*

1. 1 C. 3:1 f.

, X. y , 6 m y
. is here a figure for the kerygma brought to Corinth by Paul. Its opposite is
6 , which is the (the y6 which he cannot yet gi!e to the" as
X .
#i"ilarly, yet "ore rhetorically, $b. %:1& ff. says: c
6 ym ,
yy c y, . y
m y y , y m
q In this passage y is a figure for the basic ele"ents of
'i!ine teaching, for the ele"entary Christian instruction 'escribe' in (:1f . It is for .
)he is the y , a *in' of gnosis presente' by the author
in (:13ff . )his is for .
+or both figures, i.e., the co"parison of "il* with initial instruction suitable for chil'ren, an'
of soli' foo' with profoun'er teaching "ore ser!iceable to the "ature, there is a si"ilar usage in
both ,pictet. an' Philo.
1
,.g., ,pict.-iss. , III, &., /: y q

c 6 m . In ,pict. ,
howe!er, there "ust be weaning fro" the "il*. Philo gi!es a clearer parallel, e.g., in Congr. , 1/ :
q, 6 q6 y
, q y6 qq g
6; q g g c
y

c 6 m,
c 6 . Cf. Ign.)r. , %,
10 1ct. 2oh. , .%. )he i"age is the sa"e, though 'ifferent ob3ects of teaching are 'enote' by "il*
or soli' foo'.
)hat the ter"inology of the 4ysteries occurs in 1 C. 3:1 is no reason why we shoul' lin*
this i"age with the i'eas of the 4ystery religions. )hese are present only in the thir'
&
an'
!ery 'ifferent passage.
&. 1 Pt. &:& : y
y y , l m, l
y . 1gain in the en!iron"ent of the ter"inology of the
4ysteries, p yyc l (1:&%b 'enotes here the pure,
pneu"atic ('i!ine "il* by which the new born are nourishe' an' "ay grow to m .
$ence y is not set in opposition to 6 , but is itself the gnosis pro!i'e' for
Christians in the 5ospel.
)his co"parison 'eri!es fro" a pneu"atic "o'e of speech which has its ulti"ate basis in
a "ystery rite. 6e nee' not 'iscuss in this conte7t the 'ispute' 8uestion whether y
(often in connection with an' less fre8uently with l owes its sacra"ental
significance to a "ythological conception (the foo' of the go's, an eschatological (the foo'
of Para'ise, or a "agical (the "e'iatri7 of life. 1ll three ele"ents probably playe' so"e
9 y . $. :sener, Rhein. Mus. , %; (1/<&, 1;; ff.0 =. Per'elwit>, ? -ie 4ysterienreligion u. 'as Proble" 'es
1 Pt. ,@ =AA , 11, 3 (1/11, %(ff.0 B. 6yss, ? -ie 4ilch i" Bultus 'er 5riechen u. =C"er ,@ =AA , 1%, &
(1/1.0 4ithr. Diturg. , 1;1ff.
1 2oh. 6. 1 B. , ;&0 Dt>". B. , ad loc. 0 6n'. $b. on %:13 0 =gg. $b. on %:1& , n. ;(.
& ,lsewhere in the E) it occurs only at 1 C. /:; in the literal sense.
part in "a*ing "il* a sacra"ental foo' an' causing a particular sacra"ental power to be
ascribe' to it. 4any e7a"ples show us that it is in fact a sacra"ental ele"ent.
)he DFF, of course, 'oes not attest this. In it "il* is a characteristic of the holy lan' ( ,7. 3:G
, 1; etc. an' stan's for blessing in general ( 2ob &/:( . #i"ilarly, it will "ar* the eschatological
"arriage ( 2l. 3:1G 0 Is. (<:1( . Hn the other han', the ,gyptian *ing en3oys the "il* of Isis an'
beco"es i""ortal. 1s y , when en3oye', it is the beginning of
i""ortality, as wine is the en'.
3
In the Ierlin "agic pap. , %<&%, we rea':
.
6
y q c c g g
q . In the -ionysus cult of #outhern Italy it see"s li*ely that the c (the highest class
of initiates un'erwent a baptis" in "il*: c y

c .
%
1s the sacra"ental 'rin*
of the ymm, y is 'istinguishe' fro" all other foo' (
p : c y
g . #allust. -e -eis , .. Porphyr.
1
ntr. Ey"ph. , &G,
4
acrob. in Cic.
#
o". #cip. , I, 1& report a
y priestess who 'ispenses "il* in the cult. In the Coptic an' ,thiopian churches
the custo" still persists of han'ing "ingle' "il* an' honey to the newly baptise'. 1lrea'y in the
Canon $ipp. , 1..
(
we rea' : et presbyteri portant alios calices (after brea' an' wine lactis et
mellis, ut doceant eos qui communicant, iterum se natos esse ut parvuli, quia parvuli
communicant lac et mel 1.G, postea autem sumant lac et mel in memoriam saeculi futuri (cf.
for the latter e7planation, . ,s'r. &:1/ 0 1pc. Pl. &3 ff.0 Iarn. , (, 1;.
)his conception of "il* as the sacra"ental ele"ent, the 'rin*ing of which procures
, passe' o!er to the wor' of gnosis as the "ysterious sacra"ental "eans of sal!ation
in circles where the sacra"ent was 'issol!e' by gnosis an' the sacra"ental ele"ent was replace'
by the y of gnosis . Cf. $ipp.=ef. , A, G, 3<: ( )
y, y y
6 . In the H'. #ol. this usage beco"es !ery co""on. Cf. G:1(: ?I
ha!e for"e' the" li"bs (i.e., the 5nostics an' prepare' the" breasts to 'rin* "y holy "il* (
y y an' to li!e thereby.@ Di*e a chil' of the Dor' $i"self the 5nostic is nourishe'
with $is "il*, i.e., gnosis . Cf. also 1/:1J%: )he 5nostic, li*e the aeons, as one who in the
plero"a is alrea'y on the right han', 'rin*s "il*, i.e., the #on (cf. 1 Pt. &:3 : l y
, who is "il*e' by the $oly #pirit fro" the breasts of the +ather. ?1 cup of
"il* was han'e' to "e, an' I 'ran* it with the soft sweetness of the Dor' @ Cf. .:1<0 3%:%. )he
gnosis of the 5nostic is itself "il*, e.g., .<:1: ?1s honey 'rips fro" the honeyco"b, an' "il*
fro" the wo"an gi!ing suc* to her chil'ren, so 'oes "y praise to )hee, "y 5o'. 1s the fountain
gushes forth its water @
)his ter"inology is also foun' in 1 Pt. &:& f. )he 'ifference between this passage an'
5nosticis" lies in the "atter relate' to such pneu"atic language, na"ely, the 5ospel on the
one si'e an' the re!elation of the 4ysteries on the other. Eaturally, the choice of this
ter"inology is not acci'ental. It re!eals certain ten'encies in the concept of the 5ospel, a. its
character as , an' b. its sacra"ental character.
)hat the pneu"atic "o'e of spea*ing of the Christian p , as "il* persiste' on the basis of
1 C. 3 an' 1 Pt. & , an' e!en un'erwent a certain se"iKspeculati!e e7pansion, "ay be seen fro"
Iren. , IA, 3G, 1 f. ( 4P5 , ;, 11<% ff. an' Cl. 1l.Pae'. , I, (, &% ff.
Schlier
3 1. -ieterich, Abraxas (1G/1, 1;&, 1&0 1G1, &.
. Preis. Laub. , I, &<.
% Bern. Hrph. , 3&c, 11.
1ntr. Ey"ph. De Antro ympharum .
4acrob. 4acrobius )heo'osius, an anti8uary concerne' in the "o!e"ent of pagan restoration c. .<< 1.-. , e'.
+. ,yssenhar't
&
, 1G/3.
#o". #cip. Somnium Scipionis .
( ): , (, . (1G/1, 1<< f.
,
*
( .
y ?to "arry@ an' y ?"arriage,@ ?we''ing,@ fro" the ti"e of $o"er. Co""on in
the plur. for ?we''ing festi!ities@ ( -itt. #yll.
3
, 11<(, 1<<. y acc. to the gra""arian
1pollonius
1
"eans ?to gi!e a "ai'en or wo"an in "arriage,@ though this is the only instance in
secular 5*. 4ore co""on is ym , ?to gi!e in "arriage,@ "i'. ?to get "arrie'.@
&
In the
DFF the wor' group is rare, though co""on in Philo an' 2osephus.
1. 4arriage Custo"s in the E).
In the writings of the $eb. Canon the DFF has y only 3 ti"es: 5n. &/:&& :
y 0 ,st. &:1G : m y an' ,st. /:&& : q ym , always for
MNOP QRS TU ?"arriage feast@ ( orig. ?carousal,@ ,st. /:&& . y is !ery co""on in )obit, e.g.,
11:1/: q y Tm , c q . )he e8ui!alent
MNQT occurs fre8uently in =abb. wor*s,
3
e.g., $alla, &, ; VV #. Eu. , 11< on 1%:&1 : NWXM YZX
[\XY MNQT MQ[ZQ a "aster of the house who arranges the we''ingKfeast for his son (cf. also #.
-t. , 3.3.
.

)he ancient 2ewish custo" of e7ten'ing the "arriage o!er se!eral 'ays (a whole wee* in
the case of a !irgin, an' also of celebrating far into the night, is reflecte' in the parable at D*.
1&:3( , where it "ay be well after "i'night before the returns 6 ym . 1t
D*. 1.:G 2esus spea*s of the "arriageKfeast an' warns: g l
y, q g l q m . 1gain at 2n. &:1 ff. the reference is
to a we''ing ( y in which 2esus $i"self too* part an' re!eale' q
by the changing of water into wine ( !. 11 .
&. )he Eew I'eal of ,arly Christianity.
)he fir" startingKpoint for the early Christian e!aluation of "arriage is 5n. &:&. , the saying
concerning the henosis of the partners in which the original unity of "an an' wo"an is restore'.
4arriage is the continuation of the 'i!ine wor* of creation in the history of the hu"an race (cf.
also 5n. 1:&G .
%
)his thought always persiste' in the 2ewish co""unity.
(
)hus )obias prays
with his young wife: A cm E
l m , , y6
m q , m
q q, ,
y ( )ob. G:( ff. 0 cf. ;:1& .
;
)he 2ewish i'eal of "arriage, howe!er, reaches its cli"a7
in the rich circle of legen's which clustere' aroun' the "arriage of 1*iba an' =ahel. =ahel allows
9 y . $. Preis*er, !hristentum u. "he in den ersten drei #ahrhunderten (1/&;0 5. -elling, $aulus%
Stellung &u 'rau und "he (1/31.
1 De !onstructione , III, 1%3: c y c (VV y6 y m, c
"ym" y m . Hn the linguistic for", v. Il.K-ebr. , ] 1<1, 31..
& (. 1ristot.Pol. , AII, 1(, p. 133%a, &< f.0 Preisig*e 6Crt. , s.v. 0 #ic*b. B.
.
, 3; f., which also gi!es the "ost
recent =o"an Catholic literature.
3 =ich "aterial on 2ewish custo"s is to be foun' in #tr.KI. , I, %<< ff., also .% f.0 II, 3/G f. )he institution of the
; 'ay feast is trace' bac* to 4oses hi"self in 3 Bet. , &%a, &(.
. +or further e7a"ples, cf. #tr.KI. , I, G;/ on 4t. &&:& 0 other an' less fre8uent ter"s for the feast "ay also be
foun' there.
% #ince the +all, howe!er, "arriage stan's un'er a curse. 5enesis refers to tensions in the relationship between
"an an' wo"an, an' to the in'issoluble conflict between the selfKgi!ing an' surren'er of the wife, 5n. 3:1( .
Iut 2u'ais" also spea*s of a uni8ue fellowship of the patriarchs un'er the sign of the co""only incurre' curse,
e.g., Ait. 1'. , 30 &<0 &%.
( 1l"ost always in the 2ewish tra'ition there is e7hortation to "arry an' bear chil'ren, together with an attac*
on e7oga"y an' licentiousness0 e.g., 2ub. &%:30 3<:;ff.0 )est. D. /:/ff.0 Io'leiana +rag., 1( f. (Charles, )est.
FII , p. &.;0 Ps. KPhocyli'es, 1;%J&<%0 2os.1p. , 1, 31 ff. 0 &, 1// . Hn e!ery'ay practice, v. the 2ewish burial
inscription fro" the cataco"b of 4onte!er'e (4^llerKIees, Eo. 1.%0 -eiss"ann DH , 3G; ff..
1*iba to go to the house of instruction while she re"ains behin' in sha"e an' po!erty. 1fter
twice 1& years 1*iba returns as a great rabbi with the confession: 1ll that we ha!e we owe to her.
=ahel has sacrifice' her hair to "a*e stu'y possible for hi". Instea', he brings her a 'ia'e"
representing the pinnacles of the holy city which is now so 'rea'fully 'estroye'.
G
)his is the
sy"bol of a "arriage which has le' two persons ceaselessly in ser!ice of their 5o' an' people
un'er the sign of the 'i!ine calling an' the historical "o"ent.
/

Pointing in the sa"e 'irection is the i'eal of "arriage which Larathustra wins fro" his
'ualistic an' eschatological un'erstan'ing of life. In the "arriage liturgy co"pose' by the prophet
for the "arriage of his youngest 'aughter (_asna, %3,
1<
"arriage is the alliance of two persons
who set the will an' blessing of 1hura 4a>'a abo!e all else an' woul' strengthen their front
against the e!il forces which threaten catastrophe: ?#oon it will co"e to pass.@ Parseeis"
"aintaine' this high !iew of "arriage, as "ay be seen fro" the last sentence of the Iun'ehesh:
?$e who hath thrice 'rawn near (to his spouse, cannot be separate' fro" fellowship with 1hura
4a>'a an' the i""ortal saints.@
11

2esus sees in "arriage the original for" of hu"an fellowship. It has its basis an' nor" in
5o'`s act of creation. It has a history which 'i!i'es into three perio's. It has its ti"e, an' will
en' with this aeon.
A m c l
l , 4*. 1<:( ff. )his is the original state in Para'ise, i.e., "arriage as
5o' inten'e' it. 2esus e"phasises the e!ent, the henosis , which "ar*s it as belonging to
creation: l , 4*. 1<:Gb . )he practical conse8uence is
clear an' is 'rawn by 2esus $i"self in a new wor' of institution:
, m q mm , 4*. 1<:/ f. )o be sure, 2esus realises that the
pri"iti!e or'er has been shattere' by the corruption of the hu"an heart. $e sees the historical
3ustification an' necessity of the 4osaic law of 'i!orce which intro'uces the secon' perio' in
the history of "arriage, the perio' of co"pro"ise: q 6
cy q q , i.e., the 'irection to gi!e a bill of 'i!orce"ent.
2esus $i"self, howe!er, intro'uces a new perio' in the history of "arriage. )his thir' an'
'ecisi!e perio' is characterise' by a new conception of the law of 'i!orce, a 'eepene' i'eal
of "arriage an' finally a fourfol' reser!ation in respect of it.
2esus begins by recalling the original or'er of creation, thus assuring the ele"entary unity
an' in!iolability of "arriage, an' o!erthrowing the la7 interpretation an' practice of the
4osaic law with the correspon'ing 2ewish $alacha an' practice of 'i!orce:
1&
q
mm a Iut 2esus is no fanatic 'rea"ing of a new Para'ise. In all sobriety $e creates
practical con'itions for carrying out the ancient 'i!ine or'er in the present aeon. In place of
2ewish tra'itions $e sets a sharper interpretation of 4oses which han'les the proble" of
'i!orce accor'ing to the principle of the lesser e!il, a new $alacha which can so"eti"es
allow legal 'i!orce but lea!es intact the henosis of the "arriage partners: g
; +ro" the sa"e awareness of the henosis an' historical function of "arriage as roote' in creation there also
'e!elops here an' there in 2u'ais" a sense that the 'estruction of a "arriage is a "ortal assault on the total life
of creation, Pir*e =. ,lie>., 3.. Certain of the basic concepts of 4t. %:&; ff. "ay be seen alrea'y in 2ob 31:1 , ;
ff. : , , y .
G (. esp. b.Ee'. , %<a0 also the art. ?1*iba@ in ,2 .
/ +or the procreation of chil'ren as an act of faith, cf. Ps.KPhilo 1nt. Iibl., /, ( ff.0 cf. also Is. G:1 ff.
1< C. Iartholo"ae, Die )athas des Avesta (1/<%, 11% ff.
11 +. 2usti, Der *undehesh (1G(G, .;.
1& )he 2ewish law of "arriage an' 'i!orce is treate' in the tractates 5it. , Bi'. , #ota an' Bet. )here are
e7cellent re!iews in #tr.KI. , II, 3;& ff.0 I, 3<3 ff. Hn the hesitation in basic attitu'e, v. Bittel Proble"e , /G ff.
Hn the 'e"an' for "onoga"y, v. -a"asc. , ., &< ff., where there is an attac* on the licentiousness of ha!ing
two wi!es, an' where the basis is foun' in creation: ?4ale an' fe"ale create' he the",@ an' in the ar*: ?)here
went in two an' two into the ar*,@ so that it is written concerning the prince that he shall not "ultiply wi!es to
hi"self ( -t. 1;:1; . Cf. also #taer*, ad loc. +or further 'etails, v. B. $. =engstorf, #ebamot (1/&/, 3< ff.
q y yg
13
, . q
yg , ( 4*. 1<:11 ff. . )his
"eans 8uite clearly an' una"biguously that 'issolution of "arriage "ay be conce'e' at a
pinch, but that there "ust be no contracting of a new "arriage. )he replace"ent of one
spouse by another is a'ultery. +or it affects the fun'a"ental unity of the partners. )his unity
is posite' an' actualise' in accor'ance with creation. It re"ains e!en when hu"an
causes a rift which lea's to legal 'i!orce. $ence it "ust not be !iolate' by
any law of 'i!orce per"itting another union.
1.

1gain, 2esus fin's the startingKpoint of "arital failure in only with a
!iew to establishing in the the base of a new ethos of "arriage ( 4t. %:&; f. . It is in
the heart that the 'ecision is ta*en respecting the continuance of henosis . If it is aban'one' in
the heart, the "arriage is bro*en. )he "eaning of henosis is fulfille', accor'ing to 2esus, only
where persons beco"e an' re"ain one inwar'ly as well as outwar'ly, in a fusion which is
total an' alKco"prehensi!e. Physical fellowship "ust ha!e an' "aintain its centre in "oral.
Copulation without co""union is fornication.
)he wor's of 2esus per"it neither free lo!e nor 'ouble stan'ar's. _et co"plete e8uality is not
the i'eal of 2esus. )he linguistic usage in D*. 1;:&; etc. pro!es this ( n.
1
% . )he husban' is
the acti!e partner in the conclusion an' 'irection of "arriage. )his is selfKe!i'ent for 2esus.
+inally, 2esus shows that "arriage is historically con'itione' with a !iew to "a*ing $is
fourfol' reser!ation in respect of the present state of things. )here are ti"es of threatene'
3u'g"ent in which careless an' selfKconfi'ent y an' y
1%
in'icate a
culpable blin'ness to the seriousness of the situation an' can thus be fri!olous an'
irresponsible. Hne such ti"e was in the 'ays of the floo'0 another such ti"e
1(
has now
'awne' ( D*. 1;:&; . )here are situations in which y cy can be wrong an'
obstructi!e,
1;
because "arriage ha"pers a "an`s uncon'itional rea'iness for the call of 5o'
( D*. 1.:&< , cf. 4t. &&:1. . )here are "en
1G
who ha!e the gift an' tas* of refraining fro"
"arriage
1/
q ( 4t. 1/:1& .
&<
1n' a new age is co"ing in which there
will be no "ore "arrying: y 6 6, y
13 In the DFF cf. ,st. 1<:( (+ 3: q y . y occurs without ob3. in . 4acc. 1(:/ (
l c y, l c y 0 & 4acc. 1.:&% ( y .
1. D*. 1(:1G gi!es us fro" the b tra'ition a saying with the sa"e "eaning in another for": m
q y y6 c , y6 . 4t.
uses both 4*. an' b, but in both cases intro'uces a 8ualification which blunts the saying an' is ob!iously
'esigne' to 3ustify the practice of the ,arly Church: 4t. 1/:/ : q q , an' 4t. %:3& :
y . (Hn , cf. )ob. G:; : y6 m q
sc. to wife. )hese casuistic clauses can har'ly 'eri!e fro" 2esus an' were ob!iously not *nown
to Pl. in 1 C. ;:1< ff.
1% 2esus *eeps closely to the tra'itional "o'es of 2ewish thought an' e7pression when here an' in 4*. 1&:&% $e
uses the act. ( y for the "an an' the "i'. ( y for the wo"an. y 'oes not occur in
the DFF. 4t. &.:3G has y in c - an' 33. I, as so often, has a "ore archaic rea'ing of its owndthe
"ore refine' y 0 the Iy>antines ha!e y . )he case is "uch the sa"e in D*. &<:3% .
1( Cf. also #. Iar. 1<:13a: ?_e who are free, 'o not enter the "arriage cha"ber.@
1; Cf. 4t. %:&/ f. ( as in 1/:1< .
1G )he Iaptist is ob!iously one of these. Peter was "arrie' acc. to 4*. 1:3< , an' e!en if he was alone at the
ti"e of D*. 1G:&G an' par. , he later ha' an to wife0 the sa"e is true of the other apostles, v. 1 C. /:% .
1/ Cf. =e!. &:3 : .
&< )he ,!angelist here 'e!elops the proble" of "arriage in e7actly the sa"e way as the ensuing proble" of
3u'ging. )he 'isciples are rouse' an' startle' by the stringent 'e"an' of 2esus an' say to the 4aster: l m
q l 6 y, y , 1/:1< (cf. 1/:&% :
m 0. )hen 2esus re!eals a final point to the" in the separate saying:
m y

l m mm , 1/:11f . (cf.
1/:&G : q ym l . )his is the way of the calle': l
c q 6 6 (cf. 4t. 1/:&/ 0 D*.
1G:&/ : l q y . Cf. also ).2eb. , G, ..
y,

yy ( 4*. 1&:&% an' par. . 4arriage,

too, is one of the for"s of life in the present aeon which are to pass away. )he history of
"arriage will ter"inate with the en' of this age.
2esus $i"self ne!er "arrie'. Iut $e is not a pessi"ist in relation to it li*e the Christ of
the apocryphal 1cts. $e 'oes not go into houses to warn against it. $e atten's we''ings. $e
has a 'eep 3oy in chil'ren. $e *nows the legiti"acy, "eaning an' glory of "arriage, as $e
*nows the glory of the lilies which to"orrow will ha!e fa'e'. Hne 'ay the for" of "arriage
will pass. Iut this 'ay has not yet co"e. )oK'ay, an' especially toK'ay, the wor' of institution
fro" the ti"e of creation is still in force ( (./ on 4*. 1<:( ff. . $ence a general
abstinence fro" "arriage woul' be an anachronis" in this aeon.
Paul in 1 C. honours all the "otifs intro'uce' by 2esus. +or hi", too, the saying in
5enesis concerning henosis 'enotes the "etaphysical range of e!ery se7ual union ( 1 C. (:1(
f. . _et the thought is not 'e!elope' positi!ely in an un'erstan'ing of "arriage. It is use'
pole"ically in an attac* on . +ree lo!e is sin against the bo'y ( (:1Gb .
&1
In 1 C. ;
Paul refers e7pressly to the saying of the in his ra'ical re3ection of 'i!orce, or at any
rate his prohibition of the re"arriage of a 'i!orce' wife ( 1<f ..
&&
Hnce a "arriage is
contracte', it "ust be carrie' out in full both physically an' spiritually. Perio's of with'rawal
shoul' be brief ( 3ff .0 cf. &. , &;a an' Col. 3:1G f. . )he basis gi!en by Paul is, howe!er,
so"ewhat pessi"istic: c q y m
q g q ( !. & , % .
&3
If 2esus
e7plaine' 'i!orce as a necessary e!il, Paul see"s al"ost to see "arriage in the sa"e light. $e
thus presses e!en "ore strongly the fourfol' reser!ation alrea'y encountere' in 2esus.
4arriage can be a hin'rance to final 'e'ication to 5o' ( !. % , 3&ff .0 cf. D*. 1.:&< (%1 .
Iasically, it is not consonant with this ( 1 C. ;:&( , &G f. 0
y y ( !. 31 0 cf. 4*. 1&:&% (%1 . $ence
celibacy is the true 'e"an' of the hour q 6 y ( 1 C. ;:&( , &/ 0
cf. D*. 1;:&; (%1 . )o be sure, Paul has no use for ascetic e7peri"ents, an' if they lea' to
tense situations resolute "arriage
&.
is for hi" the lesser e!il. _et it is still an e!il. 1 wi'ow is
free to re"arry0 m m
&%
g ( 3/f ., cf. G 0 =. ;:& .
+inally0 he coul' wish that all y an' y were at an en' ( 1 C. ;:1 , ; f. d
c c ( !. ; . $e hi"self has the charis"a of
re"aining un"arrie' for the sa*e of his uni8ue situation an' co""ission (cf. 1 C. /:% , 1& ,
1% ff. .
&(
It "ay be seen that this is no acci'ent but a 'e"onstration. Paul is conscious of
being one of the q ( (%1 , on 4t. 1/:1& .
&;

&1 It is not an occasion for the , which is a prey to corruptibility, but an offence against the bo'y, which
is gi!en a new consecration by the an' assure' of a new future by the fact of the resurrection ( 1 C.
(:1. , 1/ . #in against the bo'y is thus an offence against the co"ing life an' the ongoing wor* of 'i!ine
creation.
&& 1 new proble" is whether "arriage with an unbelie!er shoul' be 'issol!e'. Paul`s answer is that the
initiati!e shoul' co"e only fro" the ( !. 1% 0 cf. 1 Pt. 3 :l f.0 for a 'ifferent !iew cf. 2er. G:& ff. .
&3 Hn a si"ilar basis 1*iba ( b.#an. , ;(a a'!ises the "arriage of 'aughters at the right ti"e. Cf. also #ir. ;:&% :
c y 0 but cf. 1 C. ;:3( ff. for another aspect.
&. y act. in 1 C. ;:3G (twice an' 4t. &.:3G 0 D*. &<:3% y (the later Iy>ant. ha!e
ym in all four instances. )he "eaning of y is consistent throughout the E) , i.e., ?to "arry@
VV y an' y . It see"s li*ely that in 1 C. ;:3( ff. the reference is to "ere coKhabitation. Hn the
linguistic an' "aterial proble", cf. Dt>"., ad loc. : 1. 2unc*er, "thik des $aulus , II (1/1/, 1/1 ff.
&% Eote the m . If Paul were a wi'ower, we shoul' e7pect a y6 , as in ;:;f . )here, howe!er, the
y are to the fore, so that it is "ost li*ely that he hi"self was an y .
&( Hn the 'ebate' issue whether Paul was a wi'ower, cf. 2oach. 2ere"ias, LE6 , 3< (1/&/, 3&1 ff. Hn the
proble" ? ,he un' Charis"a bei Paulus ,@ v. 6. 4ichaelis, L#)h , % (1/&G, .&( ff.0 $. Preis*er, ibid. , (
(1/&G, /1 f.
&; ,!en the of 4t. 1/:1< recurs in Paul in or'er to show the "eaning an' preKe"inence of celibacy:
ym ( 1 C. ;:3% . It is a technical ter" for the orientation of ethics to the
final goal of calling. Cf. 4t. %:&/ f. 0 1 C. (:1& 0 1<:&3 0 1<:33 .
In later writings the battle for the in!iolability of "arriage is pro"inent. 1 Cl. warns against
the 'iscor' which can e!en shatter "arriage: m y 6
m pc 6 A :
.
&G
$b. 13:. a'"onishes: y , an' Ign. writes in the
sa"e !ein to Polycarp (%, 1. $ence a Christian "arriage shoul' not be contracte' without the
blessing of the Church: c y y
y6 q cm , y g q
. y shoul' not be "a'e a law0 it beco"es a curse if it puffs up the ascetic0
yq l q , c q
m ( Ign. Pol., %, &. 1n' while the thought of "ere coKhabitation beco"es "ore pre!alent (
v. $erin!., 1, 1 an' esp. s. , /, 11, 3, the Pastorals con'e"n the shunning of "arriage an' the
8uestionable acti!ities of young wi'ows, laying 'own the principle: m
y ( 1 )". .:3 0 %:11 , 1. . $ere, too, of course, the principle of the lesser e!il lur*s in the
bac*groun', na"ely, in the "oti!e: q q . )he
i'eal is again that the wi'ow shoul' "anage without a secon' "arriage ( %:%ff .. It is 'e"an'e'
of the bishop in particular that he shoul' re"ain y ( 3:& . It is e!i'ent that
the 'e"an's of Paul are increasingly restricte'0 they are now li"ite' to bishops as the
ecclesiastical successors of the apostles an' charis"atics.
Hnly in one passage in the early Christian treat"ent 'oes the principle of celibacy fin' a
place, na"ely, in the picture gi!en in =e!elation of those who followe' the Da"b,
&/
of the
1..,<<< : l y6
l q yg. y 6
6m q q ( =e!. 1.:. . )here is here no suggestion
either of hu"an i"potence on the one si'e or of successful "on*ish achie!e"ent on the
other. )he reference is to the genuine herois" of those who are calle' for the sa*e of a uni8ue
situation an' co""ission.
_et early Christianity 'oes not spea* only of the 'ifficulty of "arriage in this kairos . It
also spea*s in strict an' lofty ter"s of the in!iolability of the "arriage bon'. 2esus in $is
saying concerning the heart ( (%< on 4t. %:&; f. lai' the new foun'ation for a positi!e
un'erstan'ing an' ethos of "arriage. )he house tables
3<
of the E) buil' on this foun'ation
when they base the whole fellowship of "arriage an' the fa"ily on y . y an'
not cm creates "arital fellowship. 1gain, the fellowship of the fa"ily is the organic centre
of the actualisation of y , which sustains all fellowship. In the E) , howe!er, the
groun' an' "easure of all hu"an y are to be foun' in the lo!e of 5o'. )he ,pistle to
the ,phesians carries this thought further. )he basis of all "arital lo!e is for the Christian the
lo!e of Christ for $is co""unity.
31
)his gi!es "arriage its place in the new worl' situation.
)he Christian i'eal of "arriage is thus brought into a wi'er theological conte7t.
3. The Messianic Wedding and Christian Marriage.
y ac8uires its greatest religious significance where it is use' of the union or close
connection between 5o' an' "an. )he thought of a 'i!ine being ha!ing se7ual intercourse with a
hu"an wo"an is co""on in the ancient Hrient. It is the presupposition of the ruler i'eology of
,gypt, of the fertility rites of the Eear ,ast an' of the 5ree* 4ysteries both in classical an'
$ellenistic ti"es. )he 6 of ,leusis represente' the l y between Leus an'
-e"eter, between the lor' of hea!en an' "other earth.
3&
)he cli"a7 of the +east of +lowers
consiste' in the y of -ionysus, who ca"e in hu"an for" to his earthly bri'e.
33
1gain, the
&G y , the wife, foun' only here in early Christian literature.
&/ in =e!. 1.:. as in 4t. 1/:&G : ( n. &< an' &1. . )hey for" the
central corps of the people of 5o', cf. ( =e!. 1.:. .
3< Col. 3:1G ff. 0 ,ph. %:&& ff. 0 1 Pt. &:1G ff.
31 Hn ,ph. % (%( .
3& (. H. Bern, Die griech. Mysterien d. klass. +eit (1/&;, ;1 f.
33 (. H. Bern in PaulyK6. , s.v. -ionysos, A (1/<%, 1<1< ff.0 D. -eubner, ? -ionysos u. '. 1nthesterien ,@
#ahrb. Deutsch. Arch. ,nst. , .& (1/&;, 1;& ff. Hn the sacra"ent of the bri'al cha"ber, v. 4ith. Diturg. , 1&( f.0
hea!enly we''ing is a sign set o!er the "arriage of the earthly couple. )hus in the ?bri'al
cha"ber@ of the Ailla Ite" the we''ing of -ionysus an' 1ria'ne is perhaps represente' as a
"o'el for the future "arriage of 'e!otees.
3.
In Plato ( =esp. , A. .%/ ff., where the "ythical an'
cultic realis" is less e!i'ent, the i'ea of the hea!enly l y gi!es both for" an'
"eaning to earthly "arriage.
In the worl' of Israel an' 2u'ah, too, there is reference to the "arriage between 5o' an' the
lan' or people of Israel. )he H) , howe!er, has no hint of any actualisation of this relationship in
"ysteries, or of any sensually perceptible union with the 'eity.
3%
Hn the contrary, "arriage is
si"ply a sy"bol for the co!enant between 5o' an' the people as this is to be *ept in all fi'elity
an' renewe' with all passion
3(
( $os. &:1/ 0 Is. %.:. ff. 0 (&:. f. 0 ,>. 1(:; ff. .
6ith the sa"e strictness with which prophecy fought the ancient fertility cults, $ellenistic
2u'ais" 'a"ps the erotic i"pulse of the 4ysteries, e.g., in 6is. 1.:&3 ff. : q y
q q m 6 6
y y c ym ,
y .
3;
Philo uses the i"agery of the $ellenistic 4ysteries together with the H)
stories of #arah an' Deah to 'epict in a !arie' allegory the truth that the y
y6 is the who in the gi!es birth to beautiful an' perfect
wor*s.
3G

