s i s t e n t a c r o s s the full width. It would a l s o be p o s s i b l e to u s e s t a n d a r d f l a t - b o t t o m e d t a r g e t s in any m a t e r i a l to c a l i b r a t e a flaw t r a v e r s e s y s t e m , a l t h o u g h the a b s o l u t e r e f l e c t i v i t y of s u c h a r t i f i c i a l r e f l e c t o r s i s a p p r e c i a b l y g r e a t e r t h a n that of m o s t r e a l f l a w s . U n d e r t h e s e c o n d i t i o n s the e n t r y s u r f a c e i n t e r f a c e and i t s e f f e c t on a m p l i f i e r p a r a l y s i s a r e a l s o u n i m p o r t a n t . S i m i l a r l y c h a n g e s in m a t e r i a l a t t e n u a t i o n a f f e c t i n g the r e l a t i v e s e n s i t i v i t y at the p o s i t i o n of the flaw will not h a v e any b e a r i n g on the echo v a r i a t i o n a c r o s s the d e f e c t . Any r e d u c tion in s e n s i t i v i t y due to e i t h e r i n t e r f a c e e f f e c t s o r m a t e r i a l a t t e n u a t i o n will apply e q u a l l y to all p a r t s of the flaw echo and h e n c e will not a / f e e t the final t r a v e r s e m e a s u r e m e n t r e s u l t s . F i g 18 i l l u s t r a t e s t h i s point. We c a r r i e d out initial t e s t s to find w h e r e the flaw s h o u l d be in the g e o m e t r i c a l b e a m f o r b e s t d i s c r i m i n a t i o n . T h e N-

Since the b e a m from a flat transducer has a point of maxim u m sensitivity it can be considered to have s o m e degree of focussing. This is the point at which traverse measurements are most satisfactorily made, which suggests that a deliberately focussed transducer could be used for even better discrimination. Fig 21 shows how flaws have been placed at the focal point, situated at a depth of 3/4in steel w h e n using a 2in water gap.

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of flat t a r g e t s in any m a t e r i a l a r e plotted a g a i n s t the c o r r e s p o n d i n g d i m e n s i o n between the '6dB down' points. T h e b e s t p a r t of the c u r v e f o r flaw m e a s u r e m e n t is w h e r e the g r a d i e n t is n e a r 45 (probe data: f r e q u e n c y 5.25MHz, d i a m e t e r 20ram, N = 11.5in; all m e a s u r e m e n t s m a d e at N)