6holly along the lines of the H) the =abbis e7tolle' the conclusion of the co!enant at #inai
as the "arriage of _ahweh with Israel. )he )orah is the "arriage contract, 4oses is the frien' of
the bri'egroo" an' _ahweh co"es to Israel as a bri'egroo" to his bri'e.
3/
1cc. to 1*iba the
bri'e of the #ong of #ongs is Israel as the bri'e of 5o'. ?I belong to "y frien', an' "y frien'
belongs to "e. _ou ha!e no part in hi" (5o'.@ )hus spea*s the people of 5o' in a great 'ialogue
between Israel an' the 5entiles co"pose' by 1*iba on the basis of this te7t ( 4. ,7. on 1%:& .
Iut the final renewal of the co!enant between 5o' an' the people, inti"ate' by the prophets, was
e7pecte' by the =abbis in the 'ays of the 4essiah. )hus we often fin' the !iew that in these 'ays
there will ta*e place the true "arriage feast.
.<
In this connection the present age is that of
engage"ent, the se!en years of 5og will be the perio' i""e'iately prior to the "arriage, the
"arriage itself will 'awn with the resurrection an' the great "arriage feast will be eaten in the
future worl'.
.1

2esus "o!es wholly within the circle of i'eas of $is conte"poraries when $e e7presses
the "eaning an' glory of the 4essianic perio' in the i"ages of the we''ing an' we''ing
feast. )he !irgins will wait until a late hour of the night to acco"pany the bri'al pair with
la"ps to the "arriage house, where at a brightly illu"inate' table the se!en 'ay feast will
begin:
.&
l c l l y . #o the co""unity
of 'isciples hastens to the co"ing of the Dor', fully alert: yy ,
on the we''ing feast, ibid. , &...
3. (. 4. Iieber, ? -as 4ysteriensaal 'er Ailla Ite" ,@ #ahrb. Deutsch. Arch. ,nst. , .3 (1/&G, &/G ff.0 31. f.0
3&<.
3% 2. $e"pel, L#)h , / (1/31, 1G.
3( $. #ch"i't, ? -ie ,he 'es $osea ,@ L16 , .& (1/&., &.% ff.
3; 2os.1nt. , 1G, (( ff. gi!es us a crass e7a"ple fre8uently 8uote'.
3G Cherub. , 13 . Cf. also y in 1br. , 1<< f. an' #o". , I, &<< . )he we''ing of the *ing with wis'o", 6is.
G:& , / ( #ir. 1%:& .
3/ -t. r. , 3 (&<<'0 Pir*e =. ,lie>., .10 4. ,7. on 1/:1; in #tr.KI. , I, /(/ f.0 II, 3/3.
.< ( ,7. r. , 1% on 1&:& 0 D!. r. , 11 on /:1 an' 3 #hebi. , 3%c, &%, in #tr.KI. , I. %1;. )he i"age of the
eschatological feast, alrea'y foun' in Is. &%:( , is unite' with the thought of "other Israel, calle' bac* by 5o' to
$i"self, in the wholly 2ewish !erses in . ,sr. &:1% , 3G . Hn the feast as a for" an' "eans of fellowship with
5o', v. 2oachi" 2ere"ias, #esus der -eltvollender (1/3<, ;% ff.
.1 In a typical =abb. atte"pt to fin' a theological origin for e!en secular "arriages, it is suggeste' that _ahweh
is the first Iri'egroo" ( 5n. r. , 1G on &:&& .
.& Cf. b. #u**., &%b0 Pesi*t. , &< (/%a0 .3 (1G<b0 )er. , 11, 1< etc. in #tr.KI. , I, %<. ff. +or the rather 'ifferent
torch procession lea'ing the bri'al couple to their ho"e or to the bri'al cha"ber, cf. 4. ,st., 1, ., #tr.KI. , I,
%110 also #tr.KI. , I, /(/ (in the lan' of Ish"ael an' BI. 4t. on &%:1ff. (in )ransK3or'ania. )orches are also
"entione' in relation to the ho"eco"ing of the bri'e in 4. Iieber, op cit. , 31G, (0 3&<, 1.
q q c q 6 ( 4t. &%:1< ff. . )his point, cf. D*. 1&:3( ff. , is
un'oubte'ly the chief one. Iut the rich i"agery is chosen 'eliberately. )his is shown by 4*.
&:1/ an' par. , where 2esus 'escribes $i"self as the Iri'egroo".
.3
$ere (an' in 2n. 3:&/ ,
the 'ays of we''ing festi!ity fall in the life of 2esus, whereas in 4t. &%:1 ff. they await $is
returndan ob!ious tension. ,!en "ore i"portant is another shift in conception. In 2ewish
eschatological e7pectation 5o' is the Hne who renews the "arriage bon' with $is people. In
the E) Christ ta*es the place of 5o' as the hea!enly Iri'egroo". 1ccor'ing to 4t. &&:1 ff.
$e is the Bing`s #on for who" the hol's the great we''ing feast (
y . 1gain, the i"age can har'ly be acci'ental. 2esus often spea*s of the 4essianic
feast.
..
)he 6 6 is the great 4essianic ban8uet to which the people
of 5o' is in!ite'. Iut those in!ite' refuse when the y c . )he call
l y goes out to those outsi'e, an' they hear an' strea" in ( 4t. &&:3
ff. 0 cf. D*. 1.:G ff. .
6ho is the bri'e in the 4essianic feaste In 2ewish tra'ition it is the people of the co!enant
brought ho"e to its Dor'. In the #ynoptic parables, howe!er, the co""unity of 'isciples is
in!ite' as a guest, an' the bri'e is not "entione'. _et the thought rea'ily suggests itself that
the new co""unity of the co!enant is the bri'e. )he first traces of this !iew are to be foun'
in Paul, probably in 1 C. (:1. ff. , where Paul sees an analogy between pneu"atic union with
Christ an' the henosis of 5n. &:&. . It e"erges "ore clearly in =. ;:. , an' especially in & C.
11:& : 6 y q, q y c
yq X . Paul here thin*s of hi"self as occupying a si"ilar role
to that of the 4oses of the $agga'a ( (%. . $e is the one who con'ucts the bri'e to the
hea!enly Iri'egroo", presenting the co""unity to $i" pure an' chaste. )he sa"e i"agery
is foun' in 2n. 3:&/ , where the Iaptist has the office of frien' an' therefore the co""unity
"ust again be the bri'e of the 4essiah. )he i"age of the bri'e is "ost powerfully use' in the
final !isions of the 1pocalypse, which brings together all the !arie' i"agery of the 4essianic
ban8uet.
.%
)he bri'e waits with longing: c a ( &&:1; . Iut the 'i!ine alrea'y catches
the final $allelu3ah which inti"ates the 'ay of consu""ation: q y
q yq q 0 an' at the sa"e ti"e a !oice 'eclares:
l l y ( 1/:;ff .. It "ay
thus be seen that the thought of the co""unity as the bri'e inclu'es rather than e7clu'es the
further thought that the in'i!i'ual "e"bers are in!ite' to the we''ing as guests. )he
sustaining thought, howe!er, is that of the co""unity as bri'e. )he wor's which )ritoKIsaiah
.(
sets in the "outh of the 'i!ine bri'e 2erusale" as an eschatological hy"n are seen by the
'i!ine to be fulfille' after the final cos"ic uphea!als. $e sees the new city of 5o'
q ( &1:& .
.;

In contrast to 2n. 3:&/ 2esus is not the bri'egroo" in the Cana story. )he couple is of only
subsi'iary interest in this episo'e.
.G
2esus stan's at the centre. 1gain, the con3unction of the
we''ing an' wine is not "ythologically 'eter"ine' in the sense of the 4ysteries.
./
It si"ply
.3 )he sa"e thought is also foun' in 2n. 3:&/ , an' possibly e!en in 2n. &:; ff. in the original for" of the Cana
story0 so $. #ch"i't, Die "r&.hlung v. d. /och&eit &u 0ana. "ine rel.1gesch. 2ntersnchung (1/31, &%.
.. v. the par. in D*. 1.:1( ff. , an' "uch "ore concretely in 4*. 1.:&% an' par.
.% Hn the harlot Iabylon as the opp. of the 4essianic bri'e, cf. #ib. , 3, 3%( ff.: 6 q ,
y lm , ( n. %3 : B6 , %1% .
.( In the "isplace' section (1:1<, which "ust be un'erstoo' in the light of (&:%.
.; In the #yr. Schat&h3hle (p. (;, Ie>ol' a bill of 'i!orce is gi!en to the 2ewish co""unity after the crucifi7ion
of 2esus.
.G $. #ch"i't, op cit. , suspects an original for" of the Cana story in which 2esus was perhaps the bri'egroo".
./ ,.g., 4. Iieber, op cit. , 31/. $. #ch"i't sees in 2n. &:1 ff. the reconstruction of a story which originally
treate' of the epiphany of a wineKgo', op cit. , 3<, 33. 6. Iauer, too, recalls the wine "iracles of -ionysus an'
interprets the story as a rich allegorising of the wine of the Dor'`s #upper, v. Iau. 2n. , ad loc. )he specifically
2ohannine i"press an' character of the story are especially wor*e' out, an' "a'e fruitful for interpretation, by
B. D. #ch"i't in ? -er 2ohanneische Chara*ter 'er ,r>fhlung !o" $och>eitswun'er >u Bana ,@ /arnackehrung
(1/&1, 3& ff.
arises out of the situation. )he "arriage as such is not i"portant to the narrator (cf. .:.( , but the
which points beyon' itself to the of the #on. )he "iracle is a "iracle of
re!elation, li*e that of the brea' ( (:&( an' all the 2ohannine "iracles. It is the first step on the
way of the historical "anifestation of the glory of the #on.
)his conception of Christ as the Iri'egroo" un'erlies the house table of ,phesians
( %:&&ff .. 1lrea'y in & C. 11:3 (cf. 1 C. (:1( f. the "arriage bon' between Christ an' the
co""unity as $is bri'e ha' been set in analogy to the "arriage bon' between the first hu"an
couple. In ,ph. %:31 f. the thought is wor*e' out typologically, an' the 5enesis saying
%<

concerning the i"pulse of the "an to the wo"an an' the henosis of the two is e7plaine' as a
y an' referre' l X l q . )his
relationship between Christ an' the co""unity, howe!er, is necessarily nor"ati!e for that
between husban' an' wife in a Christian "arriage. )hus ,ph. , 'e!eloping Pauline "otifs (cf.
1 C. 11:3 0 (:1% ff. , offers a christological basis for the two "ain parts of the early Christian
"arriage catechis",
%1
for the subor'ination of the wife to the husban' an' the o!erri'ing
lo!e of the husban' for the wife: q X, m
l ( %:&. , cf. &&f .. Ol , y
y, 6 X y q c
m c , ( %:&%ff .0 cf. &/f .. )he tensions in the relationship
between husban' an' wife, recognise' alrea'y in 5enesis, are resol!e' X . +or the
selfKgi!ing of the wife ac8uires a new 'e'ication, an' the i"pulse of the husban' a new
content an' stan'ar', in y .
%&
)he wife is no longer surren'ere' to the husban'0 she is
entruste' to hi". $e 'oes not ha!e rights of lor'ship o!er her0 he ta*es responsibility for her.
#o"eti"es the e7ecution of this thought has been as artificial as its e7egetical basis. Iut the
enterprise is "agnificent an' bol'. It is the only atte"pt of early Christianity to set "arital
'uty 'efinitely un'er the sign of the fact of 2esus.
)he startingKpoint is ob!iously the ol' i'ea of the i"itation of 2esus which first arose in
2u'ais" as the imitatio Dei ( m , which then ca"e to control Christian ethics, an'
which playe' a great role fro" the ti"e of Ignatius. It is no acci'ent that it is in Ign. that the i'eas
of ,ph. % f in' their first echo ( Ign. Pol., %, 1. Hn the other han', there is no 'oubt that the
thought of Christian "arriage is here referre' "uch "ore strongly to that of the l y ,
to the analogy between hea!enly an' earthly we''ing which is so i"portant in 5*. thin*ing.
In the later 'e!elop"ent of early Christian i'eas of "arriage an' celibacy there is "uch
contact an' conflict with $ellenistic "otifs. 5nostics speculate on hea!enly sy>ygies, "ystics
re!el in the i"agery of the #ong of #ongs, ascetics 'espise the bo'y an' ecstatic wo"en
e7perience the union of the soul with the hea!enly Iri'egroo". )wo te7ts stan' out in the welter
of literature. )he 2ewish legen' of 2oseph an' 1senath,
%&
which 'eals with the "arriage of
2oseph to a 'aughter of the ,gyptian *ing, is ob!iously interprete' an' allegorically e7ploite' in
2u'ais" with reference to the "arriage of the 4essiah to the city of 5o' (p. 1%0 1(0 1;0 1/0 an'
Christians, too, wor* it out in the sa"e way, the !irgin 1senath being fearfully oppose' to all "en
until the great stranger co"es ( l , (0 13 who con!erts her to the true 5o' an' i"parts
the #pirit of 5o' to her in a *iss (1/. #he gi!es herself to hi". #he is affiance' to hi" fro"
eternity, an' their "arriage bon' will last to eternity (&1. #i"ilar i'eas an' "otifs recur
fre8uently in the apocryphal legen's of the apostles, esp. the 1cts of )ho"as. $ere, too, there is
an e!i'ent ascetic ten'ency. 2esus enters the bri'al cha"ber an' wins the newly espouse' for the
i'eal of continence. 1 higher "arriage ta*es the place of carnal union: cq yq
q ( 1ct. )ho". , 1.. 1n' an ecstatic hy"n of
%< )he =o"an Catholic !iew starts with the application of the ter" ( sacramentum to the "arital
relationship establishe' in ,ph. %:31 VV 5n. &:&. , an' thus 'eclares "arriage to be a sacra"ent. +or further
'etails, cf. 4einert> 5efbr.
.
, ad loc.
%1 (%< . Cf. 1 C. 1.:3. 0 1 )h. .:. 0 Col. 3:1G f. 0 1 Pt. 3:1 , ; . Cf. also 2os.1p. , &, &<1 : yq m
l . y m, q ,

. y
cm . Christian sensibility coul' not possibly appro!e a cru'e saying li*e that of #ir.
3(:&( : y, c c y y .
%& ,'. P. Iatiffol, Studia $atristica , 1 (1GG/.
)ho"as lau's the "ystical we''ing, the 'ance of the se!en "ale an' fe"ale atten'ants an' the
eternal 3oys of the "arriage feast ((f..
%3
In the story of 2oseph an' 1senath the reference is still
to the relationship between the 4essiah an' the co""unity, but here it is to the sensual an' supraK
sensual e7periences of the in'i!i'ual soul. 4ysticis" has triu"phe'.
Stauffer

*
( l6 , .
1. y ( y ,
1
y
&
is a 5*. for" of the 1ra". g\OhMU WiOj ( b.
,
rub , 1/a,
3
which
for its part 'eri!es fro" the $eb. g\OkMU lWiOj ( 2os. 1%:G 0 1G:1( , an abbre!iation of the original WiOj
g\OkMU lmXOP ( 2os. 1%:1G
.
or g\OkMU W\jXR WiOj & B. &3:1< , Betib. )his na"e was gi!en to the 6n'i erK
raabbi in #outh 2erusale", which later ac8uire' a ba' reputation
%
because sacrifices were offere'
in it to 4oloch in the 'ays of 1ha> an' 4anasseh ( & B. 1(:3 0 &1:( . )he threats of 3u'g"ent
uttere' o!er this sinister !alley in 2er. ;:3& 0 1/:( 0 cf. Is. 31:/ 0 ((:&. , are the reason why the
Aalley of $inno" ca"e to be e8uate' with the hell of the last 3u'g"ent in apocalyptic literature
fro" the &n' cent. I.C. (the ol'est instances are in ,th. ,n. /<:&(0 &;:1 ff.0 %.:1 ff.0 %(:3f.. )he
na"e gehinnom thus ca"e to be use' for the eschatological fire of hell ( E) 0 b=$, 1(b0 . ,st.
;:3(0 #. Iar. %/:1<0 G%:130 #ib. , 1, 1<30 &,&/10 ., 1G(, !l. . )his is the stage of 'e!elop"ent
reflecte' in the E) . In the 1st cent. 1.-. the ter" was further e7ten'e'
(
to co!er the place where
the ungo'ly were punishe' in the inter"e'iate state ( q , but this is not so in the E) .
)he DFF 'oes not ha!e y . 2oseph. "entions neither the ter" nor the "atter, probably
because he was a Pharisee an' thus 'enie' the resurrection of the ungo'ly ( Iell. , 3, 3;. f. 0 1p. ,
&, &1G . Philo 'oes not *now the wor' an' uses instea' (
,
7secr. , 1%&.
;

&. +un'a"ental for an un'erstan'ing of the y passages in the E) , which occur
only in the #ynoptists an' 2ohn, is the sharp 'istinction "a'e by the E) between q
an' y . )his 'istinction is a. that $a'es recei!es the ungo'ly only for the inter!ening
perio' between 'eath an' resurrection, whereas 5ehenna is their place of punish"ent in the
last 3u'g"ent0 the 3u'g"ent of the for"er is thus pro!isional but the tor"ent of the latter
eternal ( 4*. /:.3 an' par. 0 /:.G . It is then b. that the souls of the ungo'ly are outsi'e the
bo'y in $a'es, whereas in 5ehenna both bo'y an' soul, reunite' at the resurrection, are
'estroye' by eternal fire ( 4*. /:.3 an' par. , .% , .; an' par. , .G 0 4t. 1<:&G an' par. .
y is preKe7istent ( 4t. &%:.1 .
G
It is "anifeste' as the fiery abyss ( 4*. /:.3 etc.0
cf. q , 4t. 13:.& , %< only after the general resurrection (
an' the last 3u'g"ent ( (cf. , 4*. /:.% , .; an'
par. 0 , D*. 1&:% . )hose who fall !icti" to 'i!ine 3u'g"ent at the last 'ay ( 4t.
%:&& 0 &3:33 will there be 'estroye' by e!erlasting fire. )he ungo'ly are the l y
( 4t. &3:1% , together with #atan an' the 'e"ons ( 4t. &%:.1 0 G:&/ 0 cf.
, =e!. 1/:&< 0 &<:1< , 1. f. , into which the ungo'ly, #atan, the beast an' his prophet,
'eath an' hell are thrown.
%3 Cf. H. #ol. .&:11 f. (we''ing couch0 3G:/ff. (bri'e of #atan. Cf. also =eit>enstein, /ellenistische
-underer&.hlungen (1/<(, 13. ff.
9 y . 5. -al"an, =,
3
, AI, .1G ff.0 #tr.KI. , IA, 1<&&J111G0 #chl. 4t. , 1;10 -ausch #ynpt. ., 1<%.
1 #ib. , 1, 1<3: l y . )he one ! is supporte' by the "etre. In the E) cf. 4*. /:.% , al .; -.
,rub "rubin , 4ishnahK, )oseftaK, )al"u' tractate ,nterminglings (e!asions of the #abbath co""an'"ent
(#trac*, "inl. , 3G f..
. 1lso written g\OMU l[kXP cWiOj ( 2er. ;:3& .
% Cf. 2oach. 2ere"ias, #erusalem &ur +eit #esu (1/&3, 1;.
( )he ol'est attestation is in b. Ier., &Gb0 2ochanan b. La**ai ('c. G< 1.-. .
,7secr. De "xsecrationibus .
; Cf. #tr.KI. , IA, 1<3., ad loc.
G G Cf. . ,sr. ;:3( . ,!en in =abb. lit. the preKe7istence of 5ehenna is soli'ly "aintaine'.
In the E) there is no 'escription of the tor"ents of hell as in apocalyptic literature. If they
are "entione', it is only to rouse consciences to fear of the wrath of the hea!enly 2u'ge ( 4t.
1<:&G an' par. . )he (sentence
/
y ( 4t. &3:33 is a
y ( 4t. 3:; an' par. . )he se!erity of the 3u'g"ent of 5o' on sin is e7presse' by 2esus
in $is threatening of y e!en to 'isciples who woun' their brothers with conte"ptuous
wor's ( 4t. %:&& . Eo sacrifice is too costly in the war against sin ( 4t. /:.3 ff. .
It is significant that the ol'est =abbinic reference to 5ehenna ( ).#anh. , 13, 3 an' par. tells
us that the 'isciples of #ha""ai, as 'istinct fro" those of $illel, ascribe to 5ehenna a purgatorial
as well as a penal character, na"ely, in the case of the gWYU[OoQRS or gW\U[k\WXOj , i.e., those whose
"erits an' transgressions balance one another. It "ay be that this conception of a purificatory
character of the final fire of 3u'g"ent un'erlies such passages as 4*. /:./ 0 1 C. 3:13J1% 0 cf. &
Pt. 3:1< .
#oachim #eremias
, ,
*

1. The Word Group Applied to Men.
ym an' ym are co""on fro" the ti"e of $o"er in all sha'es of their basic
"eaning, whether for ?free an' 3oyous laughter@ or for that of ?triu"ph or scorn.@ ym "eans
not "erely ?laughter@ itself but also the ?occasion for or ob3ect of laughter@ (e.g., #oph.He'. Col. ,
/<& f.: ym

y6 q y 0 )est. #ol. &(:; pp.;. 4cCownq:

y ym l6 . ym , atteste' fro" the ti"e of
1eschylus ( 1g. , 1&3(, is a strengthene' for" 'enoting ?hearty or lou' laughter,@ or ?ri'icule.@
)he wor' as applie' to "en has no particular connections with religion or "orality in the 5*. an'
$ellen. worl', e!en in $esychius, s.v. 2 ym : l q 2
Kq c ym . $ere
y si"ply "eans the rather force' "erri"ent e7pecte' of the sacrifice an' those participating
in it.
)hings are 'ifferent in the DFF. $ere ym as a ren'ering of ors th
1
is use' e7clusi!ely
for the true or suppose' superiority towar's another e7presse' in scorn or laughter (cf. 1braha"
in relation to 5o' in 5n. 1;:1; 0 #arah in relation to 5o' in 5n. 1G:1& , 13 , 1% 0 the narrator (2
foun' a sharp contrast between the attitu'e of the for"er in 5n. 1%:( ( mWTU cu MP v an'
that of the latter in 5n. 1G:1& ff. ( oMs th v y .
)he wor' "eans "uch the sa"e when oMs Qhw is ren'ere' ym (of the ene"ies of 2erusale"
laughing at the stric*en city in Da". 1:; , or the righteous laughing at a "an of 'eceitful tongue in
51:6 , or when it is ren'ere' ym (e.g., the "an who trusts in 5o' laughing at
'estruction an' fa"ine in 2ob %:&& , or the ostrich at the horse an' ri'er who pursue it in 2ob 3/:1G
.
&
,7cept in 2ob 1;:( , where there is a softening, ym is use' for ork tR 11 ti"es,
3
an' so
far as "eaning goes correspon's to the !erb, though the neutral sense has not co"pletely
'isappeare' (e.g., Pr!. 1<:&3 0 t. 7:4 , ; . ,7cept in 5n. &1:( it is certainly ne!er use' for
righteous 3oy.
.
In 2esus #irach ( 2. 21:20 0 &;:13 ym is a "ar* of the fool ( m 0
/ #chl. 4t. , (G(.
9 ym . 4oult.K4ill. , 1&&0 ,. Borne"ann, 0ilo. , ; (1/<;, &G% ff. (on ym , P. 5iess. , I, 3, Gff.0 ,.
Eor'en, Die )eburt des 0indes (1/&., %/ff.
1 )he pi`el orj ts is translate' m ( 5n. &1:/ 0 &(:G 0 ,7. 3&:( 0 2u. 1(:&% or m ( 5n. 3/:1. , 1; .
& ym is use' for ors Qhw & ti"es in the DFF, an' && ti"es in all, but only . ti"es for iZs Yh , once for
xYsZh an' once for y[OXYh MWhMh .
3 Eot counting ,>. &3:3& 1.
. In 5n. &1:( "atters are co"plicate', since there see" to be two 'ifferent interpretations of the na"e ors tR WU ,
an' the one can be ta*en in a pious sense (, whereas the other has the profane. _et this is not necessary0 the
!erse "ay perhaps be ta*en to i"ply that #arah herself has now beco"e the ob3ect of sceptical laughter. In the
Pr!. 1<:&3 an' t. 7:7 spea* e"phatically of the ym of the m . It shoul' not be
o!erloo*e' that in both these cases the opposite is the , who is thus the e8ui!alent of the
righteous.
)he =abbis sel'o" spea* of laughter. It is worth noting that both the ork tR of 5n. &1:( an' the
orj ts Y R of ,7. 3&:( are referre' to i'olatry, a'ultery an' bloo'Kshe' ( 5n. r. , %3, 11 on &1:/ or ,7.
r. , .&, 1 on 3&:; .
%
$ence it is not surprising to rea' in 5n. r. , &&, ( on .:; that =. Chanina bar
Papa ( c. 3<< 1.-.
(
sai': ?6hen you ha!e an i"pulse
;
towar's fri!olity ( zh YRWrU QRw Ms YR , then
resist it with the wor's of the )orah.@ $ere ors Qhw is un'oubte'ly use' for the attitu'e which is the
e7act opposite of serious application to the )orah. )hings are not 8uite so blunt, but ta*e "uch the
sa"e course, in the )annaitic tra'ition ( b. Ier., 31a. $ere we are not only warne' against
praying o[krQRw zR [kNO TU as an unworthy attitu'edthe for"ula occurs in a *in' of catalogue of !ices
dbut also against parting fro" one`s neighbour o[krQRw zR [kNO TU 0 $ere, too, ors Qhw is contraste' with
a pious sense of 'epen'ence on 5o' which is wellKpleasing to $i". In ors Qhw , then, there is seen a
re3ection of 5o' as the reality which 'eter"ines all things an' an affir"ation of "an as an
autono"ous being.
)his linguistic bac*groun' is "ost i"portant for an un'erstan'ing of the E) passages in
which there is reference to laughter. ,!erywhere we can see a 'istinction fro" 5ree* usage
an' 'epen'ence on the "ore religious 2ewish usage ors th ors Qhw v ym . )his is true e!en
in 4t. /:&. an' par. , the only passage where ym is use'. $ere it is sai' of those
asse"ble' in the house of 2airus that in face of the of 2esus: ym
. )his ob!iously 'enotes scornful laughter on the basis of suppose'ly better
infor"ation an' therefore of a superiority which is not slow to "a*e itself felt.
G

In D*. (:&% a 6oe is pronounce' by 2esus on the y6 .0
/
a prospect of future
an' is hel' out for the", whereas it is sai' of the that
they shall laugh ( (:&1 . )he ol' antithesis y/ ( boh. 3:. is thus fille' with
new content in relation to the eschatological 'i!ision an' 'ecision of "en (though ((& . In
this connection it is to be note' that the y6 are set 'irectly alongsi'e the
an' the ( (:&.f .0 the co"prehensi!e reference of 2esus is
to those who fin' satisfaction in the present aeon in contrast to the nee'y. If there is no
i""e'iate thought of sin or righteousness in the original sayings (cf. 4t. %:( , the
interpretation of 4atthew is right in so far as 2esus here threatens with 3u'g"ent an attitu'e
which no longer rec*ons seriously with 5o' an' which one part of Palestinian Christianity
saw to be connecte', either as a 'anger or as a reality, with wealth. )hus for 2a"es ( .:/ it is
part of the con!ersion fro" worl'liness, howe!er religiously e"bellishe', that ym
1<

shoul' 'isappear an' gi!e place to hu"ility before 5o' if 5o' $i"self is not finally to "a*e
DFF this thought is suppresse' an' the whole !erse is gi!en a positi!e "eaning: ym
y g y (I owe this to 5. Iertra". Perhaps there is here a 'esire
to free the "other of the people fro" the charge of ork ZR v ym dhence y , though ym
itself coul' not be a!oi'e' in !iew of the e7isting $agga'ic e7planation of the na"e ors tR WU .
% )hese interpretations are alrea'y )annaitic (1*iba: ). #ot., (, (.
( )he sentence 'eri!es fro" an ol'er tra'ition, since it also see"s to be lin*e' with =. #i"on ( c. &G< 1.-. in
the sa"e connection.
; Eaturally a ba' i"pulse.
G )he sa"e usage is foun' in 2os.1nt. , %, 1.. : the "en of 5ibeah 6y6
ym 0 cf. also 2os.1p. , 1, (/ an' #chl. 4t. , 31/. )here is an instance of ym to e7press
scepticis" towar's a "iracle in =. $er>og, Die -underheilungen von "pidauros (1/31, 1<.
/ In 2oseph. ym is use' only in connection with "oc*ery an' witticis"s, without religious content0 cf. #chl.
D*. , &.; f.
1< 2oseph. uses ym of fri!olous or scornful laughter: Ait. , 3&3 0 1nt. , ., &;( .
it , i.e., co"plaint at the loss of worl'ly goo's,
11
which "ust ulti"ately be wreste'
fro" "an`s control ( .:Gff ..
2. The Word Group applied to the Deity.
ym an' ym are particularly i"portant for the 5*s. when brought into connection
with the go's.
1&
4erry laughter is a 'i!ine characteristic (cf. perhaps , a na"e for
1phro'ite as early as $o"er, H'. , /, 3(&, an' is thus inseparable fro" theophany.
13
6e ha!e a
particularly goo' e7a"ple of this in the epiphany hy"n to -e"etrius Polior*etes fro" the year
3<; I.C. , where it is sai' of the go' -e"etrius on his bo'ily "anifestation ( 1then. , AI, &%3':

l, 6 , y6 .
1.
1longsi'e this we
"ight set the legen' in Plin.$ist. Eat. AII, 1%, ;&, that the only "an to laugh on the 'ay of his
birth was Loroaster, or the 'e"an' "a'e of the boy hy"ne' in
A
erg.,cl. , ., (< ff.: ,ncipe, parve
puer, risu cognoscere matrem 4 incipe, parve puer, cui non risere parentes, nec deus hunc
mensa, dea nec dignata cubili est 5 the un'erlying thought here is that laughter i""e'iately after
birth 'eclares the 'i!ine character of this chil'.
1%
ym is a "ar* of the 'eity, which also
sprea's ym in the worl' aroun': || ym. q y
m / q yq m ( #tob.,cl. , I, ;G1 f.. It is
perhaps in this light that we shoul' e7plain the 'ifficult passage in P. 5iess. , I, 3, G ff., where in
connection with the coronation of $a'rian there is reference to a ym of the people. )his is the
laughter which brea*s out with the parousia of the go' (here the e"peror, 'enoting the age of 3oy
which he intro'uces.
1(

+ro" the e7a"ples a''uce' it "ay be seen that ym is intrinsic to the go' in anti8uity,
e!en though it is not a trait which is regularly e"phasise'. )he "aterial e7planation lies in a
fact which calls for attention, na"ely, that in contrast to the Hrient 5ree* religion stresses the
gracious presence of 'eity an' its union with "an.
1;
It har'ly nee' be sai' that the ter"
cannot be brought into any essential connection with the biblical !iew of 5o'. )his woul' be
true e!en if a certain o'iu" 'i' not attach to it in biblical usage. )o be sure, it is sai' of 5o' .
ti"es in the H) that $e laughs ( ors Qhw , Ps. &:. 0 3;:13 0 %/:G 0 Pr!. 1:&( .
1G
)his 'oes not
i"ply, howe!er, that laughter is a 'i!ine characteristic. It si"ply e7presses $is absolute
superiority o!er the ungo'ly who will not accept $i" as 5o' e!en though they are nothing
besi'e $i".
1/
)he use of ors Qhw thus fails "aterially un'er the biblical usage "entione' in
1 ., an' it is in *eeping that in the first 3 cases the DFF has y an' in Pr!.
y . _et it shoul' not be o!erloo*e' that the =abbis were astonishe' e!en to rea'
of this fourfol' laughter of 5o' in #cripture. Htherwise they woul' not ha!e asse"ble' the
passages, let alone trie' to ta*e orQw W in Ps. &:. as pi`el an' thus ta*en it to "ean that 5o'
will "a*e $is ene"ies the ob3ects of "utual 'erision
&<
( 4i'r. Ps. & ] (. )hus it is not 5o'
$i"self who laughs, an' it is clear that laughter is seen to be so"ething unworthy, or, "ore
11 Cf. $c*. 2*. , &<..
1& I owe "uch of this section to the wor* of $. Blein*necht.
13 Cf. on this pt., Eor'en, %G an' (1 ff.
1. A. ,hrenberg, Antike , ; (1/31, &/< f. refers the hy"n to -ionysus ?Hnly to a -e"etrius assi"ilate' to hi"
coul' this hy"nal for" apply.@
Aerg. P. Aergilius 4aro, of 1n'es near 4antua (;<J1/ I.C. , the greatest epic an' national poet of =o"e in the
1ugustan era.
1% Cf. Eor'en, (. ff.
1( ,. Borne"ann, op. cit. , atte"pte' to e7plain this in ter"s of a triu"phal procession. )his is near the "ar*,
since a "erry procession is part of the parousia . , 3G1 .
1; Cf. 2. Deipol't, -ar #esus #ude6 (1/&3, .; ff.
1G )he sub3ect in Pr!. 1:&( is really wis'o", but behin' this is 5o'.
1/ It is in accor'ance with the sense that e7cept at Ps. 3;:13 ors Qhw is a par. of its Yh .
&< 1nother e7planation of orQW gWTQX XQ[W is: ?)hus saith the $oly Hne, blesse' be $e: )he ones shall
laugh at the others.@
correctly, that the content of ors Qhw is thought to be out of *eeping with 5o' an' $is worl'.
6hy this is so cannot be pursue' in the present conte7t. Possible the basic concern was to
"aintain the "a3esty of 5o'. It is enough, howe!er, that there is this 'istinction fro" the
5ree* !iew of 5o', that laughter is not ascribe' to 5o', an' that this has a bearing on the
linguistic e7pression of the 3oy which $e gi!es to "an.
In Ps. 1&(:& it is sai' with reference to the co"ing ti"e of sal!ation
&1
that ?the "outh will be
full of laughter ( ork QRw @.(
&&
+ro" the conte7t it is ob!ious that this laughter e7presses superiority
o!er pre!ious opponents. In this case, there is here nothing ungo'ly, since 5o' is gratefully
praise' for $is liberating act ( !. &b . It is thus the "ore Instructi!e that in its ren'ering of ork QRw
the DFF 'oes not use ym but 0 it thus i"ports into the te7t the thought of the righteous
3oy which has reference to 5o' alone.
&3
6hat the translator has 'one is to set the e7pectation of
sal!ation un'er the thought of 5o'. It is in *eeping that in the 'escriptions of the ti"e of sal!ation
in later 2u'ais" there is constant reference to 3oy ( Mrh TR QUw , )est. 2u'. &% but not to laughter. It is
to be note' finally that =abbinic ethics, with its thought of rewar's, re3ecte' laughter in relation to
the co"ing aeon because this is so"ething for 5o' to gi!e, not for "an to gi!e hi"self0 this is
perhaps in'icate' by the use in this conte7t of Ps. 1&(:& with reference to the future worl' ( 4i'r.
Ps. 1&(:& pp. %11, Iuberq0 b. Ier, 31a.
&.
6e "ay thus say that e!en in the eschatological
ter"inology an' thin*ing of 2u'ais" ors Qhw v y 'oes not belie its ungo'ly character.
)his is not without hearing on E) usage, since in the future worl' laughter is the prospect
of the accor'ing to the 'efinitely eschatological saying at D*. (:&1 . 6e
coul' e7plain this easily if we "ight assu"e that $ellenistic i'eas that the ti"e of sal!ation is
the ti"e of ym ha' ha' so"e influence on the for"ation of the saying. )his is e7clu'e',
howe!er, by the 2ewish character of the whole section. Eor can we thin* of a future triu"ph
of the oppresse' o!er their oppressors in the original sense of Ps. 1&(:& . )his lea!es us only
two possible ways of e7plaining the y of D*. (:&1 . Hn the one han', it is 3ust
possible that Du*e hi"self 'eliberately selecte' y , in ignorance of 2ewish usage, in
or'er to "aintain the strongest possible parallelis" with (:&% . Hn the other han', it is
possible that the saying in (:&1 was pronounce' by 2esus un'er the influence of Ps. 1&(:& (cf.
also 4t. %:. with Ps. 1&(:% , an' that ors Qhw or zR [Or (cf. c{h[kr )g. Ps. 1&(:& was thus a'opte'
in conscious allusion, but this was not percei!e' or regar'e' (cf. the of the DFF when
the saying was put into its present 5ree* for".
&%
6hich of the two possibilities is the "ore
li*ely an' co"pelling, it is har' to say.
Rengstorf
, , ,

.
*

In general usage, this "eans a. ?birth,@ ?'escent@: lmy y , $o".Il. , &3, .;1:
y , ?fro" birth,@ Fenoph.Cyrop. , I, &, G0 b. ?what is born,@ ?progeny,@ ?'escen'ant@:
y VV ?to 'eli!er up possessions an' chil'ren,@ Polyb. , FF,
(, (0 c. ?race@ in the sense of those boun' by co""on 'escent: 6 y ( opp. m
y , $o".Il. , (, 1.(0 '. |generation`: y 6 c c l , $'t. ,
II, 1.&0 y , Plat.)i". , &3c0 also in the sense of age: q m
&1 It "a*es no "aterial 'ifference whether the !erse is ta*en as recollection or e7pectation.
&& Cf. #tr.KI. , IA, /(% f.
&3 +or a si"ilar process n. . .
&. )he tra'ition see"s to be lin*e' with the na"e of =. #hi"on b. 2ochai ( c. 1%< 1.-. , a pupil of 1*iba.
&% Cf. as the closest par. )est 2u'. &%:. ( #
1
Charles: l g
q .
9 y . Pass. , Pape , Pr.KIauer , s.v. 0 #chl. 4t. on 1G:1%.
y y (in 'istinction fro" the heroic age, $'t. , III, 1&&. )he sense of the totality of
those li!ing as conte"poraries is not foun' in 5*. , though it "ust be presuppose' in e7planation
of '.
)he DFF uses the ter" "ostly for }[k~O , rarely for gts or Mrh Oh QRS TU . }[k~O "eans ?age@ or ?age
of "an,@ or ?generation@ in the sense of conte"poraries0
1
1ra". }~Oh .
In the E) y is co""on in the #ynoptics, rare in Paul, absent fro" 2n., inclu'ing
=e!. 1s a purely for"al concept it is always 8ualifie'. It "ostly 'enotes ?generation@ in the
sense of conte"poraries.
6e often ha!e the for"ula q y , as at 4*. G:1& ( D*. 11:&/ , 3< 0 13:3< ( 4t.
&.:3. 0 D*. &1:3& 0 4t. 11:1( ( D*. ;:31 0 1&:.1 , .& ( D*. 11:31 , 3& 0 &3:3( ( D*. 11:%< , %1
0 D*. 1;:&% 0 $b. 3:1< .
&
)his generation is to be un'erstoo' te"porally, but there is always a
8ualifying criticis". )hus we rea' of an ?a'ulterous@ generation ( , 4*. G:3G ,
or an ?e!il@ generation ( 4t. 1&:.% 0 D*. 11:&/ , or an ?e!il an' a'ulterous@ generation ( 4t.
1&:3/ 0 1(:. , or an ?unbelie!ing an' corrupt@ generation ( 4t. 1;:1; , cf. D*. /:.1 0 4*. /:1/
, which has only . )here is a co"bination at 1c. &:.< : 6
y . Phil. &:1% : y
, 'eri!es fro" the #ong of 4oses ( -t. 3&:% . #o too, perhaps, 'oes 4t.
1;:1; ( -t. 3&:&< : y , l l c
. )his #ong is relate' to the 4essianic age in #. -t. , 31G on 3&:1% .
3
y in this
critical sense is also foun' in 2os.Iell. , %, ..& : q y l6 yy
ym . 1s shown by the usual a''ition of ,
.
the phrase q y
is a ren'ering of the =abbinic M[OPMs }~OkMs .
%
In the role playe' by y in the sayings
of 2esus we can see $is co"prehensi!e purposed$e is ai"ing at the whole people an' not at
in'i!i'ualsdan' $is !iew of soli'arity in sin. l y occurs in the sense of all
future "en at D*. 1:.G , %< .
(

y in the sense of ?age@ or ?perio'@ is foun' in 4t. 1:1; 0 1c. 13:3( 0 1.:1( 0 1%:&1 0
,ph. 3:% 0 Col. 1:&( . It occurs in the sense of ?"anner@ in D*. 1(:G . In 1c. G:33 there is
allusion to Is. %3:G : q y yy is a literal ren'ering of the
obscure $ebrew te7t.
;

.
*

?5enealogical tree.@ 1tteste' fro" the ti"e of Plat.Crat. , 3/(c: q
yy, c mm y y m (of the go's.
#olon`s atte"pt to recount the origin of the race is 'escribe' in Plat.)i". &&a as
m y 6 yy . 1"ong
other for"s of historical writing Polybius "entions a yy which he hi"self
'oes not follow (IF, 1, .. In a for"ula si"ilar to that of Plato he refers to "any who ha!e
concerne' the"sel!es with yy (IF, &, 1. )hus the
for"ula yy at 1 )". 1:. "ay be regar'e' as tra'itional. )he DFF 'oes
not ha!e the wor'.
1 5es.KIuhl , s.v.
& 4:10 . 6e shoul' rea' g; g is an assi"ilation to the DFF.
3 Cf. #chl. 4t. on 1;:1; .
. Il.K-ebr. , 3<(.
% Cf. #chl. 4t. on 1G:1% .
( )here is an ob!ious uncertainty in !. %< , but the "eaning is ?for all generations.@ Il.K-ebr. , 3&&: ?to "any
generations.@ )he basis is the $eb. }[k~O[h }[k~O or gW}[k~O }[k~O ( Is. %1:G 0 Ps. 1<&:&. .
; y can here "ean spiritual progeny (in the "e"bers of the Christian co""unity, or the present e!il
generation, or e!en ancestry (cf. Preisig*e 6Crt. , s.v. . I owe this reference to 5. Iertra".
9 yy . 6bg. Past. , 31 ff.0 -ib. Past. , ad loc. 0 5. Bittel, LE6 , &< (1/&1, ./ ff. Cf. also bibl. in
n. 3 .
In the E) it is foun' only at 1 )". 1:. 0 )t. 3:/ . )he "eaning is conteste'. )he total
un'erstan'ing of the Past. with the alternati!es of authentic or unauthentic or 5nostic or
2ewish opponents, "a*es interpretation 'ifficult. 6e shoul' thus start with the ter" itself in
the conte7t. +ro" 1 )". 1:. we learn that yy cannot be separate' fro" .
)t. 1:1. "entions . It thus follows that the yy , too, are
2ewish in content. )his also correspon's to the fact that in )t. 3:/ they are associate' with the
, "en ( )t. 1:1. , 8uestions their clai" to be teachers of the Daw ( 1 )".
1:; an' attac*e' in a 'iscussion of the Daw in !. Gff .
1
)he are neither
2u'aists nor Eo"ists0 they are 2ews. )he issue is not the sa"e as in 5l.
&
Iut they are not
1ntino"ians in the ba' sense. )hey represent a 5nostic 2u'ais" which uses the Daw (of the
H) to sprea' ascetic 'e"an's (?$alachot@ an' speculati!e 'octrines (?$agga'ot@. $ence
the author e"phasises the nee' for a true *eeping of the Daw ( 1 )". 1:G , calls their teaching
the co""an'"ents of "en ( )t. 1:1. , 8uestions their clai" to be teachers of the Daw ( 1
)". 1:; an' 'e"an's that real teachers shoul' be pro!i'e' for the co""unities ( )t. 3:13 .
)here is no longer any reason to 8uestion the possibility or probability of a 5nostic 2u'ais".
3

6e can only guess as to the nature of the yy . )hey can har'ly ha!e been lists
of aeons si"ilar to those foun' in the classical 5nosticis" of the Aalentinians an' force' into
the te7t of the H) by !iolent e7egesis. #uch lists are ne!er calle' yy .
.
4ore
li*ely, they are the genealogies of "en. 5. Bittel has shown
%
that the =abbis ha' a li!ely
interest in both their own genealogies an' those of others, but especially those ta*en fro" the
H) , an' that these playe' a role in the 'ebates between the 2ews an' 2ewish Christians. )he
errorists of the Past. , howe!er, are not 3ust 2ews but syncretists.
(
1gain,
yy is a tra'itional 5ree* for"ula.
;
$ence it is probable that the e7pression
'enotes the biblical history enriche' by interpretations an' a''itions.
G
If so, the
yy of )t. 3:/ are the sa"e as the yy of 1)". 1:. . +or
Philo in his re!iew of the wor* of 4oses ( Ait. 4os. , II, .% 'escribes as
yy the total l (the historical parts of the Pentateuch in 'istinction
fro" the legal apart fro" the story of creation, i.e., the whole historical narrati!e of the
Pentateuch.
/

.
Di*e yy , this 'eri!es fro" yy , the one who gi!es an account of
'escent or 'raws up a genealogy. In the DFF it occurs only at 1 Ch. %:1 (
1 )he i'ea that the 2u'ais" of the false teachers is si"ply reigne' in or'er to "a*e it appear that Paul, the chief
opponent of the 2ews, is the author (cf. -ib. Past. on 1 )". 1:; attributes an unli*ely subtlety to the writer. $e
woul' har'ly "a*e his tas* "ore 'ifficult by substituting 2ewish for paganKChristian 5nosticis" an' by lin*ing
it with the H) .
& Cf. -ib. Past. on 1 )". 1:; an' 6. D^tgert, ? -ie Irrlehrer 'er Past. ,@ I+)h , 13 (1/</, 1( ff.
3 Cf. DCtgert, &&0 #chlatter 5esch. Isr.
3
, 313J31(. 3/;, n. .G, ..3, n. 3<%0 #ch^rer, III, .<;J.&<0 $. 5ress"ann,
L16 , .3 (1/&%, 1 ff.0 also 4. +rie'lfn'er, Der vorchristliche 78dische )nosti&ismus (1G/;. Cf. esp.
Colossians.
. Irenaeus opens his wor* against heresies by referring 1 )". 1:. to the 5nostics. #i"ilarly )ertullian ( Praescr.
$aer. , ; an' 33 refers it to heresies, esp. the Aalentinians. Iut neither of the" says that the 5nostics spo*e of
yy .
% Cf. also 1 Ch. %:1 : yy , in the 4as. hithp. of Qw rW (in the =abbis rW , elsewhere
translate' , . In b.Pes. , (&b Ch. is probably 'escribe' as mWr[W } ( #tr.KI. ,
I, (. I owe this reference to 5. Iertra".
( Cf. the prohibition of "arriage in 1 )". .:3 .
; Chrysosto" ad loc. sees here an allusion to the 5*s. , i.e., to the "yths an' genealogies of the go's0 cf. 6bg.,
31.
G 6bg., 31 points to the e"bellish"ent of the biblical narrati!e in the Ioo* of 2ubilees, which an unenthusiastic
critic "ight well ha!e calle' as in 1 )". 1:. .
/ $ipp.=ef. , IF, G, 1 'escribes as yy 6 q the history of Eoetus an' his
followers in 'istinction fro" the y .
yym , n. % . In the E) it is foun' only at $b. ;:( with reference to
4elchise'ec: c q yy 6 , ?who 'oes not 'eri!e his 'escent
fro" the" (the sons of De!i.@
.
)his occurs only at $b. ;:3 . It "eans ?without 'escent,@ i.e., without ha!ing a place by
'eri!ation in the hu"an series, in this case as a priest.
1
$ow i"portant 'escent was for
priests on 2ewish soil "ay be seen fro" ,>r. &:(1J(3 0 Phil.#pec. Deg. , I 11< ff. 0 2os.1p. , 1,
3<J3; 0 1nt. , 11, ;1 . )hat all those who wishe' to 'ischarge priestly functions were
e7a"ine' as to their 'escent is atteste' by 4i'. , %, .0 ).#anh. , ;, 10 bi'. , ., ..
&

*8chsel
, , , ,

.
*

Di*e m , this ter" is use' of the ?begetting@ of the father an' the ?bearing@ of the
"other, not only in 5*. generally,
1
but also in the DFF an' E) +igur. it is use' of pro'ucing
without birth, as at & )". &:&3 an' also 2oseph. : y g (
1nt. , /, ; , cf. Iell. , ., .(/ 0 in the religious sense of the ol' co!enant ( 5l. .:&. , of Paul in the
selfKprotestations at 1 C. .:1% 0 Phl". 1<. y with 5o' as sub3., Pr!. G:&% 0 Ps. &:; (8uote' in
D*. 3:&& pwest. rea'ingq0 1c. 13:33 0 $b. 1:% 0 %:% . y ( pass. in 2n. 1:13 0
&
3:3 , % ,
( , G 0 1 2n. &:&/ 0 3:/ 0 .:; 0 %:1 , . , 1G .
A. Begetting as an !"age o# the $elationship o# Master and
Disciple.
)he use of the ter"s father an' son with reference to the "aster an' 'isciple "ay be seen
alrea'y in & B. &:1& .
3
1t the ti"e of 2esus it was custo"ary for the rabbi to call his pupil an'
the or'inary "e"ber of the co""unity ?"y son,@ cf. the style of a''ress use' by 2esus an'
4t. &3:GJ1< . )here was here no thought of begetting, as shown by the application to
fa!oure' "e"bers of the co""unity. It was si"ply 'esigne' to e"phasise the superiority an'
war"th of the ?father@ on the one si'e an' the re!erence of the ?son@ on the other. )he "ore
significant the achie!e"ent of the "aster an' his relation to the 'isciple, the "ore he is
co"pare' to a father, b.#an. , 1/b: ?6hen a "an teaches the son of another the )orah, the
#cripture treats hi" as if he ha' begotten hi"@0 cf. also b.#anh. , //b.
.
Paul goes further than
this when he not only calls hi"self father but spea*s of his y (cf. 5l. .:1/ . )his is
usually 'eri!e' fro" the 4ysteries.
%
Iut the "o'e of e7pression 'oes not really i"ply "ore
than that of the =abbis. 1gain, though the "ystagogue is calle' the father of the initiates, the
wor' y is not actually use'.
(
4oreo!er, Paul begets through the 5ospel ( 1 C. .:1% ,
1 Cf. =gg. $b. , ad loc.
& #ch^rer, II
3
, &&; ff.0 #tr.KI. , I, & ff.
9 ym . Pass. , Pape , Pr.KIauer , s.v. 0 Ln. 2. , ;., n. (;0 #tr.KI. , III, 33/ f.0 2oh. 6., Dt>". on 1 C. .:1% 0 $.
5un*el, $salmen (1/&(, (f.0 #tr.KI. , II, &G;0 B. $. =engstorf, #ebamot (1/&/, 13Gf.0 +. I^chsel, #oh. u. d.
hellenist. Synkretismus (1/&G, %/ff.0 6n'. 1 2n., ,7curs. after 3:/. Cf. also the bibl. un'er n. 1% .
1 +or e7a"ples, cf. Pr.KIauer , s.v. an' Ln. 2n. , ;.. n. (..
& Cf. Ln., ad loc.
3 WXU ch is in'ee' use' as a general title of honour in a''ressing a prophet, cf. & B. (:&1 0 13:1. . In 2u. 1;:1< Xch
see"s to be the title of a priest. In 1 #. &.:1& WXU ch is use' in a''ressing the *ing, who for his part uses W\UXOP 1 #.
&(:1; .
. Cf. #tr.KI. , III, 33/ on 1 C. .:1. un'er 1 an' III, 3.< on 1 C. .:1% un'er c.
% 2oh. 6. 1 B. , 11( f.0 Dt>". B. . on .:1%.
through public preaching, not through a "ystery.
;
+urther"ore, he begets whole
co""unities an' not 3ust in'i!i'ual belie!ers. In 1 C. .:1% an' Phl". 1< we si"ply ha!e a
rhetorical 'e!elop"ent of the usual 2ewish e7pression. It is wholly in line with the e"otional
strength, forcefulness an' "etaphorical power of the language of Paul. Perhaps so"e of his
conte"poraries use' si"ilar phrases.
*8chsel
B. The !dea o# %e& Birth 'y Con(ersion to the True $eligion in )ater
*udais".
)he i'ea of ?new birth@ or ?beco"ing new@ by con!ersion to 2u'ais" is co""on in the
=abbis.
G
Instea' of gi!ing se!eral e7a"ples, we shall pro!e the point by a''ucing two which
are particularly clear. In
C
ant. r. 1 on 1:3 we rea': ?6hen so"eone brings a creature (i.e., a
"an un'er the wing of the #he*inah (i.e., wins hi" to 2u'ais" accor'ing to Cant. r. , 1 on
1:1, then it is counte' to hi" (i.e., by 5o' as though he ha' create' an' fashione' an'
for"e' hi".@ #i"ilarly, we rea' in b. 2eb, &&a etc.: ?1 proselyte 3ust con!erte' is li*e a chil'
3ust born.@ )he two state"ents gi!e us a gli"pse into the worl' of thought fro" which they
sprang an' which was gi!en its linguistic sta"p by e7pressions connecte' with generation.
)he first state"ent co"pares the one who wins a nonK2ew to 2u'ais" 'irectly with 5o'.
)his is shown by the e7pressions use' to e7tol his wor*. )hey are the wor's use' in the H) to
'escribe 5o' as the Creator ex nihilo ( c}X , 5n. 1:1 , &; , as the Hne who gi!es "an his
for" ( }tW , 5n. &:; 0 Ps. 13/:1( an' as the Hne who hol's $is creati!e han' o!er hi" fro"
his "other`s wo"b (cf. go} , Ps. 13/:1% . )he winning of a proselyte is an achie!e"ent of
unsurpassable greatness, since it can be co"pare' with the creati!e wor* of 5o' ( .1G .
_et this is not the essential point in the present conte7t. 4ore i"portant is the fact that the
2ew who wins another to his faith satisfies in an i'eal "anner the co""an' to be fruitful an'
"ultiply, which, accor'ing to the =abbinic un'erstan'ing, is lai' on all "ale 2ews as a
supre"e co""an'.
/
It shoul' not be forgotten, of course, that the whole i'ea re"ains in the
real" of co"parison. )his fact pre!ents us fro" fin'ing in the state"ent, for which there are
"any parallels,
1<
echoes of the ter"inology of the 4ysteries. In it we fin' oursel!es within
the sphere of rational consi'erations. )his is not altere' in the !ery least by the final saying
with its reference to the creation of life in the narrowest sense, i.e., in the e"bryo.
)he totally un"ystical character is fully seen, howe!er, only in the conclu'ing
obser!ation that the proselyte 'oes not beco"e a true "an until his con!ersion to 2u'ais".
Pre!iously he has been a "ere creature. )his is the point at which the secon' sentence lin*s
up with an' aug"ents the first. )he proselyte is rec*one' a chil' because he has only 3ust
entere' into the presuppositions of true hu"anity. )hese are foun' in 2u'ais" alone because
here alone, through the Daw, is there the possibility of 'oing the will of 5o' an' thus lea'ing
a life co""ensurate with the being of "an as 5o'`s i"age. )his is the lin* between the two
state"ents. )his is what lin*s the" to all si"ilar state"ents. )his is what brings the" into the
great ne7us of state"ents which separate the 2ewish people fro" secon'Kclass nations on the
groun' of the presence an' use of the Daw.
11
)he whole circle of thought illustrate' here thus
stan's in close connection with the central concern of 2u'ais" in sanctification. In fact the
( )his is pro!e' by the collection of "aterials in 1. -ieterich 4ithr. Diturg. , 1.(, cf. =eit>enstein $ell. 4yst. ,
.< f. )hat we ha!e parens rather than pater in 1pul.4et. , FI, &% is of no significance. 1puleius 'isplays a goo'
'eal of preciosity in his style. In 5*. the ol' an' honoure' often a''ress the young as .
; )hat baptis" establishes a spiritual relationship is not at all the thought of Paul (as against -ieterich, op. cit. ,
1%3. It woul' contra'ict the esti"ation of baptis" in 1 C. 1:1; .
G Cf. on this pt. =engstorf, 13G f.
Cant. r. !anticum rabba , 4i'rash on #ong of #olo"on (#trac*, "inl. , &13.
/ Cf. 2eb. , (, (0 ).2eb. , G, ., an' =engstorf, ad loc.
1< Cf. =engstorf, loc. cit.
11 3&. .
con!ersion to 2u'ais" which is here co"pare' with beco"ing new or beco"ing a genuine
"an is characterise' in another connection as the entry into a state of holiness, or "ore
accurately of being sanctifie'.
1&
6e "ay thus say that ?new@ an' ?holy@ are relate' to the
e7tent that ?new@ "ar*s off the new state of the proselyte as co"pare' with his pre!ious
profane life an' ?holy@ "ar*s hi" off fro" his pre!ious hopeless religious situation. ?$oly@
is thus the religious an' "oral counterpart of the "ore forensic ?new.@ 1t any rate, the two
ter"s are not sche"atically 'isparate, as "ight appear fro" what has been sai'. Hnly in the
closest relationship 'o they 'escribe the situation of the proselyte as it appears in the light of
the Daw, which is now the pre'o"inant factor in his life.
)he forensic an' rational character of the regeneration of the proselyte is re!eale' by the
i"plications of his con!ersion to 2u'ais". )hese "ay be briefly su""arise' in the state"ent
that the past has now cease' to e7ist for hi". )his is true of his pre!ious relations. #ince
2u'ais" 'enies the e7istence of a soli' se7ual "orality outsi'e the sphere of the Daw ( 3&%
, it recognises no 'egree of relationship prior to the co"ing of the Daw. )he proselyte is
literally a new born chil' in his new en!iron"ent. $e has no pre!ious father, "other or
brethren.
13
It is literally true of hi" that the ol' has passe' away an' all things are "a'e new,
as Paul says in a rather 'ifferent sense in & C. %:1; .
)his is the point of transition to the correspon'ing ter"s an' thought for"s of the E) . )o
be sure, the =abbinic "aterial a''uce' 'oes not e7clu'e the possibility of so"e $ellenistic
influence as well, especially on Paul. _et this "aterial has also to be ta*en into account in
relation to Paul`s state"ents concerning the y of Christians. )his is suggeste' by
the e7istence of an un"ista*eable line of 'e!elop"ent fro" the =abbinic QS [k~oh to the E)
y 0 the two co"ple7es of thought are ob!iously inseparable. 6e thus 'o well to ta*e into
serious account the later 2ewish i'eas atteste' in our atte"pt to un'erstan' 5l. .:1/ 0 1 C. .:1%
0 Phl". 1< an' in the last resort e!en 1 )h. &:11 .
1.
1t any rate, these are a safeguar' against
too strong an e"phasis on the influence of the 4ysteries. 6e are the less e7pose' to this
'anger the "ore we see how strongly in Paul the forensic ele"ent, which controls the
thin*ing of the =abbis, yiel's before the purely religious clai"ing of "an by 5o', which is at
once posite' for Paul by the fact that in his thin*ing Christ ta*es the place of the Daw, so that
all hu"an stri!ings an' achie!e"ents are surpasse' an' set asi'e by Christ`s sanctification of
$is people. )his is the real reason why e7istence ?through the 5ospel@ ( 1 C. .:1% is for the
E) a new being which is not a bur'enso"e 'uty but a grateful response to the 'i!ine action in
2esus.
Rengstorf
C. Generation 'y the Deity.
1. 5eneration fro" 5o' in the H) an' 2u'ais".
y is use' !ery rarely of 5o' in the H) , but it occurs in significant passages. )hus
the *ing a''resse' in Ps. & is begotten of 5o', as also the *ing in 10 : y
cm y . +inally, wis'o" is begotten of 5o' in Pr!. G:&% . In Ps.
&:; the generation is no "ore than institution to the position of son an' heir0 ?I ha!e begotten
thee@ is probably no "ore than a stereotype' for"ula.
1%
)o be sure, Ps. #ol. 1;:&3ff. ta*es it
rather 'ifferently, but it 'oes not infer the begetting of the 4essiah by 5o'. )he )argu"
paraphrases: ?)hou art as 'ear to "e as a son to his father, an' innocent as though I ha' this
'ay create' thee.@ In the 4i'rash on Ps. & ] / (1.b =abbi $una eluci'ates the thought of
generation by that of a new creation out of pre!ious troubles.
1(
In 10: the
y was probably in the original, but owing to corruption of the $ebrew te7t,
1& Cf. 2eb. , 11, &0 ).2eb. , 1&, & an' =engstorf, ad loc.
13 )his has serious conse8uences in the sphere of fa"ily rights an' rights of inheritance, though we cannot
pursue these in the present conte7t.
1. Cf. on this pt. =engstorf, &(&.
1% Cf. $. 5un*el, $salmen (1/&(, ( f.
not perhaps unintentional, these wor's ha' no influence in 2u'ais".
1;
Pr!. G:&& is clearly
a'opte' an' e7poun'e' in #ir. &. . It is noteworthy that the yq of Pr!. G:&% is
translate' c in #ir. &.:( ( 1< . Iut the thought of the generation of wis'o" fro"
5o' 'i' not 'isappear in 2u'ais". 6hat Pr!. G:&& says of wis'o" is referre' to the Daw in
#ir. &.:&3 . 2os.1nt. , ., 31/ also says of the Daw: y q
cm , though it is to be note' that 2osephus 'oes not use y elsewhere of 5o'.
1G

)hus, e!en though the 2ews 'o not say that any "an is begotten of 5o',
1/
the thought of a
generation fro" 5o' has not co"pletely perishe'.
Philo "a*es e7tensi!e an' !arie' use of y in relation to 5o'. $e can call all 5o'`s
creating ( a ?begetting@ ( y in Deg. 1ll. , III, &1/ . ,!erything is begotten of
5o', the y ( Conf. Ding. , (3 , but also ani"als an' plants ( 4ut. Eo". , (3 . )he
'i!ine sonship of the Israelites, howe!er, 'oes not rest on a y of 5o'. In the
allegorising of Philo the i'ea of a "arriage of 5o' with wis'o" or *nowle'ge plays an
i"portant role. $e also spea*s of a of 5o' in "an in 4igr. 1br. , 3% etc. Iehin' all
this stan's the wis'o" of the 4ysteries.
&<
Iut for hi" the righteous are not y
of 5o'.
&1

&. 5eneration or 1'option in the 4ysteries.
In the 4ysteries i'eas an' processes fro" se7 life play an i"portant part,
&&
e.g., the
l y , phallic celebrations etc. 1 renasci , y, y
, "e'iating a relationship to 'eities, constitutes the true "eaning of the rites. Hn the other
han', there see"s to be no reference to the birth of the initiate through a go''ess or to his
begetting by a go'. In preKChristian ti"es, at least, the real thought is that of a'option.
&3
Eow
it "ay be that in the rites the 'istinction between a'option an' birth through a go''ess was
'i""e'. Iut in the I.C. perio' there is certainly no reference in the 4ysteries to a
y .
&.