F i g 22 i s a c a l i b r a t i o n c u r v e f o r s u c h a p r o b e with a f o c a l length of Sin in w a t e r . T h e m i n i m u m flaw s i z e which can be e s t i m a t e d a c c u r a t e l y is a p p r e c i a b l y r e d u c e d , and e s t i m a t e s of flaws a r e now p r a c t i c a b l e down to 0 . 0 5 0 i n d i a m e t e r . The t r a v e r s e f i g u r e s f o r t h i s p r o b e a r e a l m o s t e x a c t l y e q u a l to the flaw s i z e above 0 . 0 9 0 i n , s o t h a t no c a l i b r a t i o n c u r v e would be r e q u i r e d f o r this r a n g e . However, t h e flaw m u s t not be too f a r below the s u r f a c e to be p l a c e d at the effective f o c a l point. Since focal l e n g t h s up to 10in of w a t e r a r e p r a c tical, and a f o c u s s e d t r a n s d u c e r can be u s e d v e r y c l o s e to the s u r f a c e of the c o m p o n e n t u n d e r test, flaws up to about 21/4in deep c a n be p l a c e d a t the f o c a l spot. In the e x t r e m e c a s e s the p r o b e i s p l a c e d so c l o s e to the s u r face t h a t m u l t i p l e f r o n t e c h o e s a r i s e . P r o v i d e d the flaw echo is r e c o g n i s a b l e and c l e a r l y s e p a r a t e d f r o m t h e s e , t r a v e r s e m e a s u r e m e n t s a r e s t i l l p r a c t i c a b l e . W a t e r gaps down to z/4in have b e e n u s e d f o r m e a s u r e m e n t s w i t h f o c u s s e d p r o b e s , by a d j u s t i n g the p r o b e p o s i t i o n s l i g h t l y s o t h a t the flaw echo i s c l e a r l y r e c o g n i s a b l e a m o n g the r e p e a t f r o n t surface echoes. POSSIBLE ERRORS IN P R O B E TRAVERSE MEASUREMENTS A t r a v e r s e s c a n e l i m i n a t e s the m a j o r d i f f i c u l t i e s a s s o c i a t e d with flaw estimation by a m p l i t u d e m e a s u r e m e n t ( m a t e r i a l attenuation, frequency s e n s i t i v e r e f l e c t i v i t i e s , and i n t e r f a c e effects). Since flaw t r a v e r s e is e s s e n t i a l l y a g e o m e t r i c a l p r o c e s s the only p r o b l e m s w h i c h m i g h t a r i s e m u s t be geom e t r i c a l in o r i g i n . The s h a p e s of u l t r a s o n i c b e a m s c a n be m e a s u r e d , and the s h a p e s of s u r f a c e s a r e known, s o the only r e a l unknowns a r e a s s o c i a t e d with the g e o m e t r y of the flaw itself. If the flaw is p l a n a r then the m e a s u r e m e n t should be capable of high a c c u r a c y . F o r flaws which a r e l a r g e l y s p h e r i c a l the t r a v e r s e f i g u r e s m a y lead to 20/ e r r o r s in l i n e a r d i m e n s i o n , but s u c h flaws a r e unlikely in m o s t f o r g e d m a t e r i a l . If the flaw is not t r u l y s p h e r i c a l but l e n t i c u l a r , which is m u c h m o r e likely, the e r r o r s in t r a v e r s e m e a s u r e m e n t will be m i n i m a l ; t e s t s with s l i g h t l y r a d i u s e d a r t i f i c i a l d e f e c t s have shown e r r o r s of only 5/. F o r flaws w h i c h have b e e n d i s t o r t e d by the f o r g i n g o p e r a t i o n so t h a t they a r e convex on one side and concave on the o t h e r , d i f f e r e n c e s in the t r a v e r s e e s t i m a t e s f r o m opposite s i d e s of the f o r g i n g will give a clue to t h i s condition, and an a v e r a g e f i g u r e will be little d i f f e r e n t f r o m the t r u e s i z e . All t h e s e q u a l i f i c a t i o n s a r e b a s e d only on the c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s h a p e of the flaw, and not on i t s a c o u s t i c p r o p e r t i e s , n o r the a c o u s t i c p r o p e r t i e s of the m a t e r i a l in which it is s i t u a t e d . Since v a r i a t i o n s in t h e s e a c o u s t i c p r o p e r t i e s a r e usually unknown and l a r g e l y u n p r e d i c t a b l e , the p o t e n t i a l s o u r c e s of e r r o r a r e g r e a t l y r e d u c e d by t r a v e r s e m e a s u r e m e n t s . Only flaw s h a p e will influence the s i z e e s t i m a t e s m a d e by p r o b e t r a v e r s e , and this can u s u a l l y be quantified if the e r r o r s i n t r o d u c e d by a s s u m i n g t r u e p l a n a r i t y a r e g r e a t e r than c a n

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F i g 22 C a l i b r a t i o n c u r v e f o r a f o c u s s e d p r o b e . The m i n i m u m flaw s i z e f o r a c c u r a t e e s t i m a t i o n is a p p r e c i a b l y s m a l l e r than that in F i g 20. ( P r o b e data: f r e q u e n c y 4.5MHz, focal length 5in of w a t e r , d i a m e t e r 15ram) n o n - d e s t r u c t i v e t e s t i n g August 1969 191

be t o l e r a t e d . However, u l t r a s o n i c p r a c t i t i o n e r s have for m a n y y e a r s usually t o l e r a t e d m u c h w i d e r u n c e r t a i n t i e s in a m p l i t u d e - b a s e d m e a s u r e m e n t s and have a c h i e v e d a p r a c t i c a l s c h e m e of quality a c c e p t a n c e s t a n d a r d s . T h i s m u s t be b e c a u s e the m a r g i n s of safety have b e e n g r e a t and h a v e t h e r e f o r e allowed g r o s s e r r o r s in size e s t i m a t e s to be a b s o r b e d safely. If we a r e to a p p r o a c h much c l o s e r to the s a f e t y l i m i t s , and in the a e r o s p a c e b u s i n e s s this is a v i t a l n e c e s s i t y , it is i n e v i t a b l e that g r e a t e r a c c u r a c y in flaw s i z e e s t i m a t i o n m u s t be a c h i e v e d . Only by knowing m o r e about the flaws we d i s c o v e r can we begin to p r e d i c t s o m e thing about t h e i r s i g n i f i c a n c e to the e n g i n e e r . T h e i r p o s i t i o n c a n be e s t i m a t e d with g r e a t a c c u r a c y ; t h e i r n a t u r e can usually be i n f e r r e d f r o m m e t a l l u r g i c a l evidence; it is only t h e i r t r u e p h y s i c a l size which h a s eluded ndt p r a c t i t i o n e r s f o r so long. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I want to thank the D i r e c t o r s of R o l l s Royce Ltd f o r p e r m i s s i o n to p u b l i s h this a r t i c l e ; the views e x p r e s s e d and the opinions c o n t a i n e d in it a r e my own. I also want to acknowledge the a s s i s t a n c e p r o v i d e d by R. L. Horton and v a r i o u s c o l l e a g u e s in the Rolls Royce Divis i o n a l NDT L a b o r a t o r y in c a r r y i n g out m o s t of the e x p e r i m e n t a l work and helping in the p r e p a r a t i o n of i l l u s t r a t i o n s . My s i n c e r e t h a n k s a r e a l s o due to W. C. Hitt, D. G. W. Claydon, R. S. Sharpe, D r J . K r a u t k r i i m e r , D. O. Sproule, J . E. Bobbin and G. B r a d f i e l d f o r i n f o r m a t i o n and c o m m e n t s c o n t a i n e d in various private communications.