1. BCrte has clai"e'
&%
that in the ,leusinian 4ysteries the initiate beca"e a physical chil'
of the earth "other.
&(
Iut he has not pro!e' this fro" the sources. It "ay be grante' that the
pudendum which was containe' in the , an' with which the initiate un'ertoo* a "ysterious
1( Cf. #tr.KI. , II, &G; un'er g.0 also III, &1, where a serious wea*ening of Mrc W\X is a''uce' fro" the
6arsaw e'ition (1G;%. Cf. on this whole pt., -al"an 62 , &1/ ff. an' #tr.KI. , III, (;3 ff.
1; Cf. the "aterial in #tr.KI. , IA, .%3 ff.
1G 1. #chlatter, -ie sprach #osephus von )ott6 (1/1<, 1%.
1/ #tr.KI. , II, .&1J.&3.
&< Cf. =eit>enstein $ell. 4yst. , &.% ff.
&1 Cf. +. I^chsel, #oh. u. d. hellen. Synkretismus (1/&G, %/J(10 6n'. 2. (1, &, 3 , ,7curs. after 3:/.
&& Cf. 6in'isch, op. cit. an' the bibl. there gi!en, esp. 4ithr. Diturg. , 13. ff.0 =eit>enstein $ell. 4yst. , &.% ff.0
+. Cu"ont, Die orient. Rel. im r3m. /eidentum
3
(1/310 4. -ibelius, ? -ie Isisweihe ,@ #1$ , 1/1;.
&3 y 6 6 in Ps.KPlat.17. , 3;1' is not one who is concei!e' of the go's but a fellow of the
go's. y is an 1thenian technical ter" for the citi>ens who together "a*e up a y . Cf. ,. =oh'e,
$syche
%
,
(
(1/1<, II, .&1, who shows that here as elsewhere in the 5*. 4ysteries the thought is that of a'option
an' not of conception or generation. )he y y6 6 y l of the
tablets fro" #ybaris ( 4ith. Diturg. , 3; is no help. )he ,leusinian l c B6
B ( $ipp.=ef. , A, G refers originally to Ia*chos or Pluto, not to an initiate. )hat the (Eaassenic reference
to an initiate is preKChristian cannot be pro!e'. Hn the contrary, we ha!e to re"e"ber the point "a'e by
-ibelius ?that syncretistic religions appropriate an' assi"ilate the Christian heritage@ ( op. cit. , %10 cf. also %&.
Hn the touching of the wo"b of the go''ess, cf. what follows.
&. It is not true that renasci , y , i"plies a go''ess to gi!e birth. )he Isis initiate is calle'
renatus in 1pul.4et. , FI, &1, an' yet -ibelius ( op. cit. , &; rightly e7plains the rite as follows: ?)he union
with Isisdso far as one can spea* of suchdis thus effecte' in this rite, not in the sacra"ent of the feast, of the
l y , of a'option, as practise' elsewhere, but in that of "igration through the cos"os.@ Cf. on this
whole pt., I^chsel, op. cit. , (1d(&.
&% 1=6 , 1G (1/1%, 11J1&(.
&( ,bid. , 1&, cf. 1&(.
action ( Cl. 1l.Prot. , II, &1, &: tm m : , c
6, c , y l
l , 'i' not represent a phallos
&;
but the wo"b of the go''ess. Iut this
'oes not "ean that birth rather than a'option is the "eaning of the rite. +or the 5ree*s ha' a for"
of a'option which i"itate' birth, yet was not 'esigne' to "e'iate physical sonship, but only the
correspon'ing legal position, cf. -io'. #. , IA, 3/: $era a'opte' $eracles ( l by
getting on a be', ta*ing $eracles to her bo'y an' letting hi" 'own to the earth through her
gar"ents q q y . )hus, although $eracles see"s to procee'
fro" her bo'y, he is the a'opte', not the physical, son of $era. In the sa"e way the touching of
the wo"b of the earth "other nee' not signify "ore than a'option in the ,leusinian 4ysteries.
1'option is by a process which i"itates birth. )he wellK*nown c
of the Hrphic tablets pro!es that a'option was practise' in the 4ysteries in
the way atteste' by -io'orus. ,. =oh'e
&G
ca"e near to the correct rea'ing. Iut instea' he
substitute' a feeble "o'ernisation (?I see* protection in her "otherly boso" por lapq@. $e
o!erloo*e' the fact that in -io'. $eracles was a'opte' by the 'i!ine "other after his 'eath in
or'er to be assure' of her fa!our0 he also faile' to note that a'option can be the goal of the initiate
in the hereafter e!en though he 'oes not possess it in !irtue of the rite. )he c
can only be a "ysterious for"ulation in the first person of that which -io'. recounts as $era`s
action in respect of $eracles. )hat a for"ula li*e is not chosen
see"s to "a*e it 8uite e!i'ent to "e that the thought was that of a'option an' not of physical
birth. )he ,leusinian rite is analogous. BCrte see"s to ha!e been e7tre"ely rash in his e7position
of l c B6 B .
&/
,!en if the were the initiate,
this woul' not pre!ent the action fro" being a'option, since this was an i"itation of birth an' ha'
an e8ui!alent result. )he passages a''uce' by H. Bern a'' nothing of "aterial significance.
3<

3. Ps. &:; in the E).
Ps. &:; is "uch use' in the E) 1t 1c. 13:33 the ?toK'ay@ of the generation of the #on of
5o' is the resurrection. 1t D*. 3:&& (west. rea'ing it is the baptis" as an i"partation of the
#pirit. 1t $b. 1:% 0 %:% it "ay be 'oubte' whether any specific point of ti"e is in !iew. If we
thin* of $is co"ing into the worl' (cf. 1:( : lyyg , or of the beginning of $is
highKpriesthoo' in the 'ays of $is flesh, it is again 'oubtful whether the reference is to $is
birth or to $is baptis". )he birth stories in 4t. an' D*. 'o not 8uote Ps. &:; . )here is only a
'istant contact between this !erse an' D*. 1:3% : y6 y
l . In any case, howe!er, we can see fro" 1c. 13:33 that 8uite early, an'
in'epen'ently of the i'ea of the Airgin Iirth, Ps. &:; was use' in interpretation of the 'i!ine
sonship of 2esus. 2esus is accepte' as the Iegotten of 5o' because the 6or' of 5o' spea*s
thus of $i". )his begetting is "ore than a'option. +or the resurrection, in which it was
consu""ate', is the beginning of a new an' pneu"atic, i.e., 'i!ine, "o'e of being0 the
i"partation of the #pirit is the earnest of the gifts of this "o'e of being. Hn the basis of the
resurrection an' the en'ow"ent of the #pirit, 2esus was for the co""unity "uch "ore than a
"ere "an in who" the religious life of hu"anity reache' a new le!el, $e was the "an in
who" the new l6 began. 5eneration fro" 5o' in a !ery real sense was here percei!e' by
the co""unity. )he i'ea that this generation "ust be thought of either in the sense of
a'option or in that of the Airgin Iirth
31
rests on a "isconception of the early Christian belief
in Christ an' un'erstan'ing of #cripture, an' especially of the basic significance of the
resurrection of 2esus an' the resultant beginning of the new l6 , in short, of the
eschatological i"pulse in early Christian thin*ing.
3&
Hnly where this ele"ent is correctly
&; 4ithr. Diturg. , 1&% f.
&G $syche , II, .&1.
&/ 9p. cit. , 1&3 ff.
3< 1=6 , 1/ (1/1(J1/, .33J.3%.
31 In this false alternati!e there is "erely reflecte' the unresol!e' antithesis between the tra'itional
un'erstan'ing of the person of Christ an' that of the ,nlighten"ent.
3& Cf. Ln. an' Bl., ad loc.
e!aluate' can we correctly un'erstan' the 'i!ine sonship an' generation of 2esus an'
therefore the significance of Ps. &:; in the E) . Iut then we can also un'erstan' how
belie!ers who were sure of the resurrection, an' ha' the ple'ge of it in the"sel!es in the
#pirit, coul' also belie!e the"sel!es to be begotten of 5o'.
33

.. y in 2ohn.
In 2ohn y is always use' with a reference to the point of origin, "ostly
or ( 1 2n. &:&/ 0 3:/ 0 .:; 0 %:1 , . , 1G 0 2n. 1:13 0 ( 2n.
3:% , ( , G 0 ( 3:% 0 ( 3:( 0 ( 1:13 0
m ( 3:3 , ; . )he see' "entione' in 1 2n. 3:/ is the #pirit of 2n. 3:% rather than the
6or' of 1 2n. &:1. . )his birth is thus e!erything which it is in !irtue of its origin. 1s a birth
fro" 5o', it is a reality but also a "ystery ( 3:G . ,!en as a birth of water an' the #pirit it is a
"ystery, because these are what they are through 5o'. +or 2n. the authenticity of his
state"ents concerning birth fro" 5o' cannot rest on e7periences an' the li*e, for what he
says about birth fro" 5o' contra'icts all e7perience ( 1 2n. 3:/ 0 cf. 1 2n. 1:GJ1< . $is
state"ents are state"ents of faith. )hey are true in !irtue of the fellowship with 5o' en3oye'
by the belie!er ( 1 2n. 1:3 , ( ff. . 2n. e"phasises particularly the ethical or religious an'
ethical conse8uences of the birth. )hese e"erge in the 'oing of righteousness ( 1 2n. &:&/ , in
not sinning ( 3:;ff ., in lo!e ( .:; , in the o!erco"ing of the worl' ( %:. , in faith in 2esus as
the Christ ( %:1 . )hey cannot be un'erstoo' as in!estiture with a power or position
appropriate' by "an. -i!ine sonship is all that it is as the fellowship with 5o' which 'epen's
on the will of 5o'. )here is a parallel in the 'e!ilish sonship of the 2ews referre' to in 2n.
G:3GJ.; . )his, too, is essentially ethical0 it fin's e7pression in lying an' "ur'er. It, too, is a
personal relationship of fellowship or 'epen'ence.
6e can only guess at the origin of the 2ohannine !iew.
3.
2ohn attributes this 'i!ine
generation both to 2esus ( 1 2n. %:1G 0 2n. 1:13 an' to belie!ers. )he for"er is ob!iously
pri"ary. )he 'escription of 2esus as y correspon's to belief in $is
'i!ine sonship on the one si'e an' to 4essianic prophecy, which always inclu'es Ps. &:; , on
the other ( ((G . It is not 'ifficult to transfer the thought fro" 2esus to belie!ers. +or
belie!ers are "e"bers of the l6 m in which the pro"ises of #cripture are fulfille'.
)hey participate in the 'i!ine #pirit. )hey share in the eternal 'i!ine life. )hey ha!e passe'
fro" 'eath to life ( 1 2n. 3:1. 0 2n. %:&. . )hrough the #pirit they are in so"e sense
essentially unite' to 2esus. )hat the y , applie' to 5o'`s relationship to 2esus an'
belie!ers, has originally an eschatological sense "ay be seen in 2ohn only to the 'egree that
the *ing'o" of 5o', the seeing of which 'epen's on the birth ( 3:3 0 cf. 3:% , is an
eschatological "agnitu'e. )he ter"s an' mq l6 , which 2n. uses in the
present tense, ha!e also an original eschatological "eaning.
3%

It is unli*ely that the i'ea of the 'i!ine y in 2n. 'eri!es fro" the 4ysteries. )here
can be no 'oubt that the application of the i'ea to 2esus in 1c. 13:33 is co"pletely
in'epen'ent of the 4ysteries. 1n' the 2ohannine y has little in
co""on with what is calle' y , renasci , y , in the
4ysteries.
3(
)here is a co"pletely 'ifferent !iew of both the attitu'e an' possession of piety.
,!en the lin* with baptis" in 2n. 3:%JG is no argu"ent for 'epen'ence on the 4ysteries.
3;

33 In Paul 2esus is the +irstKborn of "any brethren who will be fashione' accor'ing to $is i"age an' will be coK
heirs with $i" ( =. G:1; , &/ . In =e!. &:&%J&G power o!er the heathen is transferre' in $i" to belie!ers on the
basis of Ps. &:G ff. (cf. 1/:1% . an' in =e!. 3:&1 session on the throne of 5o' is also transferre' to the" on the
basis of Ps. 11<:1 .
3. Cf. 6n'. 2. (1, &, 3 , ,7curs. after 3:/.
3% I^chsel, op. cit. , %(.
3( ,bid. , (&J(..
3; 6hat 2n. says about baptis" 'oes not confir" the !iew that he concei!e' of it as 'i' the 4ysteries their rites.
Hn the contrary, in 2n. 3:% (birth of water an' the #pirit as the precon'ition of entry into the *ing'o" of 5o'
there is an un"ista*eable connection of baptis" with that of 2ohn the Iaptist. In a''ition, it is no acci'ent that in
.
*

1

?6hat is born,@ ?fruit.@ Co""on, an' often use' in Philo an' the DFF. In the E) only in the
phrase y 6 , 4t. 3:; ( D*. 3:; 0 4t. 1&:3. 0 &3:33 . )he par. in 4t.
&3:33 gi!es us the sense. )here are no e7a"ples in the =abbis. Eor is this construction foun' in
2oseph.
&
or the DFF. In the postKapost. fathers it occurs only in -i'. , 13, 3: q
ym m, 6 m .
.
*

Hften in Philo etc. In the E) only in the phrase y y6 , 4t. 11:11 ( D*. ;:&G
. )he for"ula 'eri!es fro" the H) MQhOS cU ~[OYWR ( 2ob 1.:1 0 1%:1. 0 &%:. . 1 co""on 2ewish
e7pression,
1
this 'enotes "en as 'istinct fro" angels an' 5o', i.e., as earthly creatures. It 'oes
not occur in 2osephus or Philo.
&
Par. are foun' in the H) : y y6 ( #ir. 1<:1G
0 in the E) : y y ( 5l. .:. 0 in $ero'ot. , AII, 1.1 f.:
y6 0 in the 4ithr. Diturg. , 1&, &: y . In 1 Cl., 3<:% we
ha!e y y in a literal 8uotation fro" 2ob 11:& , 3 .

*
( .
?Eew born,@ rare, though atteste' in Duc.1le7. , 130 Dongus, 1, /0 &, ..
In the E) it occurs in the phrase y ( 1 Pt. &:& , which is a
custo"ary e7pression, as "ay be seen fro" Duc. -ial. 4arit., 1&, 1:
y . Hn the un'erlying i'ea of regeneration in 1 Pt. ym 0 on the
co"parison of a new proselyte with a new born chil' ym , ((( . 6hether the rea'ers
are newly con!erte' or whether the epistle, or at any rate 1:3J.:11 , is a baptis"al a''ress,
1

is an open 8uestion. +or in relation to the eternal 6or' of 5o' (cf. 1:&3J&% all "en are only
3ust born.
Par. wor's are y in
E
ican'.
1
le7iphar". , 3%;, y in Philo1et. 4un'. , (;
, in 2os.1nt. , %, 11 an' in I5 , FIA, &<(G, 3.

*
( yy , (G( .
A. The %on+Bi'lical ,sage.
)his wor' is usually 'eri!e' fro" the linguistic usage of the 4ysteries. )he !erb,
howe!er, occurs in only one passage, which is later than the E) . )his is #allust. -e -eis, .
(p. G, &., Eoc* in a 'escription of the 4ysteries y q 6
1 2n., as also in 1 Pt. 1:&3 an' 2". 1:1G , the thought of birth is not lin*e' with baptis". Iaptis" is not essential
in these passages.
9 y . Ln., #chl. on 4t. 3:; .
1 Hn the relation of y an' y ge!nh"a, (G% n. 1 .
& #chl. 4t. , (G.
9 y . #chl. 4t. , 3(., .G(0 #tr.KI. , I, %/;0 Pr.KIauer , s.v.
1 +or e7a"ples, !. #tr.KI. , I, %/; an' #chl. 4t. 3(., .G(.
& #chl. 4t. , 3(..
9 y . Co"". of Bn., 6n'., 6bg. on 1 Pt. &:& .
1 =. Per'elwit>, ? -. 4ysterienr. u. '. Proble" '. 1 Pt. ,@ =AA , 11, 3 (1/11, 1( ff.0 6. Iorne"ann, ? -. 1 Pt.
eine )aufre'e 'es #il!anus ,@ LE6 , 1/ (1/1/v&<, 1.3J1(%0 also 6n'., ,7curs. after 1 Pt. %:1. .
Eican'. Eican'er, of Colophon (3r'v&n' century I.C. , $ellenistic poet, gra""arian an' author of "e'ical
writings, e'. H. #chnei'er, 1G%(.
1le7iphar". Alexipharmaca .
9 ym . Bn. 1 Pt., .1f.0 6n'. Pt. , ,7curs. after &:&0 #tr.KI. , II, .&1 ff.0 III, G.< ff.0 =eit>enstein $ell.
4yst. , &(&. genna!w, n. ; .
ymm . #ince renati can be shown to be use' of the tauroboliati
1
an' in the
Isis 4ysteries (
1
pul.
4
et. , FI, &1, the yymm of #allust. "ay rest on a preK
Christian tra'ition.
In the prologue to #irach (#wete, line 1;, the !l. y 9 is an error. In 2os.1nt.
, ., 13 we shoul' not rea' y6 but y . In the soKcalle'
regeneration 4ystery in Corp. $er". , FIA y is not in the tra'itional te7t but is only
con3ecture' by =eit>enstein an' #cott. )he te7t has y , so also Parthey. )o con3ecture
y (=eit>enstein or y (#cott woul' be legiti"ate only if these
wor's occurre' at least once in so"e other passage. Iut we ha!e only y ( =eit>enstein
Poi". , 3.<, 30 .0 1% an' yy (33/, . an' (0 3.<, 1&0 3.1, %: 3.&, 1%0 3.3, 1&0 3..,
1& an' 1.0 3.%, 1<0 3.G, G. It is ob!ious that =eit>enstein, an' #cott after hi", "ust ha!e been
influence' by the E) in their con3ectures. )his is an instructi!e e7a"ple of the way in which
"aterial is so"eti"es gathere' for the historical interpretation of the E) . )he clai" of
=eit>enstein that y an' y are interchangeable in the 4ithras
Diturgy is also incorrect.
&
y 'oes not occur at all in the soKcalle' 4ithras Diturgy.
)hough Philo borrows not a little fro" the 4ysteries, he 'oes not use this !erb. Hn the
other han', 2osephus uses it in a general sense, with no e!i'ent 'epen'ence on the 4ysteries.
Iell. , ., .G. : c c (at the -ea' #ea (ashes
ym (the fruits loo* e'ible, but turn to 'ust an' ashes when pluc*e', thus
attesting the 3u'g"ent of 5o' on #o'o" etc.. )hus at the ti"e of the E) ym was
not co""on, but it was use' generally an' not "erely in the 4ysteries, li*e the Dat. renasci .
3
)his is confir"e' by the use of the substant. y . Philo e"ploys this for the
#toic 'octrine of the re3u!enation of the worl' after the m ( 1et. 4un'. , G: l c
2m c c y .
,lsewhere he has the ter" yy for the sa"e thing, e.g., 1et. 4un'. , /.
y cannot be pro!e' to be a technical ter" of the #toics. It was a current wor'
( yy . )he "ere "ention of y 'oes not pro!e any 'epen'ence on
the 4ysteries0 this applies e8ually to 1 Pt. 1:3 , &3 .
B. in 1 -t.
In 1 Pt. regeneration is 5o'`s act on "an ( 1:3 . It is effecte' by the resurrection of 2esus
( 1:3 or by the 6or' of 5o' ( 1:&3 , i.e., the 5ospel (cf. !. &% . )he result of "an`s
regeneration is a li!ing hope ( 1:3 . )he hope is here consi'ere' only as a personal attitu'e.
)he regenerate are thus su""one' to what they ha!e as such ( 1:13 .
.
It is not sai' that
regeneration is a static an' obser!able state, nor that it is a psychological factor, an
e7perience. Hn the contrary, this see"s to be !ery 'ifferent fro" what is sai' here of
regeneration an' the regenerate.
%
Eor is it sai' that the regenerate ha!e ac8uire' a capability
or power. Hn the contrary, the power of 5o' *eeps the" to sal!ation. )hey are posite' on
faith as those born again ( 1:% . )heir co""it"ent is not a capability which they shoul' ha!e
but that to which they are referre' ( 1:&3 0 &:& . =egeneration has posite' a beginning, not
so"ething co"plete ( &:& . It is not "ystical. )he tension between present an' future, an'
1 +. Cu"ont, 9rient. Rel. im r3m. /eident .
3
(1/31, (3.
1pul. 1puleius, of 4a'aura in Eu"i'ia, no!elist, rhetorician an' philosopher with strong religious interests
(&n' century 1.-. , e'. =. $el", 1/<;.
4et. Metamorphoses .
& $ell. 4yst.
3
, &(&.
3 ,.g., its use in Cicero, B. 5eorges, :at.1deutsches /d;3rt . (1GG<, s.v.
. m cannot be either "ore or less than the 6 .
% )he !iew of Bnopf, p. .1 ff. that there is ?a feeling of new 3oy, certainty an' blesse'ness, but also of will,
"oral power an' religious *nowle'ge,@ is to be ra'ically re3ecte'. #o, too, is that of 6in'isch (,7curs. after
&:&, who refers to ?sal!ation e7perience@ an' ?realistic feeling.@ It is worth noting that 1 Pt. spea*s of the
regenerate only in the plur. , whereas Bn. has the sing. (.&.
therefore the antithesis between 5o' an' "an, is not re"o!e' for the regenerate0 it is
sharpene'. )hey hope for an inheritance an' li!e in fear of 5o' ( 1:1; . )hey stan' un'er
5o'`s 3u'g"ent ( .:1; . )here is no 8uestion of regeneration being effecte' in a cultic act or
through a "agically operati!e sacra"ent.
(
Iaptis" in 1 Pt. is si"ply an act of faith in which
"an is cleanse' by the fact that he prays 5o' for a goo' conscience an' recei!es this on the
basis of the resurrection of 2esus Christ ( 3:&1 . =egeneration consists basically in the fact
that one "ay hope because of the resurrection of 2esus. 6e 'o not un'erstan' the thought of
new birth in 1 Pt. if we fail to see its eschatological character. Eot the e7perience of
Christians, but the resurrection of 2esus Christ, i.e., $is penetration to a new stage of being,
enables us to spea* of regeneration as it is proclai"e' an' belie!e' an' as it is thus the
foun'ation of a hope which e"braces an' refashions the whole life of belie!ers. )here is a
profoun' gulf between the religion of the 4ysteries, in which "an is 'eifie' by "agical rites,
an' this religion of faith ( &:( , ; 0 1:% , / , &1 0 %:/ , of hope ( 1:3 0 3:1% an' of the fear of
5o' ( 1:1; 0 &:1G 0 3:& , 1% .
;

1s the H) an' 2ewish ele"ents are !ery "uch ali!e in this religion, so the origin of the
thought of regeneration is to be sought in 2u'ais". It is true that the 2ews 'i' not 'escribe
the"sel!es or others as regenerate. _et they hope' for a new life for the worl' an'
the"sel!es, an' they 'i' not spea* of this "erely as resurrection or new creation,
G
but also
thought in ter"s of yy an' y when spea*ing 5ree*.
/
)he
thought of regeneration was a'opte' as an e7pression of their hope, though not, of course, of
their e7perience.
1<
)he great 'ifference between 2ewish an' $ellenistic religion is that the
2ews coul' only hope for what was alrea'y reality an' e7perience in the 4ysteries, i.e., the
ele!ation of "an to a new le!el of being. +or Christians the resurrection was not "erely an
ob3ect of hope. 1fter the resurrection of 2esus it was a present reality. In the resurrection it
was re!eale' that the 4essianic age, the l6 m , ha' begun. Ielie!ers were now
lin*e' with the risen Dor' by $is #pirit.
11
)hey ha' taste' the powers of the l6 m
( $b. (:% . )he new birth for which the 2ews hope' was for the" in so"e way a present
reality. 5o' ha' alrea'y assure' the" of an eternal inheritance in $is 6or' by the raising of
the #hepher' an' Iishop of their souls ( &:&% . )his lifte' the" up alrea'y to the
yy . )he c of the +ather of their Dor' 2esus Christ ( 1:3 ga!e the"
the right to belie!e this of the"sel!es.
1&

6e can ne!er be sure where the author of 1 Pt. foun' the wor' y to e7press
this belief. $e certainly 'i' not ta*e it fro" the 4ysteries, e!en though these "ay ha!e
influence' his use of it. 4ost li*ely it ca"e fro" general usage. )he "ain point, howe!er, is
that the ter" ac8uire' a new significance when use' by Christians to 'enote what 5o' ha'
grante' to the".
*8chsel
( 6in'isch`s state"ent that ?accor'ing to the whole conte7t baptis" is to be assu"e' alrea'y as the
bac*groun'@ is not only unsupporte' but incorrect.
; Per'elwit>, D. Mysterienrel . ( a3rtige!nnhto, n. 1 "erely 'iscusses the wor's an' 'oes not achie!e any
li!ing conception of the religion of 1 Pt.
G Cf. #tr.KI. , II, .&1 ff.0 III, G.< ff.
/ yy . ,!en though there is no *nown $eb. e8ui!alent for yy , it is not acci'ental
that yy occurs in 2oseph. an' 4t., both of who" are roote' in Palestinian 2u'ais". It probably
beca"e current a"ong the 5*. spea*ing 2ews of Palestine to e7press the hope of resurrection.
1< Cf. #chl. 2. , G/.
11 ,!erywhere in the E) the #pirit is 5o'Kgi!en, not i""anent an' therefore apprehensible in psychological or
sociological ter"s. )he religion of early Christianity was fro" the !ery first pneu"atic. It was fro" the risen
rather than the historical 2esus, howe!er, that the 'isciples recei!e' the #pirit.
1& Cf. 1. #chweit>er`s 'eri!ation of "ysticis" fro" eschatology ( Mystik des Apostels $aulus p1/3<q, /G f..
$ere the significance of the resurrection of 2esus for early Christian faith is e7cellently 'epicte'.

*

1

1. #trictly ?to taste,@ e.g., Plat.=esp. , AIII, %%/'0 2ob 1&:11 0 3.:3 (for gZs h , as throughout
the DFF0 2os.1nt. , 3, &( 0 Ign.)r. , 11, 10 P. H7y. , 1%;(, . f.: 0 Ia"bl.Ait. Pyth. , &G
(1<<, Eauc*: 0 Preisig*e #a""elbuch , 11<(: .
&
?)o en3oy,@ ?to eat,@
$ippocr.,pi'. , III, 1 : y 0 1 B. 14:4 0 & 4acc. (:&< 0 2os.1nt. ,
(, 1&( an' 33G 0 1el. 1rist. , III, 3/:

y y (of sacrifice0 P. 4. 4eyer

3

passim : 6 lm y (a fi7e' for"ula in the libelli libellaticorum of the -ecian
persecution. lmm y is foun' alrea'y in . 4acc. %:& 0 cf. also .:&( 0 %:(
0 (:1% 0 1<:1 . y , fasting as a for" of "ourning: 2 B. :5 0 1 t. :2 0
2os.1nt. , (, 3;; 0 ;, .& 0 cf. ;, 3%/0 of penitence, 2on. 3:; 0 of a !ow, 1 B. 14:24 0 )ob. ;:11 0
of ascetic practice, $er".s. , %, 3, ; etc. &. +igur. ?to co"e to feel,@ ?to learn in one`s own
e7perience,@ ?to co"e to an inwar' awareness of@ both goo' an' beautiful things, but also a'!erse
an' 'ifficult. Cf. on the one si'e $'t. , IA, 1.;: 0 AI, %: 0 Pin'.Isth". ,
1, &1: m 0 ibid. , %, &<: m 0 Pin'.Pyth. , /, 3%: 0 #oph.1nt. ,
1<<%: m (fire ga>ing of the 'i!iner, Deoni'as ( 1nth. Pal. , AI, 1&<: c
l; 4: : 0 Pr!. 31:1G (&/:3(:
y 0 2os.1nt. , ., 3&1 : (sc. 4oses0 Iell. , &, 1%G :
6 (sc. the ,ssenes0 1nt. , &, &.< : 6 y6 (of the fruits of !ictory0 ., 1.<:
6 6 0 Philo#o". , I, 1(% : m 6m 0 .G : m 0 1br. , G/ :
0 #pec. Deg. , I, 1;( :

0 Airt. , 1GG : 0
#pec. Deg. , I, 3; 0 IA, /& 0 Deg. 5a3. , 31< : 0 -ecal. , G< : 0
#o". , II, 1./ : l 0 Ait. 4os. , I, 1/< : 0 II, 1/& : 0
Corp. $er". , F, G: l 6 6 l, q g,
y 0 1 Cl., 3(, &: y6m . Hn the other si'e, $o".Il. , &1,
(<: m 0 H'. , &1, /G: 0 Pin'.Ee". , (, &.: m 0 #oph.)rach. , 11<1:
m m m 0 ,ur.
1
lc. , 1<(/: 0 Plat.=esp. , II, 3%Ge:
m (sc. to 'o an' suffer wrong0 Plat.Deg. , AI, ;%&c: l 6 m 0
Deoni'as ( 1nth. Pal. , AII, ((&: y . )he e7pression ?to taste 'eath@ is often
foun', esp. in #e". languages,
.
though not in the H) (cf., howe!er, 1 #. 1%:3& : ?)he bitterness
of 'eath@0 an' cf. #ir. .1:1 . It occurs at . ,sr. (:&( : ?the translate' "en who ha!e not taste'
'eath,@ an' often in 1ra". an' later =abbin. $eb. te7ts: MNh WTU qTZs s p gZs Ph cNh [ONWTU gWZj R e.g.,
5n. r. , / on 1:310 &1 on 3:&&0
)
g. 2. I -t., 3&, 10 b. 2o"a., ;Gb0
4
i'r. boh. , 1&, % (%3a.
%
In these
we also ha!e the phrase: cXOh Ms gYh[kZMh mWZj Tj gZs h , ?to taste so"ething of the future worl',@ II ,
1%b (2ob0 1(b (1braha", Isaac an' 2acob.
(

In the E) y "eans 1. literally ?to taste,@ as at 4t. &;:3. 0 2n. &:/ .
;
It also "eans
?to en3oy,@ ?to eat,@ 1c. 1<:1< 0 &<:11 0 D*. 1.:&. ( . 1t 1c. &3:1. the !oluntary
abstinence which the 2ewish conspirators against the life of Paul too* on the"sel!es is calle'
9 y . Cr.KBC. , &3< f.0 Pr.KIauer , &.% f.0 4oult.K4ill. , 1&%0 Di''ellK#cott , 3.(.
1 )he "i'. is original. ym , ?to pro!i'e for,@ ?to fee',@ is a rare reconstruction bac* fro" it, cf. 6al'eK
Po*orny Aergl. 6Crt., I, %(G (-ebrunner.
& Hn the gen. an' acc. with y , cf. Il.K-ebr. ] 1(/, 3, also #uppl. , p. 3<<. Cf., too, =. $elbing, Die
0asussyntax der (erben bei den Septuaginta (1/&G, 13%. n. ; .
3 11I (1/1<, 1ppen'., %.
1lc. Alcestis .
. Cf. 2. -. 4ichaelis, Abhandlung v. d. syrischen Sprache
&
(1;G(, %& ff. In the H) we fin' gZs s figur. for
?insight@ or ?un'erstan'ing,@ e.g., Ps. 11/:(( 0 2ob 1&:&< , correspon'ing to the 1cca'ian tmu . Cf. 1. 2ere"ias,
Das A< im :ichte des alten 9rients
.
(1/3<, ;%%.
)g. 2. I )argu" Pseu'oK2onathan.
4i'r. boh. 4i'rash on ,cclesiastes (#trac*, "inl. , &13.
% #tr.KI. , I, ;%1 f. Cf. =. 6^nsche, eue *eitr.ge &ur "rl.uterung der "vang. aus <almud u. Midrasch (1G;G,
&<<0 1. #chlatter, Die Sprache u. /eimat des vierten "vangelisten (1/<&, 3%, 10 #chl. 4t. , %&..
( #tr.KI. , III, (/<.
y (cf. !. 1& until the fulfil"ent of their pro3ect0 this is part of a strict
!ow ( (;% 0 , 3%% . )he rules of purity of the syncretistic teachers allu'e' to
by Paul in Col. &:&1 : q g c yg c yg , are taboos lin*e' with the
worship of the . )hese inclu'e so"e rules about foo', an' accor'ing to the
apostle they are beneath the 'ignity of Christians, who are free' by Christ fro" angelic
powers an' are thus no longer un'er obligation to cos"ic or'inances ( !. &< .
G

&. It is use' figur. at 1 Pt. &:3 : l y (VV 4:
d . )he 8uotation, with the i"age of tasting the sweetness of the Dor', is
occasione' by the figures use' in !. & (new born babes an' "il* y . 1s in the latter
the author has in !iew the 6or' of 5o' as the "eans of further growth ( 1:&3ff ., so there is
reference here to personal e7perience of the goo'ness of Christ which Christians ha!e en3oye'
by regeneration through the 6or' ( 1:&3 0 cf. $b. (:% . Hn the other han', there is no
recollection of en3oying the Dor' in the Dor'`s #upper.
/
$b. (:. f. :
y m y
p l6 , 'escribes !i!i'ly the reality of personal
e7periences of sal!ation en3oye' by Christians at con!ersion (baptis". )hey ha!e ha' a taste
of the hea!enly gift ( m , of the forgi!eness of sins acco"plishe'
for the" by the hea!enly $ighKpriest Christ ( %:1ff .0 /:&.ff ., of the goo' 6or' of 5o' (
, p , the 5ospel, an' of the won'erful powers of the future aeon (
, l6 alrea'y operati!e in the present ( &:. .
1<

)he for"ula y ( (;( in 4*. /:1 an' par. 0 2n. G:%& (cf. the
logion, P. H7y. , (%., %0 $b. &:/ (?to e7perience 'eath as what it is@,
11
li*e l or
m ( $b. 11:% 0 D*. &:&( 0 2n. G:%1 , is a graphic e7pression of the har' an'
painful reality of 'ying which is e7perience' by "an an' which was suffere' also by 2esus
(cf. $b. &:/ : .
1&

*ehm
,
.
*

1

1. )he ,arth, Dan' as a -wellingKplace of 4an.
a. ?Dan'@ (in the geographical sense. 1 'efinite lan' which is not na"e': q y
, ?the whole 'istrict,@ 4t. /:&( , 31 0 (4t.: q y , ?'ar*ness
o!er the whole lan',@ 4*. 1%:33 an' par. , cf. D*. .:&% 0 y , ?fro" thine own
lan',@ 1c. ;:3 0 l q y , ?into this lan'@ (Palestine, 1c. ;:. 0 yg q
, ?in a foreign lan',@ 1c. ;:( . 1 lan' which is na"e': y , ?the lan' of 2u'ah,@ 4t. &:( ,
; )he acc. with y here is perhaps influence' by the construction of gZs h . Cf. #. Eu. G( on 11:. :
[ kN[kc [OTZ h . ?they ha!e taste' it.@
G -ib. 5efbr.
&
, &< f., &; f.0 Doh. Bol. , 1&G.
/ 6ith Bn. Pt. , GG0 Cle"en, 1/<0 6n'. Pt.
&
, %/ as oppose' to 6bg. Pt. %3 etc. (cf. alrea'y the sacra"ental
interpretation of Ps. 3.:G in Cl. 1l.#tro". , A, ((, 3. )here can har'ly be a reference to the Dor'`s #upper in 1
Cl., 3(, &. +or y an' y in "agic ritual, which perhaps goes bac* to the 4ysteries, cf.
Preis. Laub. , FIII, 3%/ f., 3;;, 3;G0 cf. also 1. -ieterich, Abraxas (1G/1, 1;1, 1& f.0 1;&, 1& ff.
1< +or a closer 'efinition of the gifts of sal!ation enu"erate', cf. the catenae ad loc. , an' a"ong newer
e7positors esp. $of"ann, I. 6eiss, #eeberg, =iggenbach an' 6in'isch, ad loc. )he y
l6 is characteristically 'istinguishe' in substance fro" the par. =abb. passages ( (;( .
11 Cf. =gg. $b. , ...
1& )he ancient atte"pt at interpretation (cf. 2. 1. Cra"er, !atenae in St. $auli epistolas ad /ebraeos p1G.3q,
1.; ff., 3/. ff. in ter"s of the shortness of the 'eath of 2esus rests on a "isun'erstan'ing both of the for"ula
an' of the conte7t, v. $b. &:/ .
9 y . Cr.KBC. , &310 Pr.KIauer , &.(.
1 6e cannot 'eal with the "eanings of y which ha!e no bearing on the theological un'erstan'ing of the E) .
+or y in the sense of a. ?the groun',@ b. ?the fruitful earth@ an' c. ?lan' as 'istinct fro" water,@ reference
shoul' be "a'e to Pr.KIauer
following the $eb.
s
t. c. si"ilarly Israel in 4t. &:&< f. 0 Labulon an' Eaphthali in 4t. .:1% 0
4i'ian in 1c. ;:&/ 0 Canaan in 1c. 13:1/ 0 y y or y , ?the lan' of ,gypt@ in
8uotations fro" the DFF in 1c. ;:3( , .< 0 13:1; 0 also 2'. % 0 with the gen.: y 2m
m , 4t. 1<:1% 0 cf. 11:&. 0 with gen. of inhabitants : y Xm , 1c. ;:. 0 with
a'3. : q y , ?the lan' of 2u'ah,@ 2n. 3:&& .
b. ?)he lan' of pro"ise.@ )he lan' pro"ise' to 1braha": l q y q m ,
1c. ;:3 ( 5n. 1&:1 DFF0 l y yy , $b. 11:/ 0 in the eschatological sense:
q y , ?the lan' will be their inheritance,@ 4t. %:% ( 6: , 11 .
)he lan' which Ps. 3;:11 pro"ises the gW[U\hZ is Palestine perfecte' in the 4essianic glory. In this
an' si"ilar pro"ises (e.g., 5n. &G:13 f. 0 Is. (<:&1 , later 2u'ais" too* the lan' to "ean either the
whole earth (e.g., 2ub. 3&:1Gf.
&
or the future worl'.
3
It is har' to say how 2esus or the early
Palestinian co""unity un'erstoo' the x}P cP of Ps. 3;:11 . =ea'ers of the 5*. 4t., as of 6: ,
11 , coul' only thin* of it in ter"s of the earth.
c. ?)he inhabite' earth@ ( l . 4en as the inhabitants of earth: l
y , =e!. 3:1< etc.0 y , =e!. 1.:( 0 cf. D*.
&1:3%
.
( Is. &.:1; 0 1c. 1;:&( 0
.
l y , 1c. 3:&% ( 5n. &&:1G 0
l y , 4t. &.:3< 0 =e!. 1:; (following Lech. 1&:1< ff. , where the original,
howe!er, "eans lan' an' not earth0 l y, l c y , =e!. 1G:3
etc.0 y , ?to re"o!e fro" the earth (as the place of the li!ing,@ 1c. &&:&& 0
cf. G:33 ( Is. %3:G .
'. )he earth as the theatre of history: of the past: y m
y y , =e!. 1(:1G , cf. -a. 1&:1 0 l y
, 4t. &3:3% ( Eu. 3%:33 , cf. =e!. 1G:&. ( 2er. %1:./ 0 of the acti!ity of 2esus: c
l 6 y , 4*. &:1< 0 D*. %:&. 0 q
q y , D*. 1&:./ 0 q q l q
y q l , 4t. 1<:3. , cf. D*. 1&:%1 0 y6
y , 2n. 1;:. . In these passages the concept of the earth "erges into that of
the worl' or the hu"an worl'. Cf. the parallelis" of y an' in
y 6 ( 4t. %:13 f. 0 . 4any passages in =e!. spea*
of the earth as the theatre of eschatological history0 cf. D*. 1G:G 0 &1:&3 , &% .
&. )he ,arth as Part of the 6orl'.
)he H) an' ancient oriental 'escription of the worl' in ter"s of hea!en an' earth persists
in the E) ( . $ea!en an' earth (VV the worl' will pass away ( 4*. 13:31 an'
par. 0 cf. 4t. %:1G 0 D*. 1(:1; 0 $b. 1:1< f. 0 & Pt. 3:; 0 =e!. &1:1 , an' in place of this worl',
of the first hea!en an' earth ( q 6 y , =e!. &1:1 0 cf. & Pt. 3:; 5o' will create a new
hea!en an' earth ( y , =e!. &1 :l0
y , & Pt. &:13 0 cf. Is. (%:1; 0 ((:&& . It woul' be wrong to e"phasise the
wor' y in e7egesis of these passages, or to rea' into the" the "etaphysical antithesis of
hea!en an' earth 'iscusse' below ( (;/ . Eew hea!en an' new earth is "erely the ol'er
way of 'enoting what is "eant by l6 m in ter"s of the l6 concept, na"ely,
the future worl' of eschatological e7pectation. $ea!en an' earth together constitute the
cos"os.
%
)ogether with the", accor'ing to the H) !iew ( ,7. &<:11 0 145:6 , the sea is a
thir' constituent part of the worl'0 the wor' y is thus restricte' to the totality of soli' lan',
st. c. status constructus .
& #o often in the DFF, in which we fin' the sa"e uni!ersalis" of worl' outloo*. Cf. $os. .:1 . In !. 3 (later acc.
to 5uthe in Baut>sch the uni!ersalistic concept is alrea'y in the 4as. 1t 4: the y has
foun' its way into a nu"ber of i"portant 4## fro" 46: . In other passages, e.g., ,7. /:% , 1. , 1( , x}P cP
certainly refers to a specific lan', but y woul' be ta*en uni!ersalistically, at least by DFF rea'ers p5.
Iertra"q.
3 $ereq ha1shalom , &1b, #tr.KI. , I, 1//0 in the latter there are further e7a"ples with reference to 4t. %:% .
. Hn m (6) y , cf. -t. ;:( 0 ,>. 3G:&< 0 -a. .:1/ DFF.
% Cf. also D*. 1&:%( 0 1c. &:1/ 0 1 C. G:% 0 Col. 1:1( , &< 0 ,ph. 1:1< 0 3:1% 0 $b. 1&:&( ( $ag. &:( .
which is thought of as a single unit surroun'e' by an' resting on the sea ( 1c. .:&. 0 1.:1% 0
=e!. 1<:( 0 1.:; 0 &1:1 . 1 further restriction is that the waters of earth are so"eti"es
separate' fro" the 'ry lan' ( $b. 11:&/ : y
6 6 ( =e!. G:; ff. 0 cf. 1.:; . 1nother 'i!ision is between what is in hea!en, on
the earth, an' un'er the earth ( y , . $ere the earth is the "i''le
of the cos"os, cf. =e!. %:3 : c y c
m y .
(
)he E) , especially in eschatological passages, presupposes 'efinite
though not !ery consistent cos"ological conceptions. Ee!ertheless, in contrast to 2ewish
apocalyptic (e.g., the boo*s of ,noch, it 'oes not contain any true cos"ological teaching.
,!en in =e!elation the cos"ological i'eas are wholly subor'inate to the theological.
-etaile' points to be note' are as follows. 6 m y , ?fro" the en's of
the earth,@ is use' hyperb. at 4t. 1&:.& 0 D*. 11:31 , for ?fro" a foreign lan'.@ cm
y , ?to the en's of the earth,@ occurs in the spatial sense at 1c. 1:G 0 13:.; (8uoting Is.
./:( DFF0 cf. 2er. (:&& 0 . 27:41 0 &G:1( 0 3G:G 0 ym
y , ?in the four corners of the earth@ ( =e!. &<:G , the earth being here fourKsi'e' (cf. ,>. ;:& 0
3G:1% 0 Is. 11:1& 0 &.:1( 0 2ob 3;:3 0 3G:13 0 4*. 13:&; 0 4t. &.:31 0 =e!. ;:1 0
6 m m y cm ,
?he will gather his elect fro" the "argin of earth to the "argin of hea!en@ ( 4*. 13:&; , is a
rather obscure picture an' is thus o"itte' by D*. an' a"en'e' in 4t. &.:31 to 6
m m m 6 cm m 6 0 what is "eant here is
?fro" one en' of the worl' to the other@0 the two possible ways of e7pressing this, na"ely,
y cm y ( -t. 13:; an' cm
( -t. .:3& 0 3<:. an' 1:6 are co"bine' in 4*.
)here is an echo of personification of the earth at =e!. 1&:1( (an' 5n. .:11 0 Eu. 1(:3< 0 ,7.
1%:1& , )g. 2., II, cf. =e!. &<:11 .
3. )he ,arth in Its =elation to 5o'.
1s a part of the worl' create' by 5o' ( 1c. .:&. 0 1.:1% 0 1;:&. 0 $b. 1:1< 0 =e!. 1<:( ,
the earth shares in the relation of the cos"os to 5o', of what is create' to the Creator. It is
?creature@ ( , not ?nature@ in the sense of the philosophical concept of nature.
)hat is to say, it e7ists only by the will of the Creator an' the creati!e 6or' of al"ighty 5o'.
Its e7istence is bor'ere' by an absolute beginning an' an absolute en' li*e that of the whole
worl' of hea!en an' earth. 1s a creature, the earth is 5o'`s possession ( 1 C. 1<:&( , 8uoting
2:1 , an' 5o', the y ( 4t. 11:&% 0 D*. 1<:&1 0 1c.
1;:&. is y ( =e!. 11:. 0 cf. Lech. .:1. as $e is
( =e!. 11:13 .
;
$is o"nipotence, in which Christ shares as the ( 1 C.
G:( 0 Col. 1:1( 0 4t. &G:1G ,
G
e7ten's o!er the whole worl', o!er hea!en an' earth.
Ee!ertheless, the earth 'oes not stan' in the sa"e relation to 5o' as hea!en. 1s in the H) ,
the i'ea of hea!en an' earth as the two parts of creation is both aug"ente' an' bro*en by the
i'ea of a 'istinction between the". 1lrea'y in the i"age of hea!en as 5o'`s throne an' earth
as $is footKstool ( 4t. %:3% 0 1c. ;:./ on the basis of Is. ((:1 the superiority of hea!en is
e7presse'. $ea!en an' earth are !iewe' both in their in'issoluble connection an' also in their
'ifferentiation in the E) . )his twofol' conception appears in passages li*e 4t. (:1< 0 &3:/ 0
D*. &:1. , as also in places where it is sai' of an e!ent on earth that it has !ali'ity an' force in
hea!en, e.g., 4t. 1(:1/ 0 1G:1G , where bin'ing an' loosing are both on earth an' in hea!en,
m , or in 4t. 1G:1/ , where there is prayer on earth an' hearing in hea!en, or in 4*.
&:1< VV D*. %:&. , of the forgi!eness of sins on earth. )he sa"e is true in passages which refer
to earthly things which are y 6 m ( $b. G:% , e.g., $b.
G:1 , . (the highKpriest in hea!en an' on earth or $b. 1&:&% . In such cases the earth, in
( Hn the threefol' 'i!ision of the cos"os, v. ,. Peterson, El (1/&(, &.1, n. &0 &%/, n. &0 &(1, n. 10 3&(.
; 1ttention shoul' be pai' to the 'ifference in the use of an' .
G Hn the for"ula () y , cf. -a. ;:1. DFF.
co"parison with hea!en, is regar'e' as the place of the i"perfect ( 4*. /:3 0 $b. G:. , of the
transitory ( 4t. (:1/ , of sin ( 4*. &:1< 0 =e!. 1;:% an' of 'eath ( 1 C. 1%:.;
y . )he 'ifference can be stresse' to such a 'egree that y an' ( m
an' m are al"ost un'erstoo' 'ualistically as two 'ifferent worl's, particularly in the
Pauline ,pistles an' 2ohn.
Christ is the =e'ee"er because $e is not y but m,
( 2n. 3:31 , not y but ( 1 C. 1%:.; . $e is who has co"e
'own fro" hea!en l 6 y ( ,ph. .:/ f. an' who has thus
ascen'e' far abo!e all hea!ens, lifte' up y ( 2n. 1&:3& . 1t this point the E)
conception an' ter"inology are influence' by an oriental "yth, base' on Persian 'ualis", of
the re'ee"er who 'escen's fro" the upper worl' of light to the 'epths of the worl' of
'ar*ness.
/
Iut the a"biguity of 6 y ( ,ph. .:/ , which can
"ean either ?the lowest parts of the earth,@ i.e., ?the un'erworl',@ or ( y as gen. epe7eget.
?the spheres of the 'eep, na"ely, the earth,@ "eans that ( %&& "ight refer
either to the 'escent into $a'es or to the incarnation in the sense of Phil. &:; . 6e thus see the
'ifficulty of applying the ter"inology of this 'ualistic re'ee"er "yth to the biblical Christian
faith. +or the E) , too, there is a "etaphysical 'istinction between hea!en an' earth. Iut for
all the sharpness of e"phasis on this 'istinction, the unity of the 'i!ine creation is "aintaine',
as is also the i'entity of the 5o' of creation an' the 5o' of re'e"ption an' the
interconnection of creation an' re'e"ption. )he contrast between hea!en an' earth is finally
in ter"s of sin. It is because the earth is the setting of a fallen creation, the theatre of sin,
1<

that it stan's in a 'ifferent relation to 5o' fro" hea!en.
11
It is for this reason that the #on of
4an has co"e to forgi!e sins on earth ( 4*. &:1< , that the re'ee"e' are l y
y , ?those who are ranso"e' fro" the earth@ ( =e!. 1.:3 , that belie!ers are
y ?strangers an' pilgri"s on earth@ ( $b. 11:13 , of
the belie!ers of the H) 0
1&
cf. Phil. 3:&< who "ust be e7horte': m , q
y , ?set your "in' on what is abo!e, not on what is on the earth@ ( Col. 3:& ,
6 y , ?"ortify your earthly "e"bers@ ( Col.
3:% .
.
*

In 5*. fro" the ti"e of Plato in the sense a. ?e7isting on earth,@ ?belonging to it,@ ?earthly,@
in contrast to what is not on earth0 e.g., Plat.=esp. , AIII, %.(a: y in contrast to
cyy .
1
)hen in the sense b. of ?earthly@ esp. in contrast to what is "ore than earthly,
or hea!enly ( , e.g., Plut.
#
er. Eu". Pun. , && (II. %(('. #o often in Philo, e.g.,
4igr. 1br. , 1;G : X y 6
y . y 'oes not occur in the DFF.
/ 6. Iousset, /auptprobleme der )nosis (1/<;0 0yrios !hristos
&
(1/&1, &(J330 &<1J&<(: =eit>enstein Ir. ,rl.
, %( ff.0 G. ff.0 /&0 113 ff.0 $. #chlier, !hristus und die 0irche im "pheserbrief (1/3<, &; ff.
1< 5n. 3:1; : q y ( 4as. MTh ~hc Mh , ?the fiel'@ cy ( zh }P [OXZ XOs VV
c |A|, : g .
11 Hn the 8uestion of the relation of e!il to hea!en, , .
1& )his 'ualistic !iew ca"e into the H) only at a later stage. Hriginally 5o' is the possessor of earth (though cf.
2er. 1.:G an' "en are strangers an' newco"ers ( D!. &%:&3 0 so also 1 Ch. &/:1% 0 Ps. 3/:1& 0 11/:1/ p #yr. q,
though in these passages there is alrea'y a 'ualistic ring which is e7presse' in Ps. 11/:1/ by the substitution of
x}P ch XOh for zR Th ZU an' in the DFF :12 0 11G:1/ by the ren'ering of zR Th ZU as g yg . #o"eti"es in a
'ualistic sense the ter" y characterises the !anity of e!erything earthly, i.e., where it is lin*e' with in
ren'ering of }c an' }Z as in 2. 10: (cf. 1;:3& . In 5n. 3:1. an' m 0:2 (not the 4as. , too, the
ter" y e7presses earthly corruptibility p5. Iertra"q.
9 y . Cr.KBC. , &3&0 Pr.KIauer , .%&0 )ill". 2.
.
, 1110 4einert> Bath. Ir.
.
, .1.
1 Cf. y , , PhiloHp. 4un'. , 113 0 si"ilarly 2os.1nt. , G, .. .
#er. Eu". Pun. De iis qui sero a numine puniuntur .
In ter"s of the three 'i!isions of the worl', hea!en an' earth an' what is un'er the earth
( y , Phil. &:1< 'escribes the totality of beings which will bow before the K
X as hea!enly, earthly an' un'er the earth: y m
ym m .
&
In the E) , too, y 'oes not refer only to "en (cf.
1 C. G:% . In the first instance the earthly are si"ply beings which e7ist on earth. Hnly in
trains of thought in which there is strong e"phasis on the 'istinction of earth fro" hea!en
'oes y co"es to "ean what is earthly in the sense of what is co"pletely oppose' to
the hea!enly. )hus in & C. %:1 q y q6 l is 'istinguishe'
fro" the lq , fro" an l l6 .
3
3 )he
contrast between the earthly an' hea!enly bo'y ( 6 here un'er 'iscussion is
'e!elope' further in 1 C. 1%:.< ff. : 6 , 6 y
c c q 6 m , c c q 6 ym . )o the
contrasting ter"s ty/ there correspon' the ter"s
/, /, /, /,
(of earthly "aterial / . )o the 'egree that earth is the place of sin,
y ac8uires a subsi'iary "oral sense, as in Phil. 3:1/ (cf. Col. 3:& : y
, ?earthly "in'e'.@ In 2". 3:1% earthly wis'o" is 'istinguishe' fro" the
wis'o" which is fro" abo!e: c q m (cf. q
m , !. 1; , y, , 6 . 6ith this we "ay
co"pare the i'ea of the y of false prophets in $er".". , 11, (, 11J1/, an'
cf. also ibid. , /, 11: m q c
y , an' -g., ;,1: y . )he
e8uation of the earthly with the 'e"onic 'oes not e7clu'e the fact that 'e"onic powers "ay
also be thought of as hea!enly ( , cf. y
m ym , Ign.,ph. , 13, &. )he "eaning of y in the state"ent
in 2n. 3:1& : l y l , 6 m
0 cannot be 'eter"ine' "erely fro" the conte7t. 6e are probably
to thin* of the contrast between spea*ing in earthly parables an' 'irect instruction on
hea!enly things, as in 1(:&% an' 4t. .:11 ff.
S
asse
, , , , ,

.
In the E) we ha!e this Ionic an' $ellenistic for" rather than yy .
1
:sually the
ter" has no particular religious or theological interest in the E) . Hnly at 2n. G:%G is there any
special 'istinction between y an' l ( l, , though there is also an
e"phasis on that between 'eath an' eternal life, or between perishing an' abi'ing. )he
for"ulation of faith an' of the *nowle'ge of 5o' is not abstract an' speculati!e0 e!en $b.
11:3 spea*s of rather than y .
& Cf. Ign.)r. , /, 1: 6 m ym m 0 =e!. %:3 0 or again the neut. for":
y y , Pol. &, 10 cf. -g. , ;, &. )here is reference to 'e"ons in
the 'ifferent regions of the worl' on the "agic pap. , e.g., Preis. Laub. , IA (Paris, 3<3G ff., esp. 3<.30 A
(Don'on, 1(; ( v. Pr.KIauer , .%&.
3 Cf. PhiloCher. , 1<1 : l y q q y .
#asse $er"ann #asse , ,rlangen (Aol. 1J3.
1 Hn the construction an' "eanings, cf. Pr.KIauer , s.v. , where there is also a bibl. on the gra""atical
8uestions.
In the H) we often fin' a type of construction li*e [s W}j r cs ( XR WMU WR[s ( , e.g., in 5n. .:G .
&
,ssentially this begins with WMU WR[s , which is then followe' by the in'ication of ti"e either
a'!erbially or in a subsi'iary clause, an' then the "ain clause is usually intro'uce' by [
consecuti!e. )his is not a 5ree* construction, an' in the DFF it is "ostly translate'
y , e.g., 5n. .:G : y l q
K . In so"e cases the DFF alters the construction co"pletely. In the 1ra". it is
foun' only in the )g. as a translation fro" the $eb.
3
It is rare in the 1pocrypha. 6e 'o not
fin' it at all in )obit an' &, 3 an' . 4accabees.
.
It recurs only in the #ynoptic 5ospels an'
1cts (not in 2n., an' here in its typical for", e.g., D*. %:1& : y l
q 6 m l , or %:1; : y q 6
q6 q m )he for" is not always strictly preser!e'. In 4*.
an' 4t. we ha!e the less $ellenise' for" without the of the secon' clause, an'
so"eti"es without the opening . )here are . instances in 4*.,% in 4t. an' 3/ in D*. In
1c. there is only one instance at %:; , though a "ore strongly $ellenise' construction is foun'
1& ti"es, i.e., y with the following acc. c. inf. , y ha!ing an ensuing
rather than a prece'ing (which is better 5*. a, e.g.: y c l
l q ymy ( 1.:1 . )his construction is possible in 5*. , being foun'
in the pap.
%
Iut the construction y cannot be accepte' as goo'
5*. an' is to be regar'e' as a conscious i"itation of the style of the Iible. It shows that the
#ynoptists 'i' not "erely use the co""on or literary speech of the e!ery'ay worl' but
so"eti"es a'apte' at s"all points the style of the H) Iible.
(
,!en though we cannot "a*e it
the basis of our un'erstan'ing of the language of the E) , there is still so"ething to be sai'
for the 'iscar'e' concept of ?biblical 5ree*.@
.
*

1. )he basic "eaning is ?birth@ or ?genesis@ ( 4t. 1:1G 0 D*. 1:1. . -eri!ati!e "eanings are
a. ?what has co"e into being@ as 'istinct fro" the Creator, Plat.)i". , &/c: ym
0 Phae'r. , &.%e: y 0 cf. PhiloPoster.
C. , &/ , where 5o' in $is rest is set in antithesis to the y creation in its "o!e"ent0 b.
?life,@ e.g., 2't. 1&:1G : q y6 , correspon'ing to Ps.K1el.
1risti'. , 3<, &; (Beil: l ym 0 2". 1:&3 : m
ym can be e7plaine' along these lines as the appearance posite' with life. )his is
not !ery satisfactory, but there is no better alternati!e.
&. ym for 5enealogy in 4t. 1:1 .
)his e7pression goes bac* to N[k~YR[kNO }P j or N MYscj ( 5n. &:. 0 %:1 0 (:/ 0 1<:1 0 11:1< ,
&; 0 3;:& 0 2u. .:1G 0 DFF: q ym or l y . )he
for"ula is use' to intro'uce genealogies or historical narrati!es ( 5n. (:/ 0 3;:& or the two
together. )he 8uestion whether 4t. 1:1 is a hea'ing for the whole boo* or 3ust for the
genealogy in 1:&J1;
1
cannot be 'eci'e' fro" H) parallels. )he H) ym are
not always the sa"e, an' as genealogies they are na"e' after the ancestors rather than the
'escen'ants. )he H) usage is un'oubte'ly change' here. #ince, howe!er, !. 1; refers bac* to
!. 1 with its "ention of 1braha" an' -a!i', !. 1 is ob!iously "eant to intro'uce !!. &J1; .
& & Cf. the collection of "aterial by 4. 2ohannessohn, +tschr. f. vergl. Sprachforschung , &3 (1/&%, 1(1 ff.0 also
the bibl. in Il.K-ebr. , p. 31;0 esp. 4. -ibelius, )nomon , 3 (1/&;, (.(J(%<.
3 -al"an 62 , I, &% f.
. 2ohannessohn, 1/1 ff.
% Pr.KIauer , s.v. y .
( Cf. Il.K-ebr. ] ..
9 y . Ln., Bl., #chl. 4t. on 1:1 0 -ib., 6n'., $c*., #chl. 2*. on 3:( 0 Bittel Proble"e , 1.1ff.
1 Certainly not for 1:&J&% ( &:&3 .
1gain, such a hea'ing is clearly nee'e', since otherwise no one woul' *now what the
reference was in !. & .
3. ym as the 6heel of Dife in 2". 3:( .
)his e7pression, which is surprising in the conte7t, has now been shown by the stu'y of
religious history to be a technical ter" in Hrphic teaching.
&
#i"plicius ((th cent. 1.-. gi!es
us the phrase l ym . $e allu'es to Hrpheus
in this connection,
3
an' we fin' si"ilar e7pressions a"ong the Hrphic writers, e.g.,
ym, , , ..
.
Philo too,
un'er Hrphic influence, spea*s of the y
( #o". , II, .. . Iut there is a significant 'ifference between the Hrphic an' that of
2". 3:( . )he latter is set alight0 the for"er rolls, but has nothing to 'o with fire.
%
It is
in'isputable that the wheel i'ea is not use' in 2". as a"ong the Hrphics. If it 'eri!es fro"
Hrphis", it is certainly not ta*en fro" it 'irectly.
(

1"ong the 5ree*s the co"parison of life with the wheel which in its turning brings the
botto" to the top an' vice versa is often foun' in pro!erbial sayings.
;
)he best *nown is as
follows: m, , .
G
Iehin' this i'ea
of the wheel stan's the popular insight into the uncertainty of hu"an circu"stances rather
than the Hrphic theory of finitu'e as a recurrence of birth an' 'eath an' what is enclose' by
the two.
/
It is occasionally sai' of this wheel that it turns irregularly.
1<
In this sense it can
e!en be sai' that it burns, i.e., that the in!ersions of life bring searing pain because of guilt. If,
then, there is a greater si"ilarity of e7pression between 2". an' the passage in #i"plicius,
since both refer to the ym or ym , there is a greater
si"ilarity of substance between 2". an' the popular saying. 6e "ay thus trace bac* 2". to
the popular saying rather than to Hrphic teaching.
11
Probably there ha' long since been an
interfusion of the Hrphic an' the popular conception, so that by the ti"e of 2". an Hrphic
for"ulation coul' be use' in the popular an' not the Hrphic sense. 6e ha!e also to ta*e into
account a 2ewish saying that ?there is a wheel in the worl'@ or that ?the worl' is a wheel.@
1&

Hn the other han', we can har'ly 'eri!e the ym of 2". 3:( f ro"
this, since it is not original in 2u'ais" (inclu'ing the H) ,
13
but itself 'eri!es fro" 5ree*
pro!erbs. +or in the 2ewish state"ent the wheel "eans e7actly the sa"e as in the 5ree*
sayings, na"ely, the uncertainty of hu"an fortune.
1.
Perhaps the best solution is to 'eri!e
2". 3:( f ro" the 2ewish saying. Iut this "eans that we "ust still fin' its ulti"ate origin in
the 5ree* pro!erbs which lie behin' the 2ewish saying, an' perhaps in the Hrphic !iew with
which the pro!erbs ha!e interfuse'. It is less li*ely that 2". 3:( 'eri!es 'irectly fro" the
& 6n'. an' -ib., ad loc. 0 Bittel is uncon!ince' (Proble"e, 1.1 ff.. #o, too, is $c*., ad loc.
3 #i"plicius Co"". on 1ristot.Cael. , 1(Gb, &. ff.0 cf. Hrph. +r. (Bern , Eo. &&/ an' &3<.
. ,. =oh'e, $syche II
%, (
(1/1<, 1&3 f.0 -ib., 1G&.
% )o establish the 'epen'ence of 2". 3:( , it has been state' that the Hrphic burns0 but this is incorrect
(cf. Bittel, 1(&. )he wheel of I7ion burns because it ser!es as a torch for the in'i!i'ual hero in the un'erworl'.
Iut, although #i"plicius co"pares the cos"ic with the wheel of I7ion, he 'oes not e8uate the two, an'
neither he nor any Hrphic says that the Hrphic burns.
( ?)he e7pression ha' alrea'y lost its Hrphic character an' beco"e a current saying for the ups an' 'owns of
life,@ -ib., 1G30 cf. Pr.KIauer , s.v. y , ..
; $c*., 1(&, n. (3 gi!es "any illustrations fro" the Paroe"iographi 5raeci, I, p. .%G, II, p. G;, &&3, (/%.
G Phocyli'es, &;0 si"ilarly #ib. , &, G;.
/ )hough the two "erge into one another, there is an essential 'ifference.
1< y, 6 m , 1nec'ota 5raec., I, p. 1/0 %<0 G;
(Ioissona'e.
11 )hat y in 2". 3:( cannot "ean ?beco"ing@ rather than ?life@ is also shown by co"parison with 1:&3 ,
where y cannot possibly "ean ?beco"ing.@
1& Cf. Bittel, 1.&J1%1.
13 Bittel, 1%&.
1. )his argues against a 'eri!ation of the 2ewish saying fro" Hrphic or Iu''hist sources, in which the wheel
has cos"ic significance.
5ree* pro!erbs, i.e., without the "e'iation of the 2ewish saying, since the tra'ition of
Palestinian 2u'ais" ob!iously un'erlies 2".
1%

In Iu''his" there is "uch reference to the wheel, e.g., the wheel of rotation, beco"ing an'
ti"e.
1(
)he "ost stri*ing feature is that this wheel is set on fire by selfKconsciousness.
1;
Iut the
speculati!e nature of this !iew is too alien to 3ustify any 'irect connection with 2".
1G
$ere again
the si"ilarity of phrase shoul' not blin' us to the "aterial 'ifference. )here "ay be connections
between Iu''his" an' Hrphis", but they cannot be shown, an' it is har'ly li*ely that they will
be.
1/

.
*

1. ?Posterity,@ ?fa"ily@: co""on in the E) . In 1c. 1;:&G the 8uotation fro"
1
rat.
P
haen. ,
% follows #toic belief in ascribing relationship with 5o' to all "en on the basis of their
e7istence. In =e!. &&:1( y (y6 q p y is use' of the
in'i!i'ual, not so "uch in the sense of Doh"eyer:
1
?Christ represents the whole house of
-a!i' an' is thus its Consu""ator,@ but rather in the si"ple sense of l accor'ing to
poetic usage ( $o".Il. , 1/, 1&.0 (, 1G<0 also in Pin'ar an' the tragic 'ra"atists.
&. In the sense of ?people@: often in the E) for the 2ewish people, e.g., at 5l. 1:1. 0 Phil.
3:% 0 &C. 11:&( 0 1c. ;:1/ (cf. the DFF. It is use' of Christians in the E) only at 1 Pt. &:/ ,
8uoting Is. .3:&< . 1t a later 'ate it is use' "ore often of Christians, as in 4art. Pol., 3, &0 1;,
10 -g. , 10 tertium genus , )ert.
E
at. , I, G.
&
In the E) , too, is use' of Christians only in
8uotation fro" or allusion to the H) .
3. In the sense of ?*in'@ or ?species@: the species of li!ing beings, ani"als an' plants, but
also of !oices an' ?tongues@ ( 1 C. 1&:1< , &G .
.
*

?Pro'uct,@ esp. ?increase of har!est,@ ?fruit.@ y is not foun' in the class. age but
occurs for the first ti"e in the $ellen. )he ol'est e7a"ples are in the DFF, where it is co""on in
connection with y y , in the pap. ,
1
of which the ol'est 'ates bac* to &3< I.C. ,
&

on inscriptions ( CI5 , .;%;, (& an' finally in Polyb. , I. 1, 10 ;/, (0 III, G;, 1.
1% #chl. , op. cit. , &1/J&&. thin*s that in !iew of 1:&3 : m ym , the gen. in
ym "ust be un'erstoo' as a gen. of origin. $e 'oes not relate ym to the origin
of "an but to that of nature. $ence ym is the sun which accor'ing to the =abb. !iew
burns up the sinner on the -ay of 2u'g"ent. _et #chl. fails to gi!e a con!incing interpretation of
ym in ter"s of the sun on p. &&1. )he sun can be 'escribe' as a wheel, but not as
ym; ym is surely a gen. of eluci'ation.
1( =. 5arbe, ,ndien u. d. !hristentum (1/1., (<, n.0 Bittel, 1%&J1%G0 $c*., 1(., n. (/.
1; Mah=vagga , I, &10 cf. Bittel, 1(%.
1G )he fla"ing of the tongue ( Mah=vagga , I, &1 can har'ly be connecte' with y
y in 2". 3:( . +or the for"er reference is to the tongue as an organ of touch (i.e., taste, whereas in the
latter it is an organ of speech.
1/ )he !l. : ym q6 is for the "ost part re3ecte', but in the concurrence of the
6estern tra'ition (!g an' the 1le7an'rian c( it has such goo' attestation (aeth sy
p
that it "ust be seriously
consi'ere'. Certainly it 'oes not fit in with the 'eri!ation of ym fro" Hrphic an'
Iu''hist sources. +or the wheel of the latter rolls through the worl', whereas that of the 5*. an' 2ewish pro!erb
rolls through our own li!es.
9 y . Pass. , Pape , Pr.KIauer , s.v.
1rat. 1ratus, of #oloi in Cilicia (c. 31<J&.% I.C. , #toic, later at the 4ace'onian court, the author of a 'i'actic
epic in astrono"y on hea!enly pheno"ena, e'. ,. 4aass, 1G/3.
Phaen. $haenomena .
1 Doh. 1p*. , ad loc.
Eat. Ad ationes .
9 y . Pape, Pr.KIauer , s.v. 0 Il.K-ebr. ] 11, &0 =a'er"acher, ./.
1 Cf. Preisig*e 6Crt. , I, &G(.
& -eiss"ann I. , 1<% f. an' EI , 1&.
y ?fruit of the earth@ (lit. what has beco"e, fro" y ( y 0 cf.
y , "ust be 'istinguishe' fro" y ?offspring of "an or beast (plant e,@ fro"
y ,
3
though the spelling is uncertain an' y is so"eti"es written with one in the
pap.
.
It is 'ebatable whether y "ay be correctly use' of the pro'ucts of plants.
%
Philo
so"eti"es spea*s of y in relation to plants as well as ani"als0 Hp. 4un'. , 113: 6
y6 . 2osephus has y (pal"s, 1nt. , /, ;
. -i'. , 13, 3 refers to the y m . It is "islea'ing that $atchK
=e'path co"bine y an' y, my an' my , in their
concor'ance to the #eptuagint.
In the E) & C. /:1< : y (here in the special sense of
?wellK'oing@ 6 , follows $os. 1<:1& . 4*. 1.:&% ( 4t. &(:&/ 0 D*. &&:1G : y
, is to be e8uate' with mP iPOhMs W}U OR ,
(
which occurs in the blessing of the
paschal cup in Ier., (, 1 an' ). Ier., ., 3.
;
)he DFF has y 6
at -t. &&:/ 0 the pap. y in I5: , ;;., 3 (&n' cent. 1.-. an' l
y ( I5: , 11&3, / 1st cent. 1.-. . )he e7pression of the ,!angelists is particularly
close, therefore, to that of conte"porary 2u'ais".
G

.
*

1 rare e7pression, not in the DFF, though foun' in the pap.
1

In the E) it occurs only at 1 Pt. &:&. . #ince y is here contraste' with
m , it "eans ?'ea'.@
#i"ilarly )eles, p. .%, 1(, $ense: y 6 6m ym
0 4ithr. Diturg. , 1., 31: y y 0 -ion. $al.1nt. =o". , IA, 1% (p.
(;%, 1. f.: 6 ymm ym .
1 Pt. &:&. refers to the goal of the 'eath of 2esus, an' thus to the 'i!ine purpose re!eale'
an' fulfille' in the 'eath of 2esus. )he wor's can har'ly be ta*en to in'icate an inner
e7perience un'erlying the Christian, for there is no e7perience of the full separation fro" sin,
both as guilt an' habit, which is e7presse' in 'eath. Eor is the reference to sacra"ental
e7perience. Htherwise baptis" woul' be "entione'. 1 Pt. is here e7pressing faith in
re'e"ption ( ym , (;3 ff. .
#ince the y plainly correspon's to the yy of 1:&3 , the
root of both i'eas is naturally the sa"e, na"ely, the Christian interpretation of the 'eath an'
resurrection of 2esus in ter"s of the 2ewish belief in the 'estruction an' renewal of the worl'.
,!en though the ter" y "ay occur in the 4ithras Diturgy, the origin of the
concept 'oes not ha!e its locus here, since the ter" was in general use.
&