B r a d f i e l d , G. ' U l t r a s o n i c flaw d e t e c t i o n in m e t a l s L C h a p t e r 12 in ' P h y s i c a l e x a m i n a t i o n of m e t a l s ' , edited by C h a l m e r s and Q u a r r e l l , Arnold, London (2nd edition, 1960) C h r i s t i e , D.G. ' S t r e s s wave p r o p a g a t i o n as applied to the d e t e c t i o n of flaws by u l t r a s o n i c i n s p e c t i o n ' , P r o g r e s s in N o n - D e s t r u c t i v e T e s t i n g , Vol I, Heywood, London (1958) pp35-56 Hodgkinson, W . L . ' I s o s o n o g r a p h y ' , U l t r a s o n i c s , Vol 4, No 3 (July 1966) pp138-142 M c E l r o y , J . T . ' I d e n t i f i c a t i o n and m e a s u r e m e n t of u l t r a s o n i c s e a r c h unit c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s ' , M a t e r i a l s E v a l u a t i o n (June 1967) pp129-137 Krautkr~imer, J. ' D e t e r m i n a t i o n of the s i z e of d e f e c t s by the u l t r a s o n i c i m p u l s e echo m e t h o d ' , A r c h l y fiir das E i s e n h u t t e n w e s e n , Vol 30, No 11 (1959) p693. E n g l i s h v e r s i o n : B r i t i s h J o u r n a l of Applied P h y s i c s , Vol 10, No 6 (1959) p240 W e l l s , C.D. 'Have we the a n s w e r to the need for r e c o r ding both u l t r a s o n i c weld t e s t i n g and s e n s i t i v i t y ' , B r i t i s h J o u r n a l of N o n - D e s t r u c t i v e T e s t i n g , Vol 10, No 4 (1968) pp78-86 W e l l s , C . D . 'A c l o s e r look a t u l t r a s o n i c flaw d e t e c t i o n c a l i b r a t i o n ' , B r i t i s h J o u r n a l of N o n - D e s t r u c t i v e T e s t i n g , Vol 8, No 4 (1966) pp84-91 B a s t i e n , P. 'Difficulties in the u l t r a s o n i c e v a l u a t i o n of defect s i z e ' , N o n - D e s t r u c t i v e T e s t i n g , Vol 1, No 3 (1968) pp147-151 B r a d f i e l d , G. ' C o r r e l a t i n g echo and flaw m a g n i t u d e s ' , L e t t e r to the E d i t o r of N o n - D e s t r u c t i v e T e s t i n g , Vol 1, No 5 (1968) pp317-318 Claydon, D . G . W . 'Defect a s s e s s m e n t u s i n g u l t r a s o n i c w a v e s ' , P r o g r e s s in N o n - D e s t r u c t i v e T e s t i n g , Vol 2 Heywood, London (1959) pp 165-187 S h a r p e , R . S . ' P r o b l e m s of defect l o c a t i o n and s i z e a s s e s s m e n t in u l t r a s o n i c i n s p e c t i o n ' , B r i s t o l Siddeley E n g i n e s Ltd I n t e r n a l R e p o r t ( S e p t e m b e r 1958)

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REFERENCES I Hitt,W . C . 'Progress in the field of non-destructive testing through the use of ultrasonics', Proceedings of the ASTM S y m p o s i u m (June 1952) pp53-75
Hitt, W . C . ' U l t r a s o n i c flaw e v a l u a t i o n ' , W e s t e r n M a c h i n e r y and Steel W o r l d (April 1957) pp95-99 ASTM Specification E 127-64 13

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