.
*

3 Cf. =a'er"acher, ./.
. -eiss"ann EI , 1&.
% Cf. Il.K-ebr. ] 11, &.
( Cf. 5. -al"an, #esus1#eschua (1/&&, 13;, 1(..
; y correspon's "ore e7actly, of course, to mP iOPMs mTU ctj [kWOMs ( #. Eu. &3 on (:3 0 cf. B.
5. Buhn, #. Eu. p1/33q, ;/, n. .<.
G 1t D*. 1&:1G we shoul' rea' y with c - it sy
s.c.
rather than
y with etc.
9 y . Bn., 6bg., 6n'., 1 Pt. on &:&..
1 Cf. Preisig*e 6Crt. , s.v.
& Cf. the occurrence in the pap.
)his wor' 'eri!es fro" an' y
1
an' thus "eans ?new genesis@
&
either in
the sense of a. ?return to e7istence,@ ?co"ing bac* fro" 'eath to life,@ or of b. ?renewal to a
higher e7istence,@ ?regeneration@ in the usual sense.
3

A. The ,sage outside the %T.
)he wor' first see"s to ha!e ac8uire' significance in #toicis" an' its 'octrine of the
renewal of the worl' following the m . It probably recei!e' its 'istincti!e i"press
fro" the #toics. It is not atteste' in the Hrphic
.
or Pythagorean writings,
%
though one woul'
e7pect it in !iew of the i"portance for the" of reincarnation .
(
In the e7position of the #toic
!iew of the worl' in Philo 1et. 4un'. , G/ ff. we often fin' yy . Its opposite is
m (.; an' ;(. yy is "ore often lin*e' with . ,pictetus
'oes not ha!e it. 4arc. 1urel. says of the soul: q q yy 6
m ( 4. 1nt. , FI, 1. Plutarch uses the wor' in his account of the
"yths of -ionysus an' Hsiris (
,
i. -elph. , / pII, 3G/aq: 6
yy (
I
s. et Hsir. , 3% pII, 3(. f.q: y
6 yy (
C
arn. ,s. , I, ; pII, //(cq.
$e spea*s of the yy of souls in Carn. ,s. , II, . (II, //Gc0 cf. -ef. Hr. , %1 (II,
.3G': yy . Ducian states the Platonic 'octrine
of souls as follows: yy g
y (,nc. 4us., ;. In a frag"ent of )erentius Aarro (in
1ug.
C
i!. -. , &&, &G yy is use' for the new birth of in'i!i'uals in a new perio'
of the worl', an' this is accepte' as the general 5*. usage.
;
)hus the wor' has an in'i!i'ual
as well as the original cos"ic sense.
9 yy . Ln., Bl., #chl. 4t. on 1/:&G0 6bg., -ib. Past. on )t. 3:% 0 Pr.KIauer , s.v. Cf. also
ym , ((G .
1 1cc. to the rule establishe' by ,. +raen*el, +tschr. f. vergleichende Sprachforschung , .% (1/13, 1(< ff., the
fe". replaces the si"ple in co"poun's, as beco"es , , l
an' . )he koine often has y , -ebr. 5riech. 6ortb. , 1&%, n.
& )he original notion was not that of hu"an birth, nor esp. of birth on the basis of se7ual conception0 whether
an' how far this later penetrate' into it calls for in!estigation.
3 =elate' wor's are yy , ?regenerate@ (first atteste' in Eonnus -ionys. , II, (%< p c. .<< 1.-. q,
which is for"e' analog. to y, y, an' yy ?concerning regeneration@ (atteste' in
Cl. 1l. Pae'. , II, /, G1, 3. )he ol'est ter" see"s to be yy rather than yy or
yy .
. Cf. Hrph. +r. (Bern , In'e7.
% )he "uch 8uote' passage fro" ,. Leller, $hilosophie d. )riechen I
%
(1G/&, ..&, can a''uce fro"
Porphyr.Ait. Pyth. , 1/ as the !iew of Pyth. only y y , not yy . It
cannot be state' with any certainty that the for"ula was genuinely Pythagorean. )he 'escription of the "any
incarnations of Pythagoras 8uote' in -iog. D. , AIII, . fro" $eraclei'es Pont. (I, &., &1 ff., -iels uses other
ter"s.
( ( )he passage fro" Plutarch buaest. Con!. , AIII, 3, % (II, ;&&' 8uote' in Pr.KIauer , s.v. gi!es us as a saying
of -e"ocritus only qg . )he prece'ing yy is fro"
Plutarch an' not -e"ocr. , as easily shown fro" the other !ersion of the saying in Dat. Ai!. , % (II, 11&/e0 cf. II,
/1, 1/ ff., -iels )he other passage 8uote' in Pr.KIauer fro" P. Don'. , G;G, III, .& pro!es nothing, since we
cannot assert with any precision the "eaning of 6 yy in this pap. of the 3r' or .th cent.
1.-. )he pap. has not been printe' because it is not legible.
,i. -elph. De "i apad Delphos .
Is. et Hsir. De ,side et 9siride .
Carn. ,s. De !arnium "su .
Ci!. -. De !ivitate Dei .
; )enethliaci quidam scripserunt 4 esse in renascendis hominibus, quam appellant yy )raeci>
hac scripserunt confici in annis numero quadringentis quadraginta, ut idem corpus et eadem anima, quae
fuerint coniuncta in homine aliquando, eadem rursus redeant in coniunctionem . 6. 6eber, Der $rophet und
sein )ott (1/&%, /1 f. regar's these nati!ity fi7ers as ulti"ately of Iabylonian origin, though without e7plaining
their particular 'octrine.
It see"s 8uite early to ha!e co"e into use outsi'e the #toic schools an' to ha!e beco"e
part of the heritage of the e'ucate' worl', thus ac8uiring a "ore general sense. )his is shown
by Cic.1tt. , (, (, where return fro" banish"ent is 'escribe' as yy .
It cannot be finally pro!e' whether yy playe' any role in the 4ysteries of the
1st cent. 1.-. )he wor' occurs only in the soKcalle' birth "ystery in Corp. $er". , FIII, where it
is use' 1< ti"es ( =eit>enstein Poi". , 33/, . an' (0 3.<, 1&: 3.1, %0 3.&, 1%0 3.3, 1&0 3.., 1& an'
1.0 3.%, 1(: 3.G, G. Iut here the wor' 'oes not ha!e the "eaning hitherto foun' in pagan 5*. ,
i.e., return to e7istence. It signifies renewal to a higher e7istence by "eans of an incantation. )he
"ystery of regeneration is certainly later than the E) . 6hen Plutarch uses the ter" in his
'escription of the -ionysus an' Hsiris "yths, it is an open 8uestion whether he ta*es it fro" the
4ysteries or fro" his philosophical heritage, )he latter is "ore probable, since this is al"ost
certainly the 'eri!ation of the parallel m . In the 1st cent. I.C. , then, yy
is in general use in e'ucate' circles, an' its use in the 4ysteries "ay thus be presu"e'.
yy occurs in "agic: 1nti*e +luchtafeln , ., 1G, 6^nsch
&
:
yy m . )he 4ithr. Diturg. , 1., 31 has y .
In 2ewish literature yy is foun' fro" the ti"e of Philo. )he DFF "erely has
the phrase cm ym at 2ob 1.:1. . )his is a free ren'ering of the $ebrew to
'enote life after 'eath, which is 'oubtful in this passage. Philo uses yy of the
restoration to life of in'i!i'uals, e.g., of 1bel in #eth, Poster. C. , 1&. , or "ore generally:
l yy , Cherub., 11. (cf. also Deg.
5a3. , 3&% : yy y 0 an' also of the reconstitution of the worl'
after the +loo': Eoah an' his fa"ily yy y qy
y , Ait. 4os. II, (% .
G
2osephus calls the reKestablish"ent
of his people after the e7ile yy , 1nt. , 11,
(( . $e thus uses in a national sense a wor' pre!iously foun' only in the cos"ic or in'i!i'ual.
+or the resurrection he has the for"ula: cm y
m , 1p. , &, &1G . )his is a paraphrase for yy .
6hen yy passes fro" #toicis" into 2u'ais" its "eaning changes. )he new
e7istence to which the worl' an' "an co"e in the new aeon is not 3ust a repetition of the
for"er, as in #toicis". It is an e7istence in which righteousness 'wells ( & Pt. 3:13 . In
2u'ais" the cos"ic catastrophe is the Dast 2u'g"ent, an' in contrast to that e7pecte' in
#toicis" this is 'efiniti!e. )he yy for which the 2ews hope' posite' a 'ifferent
"oral nature. ,!en if this 'oes not appear in the language of Philo an' 2osephus, it is a selfK
e!i'ent presupposition. )his change with the transition of the concept fro" #toicis" to
2u'ais" is of great i"portance. )he wor' is fille' with a new religious content. It shoul' be
note' in this connection that in both #toicis" an' 2u'ais" yy lies in the future.
In the for"er it follows the future m 0 in the latter it belongs to the future
3u'g"ent. )he wellK*nown passage in Cicero ( (G; , howe!er, shows that e!en towar' the
en' of the 1st century I.C. a present e7perience coul' also be calle' yy .
B. in the %T.
1. In 4t. 1/:&G : g yyq , the use of yy is in full agree"ent
with that of Philo an' 2osephus. )he 2ewish faith in the resurrection of the 'ea' an' the
renewal of the worl' is clothe' in this ter". )he parallel saying in D*. &&:3< has g
q . In 4*. 1<:3< an' D*. 1G:3< the phrase l6 q has
the sa"e "eaning. )he #toic usage ob!iously stan's behin' this 2ewish or 2ewish Christian
e7pression, but in the sense of 2ewish an' Christian eschatology. )here is no influence of the
4ysteries.
/

G )he wor' is use' in the sa"e sense in 1 Cl., /, .: 6 yy q
/ #o far no $eb. or 1ra". e8ui!alent for yy has been foun', cf. -al"an 62 , I, 1.%. Ln. 4t.
3
,
(<1, n. ;( "erely gi!es us a postulate. #chl. 4t. , %G& constructs gYh[kZMh QS [O~OrU fro" si"ilar e7pressions.
&. )t. 3:% : yy 6m
y . $ere yy is the result of baptis" an' parallel to m . It
'oes not "ean only attain"ent to a new life with the en' of the ol' life, nor 'oes it "ean only
"oral renewal0 it e"braces both.
1<
)he for"er, howe!er, is the "ore i"portant, as shown by
cm an' ( !. ; . )he i'ea is basically eschatological, though "oral
renewal is inclu'e'. Eo "oral change is 'enote', for the epistle 'e"an's of the regenerate
that they shoul' 'eny ungo'liness an' worl'ly lusts. )he grace of 5o' is ethically efficacious
by way of instruction, i.e., by personal fellowship, an' not "agically by "aterial "eans.
)here is no thought of yy by "agical incantation ( Corp. $er". , FIII, 1, 1 in
)t. 3:% . )he ter" is rather to be e7plaine' as a further Christian 'e!elop"ent of the 2ewish
for" of the #toic concept. -eri!ation fro" the 4ysteries woul' presuppose its earlier use in
the 4ysteries, which cannot be shown.
11
Hn the other han', 4t. 1/:&G pro!es with absolute
clarity that the cos"ic #toic !iew of regeneration ca"e into early Christianity by way of
2u'ais".
1&
1n' Cic.1tt. , (, ( ( (G; shows that we 'o not ha!e to go to the 4ysteries for
the ter"0 it ha' long since been use' by the e'ucate'. Hb!iously we cannot e7clu'e the
possibility that the usage of the 4ysteries also lies behin' yy 0 its
true ho"e, howe!er, is in #toicis".
*8chsel
, , , ,
, , ,
, , , ,

, , ,
*

A. The Gree. ,sage.
y6 (ol'er for": yy6 'enotes in or'inary 5ree* the intelligent
co"prehension of an ob3ect or "atter, whether this co"es for the first ti"e, or co"es afresh,
into the consi'eration of the one who grasps it (?to co"e to *now,@ ?to e7perience,@ ?to
percei!e pagainq@ or whether it is alrea'y present (?to percei!e@. )he inchoati!e construction
shows that, while the ingressi!e aspect of the act of co"prehension is originally e"phasise',
this can fa'e into the bac*groun', an' the "eaning can be si"ply ?to *now@ or ?to
un'erstan'.@ )his is shown on the one han' by the co""on use of l for the perf.
1< 1s m 0 cf. & C. .:1( , where is the opp. of , an' =. 1&:& ,
where the is the ob3ect of renewal in the ethical sense.
11 )ert.Iapt. , % ( certe ludis Apollinaribus et $elusiis tinguuntur idque se in regenerationem et impunitatem
periuriorum suorum agere praesumunt see"s to co"e !ery near to e7plaining the yy
(Aulg. lavacrum regenerationis fro" the language of the 4ysteries. It shoul' be re"e"bere', howe!er, that
the thought of baptis" gi!ing 'eli!erance in the -ay of 2u'g"ent is un'oubte'ly "uch ol'er than the contacts of
early Christianity with the 4ysteries, an' also that certain e7pressions li*e cm an' m
lm point "ore to 2ewish Christian eschatology than to the teaching of the 4ysteries. It "ust also be ta*en
into account that regeneratio ca"e to )ertullian fro" the Christian tra'ition, so that he rather e7plains it in the
light of the 4ysteries than creates it fro" their usage. In any case, the taurobolium is not baptis" but a bloo'
rite, cf. +. I^chsel, #oh. u. d. hell. Synk. (1/&G, (3, n. 1.
1& also what is sai' un'er ym ((;& ff. concerning the rise of the belief in new birth.
9 y6m, y6 . I. #nell, Die Ausdr8cke f8r den *egriff des -issens in der vorplaton. $hilosophie
( Philol. 2nters. , &/ p1/&.q0 5. 1nrich, Das Antike Mysterien;esen (1G/.0 6. Iousset, 551 (1/1., ;.< ff.0
also in PaulyK6. , AII (1/1&, 1%<3 ff.0 =eit>enstein $ell. 4yst. , esp. ((ff. an' &G. ff.0 /istoria Monachorum
u. /istoria :ausiaca (1/1(, esp. 1.(ff.0 2. Broll, Die :ehren des /ermes <rismegistos (1/1., 3%< ff.0 1.
#chlatter, Der )laube im <
.
(1/&;, &1. ff.0 31( ff.0 3GG ff.0 $. 2onas, Der *egriff der )nosis ( -iss. 4arburg,
1/3<. +or H) usage: ,. Iau"ann, Z~W un' seine -eri!ate,@ L16 , &G (1/<G, &&ff.0 11<ff.
cym , an' on the other by the al"ost e7clusi!e use of y6 or y6 for the subst. .
.
1

)he basic "eaning of y6 , an' the specifically 5ree* un'erstan'ing of the
pheno"enon of *nowle'ge, are best shown by a twofol' 'ifferentiation. )he ter" is to be
'istinguishe' a. fro" l , which 'enotes perception with no necessary e"phasis on
the ele"ent of un'erstan'ing. #ince so"e 'egree of un'erstan'ing is present in all perception, too
sharp a 'istinction is not to be "a'e between y6 an' l . In'ee',
l can 'escribe un'erstan'ing perception in so far as it is unreflecti!e an'
instincti!e.
&
_et in 'iscussion of the proble" of *nowle'ge we "ust insist on the 'ifference
between as sensual perception an' y6 , or which is ac8uire' through
y6 as *nowle'ge 'eri!ing fro" the or y 0 the e"phasis will so"eti"es fall
on the contrast an' so"eti"es on the connection. )he wor' is also to be 'istinguishe' b. fro"
an' , which signify ha!ing an opinion () of so"e ob3ect or "atter with
no guarantee that it really is as suppose'. In contrast, y6 e"braces things as they really
are, i.e., the or the .
3
)o be sure, an opinion can also be correct () , but
only the y6m has the certainty that he grasps the , that he has . )hus
y6 is relate' to ( Plat.=esp. , A, .;(c ff.0 %<Ge, but (as 'istinct fro" y ,
11( it is not use' absolutely li*e . It nee's an
o
b3. gen. , an' in the first instance
'enotes the act of *nowing rather than *nowle'ge.
.

)he e7ecution of y6 is not pri"arily relate' to a particular organ or li"ite' to any
particular "o'e. It ta*es place in "an`s 'ealings with his worl', in e7perience. It 'enotes close
ac8uaintance with so"ething ( $o".H'. , &1, 3% f.: c g y6 m . It
relates to the *nowle'ge ac8uire' in e7periences both goo' an' ba' ( $o".Il. , 1G, &;<0 H'. , 1%,
%3;0 Plat.=esp. , A, .((c0 Fen.1n. , I, ;, .. It is achie!e' in all the acts in which a "an can attain
*nowle'ge, in seeing an' hearing, in in!estigating an' reflecting (y6 ) . )hus
y6 can also "ean personal ac8uaintance an' frien'ship with persons ( Fenoph.Cyrop. ,
I, ., &;0 $ist. 5raec. , A, 3, /.
%
)his is a sense which 'e!elope' particularly in relation to the
a'3. ym an' y6 . It is also possible that y6 "ay si"ply "ean ?to be or
to beco"e aware of,@ an' that a y6m is al"ost a , i.e., not a for"al teacher but one
who has an un'erstan'ing of life
(
( Plat.=esp. , I, 3.;'. _et this use 'e!elope' less in respect of
y6 than l , which can "ean 8uite generally ?to ha!e an un'erstan'ing or
capacity.@
;

1 Cf. #nell, op. cit. , 3< f. +or e7a"ples of the ingressi!e sense of y6 , v. $o".Il. , 1;, 333 f.:
c, l c m cym l6 (?percei!e@0 Fen.1n. , I, ;:
l 6 q y6 g 6q 6 (?co"e to
*now@0 #oph.1nt. , 1<G/: () y q y6 qm (?learn@. ,7a"ples of the
wi'er use "ay be foun' in $eracl. +r. , /; (I, /;, % f., -iels: y q
y6m (?*now@0 Plat. Crat. , .3%a: l yy6 yy (?un'erstan'@0 -e"ocr.
+r. , 1/G (II, 1<&, ( f., -iels : (the beast g l, , c ("an m
y6 (al"ost ?*now@.
& 1n l y6 6 is one who can 'iscern between right an' wrong
( Fenophon4e". IA, %, (0 cf. , Phil. 1:/ 0 the l is the intelligent or perspicacious
"an ( )huc. , I, ;1, %, whereas the is the foolish or stupi'.
3 $eracl. +r. , % (I, ;G, 11 f., -iels : y6m m, l . )he ob3ect
of *nowle'ge is the , Par". +r. , ., ; f. (I, 1%&, 1& f., -iels 0 Plat.=esp. , A, .;;a ff., where as
is place' between y6 an' y 0 Plat.=esp. , IF, %G1b, where it is . It is the opp. of
or in $eracl. +r. , ; (II, %/, 1; ff., -iels , Plat.4en. , /;a ff.0 =esp. , A, .;(' ff.
ob3. gen. ob3ecti!e geniti!e.
. Isolate' e7a"ples of y6 in the absol. are Plat.=esp. , AI, %<Ge ( (/3 0 ,picur. (cf. Philo'e".,
6 , e'. 2ensen, Col0 AIII, 33 f.: |l| |q y|6 0 Plut.Col. , 3 (II, 11<Ge:
y6m .
% )his is where the apparent parallels belong which are a''uce' by 6ettstein in relation to 4t. ;:&3 0 these show
that y6 (an' ym with the negati!e can "ean the sa"e as ?to ignore.@
( #nell, op. cit. , % ff.
; )his "ay relate to s*ill li*e m or l l6, cy l , $o".Il. , &, ;1G0
1%, %&%0 ;, &3(, but also to all aspects of hu"an con'uct,< e.g., l , ?to be frien'ly 'ispose'@
( $o".H'. , 3, &;;, or l , ?to be grateful@ (fre8uently, though cf. also y6 , or
)he "ain 8uestion, howe!er, is which "o'e of *nowle'ge pri"arily 'eter"ines the 5ree*
concept of *nowle'ge. #ince y6 'enotes *nowle'ge of what really is, it co"es to
ha!e the sense of ?to !erify@0 an' since for the 5ree*s the eye is a "ore reliable witness than
the ear ( $eracl. +r. , 1<1a pI, /;, 1% ff., -iels q0 $'t. , I, G, an' sight is ran*e' abo!e hearing
( Plat.Phae'r. , &%<'0 =esp. , AI, %<;c, m , &1( , this !erification is pri"arily by
obser!ation0 in'ee', the lin* between the !erbs y6 an' l shows that
*nowle'ge is regar'e' as a "o'e of seeing, for l "eans ?to *now on the basis of
one`s own obser!ation.@
G
)his is the gui'ing conception e!en when y6 results fro"
the weighing of circu"stances or reflection on facts ( -e"ocr. +r. , &G% pII, 11/, 13 ff.,
-iels q0 1ristoph.Eub. , /1&0 Pl. , /..0 )huc. , I, &%, 10 .3, &0 1<&, .0 Plat. 1p. , &;a0 Phae'. ,
11(c etc.. Bnowle'ge in such cases i"plies 'isclosure an' is thus insight0 its result is that
so"ething is or (
P
hilol. +r. , 11 pI, 313, % ff., -iels q0 1rchyt. +r. , 1 pI,
33., 1&, -iels q0 Plat. Crat. , .3%a. Bnowle'ge is achie!e' by inspection fro" without. Its
ob3ect is thought of as so"ething present an' open to the scrutiny of the obser!er. )he
obser!er is hi"self there, an' his *nowle'ge is thus ob3ecti!e0 any participation in what is
*nown is li"ite' to seeing. Eaturally, y6 is not restricte' to a present ob3ect or fact.
6hate!er can be the ob3ect of en8uiry can also be an ob3ect of y6 , e.g., the
at which so"ething shoul' be 'one ( y6 , Pittac., 1 pII, &1(, 1<, -iels q, or what
shoul' be 'one ( cym , Fenoph.$ist. 5raec. , III, 1, 1&. $ence y6 etc.
can "ean ?to 'eci'e@ ( -e"ocr. +r. , &&/ pII, 1<;, 1 f., -iels q0 cf. ym ,
Isoc. , (, 3<0 q ym y , -e"osth. , %/, .;0 an' in the language of politics
an' 3urispru'ence it can "ean ?to resol!e@
/
an' e!en ?to gi!e legal recognition@ ( Plut.
1
ges. , 3 pI, %/;aq. Eowhere, howe!er, is there a co"plete aban'on"ent of the basic i'ea of
!isual an' ob3ecti!e !erification.
In the 5ree* worl' the 8uestion of truth i"plies that of the reality un'erlying all
appearances as true reality ( , , &3/ . )he un'erstan'ing of *nowle'ge as that
which co"prises this is shape' accor'ingly. )he "eaning an' significance of the
5ree* i'eal of *nowle'ge are plain when we re"e"ber that *nowing is un'erstoo' as a *in'
of seeing. )o this un'erstan'ing of *nowle'ge there correspon's the un'erstan'ing of what
constitutes reality. =eality consists of for"s an' figures, or rather of the ele"ents an'
principles which shape these for"s an' figures. )hus the y6 of the in!estigator an'
philosopher has reference to these0 the l (or l is what "a*es possible the
*nowle'ge of things, as it also "a*es the" what they are.
1<
$ence *nowing has the character
or ( $o".Il. , %, ;(10 H'. , /, 1G/, though also y6 ( )heogn. , 11.1
f.. #i"ilarly y6 can "ean ?reason,@ ?reasonableness@ or ?insight@ ( )heogn. , 11;1 f.0 $eracl. +r. , .1 pI,
G(, . f., -iels q0 ,pich. +r. , . pI, 1&<, 1; ff., -iels q0 $'t. , III, .: y6 l 0 )huc. , I, ;%, 10 Fen.1n. ,
II, (, /0 Plat.=esp. , A, .;(' ( opp. , or a goo' or e!il 'isposition ( )heogn. , (<0 3/(0 .<G0 Pin'.Hl. , 3,
.1: q y6 0 1ristoph.=a. , 3%%: y6g 0 cf. #nell, op. cit. , 3.. +ro" a later perio',
cf. Porphyr.4arc. , 110 &<0 &1,p. &G1, 1/0 &G;, 1;0 &GG, ., Eauc*0 1lbin. Isag., 1, p. 1%&, $er"ann0 -itt. #yll.
3
,
/G3, . ff.: y6 y c
. 1lone, y6 "ay also connote a cle!er opinion, a goo' counsel, a rule of
life, or a pronounce"ent (cf. the 'efinition of such y6 in 1ristot.=het. , II, &1, p. 13/.a, 1/ ff.. Cf. also
n. / .
G Hn the connection of y6 with seeing an' the !erbs of seeing, cf. #nell, op. cit. , &< ff.
Philol. $hilologus , 1G.( ff.
/ )hus y6 ( n. ; can be ?will@ or ?'ecision@ ( Pin'.Ee". , 1<, G/0 )huc. , II, %%, & in the sense of
popular or 3u'icial resolutions (cf. #nell, op. cit. , 3%0 so also inscr. an' pap. , 3ust as y6 can be 3u'icial
*nowle'ge (#nell, 3G, &. 6e "ust be careful, howe!er, not to interpret this in the light of "o'ern i'eas of the
will, but rather to see that the 5ree* concept of will an' resol!e is to be interprete' in the light of seeing. Cf. ,.
6olff, ?Platos 1pologie,@ EPh:, ( (1/&/, 3. ff. on an' I. #nell, ? -as Iewusstsein !on eigenen
,ntschei'ungen i" fr^hen 5riechentu" ,@ $hilol. , G% (1/3<, 1.1 ff.0 also on y6 , ,. #chwart>, )nomon ,
& (1/&%, (G0 2. #ten>el, 551 . 1/&(, &<< f. an' PaulyK6. , &, Reihe III (1/&;, G&/.
1ges. De Agesilao .
1< It ob!iously "a*es no 'ifference when instea' of the (apart fro" Plato, cf. e.g., 1ntiphon +r. , 1 pII,
&/&, % ff., -iels q the Pythagoreans spea* of the , for these are what "a*e *nowle'ge possible by
of seeing ( m, an' beco"e ter"s for en8uiry an' seeing the
character of grasping or co"prehen'ing in the original sense. In this light we can also
un'erstan' the i"portance of "athe"atics for *nowle'ge (cf. Plat.5org. , %<Ga an' the fact
that y6 can be an e8ui!alent of an' y6 of .
Hn the one si'e, therefore, the truly real, which is to be co"prehen'e' in such *nowle'ge, is
thought of as the eternal an' ti"eless reality which is constant in all change an' is seen by the
. Hn the other han', the one who sees really ?has@ this reality, an' is thus
assure' that he can control as well as *now it. 1s 'istinct fro" , is ?boun'@
( Plat.
4
en. , /Ga0 it confers possession ( Plat.)heaet. , &</e: y y6
0 Phae'. , ;%': y l c,
c q m . )he reality of what is *nown, howe!er, is
constitute' by the essential content of what is *nown as this is appropriate' in *nowle'ge.
$ence the *nowle'ge of what really is can be the supre"e possibility of e7istence, for in it the
one who *nows encounters the eternal an' participates in it. )hough the i'eal of this y6
is largely i'entical with the i'eal of the m ,
11
there are naturally
'ifferences. +or *nowle'ge relates not "erely to the ele"ents or i'eas which for" the worl'
of nature but also to those which gi!e for" an' consistency to the hu"an an' ,
i.e.0 an' the (e.g., Plato =esp. , A, .;(c': )he "an who has the capacity for
the of the is a yy6m . )hus for Plato y6 or is
the presupposition of right political action. Bnowing is here a seeing, an' action a fashioning
of the , of the artist, who gi!es for" to "atter as he conte"plates the i'ea. #i"ilarly,
for 1ristotle e7istence achie!es its supre"e possibility in 'isintereste' scientific
consi'eration, in m .
1&

B. The Gnostic ,sage.
)he usage of $ellenis", an' especially of 5nosticis", is to so"e e7tent prepare' by
classical 'e!elop"ent.
13
_et it also 'eri!es fro" other sources: fro" the 4ystery religions,
which "e'iate secret *nowle'ge lea'ing to sal!ation0 an' fro" "agic, whose *nowle'ge
confers supernatural powers.
1.
Hur present concern, of course, is si"ply to 'escribe the
technical use of y6 (y6) an' not the general use, which re"ains unchange' in
gi!ing things for" an' li"it ( Philol. +r. , 30 .0 (0 11 pI, 31< ff., -iels q0 cf. also 2. #ten>el, +ahl u.. )estalt bei
$laton u. Aristoteles
?
(1/3&. #i"ilarly the ato"s of -e"ocritus, which are 'ifferent in their or
( 1ristot.Phys. , I, &, p. 1G.b, &1, ser!e to e7plain 'ifferences of 8uality as 'ifferences of for", or'er an'
situation0 in'ee', he see"s to ha!e calle' the ato"s l as well ( -iels , II, &(, 3%.
4en. Ad Menoeceum .
11 Cf. on this pt. +. Ioll, ?Aita conte"plati!a@ ( #1$ , 1/&<0 6. 2aeger, ? ber :rsprung un' Breislauf 'es
philos. Debensi'eals @ ( #1I , 1/&G, 3/< ff..
1& It is worth noting, an' is perhaps to be e7plaine' as a #e"itis", that fro" the $ellenistic perio' y6
is also use' in the se7ual sense, v. 4oult.K4ill. an' Pr.KIauer , s.v.
13 ,"pe'ocles an' Plato alrea'y 'escribe philosophy by analogy with "ystical initiation (for Plato cf. =oh'e,
$syche , II, &G1 ff.0 1nrich, Das antike Mysterien;esen , (30 but for Plato this is only a "etaphor, whereas EeoK
Platonis" ta*es it seriously (cf. 1nrich, (( ff.0 P. +rie'lfn'er, $laton I p1/&Gq (G ff.0 cf. also on the whole pt. 2.
#ten>el, $laton der "r&ieher p1/&Gq. )he i"portant e7positions in Plut.Is. et Hs. , 10 & (II, 3%1'e are still
essentially 5ree*0 the blesse'ness of 5o' consists in an' . Ol c
lm m, q , l g y6 q
y (not to be behin' reality in *nowle'ge, Parthey) c y6
l q . q
, c 6 c, 6 l6 q
c q (especially concern for the *nowle'ge of the go's, which both learning an'
in!estigation ser!e in the attain"ent of what is holy, Parthey). 6orth co""en'ing is a 6m ,
abste"iousness an' participation in the cult of the te"ple, q 6
y6, q (Isis) p g
. T

l 6 yy y6
y , lm , y m l l
m .
its religious application.
1%
)he y6 which is the goal of the $ellenistic piety which (both
outsi'e an' insi'e Christianity we 'escribe as 5nostic, is characterise' by the following
ele"ents.
a. 6 here connotes *nowle'ge as well as the act of *nowing, an' it can thus be
use' in the absolute without any supple"entary geniti!e, though what is "eant is not
*nowle'ge generally () but the *nowle'ge of 5o'. )here is a for"al si"ilarity
when Plato says ( =esp. , AI, %<Ge that the i'ea of the y is "ore lofty than y6
(in the absol. an' . 1n' if it is selfKe!i'ent for Plato that y6 in its concern
for what really is attains to the 'i!ine, in 5nostic sources 5o' is regar'e' "uch "ore
e7clusi!ely as the selfKe!i'ent ob3ect of y6 . $e is so, in'ee', against the bac*groun' of
a 'ualis"
1(
which 'oes not accept the 5ree* !iew that the 'eity is beyon' the worl' of
beco"ing in the sense of a reality that un'erlies all beco"ing, but which concei!es of this
transcen'ence in ter"s of an absolute separation fro" all beco"ing, so that we cannot
'isco!er the 5o'hea' by a ?recogniti!e@ conte"plation of the worl' but only by turning away
fro" it (cf. Corp. $er". , F, % an' ym . )his "eans, howe!er, that the
*nowle'ge with which the 5nostics were concerne', in contrast to that of the 5ree*s, was
'istinct fro" all other *in's of *nowle'ge0 an' this is in *eeping with the restriction of
( &.< an' to the 'i!ine reality an' nature.
b. 6hile y6 is for the 5ree*s the culti!ate' "etho'ical acti!ity of the or
y , fulfille' in science an' particularly philosophy, the y6 of the 5nostic, both as
process an' result, is a which is gi!en by 5o' to "an. It is thus ra'ically
'istinguishe' fro" rational thought0 it is illu"ination.
1;
5o' is inaccessible to "an as such
( ym . Iut he *nows "en, i.e., the pious, an' re!eals $i"self to the":
ym y6 l ( Corp. $er". , I, 310 cf. AII, &0
F, . an' 1%: y m , ym
ym 0 1scl., &/b p$er"etica, I, 3;<, ( f., #cottq0 Cl. 1l.,7c. e7 )heo'.
, ;0 Porphyr. 1'!. 4arc., 13 an' &1 pp. &G3, /0 &GG, 1., Eauc*q0 Cl. 1l.#tro". , A, 11, ;10 H.
#ol. (:(f.0 ;:1& f.0 G:G ff.0 1%:1ff. etc..
1G
#uch y6 is ecstatic or "ystical !ision,
1/
an'
1. Cf. =eit>enstein$ell4yst0, &/% f.0 3<< ff.0 Broll, Die :ehren des /ermes <rismegistos , 3&( ff.0 esp. 3(( f.0
3G& f.0 1nrich, op. cit. , ;G ff.0 6. Iousset, PaulyK6. , AII (1/1&, 1%&1 ff. )he connection with the !iew of the
4ysteries (cf. also n. 13 is illustrate' by the esoteric character of y6 an' by its 'escription as y
, $ipp.=ef. , A, ;, &&. )he connection with "agic is shown, e.g., in ,piph. , 31, ;,
G (I, p. 3/;, /: c y c y, 6 ym,
c q y6m 6 m 6 6
m . 1s the "agician can a''ress 5o': 6 mm q y
y6 ( Preis. Laub. , II, 1&G, so he hi"self can be a''resse': 6 l
y ( ibid. , I, 1&;0 thus y an' y6 are e8ui!alent. #i"ilarly, Philo can call q
, which "eans the sa"e as y6 , an q y , #pec. Deg. , III, 1<< .
1% Hn the *nowle'ge of 5o' in #toicis" ym .
1( Cf. on this pt. 6. Iousset, 0yrios !hristos
&
(1/&1, 1G3 ff.0 E55 (1/1., ;<( ff. an' PaulyK6. , AII (1/1&,
1%<; ff.0 1%1G ff.
1; If y6 is often trace' bac* to or y , this 'oes not i"ply a hu"an capacity but the
supernatural power which flows into "an an' enlightens hi", e.g., Corp. $er". , I, &, && f.0 IA, 3 ff. (the 'i!ine
is here 'istinguishe' fro" the hu"an y . In such cases or y really stan's for ,
cf. =eit>enstein$ell4yst0, 3&G ff.
1G Cf. for y6 as =. Diechtenhan, Die 9ffenbarung im )nosticismus (1/<1, /G ff.0 ,. Eor'en,
Agnostos <heos (1/13, &G; f.0 Broll, Die :ehren des /ermes <rismegistos , 3%., an' esp.
=eit>enstein$ell4yst0, &G% ff., with the than*sgi!ing of the :ogos teleios which is foun' there an' in #cott, I,
3;. ff. Cf. also $. #chlier, Religionsgesch. 2nters. &. d. ,gnatiusbriefen (1/&/, %G ff.
1/ +or a 'escription of the !ision, cf. esp. Corp. $er". , I, 3<0 F, .J(0 FIII, 13 ff.0 #tob.,cl. , I, 1G/, &1
($er"etica, I, .1G, 1& ff., #cott0 Broll, Die :ehren des /erm. <rism. , 3%% f. Hn the use of , ,
etc. as synon. of y6 , cf. Broll, 3%&0 =eit>enstein$ell4yst0, 3%&. Plotinus a!oi's the e7pression
y6 for the "ystical !ision. $e calls it , while y6 is the scientific *nowle'ge which helps
prepare for it ( ,nn. , AI, ;, 3( pII, p. .(/, &< ff.q. y6 has to 'o with the (AI, /, 30 II, p. %1<, &( f.,
an' in the of the c the soul "ust be (AI, /, ; pII, p. %1G, ( ff.q. ,!en the c itself has no
yy6 , though y is not on this account to be ascribe' to it (AI, /, ( pII, p. %1%, &< f.q. )he
to this e7tent *nowing is still un'erstoo' as a *in' of seeing, though in the sense of "ystic
!ision rather than the ol'er 5ree* sense. It 'oes not "a*e what is seen a possession of the one
who sees. Hn the contrary, he "ust pray that he "ay be *ept in y6 .
&<
Eot "erely the
cul"ination of the 'i!ine !ision is 'escribe' as y6 , but "ore often the way which lea's
to it an' whose goal is m in the sense of ecstatic "ystical !ision ( Cl. 1l.#tro". , AI, ;,
(1.
&1
#ince on this way there is i"parte' a *nowle'ge which can be possesse', a "e'ley of
"ythological an' philosophical tra'ition penetrates into 5nosticis", an' in certain types an'
strata it is har' to 'istinguish 5nosticis" fro" philosophical speculation. In Philo an'
Plotinus true scientific philosophy prece'es "ystical !ision. Iut in consistent 5nosticis" the
fiction is "aintaine' that all *nowle'ge preparatory to !ision is a gift of 'i!ine re!elation
i"parte' to the belie!er by tra'ition ( . It is an esoteric *nowle'ge, an' the
instruction is "ore li*e the teaching of initiates than philosophical instruction. )he
prere8uisite is not a controlling en8uiry but the hearing of faith.
&&
1t the pri"iti!e stage the
*nowle'ge i"parte' to the 5nostic by sacre' guarantees the ascent of his soul
after 'eath ( Iren. , I, &1, % p 4P5 , ;, ((% ff.q0 at a higher stage the regeneration of the
initiate ta*es place with the hearing of the y yy as an efficacious
"ystical or "agical for"ula ( Corp. $er". , FIII.
)he content of the 'octrine is cos"ology an' anthropology, but wholly fro" the stan'point of
soteriology. )he teaching can thus e"brace y, ,
c ( Corp. $er". , IA, %0 cf. I, 3 an' &;, particularly astrological secrets0
&3
but all
*nowle'ge ser!es the *nowle'ge of self which is the con'ition of re'e"ption an' the !ision of
5o'. #elfK*nowle'ge, howe!er, 'oes not "ean beco"ing perspicuous to oneself in the 5*. sense (
c , Plat.1p. , 3Ga, i.e., as reflection on one`s spiritual en'ow"ent an'
abilities. It is *nowle'ge of the tragic history of the soul, which, co"ing fro" the worl' of light, is
entangle' in "atter. It is *nowle'ge of the 6hence an' 6hither.
&.
$e who *nows that he
scientific grasp of the concept of the c can, of course, be 'escribe' as y6 (AI, /, % pII, p. %1%, 3 ff.q.
Cf. Eor'en, Agnostos <heos , G/, 1.
&< Corp. $er". , I, 3&0 :ogos teleios , $er". , I, 3;(, 1& ff., #cott0 Cl. 1l.#tro". , AII, ;, .(. In Cl. y6 can,
of course, beco"e c through , #tro". , IA, &&, 13/0 AI, /, ;10 ;.0 ;G (q y6 m
c m g g m l y ) .
&1
Hn y6 as way, cf. Corp. $er". , IA, G0 110 AII, 1 ff.0 F, 1% ( y6 as l
. In the Eaassene hy"n ( $ipp.=ef. , A, 1<, & the =e'ee"er says:
y cm , l6 m,

m, c 6 m ||
y , y6 , 6m.
Ia"bl.4yst. , 1<, %, p. &/1, ; ff., Parthey on y6: q q mq
y . It is thus , a
y 6 m . Cl. 1l.#tro". , IA, (, 3/. Cf. Broll, op. cit. , 3G< ff.0
=eit>enstein$ell4yst0, &/%0 =. Iult"ann, LE6 , &/ (1/3<, 1;3 ff.
&& +or in 5nosticis", cf. Corp. $er". , I, 3&0 IF, 1<0 FI, 10 esp. IA, . f.0 /0 1scl., III ( $er". , I, p. 3((,
;0 /0 &<0 3;<, 1& an' 1%, #cott0 Porphyr. 1'!. 4arc., &10 &&0 &. (p. &GG, ;0 && f.0 &G/, 1G ff., Eauc*. Cf.
=eit>enstein$ell4yst0, &3. f.0 3G% ff.
&3 Cf. Broll, op. cit. , 3(; ff.
&. Cl. 1l.,7c. e7 )heo'. , ;G: c c , q y6,
q, yy q q ,
y, y . 1cc. to $ipp.=ef. , A, 1(, 1 the Peratae say: c q l q
y ym ym , l l m l
, 6 y q . ,bid. , A,
(, (: l q y6 (of the m q y6
, y m "q 6m y6 6, c y6
m." 1ct. )ho". , 1%, p. 1&1, 1& f. Corp. $er". , I, 1/0 &10 IA, . f. ( y
yy . Di'>. 2oh. , 1;<, 1G0 1;1, 1;0 1G<, 1% f. Cf. Eor'en, op. cit. , 1<& ff.0
originally co"es fro" m an' 6 will return thither ( Corp. $er". , I, &1. )hus although this
y6 inclu'es cos"ological speculation, it is not a theoretically 'og"atic faith. Bnowle'ge of
self i"plies a 'efinite life 'ecision ( Corp. $er". , IA, ( an' is followe' by a 'istincti!e attitu'e
to life. Bnowle'ge of the , howe!er, 'oes not ser!e the shaping of the worl' as in Plato,
but rather a!ersion fro" it0 the ym c is contraste' with the y
cm 6. y6 is a 'efinite ,
&%
an' y (ym) is
not "erely ignorance but also .
&(

c. If y6 as the in!estigation of truth brings the 5ree* into pro7i"ity to 'eity,
because in intellectual consi'eration of true reality he fin's his own true being, y6
in!ests the 5nostic with the 'i!ine nature, an' therefore in the first instance with i""ortality.
Iy his !ision he is transfor"e' fro" a "an into 5o'.
&;
In'ee', the !ery y6 which
lea's to this is regar'e' as a 'i!ine which flows into "an an', along with other
powers, 'ri!es 'eath out of hi". +or Plato, too, y6 or was a
( =esp. , A, .;;' ff.0 but here has the sense of a possibility nati!e to "an, of a
capacity. In 5nosticis" it "eans "agical power.
&G
Di*e the , it is a "ysterious
'i!ine flui' ( mana , an' can be lin*e' an' e!en e8uate' with m an' 6 .
&/
)hus
y6 gi!es the 5nostic an' grants hi" free'o" fro" l .
3<
In this
sense y6 is a possession, though it is always in 3eopar'y an' "ust be "a'e secure by
Broll, op. cit. , 3;& ff.0 Iousset, 0yrios !hristos , &<1 f.0 =eit>enstein$ell4yst0, &/10 5. P. 6etter, LE6 , 1G
(1/1;v1G, ./ ff. )he thought of selfK*nowle'ge is 'e!elope' rather "ore philosophically, e.g., in $ierocl.Car".
1ur. , p. 13; ff., 4ullach ( esp. p. 1.1, & ff.0 1.&, 1 ff.0 Plotin.,nn. , AI, /, ; (II, p. %1G, &G f.: c 6
c l (cf. also A, 1, 10 Porphyr.1bst. , III, &; (p. &&(, 1% ff., Eauc*: (the wic*e'
"an m , cm m c y6 . )here is
a "oralistic turn in Cl. 1l.Pae'. , III, 1, 1, 10 #tro". , III, (, ...
&% Corp. $er". , I, &&0 &;0 IF, /0 F, &10 $er"et. +r. in Dact.Inst. , II, 1%, ( (I, %3(, Eo. 1<, #cott: q y
y6 0 Cl. 1l.#tro". , II, 1<, .(0 III, (, .3 f. (on the connection between
y6 an' 0 AII, 1&, ;1: y6 as a y which frees fro" 0
AI, /: y6 as 0 IA, (, 3/: q y6 qy
y y 0 Chaire"on in Porphyr.1bst. , IA, ( (p. &3;, 3 f., Eauc*: y
g q y6 q c cm , c ,
y c . #o also the 4an'aeans, cf. Di'>. 5in>a , %G, 3( f. Cf. Broll, op.
cit. , 3%3 f.0 6. 2aeger, 551 (1/13, %G. an' %G;.
&( y .
&; Corp. $er". , I, &;J&/0 IA, . f. ( c y
y6m c m , 6
l , 11 ( c y q
q y 0 AII, 1J30 F, .J(0 FIII (the y is
'escribe' as yy 0 1<: 6|| g tau!th y 0 Iren. , I, &1, . ( 4P5 , ;,
((%a: the cm m is free' () by y6 0 Plotin.,nn. , A, G, 1<0 AI, /0 Porphyr.1bst. ,
II, 3.0 $ierocl.Car". 1ur. , p. 1G< f., 4ullach on m (p. 1G1, 13 f.: c y6 c
y 0 Cl. 1l.#tro". , IA, (, .<0 IA, &3, 1./: q
q ym q y 0 A, 1<, (3: c y
, y6 mq l6 m
. Cf. Broll, op. cit. , 3(< ff.0 =eit>enstein$ell4yst0, &GG ff., on the Christian 5nostics, 3<& ff.0 Iousset, op.
cit. , 1(% f. It is characteristic that in ter"inology 'escribing the relation to the ob3ect, !erbs of touching an'
tasting are use' rather than .
&G Corp. $er". , FIII, ; ff.0 Ia"bl. 4yst. , 1<, % (p. &/&, 1 ff., Parthey on y6 as 0 it lea's l
y , c 6 y6
cm . Cf. B. 4^ller, E55 (1/&<, 1G1 f.0 as VV y6 , so an' are use' synon.
, 1ct. )ho". , &;, p. 1.&, 13 f. Cf. again B. 4^ller, &&%: ? (y6) is where!er 'i!ine being is0 in'ee', one
"ay say that it is 'i!ine being.@ +or y6 as aeon a"ong the Iarbelognostics, cf. Iren. , I, &/, 3 ( 4P5 , ;,
(/3a. )he ym are , cf. =eit>enstein$ell4yst0, &G/0 &/&0 3<10 3<%.
&/ Corp. $er". , FIII, ; ff. ( esp. in the hy"n, FIII, 1G: y6 y, m ,
6 6|| mq 6 6 l m q y 0 :ogos teleios , I, 3;.
ff., #cott. Cf. Broll, op. cit. , 3;% f.0 =eit>enstein$ell4yst0, &/&.
3< Hn y6 an' , cf. =eit>enstein$ell4yst0, 3<1 f.0 on liberation fro" l , ibid. , 3<< f.0
Broll, op. cit. , 3G& ff.0 cf. Ia"bl.4yst. , 1<, %.
asceticis". It is so as a "ysterious 8uality of the soul which is regar'e' as a substance, not as
*nowle'ge which in the act of co"prehension controls the content of what is co"prehen'e'.
C. The /T ,sage.
1. 1 further presupposition of E) usage, howe!er, is the DFF use of y6 an'
l , or the H) concept of *nowle'ge. )his co"es out "ost clearly in the use of Z~sWh ,
for which y6 an' l are the nor"al ren'erings in the DFF. )hat these are
possible ren'erings shows that in Z~W the ele"ent of perception is to be "aintaine'. In'ee',
the 5ree* an' $ebrew wor's "ay be e8uate' to the 'egree that both y6 an' Z~W
'enote pri"arily the original pheno"enon of e7istence, i.e., the act in which "an
co"prehen's the ob3ects an' circu"stances of his worl'. Di*e y6 , Z~W is not
originally lin*e' with any specific organ, but "eans ?co"ing to *now@ in the process of
things, i.e., in e7perience.
31
#i"ilarly Z~W , li*e l , can also "ean un'erstan'ing in
the sense of ability.
3&
1gain, it can signify *nowle'ge of what ought to be 'one.
33
_et the
H) usage is "uch broa'er than the 5ree*, an' the ele"ent of ob3ecti!e !erification is less
pro"inent than that of 'etecting or feeling or learning by e7perience.
3.
$ence Z~W can
go!ern ob3ects which are sel'o" if e!er foun' with the 5ree* wor', such as blows ( 1 #.
1.:1& , chil'lessness ( Is. .;:G , sic*ness ( Is. %3:3 , 'i!ine punish"ent an' 'i!ine
retribution ( 2er. 1(:&1 0 ,>. &%:1. . )he DFF usually has y6 in such cases, but
l woul' be better 5ree*,
3%
an' it is characteristic that no 'istinction is seen
between y6 an' l . It is in this connection that we are to un'erstan'
the use of Z~W for se7ual intercourse ( 5n. .:1 , 1; , &% etc., not only of the "an but also of
the wo"an ( Eu. 31:1G , 3% 0 2u. &1:1& . In Z~W the ele"ent of "ere infor"ation can, of
course, be e"phasise' ( Ps. /.:11 0 13/:1 , an' NZ~ , especially in the 6is'o" literature,
can "ean the conte"plati!e perception or *nowle'ge possesse' by the wise "an ( Pr!. 1:. 0
&:( 0 %:& 0 boh. 1:1G . )he 'istincti!e feature, howe!er, is that the concept of *nowle'ge in
the H) is not 'eter"ine' by the i'ea that the reality of what is *nown is "ost purely graspe'
when personal ele"ents are obliterate' between the sub3ect an' ob3ect of *nowle'ge, an'
*nowle'ge is re'uce' to conte"plation fro" without. Hn the contrary, the H) both percei!es
an' asserts the significance an' clai" of the *nowing sub3ect. $ence *nowle'ge is un'erstoo'
"ore as a way of hearing than of seeing, an' it is to be note' that seeing, too, is un'erstoo'
otherwise than in the 5ree* worl', . It is in *eeping with this that we 'o not fin' in
Israel any *nowle'ge which ob3ecti!ely in!estigates an' 'escribes reality. It is also in *eeping
that for the H) reality is not constitute' by the , by the ti"eless an' per"anent for"s
31 Z~W "eans ?to *now,@ or ?to learn to *now,@ by personal 'ealings at ,7. 1:G 0 -t. /:& . &. 0 1 #. 1<:11 etc.0
through goo' or ba' e7perience at Is. .&:&% 0 2er. 1(:&1 0 ..:&G etc. (In both cases the DFF has y6 or
l . $ence the pass. part. , li*e the 5*. ym , can "ean an ac8uaintance, frien' or confi'ant, e.g.,
Ps. 31:11 0 %%:13 0 GG:G , 1G .
3& 5n. &%:&; : ~WUts Zs ~jW QS WcU VV a cunning hunter (DFF: l6 y 0 1 #. 1(:1( 0 1 B. /:&; 0 Is.
&/:1& (here the DFF has , otherwise l . )he act. part. with NZ~ as ob3ect can ha!e the
sa"e sense as the 5*. y6m , na"ely, a "an of insight or un'erstan'ing ( Pr!. 1;:&; 0 -a. 1:. . Iut the
absol. Z~W can also "ean ?to be percepti!e@ ( Ps. ;3:&& 0 G&:% .
33 2u. 1G:1. 0 1 #. &%:1; (DFF y6 .
3. Characteristic is the use of Z~W in the hiph with 5o' as sub3ect: $e causes $is power to be *nown in
punish"ent or blessing ( 2er. 1(:&1 0 Ps. ;;:1. 0 /G:& 0 1<(:G 0 DFF ym .
3% l is co"parati!ely rare in the DFF. It is use' for Z~W only at Is. ./:&( (elsewhere y6
. , howe!er, is often use' in Pr!. for NZ~ .
an' principles which gi!e shape to things, but by that which constantly ta*es place in ti"e.
,!ents, howe!er, are not un'erstoo' as the unfol'ing of a causal ne7us of processes0 they are
a 8ualifie' action of 5o', or of "en in relation to 5o'. 5o' is not regar'e' as that which
always is0 $e is the will which has a specific goal, 'e"an'ing, blessing an' 3u'ging. )he
reference, then, is not to *nowle'ge in a general sense but to *nowle'ge in a special sense.
)his *nowle'ge is the *nowle'ge of 5o' M[MW NZ~( . )his 'oes not "ean that it is a
*nowle'ge of 5o'`s eternal essence. Hn the contrary, it is a *nowle'ge of $is clai", whether
present in 'irect co""an's or containe' in $is rule. It is thus respectful an' obe'ient
ac*nowle'g"ent of the power an' grace an' 'e"an' of 5o'. )his "eans that *nowe'ge is
not thought of in ter"s of the possession of infor"ation. It is possesse' only in its e7ercise or
actualisation. +or this reason the i'eal of the m is 3ust as alien to the H) as
the i'eal of a or , i.e., of an i"age of hu"an society which is
groun'e' in a theory of philosophy an' which is then to be fulfille' in action. Eo less alien is
the thought of "ystical conte"plation of the 5o'hea'.
)hus *nowle'ge has an ele"ent of ac*nowle'g"ent. Iut it also has an ele"ent of
e"otion, or better, of "o!e"ent of will, so that ignorance "eans guilt as well as error.
Dinguistically this is e7presse' pri"arily in the fact that *nowle'ge, as a grasping of the
significance an' clai" of what is *nown, can ha!e the connotation of an an7ious concern
about so"ething, whether in relation to 5o' or "an.
3(
1bo!e all, howe!er, Z~W is use' for
ac*nowle'g"ent of the acts of 5o' ( -t. 11:& 0 Is. .1:&< 0 $os. 11:3 0 4i. (:% . 1n' it bears
the sa"e sense when use' of the recognition that _ahweh is 5o' ( -t. .:3/ 0 G:% 0 &/:% 0 Is.
.3:1< 0 Ps. .(:1< . )o *now $i" or $is na"e is to confess or ac*nowle'ge $i", to gi!e $i"
honour an' to obey $is will ( 1 #. &:1& 0 Is. 1:3 0 2er. &:G 0 /:&J% 0 Ps. /:1< 0 3(:1< 0 G;:. 0 2ob
1G:&1 0 -a. 11:3& . )he ?*nowle'ge of 5o'@ ( $os. .:1 0 (:( 0 Is. 11:& , / , or ?*nowle'ge@
in the absolute ( $os. .:( 0 Pr!. 1:; 0 /:1< , is al"ost i'entical with the fear of 5o' with
which it is lin*e' in Is. 11:& , an' it i"plies the 'oing of what is right an' 3ust ( 2er. &&:1( .
6e can thus rea' of the *nowle'ge, i.e., the confession an' ac*nowle'g"ent, of guilt on the
part of "an ( 2er. 3:13 0 Ps. %1:3 an' of the *nowle'ge or recognition of innocence on the
part of 5o' ( 2ob 31:( . ?Bnown@ "en are those who are recognise' an' respecte' ( -t.
1:13 , 1% 0 Pr!. 31:&3 . +inally, the ele"ent of will in Z~W e"erges with particular e"phasis
when it is use' of 5o', whose *nowing establishes the significance of what is *nown. In this
connection Z~W can "ean ?to elect,@ i.e., to "a*e an ob3ect of concern an' ac*nowle'g"ent.
3;

&. In the DFF
3G
we fin' special nuances in certain passages. )hus y6 occurs only (
ti"es in D!. ( 4as. Z~sWh G ti"es, an' the reference in each is to sin. )his usage for"s the basis for
a !iew of *nowle'ge which awa*ens "an, which threatens his whole e7istence, but which lea's
hi" to repentance an' sal!ation if accepte'. 1part fro" the "any instances in which y6
3( Hf "an, 5n. 3/:( , G 0 -t. 33:/ 0 Pr!. 1&:1< 0 2ob /:&1 0 Ps. 1<1:. ( ob3. Z}s 0 Ps. 11/:;/ ( ob3. ?5o'`s
witnesses@. In the DFF the ren'ering is usually y6 or l , though occurs, an' in
Pr!. 1&:1< l . Hf 5o', Ps. %<:11 0 ;3:11 0 1..:3 0 y6 in the DFF. Particularly stri*ing are
the cases in which the character of Z~W is illustrate' by a parallel !erb, e.g., 2er. G:; }Ts QhS ( , Pr!. &;:&3 ( Zs ~kWh
Z~sNOj par. zh XOR YU NWQUS . Cf. also esp. Ps. 1:( 0 31:; 0 3;:1G .
3; 5n. 1G:1/ 0 ,7. 33:1& 0 1". 3:& 0 $os. 13:% 0 2er. 1:% . I 'oubt whether this usage rests on the se7ual, an'
therefore whether we shoul' translate 1". 3:& : ?6ith you alone is "y "arriage bon',@ or $os. 13:% : ?)hee
alone ha!e I "arrie',@ as B. Cra"er "aintains in his Amos (1/3<, 3&0 %;0 (<. In any case, the "eaning is
clarifie' by relate' or alternati!e e7pressions such as gQjS XR c}h oh ( Is. .3:1 , followe' by MNOh cs WYU 0a .%:3 f.0
./:1 or ros Yh an' }rs XOh . In such instances the DFF often has as well as y6 an'
l .
3G I a" in'ebte' to 5. Iertra" for this whole section.
in this sense si"ply follows the $eb. original, the DFF often has it in'epen'ently, e.g., in
re!elations, intro'uce' by an i"perati!e, which contra'ict hu"an hope an' e7pectation. $ere the
irrational ele"ent in such *nowle'ge is stresse' fro" the !ery outset ( 2u. .:/ 0 m 1: pcf. !.
( 4as. q0 3(:% 0 Pr!. &/:&< 0 Is. G:/ 0
3/
..:&< 0
.<
.;:1< 0 %1:1& . 6e are also to un'erstan' Is.
1%:. in this way, where the DFF wrongly rea's MZh }R Wh (fro" Z}W as MZh ~RWh .
.1
In Is. 3<:1%
salutary selfK*nowle'ge is 'e"an'e' in'epen'ently of the 4as. y6 as a 'isturbing
*nowle'ge is the opp. of the y6 with which sinners an' the 5entiles are reproache' (
6is. &:&& 0 %:; . )he sa"e reproach is in !iew in the pregnant use of y6 at Lech.
;:1. : c, cym . )he DFF spea*s of peoples which ha!e no *nowle'ge of
5o', whereas the 4as. is si"ply referring to peoples un*nown to the 2ews. )he 4as. "eans that
e!en the re"otest peoples will ser!e the 2ews0 it thus e"phasises the power of 5o' an' the future
greatness of $is people. =elating the thought to the heathen, the DFF turns the passage into
religious propagan'a. #o"ething of the sa"e is to be seen at 17:4 accor'ing to A . 1t Is.
&(:11 the DFF uses y6 to e7press the shattering *nowle'ge of the power of 5o'`s
wrath. 1ccor'ing to the !iew of 5uthe, who o"its [OQS Xk WOj[s , the wea*er Myr is 'esigne' to e7press
the thought of sal!ation.
.&
)he case is otherwise when all *nowle'ge of 'i!ine o!erruling in the
worl' is 'enie' to the natural "an, e.g., "any ti"es in boh. (cf. also 6is. /:13 , 1; . +ro" this
stan'point the DFF in Is. .<:13 has y6 for the $eb. m{N pi, which in the DFF is usually
e8uate' with m[{ an' thus translate' c, etc. +ro" the i'ea of the
inco""ensurability of 5o' the 5ree* "o!es to that of $is un*nowability for "an0 the theological
state"ent of the 4as. is thus replace' by an anthropological. #i"ilarly in m :1 1 the
incapacity of "an`s *nowle'ge is substitute' for the transcen'ence of the creati!e power of 5o'.
)he 4as. as*s a rhetorical 8uestion. It is 'ebatable whether the 8uestion of the 5ree* te7t was
always answere' in the negati!e by $ellenistic 2ews who ca"e un'er astrological influences.
.3

In "any instances y6 or y6 signifies the 'i!ine selfKre!elation as such.
In this sense it is often use' for the $eb. !erb ~ZW , which is rightly ren'ere' in 'ifferent ways in
the DFF. In the rele!ant passages in ,7. this !erb is incorrectly e"en'e' to Z~W in
I
$B . +or
though ~ZW is once translate' ym an' once in ,7. &/:.& , .3 , the
'istinction is intentional. ym, an' y are three wor's
which supple"ent one another in relation to 5o'`s re!elation. 4an, howe!er, is always the logical
sub3ect, so that the DFF "aintains its anthropocentric !iew in opposition to the $eb. ~ZW , which
in the niphal in'icates selfre!elation.
)here are far "ore passages in which "an is the logical sub3ect of y6 than there are
references to the *nowle'ge, recognition or ac*nowle'g"ent of "an by 5o'. 6hen use' in the
latter sense, y6 i"plies stan'ing the 'i!ine test ( 5n. &&:1& , cf. y6 VV m{N
*al, Pr!. &.:1& 0 or election ( Eu. 1(:% 0 1:6 0 3(:1G 0 $os. 11:1& . In the last e7a"ple the
DFF goes its own way, intro'ucing the thought of election rather than that of the *nowle'ge of
3/ )he DFF rea's [OZ~OR instea' of [OZ}k fro" ZZ} .
.< )he DFF rea's WZU ~OR instea' of MZP }k fro" MZ} .
.1 )he DFF also has ~ for } , Z~W , for MZ} at $os. /:& . 5uthe in Baut>sch wrongly brings the 4as. into line
with the DFF. )hat the threshingKfloor an' the wineKpress will *now the chosen people no "ore, signifies 'i!ine
con'e"nation. Cf. also 2er. &:1( an' 1 B. 10:24 where [OZ}U WOh[s fro" Zs [O} is rea' as [OZ~RWOj[s .
.& $. 5uthe in Baut>sch, ad loc. -uh", ad loc. 'isagrees. ,lsewhere the DFF occasionally has y6 for
!erbs of hearing an' seeing ( (/; with reference to . )hus it is use' for Mc} in Eu. 11:&3 an' 2u.
&:; (cf. also 5n. 3/:&3 an' ,7. &&:1< 0 33:13 in the sense of a sa!ing *nowle'ge of re!elation. 1t Is. .G:G
y6 is use' for ZTQ synon. with the which follows for Z~W . Cf. also Eeh. .:/ ( 1% A .
.3 Cf. 1. 2ere"ias, /andbuch der altorientatischen )eisteskultur
&
(1/&/, &13 an' In'e7. s.v. ?Ple3a'en,@ also
#tr.KI. , IA, 1<.( an' 1<.G (the Lo'iac allegory in Pesi*t. r. , &<3a, 31 an' its cultic application in )anch.
[\WycM &; b, 33. +ro" this to an astral analogy "agic is only a short step which a 6 y6 was
always rea'y to ta*e.
I$B *iblia /ebraica , e'. =. Bittel
&
, 1/</0
3
1/&/ ff.
5o' which threatens the sinful people with 3u'g"ent. )he sa"e i'ea is present in $os. %:3 0 1".
3:& 0 Eah. 1:; . Closely relate' is the thought of the 'i!ine o"niscience, which in y6 can
be lin*e' no less with the i'ea of the lo!e of the Creator for $is creatures than with the thought of
election ( 5n. &<:( 0 .. 4 B. 1:27 0 1 Ch. &G:/ 0 : 0 .3:&1 0 ./:11 0 (G:% , 1/ 0 1<&:1.
0 13;:( 0 13G 0 1.1:3 0 1". %:1& 0 Iar. &:3< . In the Psal"s especially, we ha!e also to ta*e into
account both confi'ence in the "ercy of 5o' an' the thought of the 2u'ge an' #a!iour who *nows
an' e7piates the wrong which has been 'one.
)he noun y6 is "uch rarer in the DFF than the !erb. Hn the other han', it is use'
co"parati!ely "uch "ore often in a religious an' ethical sense to 'enote a re!eale' *nowle'ge
whose author is 5o' or sophia . 5o' is the 5o' of *nowle'ge ( MZh ~Oj VV y6 1 B. 2: 0
72:11 2 : ym , cf. #ir. 3%:G 0 Pro!. 3:&< A , i.e., of the o"niscience which is the
foun'ation of $is 'ealings with $is creature in 3u'g"ent an' grace ( 1 Ch. .:1< 0
.%
6is. 1:; 0
,st. 1.:1. 0 & 4acc. (:3< 0 Is. .<:1. , A2 , the DFF has . )he i\kU of the righteous
'eri!es fro" 5o'. It is a spiritual possession resting on re!elation. Pr!. &.:&( :
y6 ym cym . #ir. 1:1/ 0 m 2:6 0
.(
Pr!. 1(:G ('iff. fro" the
4as. 0 Pr!. &:( 0 6is. ;:1; 0 cf. 1<:1< 0 :10 0 11G:(( . )he bearer an' teacher of i\kU is the
pious sage, the ( Is. %3:11 , the ( 6is. &:13 0 1(:&& , the ( #ir.
&1:13 0 Pr!. 1%:; 2 , the y ( Pr!. 13:1( 0
.;
1.:1G
.G
, the ( Pr!. 1.:(
A2 0 1/:&% A2 . 1t "any points in the 6is'o" literature of the H) , of course, we "erely
ha!e secular wis'o", an' the concept of i\kU is use' in this sense too. Hn the other han', the
ob!ious tren' of the DFF is towar's a religious interpretation. )his is seen in the fact that all
capacity for *nowle'ge is 'enie' to the worl'ly "in'e', to the ( Pr!. 13:1/ 0
./
&/:; ,
to the ( Pr!. 1:&& A 0 to the m ( #ir. &1:1. , to the ( #ir. &1:1G 0
Pr!. 1:&& A an' to the ( Pr!. 1/:&< dall these are ter"s use' for the ungo'ly or the
sinner. )his is true e!en of the holy people if they turn fro" 5o'.
%<
It is also the !er'ict on the
i'olater ( 6is. 1.:&& an' the "an who is far fro" 5o' ( 2er. 1<:1. 0 &G:1; . It applies to the
in the sense of this worl'. 1t least, this is how the DFF see"s to un'erstan' the $eb. in
m 15:2 : )rue spiritual *nowle'ge is conceale' fro" the wise of this worl'.
%1
6 here
is a technical religious ter" in antithesis to the secular . Iut the usage is not
una"biguous. y6 an' are fre8uently relate', an' can e!en be the superior
principle. )his is so in the 'efinition of at . 4acc. 1:1( :
%&
q
y6 m mm ym 6 m l6 . Cf. also Pr!. G:1&
. )nosis is certainly also 'i!ine re!elation of an ob3ecti!e character, but un'er $ellenistic
.% )he DFF rea's Z~OhTs or NZs ~sTk an' translates y6 in the sense of fa!ourable 3u'icial *nowle'ge.
1nother ren'ering ( Co'. %3 has on the assu"ption of MZP }R TU . )he 4as. has MZh }h Tj ( n. 3/J.1
.
.( A y6 0 DFF . Cf. 3&:G an' 33:3 , . : q c q
.
.; In Pr!. 13:1( 4as. the reference is to secular wis'o". Iut the DFF inserts Pr!. /:1< (in a 'ifferent for" into
!. 1% an' thus gi!es the !erse a religious turn, as often happens.
.G DFF: y lm A : y6 :
y6 . )he 4as. is usually un'erstoo' in the sense of .
./ $ere, too, we ha!e a "isrea'ing of Z}h Tj as Z~OhTs . A translates literally: . )he sa"e "ista*e is
foun' in #ir. G:( an' .<:% . also n. .% .
%< )he su""ons to con!ersion in $os. 1<:1& is for"ulate' accor'ingly in the DFF: m c
6 y6m . )he 4as. rea's: NZj [R }W\U g{PYh [O}W\U (?Irea* up your fallow groun', for it is ti"e @.
)he changing of NZj [R into NZs ~Os , as suggeste' by 5uthe in Baut>sch, har'ly correspon's to the original sense of
the $eb.
%1 )he 4as. rea's: rs [O}lNZs ~s M\PZ Ws gX h rh MP (?6ill a wise "an propose win'y *nowle'ge as an answere@,
#teuernagel in Baut>sch. )he (I (1 in the DFF, an' the y6
in A an' 2 , ha!e nothing to 'o with win', as shown by the continuation in the DFF.
%& Cf. )rench, 1GG f., where al"ost e7actly the sa"e 'efinition of is 8uote' fro" Cl. 1l.Pae'. , II, &, &%,
1 ff.0 cf. #tro". , I, %, 3<, 1 f.
influence there is a plain sub3ecti!e ele"ent of profoun' religious *nowle'ge in the "ystical an'
5nostic sense. )hus gnosis "ay be insight into the worl' plan of 5o' ( -a. 1&:. an' 4as. ,
where the DFF presupposes ZZ} rather than Z~W . )nosis is *nowle'ge concerning 5o' an' $is
wor* which goes beyon' all hu"an co"prehension ( 1:6 an' which is proclai"e' for
belie!ers by the whole of creation ( 1: .
D. The *e&ish ,sage.
1. )he H) conception of *nowle'ge persists in 2u'ais", an' in the DFF an' other
5raecoK2ewish sources (apart fro" 2osephus the use of y6 is greatly "o'ifie'
thereby. In 2u'ais", with the e7ception of Philo, *nowle'ge as such is not a proble". 6hen
the =abbis spea* of *nowle'ge ( MZh W~Oj in the absolute, they "ean *nowle'ge of the
re8uire"ents of the Daw,
%3
as they 'o when *nowle'ge is e7tolle' ( NZs ~Os .(
%.
_et *nowle'ge
can also ha!e a general sense for the =abbis. 1 "an who has NZs ~Os is a. one who is capable of
thin*ing, as 'istinct fro" the chil' or the feebleK"in'e' ( NZs ~s [kXO mWcj QPS 0 b. one who is
gifte' as contraste' with the stupi'0 c. one who has ac8uire' learning in contrast with a "an
of the people x}P ch Mh gZs who has ha' no e'ucation. +or the =abbis, howe!er, the )orah an'
tra'ition are the only source an' the"e of *nowle'ge an' instruction. $ence all the "eanings
a"ount to !ery "uch the sa"e in fact. 1gain, accor'ing to the =abbinic !iew the fulfil"ent
of the co""an's present in the )orah an' tra'ition is possible only when they ha!e been
stu'ie' an' are *nown. $ence the 'istinction between the e'ucate', i.e., the =abbi an' the gZh
x}P ch Mh is the sa"e as that between the righteous an' the sinner ( m . If in the
H) the thought of obe'ience is regulati!e in the e8uation of the *nowle'ge of 5o' an' the
fear of 5o', an' if this obe'ience is roote' in *nowle'ge, then the i'ea of the *nowle'ge
which is the presupposition of obe'ience is 'o"inant for the =abbis. Ee!ertheless, the
specifically H) !iew of the *nowle'ge of 5o' is not wholly lost in 2u'ais".
%%
In the liturgy
the 2ewish co""unity praises 5o' for en'ow"ent with *nowle'ge, an' this custo" is ta*en
o!er by the Christian Church.
%(

$ellenistic 2u'ais" has the sa"e usage, cf. 6is. 1%:3 : y
, l p . )here is
reference to ac*nowle'g"ent off the power an' acts of 5o' in #ir. 3(:&& (1/0 Iar. &:1% , 31 0
1 4acc. .:11 0 & 4acc. 1:&; 0 )ob. 1.:. ( c 0 2't. /:; 0 #ib. , 3, (/30 an' to the *nowle'ge of
$is () etc. in 6is. %:; 0 /:1< 0 1<:G 0 Iar. 3:/ , 1. , &< 0 cf. #ir. 1G:&G 0 &.:&G .
%;

_et along with the ol'er usage there is also "o'ification (as seen alrea'y in -t.KIs.. )he
"onotheistic "otif is stresse' in opposition to heathenis", so that the *nowle'ge of 5o' also
"eans, or "eans specifically, recognition of the fact that there is only one 5o' an' that the
go's of the heathen are not go's (cf. 2't. G:&< 0 ,p. 2er. &&, &G, %<, (., ;10 6is. 1&:&; 0 #ib.
+r. , 1, 31 f.. In this respect there also arises a 8uestion 8uite alien to the =abbis, na"ely, that
of the possibility of the *nowle'ge of 5o' (cf. alrea'y & 4acc. ;:&G 0 )est. E. 3:. an' esp.
6is. 13J1% , an' also the whole apologetic an' propagan'ist literature of $ellenistic
%3 #tr.KI. , I, 1/1 f.0 )est. D. 13:3.
%. #tr.KI. , III, 3;G on 1 C. G:1 .
%% Cf. #chl.K4t. , 3G.. 1gain, #. -t. , (, ( ] 33 (;.a0 11, && ] ./ (G%a in #tr.KI. , III, ;;G, ;;(. )o *now 5o' is
to hear $i" ( 5n. r. , (., . on &(:%, #tr.KI. , III, 3.. Bnowle'ge as ac*nowle'g"ent is also foun', whether of a
person ( #tr.KI. , I, .(/ on 4t. ;:&3 or of guilt ( )est. #. &:13 f.0 .:30 )est. Iss. ;:10 )est. 2os. 3:/. Eaturally ?to
*now@ also continues to be use' in the se7ual sense (cf. #tr.KI. , I, ;% f.0 #chl. 4t. , &.0 2't. 1(:&& 0 6is. 3:13 0
)est. 2u'. 1<:3 f. etc.0 PhiloPoster. C. , 33 an' 13. .
%( 1part fro" 4i'r. #in., % ] / (3<b in #tr.KI. , III, 3;G, cf. 6. Iousset, E55 (1/1%, .(( ff. (on Const. 1p. ,
AII, 33J3/ an' the prayers fro" 2ewish sources in -i'. , / an' 1<. Cf. the re8uest for *nowle'ge in the fourth
petition of the #ch
e
"one ,sre.
%; +or y6m ;<3 .
2u'ais".
%G
)hus both the concept of *nowle'ge an' the concept of 5o' are to so"e e7tent
hellenise' in either a #toic or a 5nostic 'irection.
%/

&. Philo`s !iew of *nowle'ge an' his use of y6 etc. are wholly $ellenistic, i.e.,
rationalist or 5nostic. $e can spea* generally of ym ( H"n. Prob. Dib. ,
;. but also of y6 ( Airt. , &1% . Ee!ertheless, what he finally "eans is the
*nowle'ge of 5o'. Hn the one han' he spea*s of the *nowle'ge of the one 5o' in opposition
to polytheis" ( Airt. , 1;G f. 0 ,br. , .. f. or to scepticis" ( ,br. , 1/ an' in so 'oing uses
the #toic theory of the *nowle'ge of 5o' ( Airt. , &1% f. 0 Poster. C. , 1(; . Hn the other han'
this *nowle'ge, as Philo sees it, lea's only to the fact of 5o' an' not $is nature ( #o". , I,
&31 0 #pec. Deg. , I, 3& ff. 0 Prae". Poen. , 3/ an' .. 0 or it lea's only to a *nowle'ge of $is
( #pec. Deg. , I, .3 ff. 0 cf. +ug. , 1(% 0 4ut. Eo". , 1; . Ieyon' this, howe!er,
there is a *nowle'ge of 5o' which consists in 'irect !ision, 'escribe' by Philo as the ecstasy
in which the soul is both 6 m ( #o". , II, &&( . )his is not attaine'
by stu'y0 it is gi!en by 5o' ( Hp. 4un'. , ;< f. 0 1br. , ;/ f. 0 Prae". Poen. , 3; an' .1 ff.
etc..
(<
)his ob!iously 5nostic !iew of the *nowle'ge of 5o' appears again in the fact that it
is a y6 ( 1br. , &(G , i.e., it is lin*e' with 'ualistic piety ( Deg. 1ll. , III,
.G 0 -eus I"". , . an' 1.3 . #ince this conception carries with it a 'epreciation of "an,
Philo can also a'opt H) i'eas accor'ing to which y6 is also q c ( Deg.
1ll. , III, 1&( . )he rather obscure "i7ture of philosophical, 5nostic an' H) i'eas "ay be
seen especially in his interpretation of the y6 . $e certainly ta*es this to "ean
c ( +ug. , .( f. 0 cf. Deg. 5a3. , (/ , but for the "ost part he interprets it
'ualistically as a!ersion fro" the earthly together with the *nowle'ge of 5o' ( 4igr. 1br. , G
f .0 13; f. 0 #pec. Deg. , I, 1< 0 .. 0 &(3 ff. 0 4ut. Eo". , %. an' 1G( . )he H) "otif can thus
be intro'uce' ( -eus I"". , 1(1 0 =er. -i!. $er. , 3< , especially in #o". , I, %.J(< (cf. &11
f.0 &&< , where y6 c is followe' by y6 , an' this in turn by
y6 . Eo less syncretistic is the use of y , which is so"eti"es
'epicte' in 5ree* fashion as l ( Deg. 5a3. , (/ 0 cf. ,br. , ( ,
so"eti"es in that of 5nosticis" or the H) as m m l ( ,br. , 1%.
ff. 0 #o". , I, 11. .
0. The 0arly Christian ,sage.
1. Popular :sage.
)he early Christian use of y6 (an' y6 raises no proble"s where the
reference is to *nowle'ge in the or'inary sense an' there is no 8uestion of an H) or 5ree* or
specifically E) concept. )hus y6 can "ean ?to 'etect@ ( 4*. %:&/ 0 D*. G:.( , or ?to
note@ ( 4*. G:1; 0 1&:1& 0 4t. &(:1< 0 & C. &:. 0 2n. %:.& 0 G:&; , or ?to recognise@ ( D*. ;:3/ 0 4t.
1&:1% 0 &&:1G 0 5l. 3:; 0 2". &:&< 0 2n. .:1 0 %:( 0 (:1% , with no clearKcut lines of 'ifferentiation.
Eaturally it can also "ean ?to learn@ ( 4*. %:.3 0 1%:.% 0 D*. /:11 0 1c. 1;:13 , 1/ 0 Phil. 1:1& 0
&:1/ 0 2n. 11:%; 0 1&:/ 0 1 Cl., 1&, &0 Ign.)r. , 1, 1 f.0 or in the pass. 4t. 1<:&( an' par. 0 1c. /:&. 0
%G Cf. Dt>". =. on 1:&< an' ,7curs. on 1:&%0 also apgnwsto, n. 3 . )he =abbis 'o not 'iscuss the proble"
( #tr.KI. , III, 330 when they spea* of the un*nowability of 5o', they refer to the inscrutability of $is
pro!i'ence ( #tr.KI. , III, &/. f.0 ym .
%/ +or #toic influence n. %G , also ,p. 1r. , 1/%0 &1<0 &%. an' (for Philo =. Iult"ann, LE6 , &/ (1/3<,
1G/ ff. #y"pto"atic is the pro7i"ity of c y6 to c in Const. 1p. , AII, 33, 3 (
n. .< . +or 5nostic influence there "ay be a''uce' the co"bination of y6 with m an' in
eucharistic prayers ( -i'. , /, 30 1<, &, cf. =. Bnopf, ad loc. ( /andbuch &. < , #upple"ent. Hn Philo & . In
the )est. FII the fre8uent use of y6 for secret eschatological *nowle'ge "ay perhaps be trace' bac* to
the sa"e influence (e.g., )est. -. %:(0 )est. E. .:10 )est. 5. G:&0 )est. 1. ;:%, an' also the 6 y6m of
)est. D. .:30 1G:30 )est. I. 11:&. _et the genuine 2ewish !iew of *nowle'ge is also foun', e.g., )est. D. 1G:%, /0
)est. 5. %:;. 2oseph. uses y6 only in the sense of the *nowle'ge of e!ents ( 1nt. , G, 1;1 etc..
(< Cf. IoussetK5ress"ann, .%< f.0 Iousset, 0yrios !hrist. , 1(;0 $. 6in'isch, Die 'r3mmigkeit $hilos (1/</,
(< ff.0 =eit>enstein $ell. 4yst. , 31; f.0 $. Deisegang, Der hl. )eist , I (1/1/, &&3, .0 =. Iult"ann, LE6 , &/
(1/3<, 1G/ ff. Di*e Plotinus ( n. 1( , Philo a!oi's y6 an' y6 (though not consistently for
the !ision of 5o', preferring , , etc.0 si"ilarly he spea*s of an'
rather than ym .
Phil. .:% . #o"eti"es it can sha'e into the sense of ?to confir"@ ( 4*. (:3G 0 13:&G f. 0 D*. 1:1G 0
1 C. .:1/ 0 & C. 13:( 0 In. .:%30 ;:%10 -i'. , 11, G0 esp. co""on in 1 2n. in the phrase q
y6 etc.. It can also "ean ?to *now@ in the sense of awareness ( 4t. &.:%< an' par. 0
D*. &:.3 0 1(:. 0 $b. 1<:3. 0 =e!. 3:3 0 2n. &:&. f. 0 ;:&; 0 1 2n. 3:&< 0 Ign.=. , %, 3
(1
or
ac8uaintance ( 4t. &%:&. 0 D*. 1&:.; f. 0 1(:1% 0 1c. 1:; 0 =. &:1G 0 ;:1 0 & C. %:1( 0 2n. 1:.G 0 ;:./
0 1 Cl., 31, 30 3%, 3
(&
or e!en un'erstan'ing ( D*. 1G:3. 0 1c. G:3< 0 1 C. 1.:; , / 0 2n. 3:1< .
y6 in the sense of "astery is foun' only in the interpolate' 4t. 1(:3 , where the
original D*. par. 1&:%( has l , which is better 5*. 6e are probably to interpret & C. %:&1
along these lines ( q y ) in accor'ance with H) usage, though there is
nothing correspon'ing in =abbinic literature accor'ing to #tr.KI. )he practical sense of fa"iliarity
is what is pri"arily "eant in =. ;:; : q cym l q . Cf.
$er".". , &, 1: q y6 q 0 s. , /, &/, 1: c
cym, . )he 5*. use of y6 for ?to resol!e@ is not foun' in the
E) , though it is co""on in 2oseph. (e.g., 1nt. , %, && 0 1%, &G. an' Philo (e.g., #pec. Deg. , I,
1;( 0 -et. Pot. Ins. , &; , also y6 in #pec. Deg. , IA, (3 an' ;< .
y6 is often use' instea' of y6 with no 'ifference in "eaning. In 5*.
y6 can "ean ?to obser!e@ if the prepos, is e"phasise', but this "eans "uch the
sa"e as ?to percei!e,@ so that any 'istinction 'isappears. In fact the si"ple an' co"poun' for"s
are use' interchangeably in the pap. , where y6 really "eans ?to affir"@ or ?to
confir"@ rather than ?to test,@ as Preisig*e "aintains. Hnly in the sense of ?to (reKcogni>e,@ or, in
law, ?to reach a further conclusion,@ 'oes the co"poun' ha!e a special sense, but this 'oes not
affect early Christian usage, nor 'o certain special uses in the pap. In the DFF the two ter"s are
often use' as e8ui!alents, an' they occur as par. in $ab. 3:& 0 cf. ,>. &%:1. with Is. .3:1< 0 $os.
1.:1< with 2er. 3:13 0 7:6 with 6:4 0 1 4acc. 3:.& with 3:11 etc. #o"eti"es
y6 see"s to be use' intentionally for ?to percei!e@ ( 5n. &;:&3 0 31:3& 0 2u. 1G:3
etc.0 so also 2os.Iell. , %, &(& 0 1nt. , (, 13G 0 G, .1; etc.. )here is often an alternation in rea'ings,
as in 5n. .&:G 0 ,7. 1.:. 0 $os. ;:/ 0 2er. .:&& 0 1 4acc. 1(:&& etc. Philo, too, uses y6
with no perceptible 'ifference fro" y6 , e.g., -et. Pot. Ins. , 1;( 0 cf. #o". , I, &31 with
I, (< or Deg. 1ll. , III, .G with III, 1&( (the noun. )hat there is no general 'istinction between the
si"ple an' co"poun' for"s in early Christian writings is shown by a co"parison of 4*. &:G with
G:1; 0 4*. %:3< with D*. G:.( 0 4*. (:33 , %. with D*. /:11 0 4t. ;:1( , &< with D*. (:.. 0 4t.
11:&; with D*. 1<:&& 0 D*. &.:31 with &.:3% 0 Col. 1:( with & C. G:/ . #i"ilar interchange between
the two is foun' in $er".s. , ., 30 /, 1G, 1 f.0 -g. , 1&, ( an' the !ariant rea'ings at 1c. &3:&G 0
&.:11 . ,!en in 1 C. 13:1& the alternation is purely rhetorical0 the co"poun' is also an e8ui!alent
of the si"ple for" at 1 C. G:3 0 5l. .:/ . )hus y6 m at =.
1:3& correspon's to y6 at &:1G .
)he general "eaning of y6 is ?to percei!e,@ an' only infre8uently is it
intentionally selecte' instea' of the si"ple for" (e.g., D*. 1:&& 0 &.:1( , 31 , though cf. !. 3% 0 1c.
3:1< 0 .:13 0 1&:1. 0 $er".!. , %, 3 f.. It can also "ean ?to learn@ ( D*. ;:3; 0 &3:; 0 1c. /:3< 0
&&:&/ , ?to un'erstan'@ ( & C. 1:13 f. , where the supple"entary cm shows that in
itself the co"poun' 'oes not ha!e any a''itional "eaning, an' ?to *now@ ( 1c. &%:1< 0 & C. 13:%
. )oo narrow a sense shoul' not be rea' into ym when set in rhetorical antithesis
at & C. (:/ ( y) . If it has the pri"ary sense of ?*nown,@ it can also "ean
?un'erstoo'@ in the sense of 1:13f . Eor 'oes this "ean only *nown by "an0 it can also "ean
*nown by 5o' (cf. %:11 . )he co"poun' is perhaps chosen intentionally so"eti"es for ?to
confir"@ ( D*. 1:. 0 1c. &&:&. 0 &3:&G vl. 0 &.:G vl. . Hther "eanings correspon'ing to those of
y6 will be 'iscusse' later.
(3

&. )he H) an' 2ewish :sage an' Its Influence.
(1 y6 an' l can be use' as full e8ui!alents, cf. 4*. 1&:1% with G:1; 0 4*. 1%:1< with 4t.
&;:1G 0 4t. ;:&3 with &%:1& 0 1c. 1:; with 4*. 13:3& 0 2n. G:%% with ;:&G : G:1/ . +urther passages in which the
two alternate are 4*. .:13 0 1 C. &:11 f. 0 & C. %:1( 0 5l. .:G f. 0 2n. ;:&; 0 1.:; 0 &1:1; 0 1 2n. &:&/ . )here are
!ariant rea'ings at =e!. &:1; .
(& y6 can be use' interchangeably with for ?to *now@(cf. 1c. 1/:1% .
(3 Cf. 4oult.K4ill. s.v. an' 1. =obinson, St. $aul%s "pistle to the "phesians (1/<., &.G ff.
)here is no special sense e!en in cases where there is a'"onition to e"brace a special
*nowle'ge. _et the usage 'i!erges at this point fro" that which characterises the 5ree*
worl'. It appro7i"ates to the H) !iew in which *nowle'ge is also a "o!e"ent of the will, so
that y6 "eans: ?Det it be tol' you.@ )hat is to say, it is no "ere 8uestion of
ob3ecti!e confir"ation but of a *nowle'ge which accepts the conse8uences of *nowle'ge.
)hus alrea'y in the parable in 4t. &.:.3 an' par. : c y6, l
l 1gain, D*. 1<:11 : q y6 qyy q
0 ,ph. %:% : y y6,
c . Cf. also 2". 1:3 0 %:&< 0 & )". 3:1 0 & Pt. 1:&< 0 3:3 0 1 Cl., ;,
.0 %/, 10 & Cl., %, %0 /, &0 1(, 30 Iarn. , 1/, 110 Pol. , ., 30 $er".!. , 3, (, ;0 ". , (, &, 3 an' %.
y6 is use' in the sa"e way at 1 C. 1.:3; . _et there is here no conflict with
5ree* usage,
(.
nor at 1c. &:3( : ymm l ,
, e!en though we shoul' certainly un'erstan' this *nowle'ge
also in the H) sense of ac*nowle'g"ent.
In other passages, howe!er, we clearly see the H) !iew that *nowle'ge is insight into the
will of 5o' in co""an' an' blessing. It is pri"arily ac*nowle'g"ent, an' obe'ient or
grateful sub"ission to what is *nown,
(%
)his is naturally foun' in 8uotations li*e =. 3:1; ( Is.
%/:G : l cym , an' $b. 3:1< ( Ps. /%:1< : c
cym . In the sa"e connection we "ay also "ention D*. 1/:.& , .. :
l cym l cym
, an' =. 1<:1/ 0 for & Pt. &:&1 ;<( . #i"ilarly, there is reference to the *nowle'ge of
5o'`s in =. &:1G an' 1c. &&:1. ,
((
an' to the *nowle'ge of Christian sal!ation in &
C. G:/ : y6 y q q6 , l
q 6 (cf. y6 in Col. 1:( , or to *nowle'ge of a special grace of
5o' in 5l. &:/ an' =e!. 3:/ .
(;

In the sa"e sense we rea' of the *nowle'ge of 5o' $i"self at =e!. &:&3 :
y6 l y6 l 6
0 $b. G:11 , 8uoting 2er. 31:3. . ,lsewhere there is so"e 'ifference in the conception of the
*nowle'ge of 5o' as co"pare' with the H) . :nli*e the preaching of the prophets, Christian
"issionary procla"ation is not 'irecte' pri"arily against the practical 'enial of 5o' in Israel0
it is a''resse' to the heathen who 'o not honour the one 5o'. )hus in the concept of the
*nowle'ge of 5o' the ele"ent of *nowle'ge e"erges alongsi'e an' so"eti"es prior to that
of ac*nowle'g"ent. )he two are ob!iously lin*e' in =. 1:1GJ&3 ( esp. &1: y
q . Cf. 1 C. 1:&1 : q y
g q cym . 5l. .:G
(. y6 is, of course, "eant in the sa"e way in ,pict.-iss. , I, &%, &.0 II, 1G, %0 IA, 1, 130 /, &. Cf. also
PhiloCher. , &/ 0 ,br. , 1(< 0 #o". , I, %. ff.
(% y6 also has the sense of ?to ac*nowle'ge@ in so"e cases where neither 5o' nor $is will is the
ob3ect, e.g., $b. 13:&3 (e0 1 Cl., (1, 1: l y6 q q (5o' (earthly
rulers q 0 Ign. Pol. , %, &: ymg (sc. the
ascetic , c . Cf. y6 at 1 C. 1(:1G . )he sense of ?concern@
often borne by the H) Z~W is not foun' in the early Christian use of y6 e7cept to the 'egree that it is
i"plie' in ?ac*nowle'g"ent.@ y6 is use' in the se7ual sense at 4t. 1:&% an' D*. 1:3. .
(( 6hen ,pict.-iss. , IA, ;, 1; says: m , cym ,
y6 "eans ?to *now@ (cf. 4*. 1<:1/ : l 0 ne!ertheless, ,pict. "eans that he is
?letting it be tol' hi".@
(; In this connection we "ight a''uce -i'. , %, &0 Iarn. , &<, &: y6 ,
for !erbs of will are parallel. )here is also a par. in & Pt. &:1% : y . 1gain, the
reference in $er".s. , /, 1< an' .: y6 6 , is to ac*nowle'g"ent of guilt (cf.
y6 in $er".s. , G, (, 30 11, &. Hn the other han', the ( l an' y6 of & C. %:1( 'oes
not "ean ac*nowle'ge in the first instance0 it si"ply "eans ?to *now@ with a suggestion of un'erstan'ing.
Paul`s concern fro" 1:13f . is with the way in which he is to be un'erstoo' as an apostle an' "a'e "anifest to
the co""unity ( %:11 , na"ely, in such sort that he is *nown as a bearer of m an' not ( &:1.J
1( 0 3:; ff. 0 .:;ff ..
f. : c l q
c y ( infra . )hat there is no thought of a speculati!e *nowle'ge
of 5o' "ay be seen also fro" =. 11:3. 0 1 C. &:1( : y cym (8uoting
Is. .<:13 0 n.
(
/ , where y6 "eans theoretical co"prehension. )hat the
*nowle'ge of 5o' attaine' in Christianity is a ser!ice of 5o', is illustrate' by the "aterial
parallel in 1 )h. 1:/ : 6 6 l6m
6 . #i"ilarly, 1 C. G:.J( shows that, while the
*nowle'ge of 5o' inclu'es a theoretical ele"ent, this is not 'ecisi!e. )he sa"e is true of 2n.
1:1< : cym , though ;11 on 2n. #i"ilarly, theoretical an'
practical con!ersion to "onotheis" is "eant in 1 Cl., %/, 3: (5o' as the
q6 l y6
. )he practical ele"ent is 'o"inant in -i'. , %, &0 Iarn. , &<, & (
y6 , cf. $er".s. , ., .. )he theoretical aspect of
con!ersion is "ore strongly e"phasise' in & Cl., 3, 10 1;, 1, where y6 ( )
"eans con!ersion to Christianity. )he sa"e is true in $er".s. , /, 1G, 1 f.0 1(, ; ( ob3.
l an' !. , 3, (, & ( ob3. the . Cf. also Beryg"a Petri
+r. , & an' 3. y6 is use' in the sa"e way at 1 )". .:3 ( ob3. q 0
this is use' interchangeably with y6 in $er".s. , /, 1G, 1 f. (cf. Col. 1:1( , while &
Pt. &:&1 (q ym q q y
) unites the practical an' theoretical ele"ents. Cf. also ,pict.-iss. , I, (, .& ff.0
/, 110 P. 4asp. , ., / ((th cent. 1.-. : y6 .
)he correspon'ing use for *nowle'ge on 5o'`s part in the sense of election, which is so
characteristic of the H) , is occasionally foun', "ost 'early at & )". &:1/ : cym
(VV Eu. 1(:% 0 cf. also 4t. ;:&3 , but also 1 C. G:3 0 13:1& 0 5l. .:/
( infra . )his usage is the furthest fro" or'inary 5ree* an' was later aban'one'.
)he noun y6 occurs in the sa"e H) sense as y6. y6 ( ) is
obe'ient ac*nowle'g"ent of the will of 5o'. 6hen Paul in =. &:&< characterises the 2ews as
c q m y6m q, y6 ,
e!en though it 'oes not ha!e the supple"entary gen., is e8ui!alent to the H) NZs ~Os , i.e.,
*nowle'ge of the will of 5o' as 'eclare' q . _et there is also a suggestion of the
theoretical *nowle'ge of "onotheis"0 this is e"phasise' by the a''ition
. +or at this point the 2ew is contraste' with the 5entile who is engulfe' by the
of polytheis". Hbe'ience is plainly "eant by the y6 6 mm of
Iarn. , &1, % an' the y6 of Iarn. , %, .. )he sa"e is true of & Cl.,
3, 1: q y6 q (5o', q q l cym
(i.e., Christ0 the re8uire' y , howe!er, consists y (&
Cl., 3, .. 6e ha!e alrea'y seen ( ;<& that the Christian liturgy ta*es o!er the H) an'
2ewish concept of NZs ~Os ( -i'. , /, 30 1<, &0 Const. 1p. , AII, 33J3/. In the E) itself the
concept also occurs with 'istincti!e sha'es of "eaning at & C. &:1. 0 .:( 0 1<:% ( ;1< .
6hether D*. 11:%& has this NZ~ in !iew in its alteration of b (cf. 4t. &&:13 is not certain0
there "ight be a reference to theoretical *nowle'ge of 5o' in the $ellenistic sense. )here can
be no 'oubt, howe!er, that D*. 1:;; : y6 m ,
is "eant in the H) sense0 the content of m is here eluci'ate' by the
6 6 . Eaturally, y6 here is not theoretical i"partation, but either the
'i!inely fashione' ac*nowle'g"ent of the new or'er of sal!ation (cf. Is. %/:; f. 0 D*. 1/:.& ,
(/ Cf. the 'escriptions of the 'i!ine transcen'ence an' inscrutability in Is. .<:1& ff. 0 %%:G f. 0 Pr!. 3<:1 ff. 0 2ob
/:1 ff. 0 &G:&3 ff. 0 for 2u'ais" cf. Iar. 3:&/ ff. 0 #ir. .&:1G ff. 0 .3:1% ff. 0 6is. /:13 ff. an' #tr.KI. , III, &/. f. on
=. 11:33 . )he H) an' 2u'ais" li*e to heap up e7pressions for *nowle'ge an' wis'o": ,7. 31:3 0 3%:31 (both in
the secular sense0 -t. .:( 0 Is. 11:& 0 Pr!. 1:. 0 &:( 0 G:1& 0 boh. 1:1G 0 &:&( 0 Iar. 3:1. 0 #ir. 1:1/ 0 #. Eu. , .1 on
(:&% 0 Iarn. , &, 3 (cf. 6in'isch in the #upple"ent to the /andb. &. < 0 &1, %. Cf. also Phil. 1:/ 0 Col. 1:/ 0 ,ph.
1:1; .
.. , supra or "ore li*ely an inwar' appropriation or e7perience.
(G
5o' $i"self is the
#ub3ect of y6 in =. 11:33 : 6 y6m
. )he e7pression is H) an' 2ewish, though there is no 'irect parallel.
(/
It best fits the
conte7t to ta*e it on the analogy of Z~sWh in the sense of election. )hat is, the reference is to the
gracious will of 5o' 'irecting history accor'ing to $is plan.
=ather curiously, the co"poun' ym has beco"e al"ost a technical ter" for the
'ecisi!e *nowle'ge of 5o' which is i"plie' in con!ersion to the Christian faith. )he !erb,
too, is often use' in this sense ( supra . )o be sure, there is no technical use in =. 1:&G (
c y6 , ;<3 . )his is plain, howe!er, in the Past. 0 cf. 1 )". &
0 . () 6 m l ym
0 )t. 1:1 0 & )". &:&% 0 3:; . In the last two passages the "eaning is true 'octrine as
oppose' to false. #i"ilarly, $b. 1<:&( spea*s of the ym , while 1
Cl., %/, &0 4art.Pol. , 1., 10 & Pt. 1:3 , G 0 &:&< "ention 5o' or Christ as ob3ect.
;<
)he
theoretical ele"ent is present in all these cases, yet it is assu"e' that Christian *nowle'ge
carries with it a correspon'ing "anner of life.
2u'ais" alrea'y "a*es fre8uent use of y (both !erb an' noun for the *nowle'ge of
5o': ,7. 1.:. 0 $os. &:&< 0 .:1 , ( 0 %:. 0 (:( 0 ,>. &%:1. 0 7:6 0 Pr!. &:% 0 #ir. &3:&; 0 33 ( 3(
:%0 )est. E. .:30 & 4acc. 3:&G 0 /:11 0 2't. /:1. 0 6is. %:; ( vl. 0 1&:&; 0 #ib. , 3, %%;0 PhiloDeg.
1ll. , III, .G 0 #o". , I, &3< 0 H"n. Prob. Dib. , ;. ( ym ) . It is 3ust as
har' to fin' any strict 'istinction between y6 an' ym in the E) as it is in the DFF
an' Philo ( ;<3 . )he sa"e hol's goo' of 2ustin -ial. , 3, %0 Iren. , 1, &1, . ( 4P5 , ;, ((%a.
)he y of =. 1:&1 correspon's to the c y6 of
1:&G 0 an' the q cym l q of ;:; to the y
ym of 3:&< . #i"ilarly, ym in Phil. 1:/ has e7actly the sa"e
"eaning as y6 in 1 C. 1:% 0 =. 1%:1. . 1gain, if y6 can "ean inwar' appropriation (
;<( , so, too, can m in =. 3:&< . 1gain, y6 as well as y6 can
ha!e the sense of obe'ient recognition an' insight into the will of 5o' ( =. 1<:& 0 cf. !. 3 :
y an' 11:3<J3& . It is in !ain that Hrigen tries to "a*e a 'istinction at ,ph. 1:1% ff.
:
;1
l y q y6 m ,

y6m
l ym l6 , y6 y
( 21:27 being a''uce' in support.
;&
,pict. uses y
6 of the *nowle'ge of 5o' in -iss. , I, (, .&0 /, 11, but y6 has the sa"e
"eaning, e.g., I, 3, &. $e uses ym in the sa"e general sense as Philo (
supra . tym 6 m is foun' in ,p. 1r. , 13/ an' y6 in
Chrysipp. (III, (<, &G, 1rni". 1ccor'ing to Iren. , I, &1, . ( 4P5 , ;, ((%a the 4arcosites teach:
l c m q q ym y ,
an' in 2ul.
C
on!. , p. 33(c ($ertlein $er"es says: m
y6 . Cf. also Porphyr.
1
bst. , II, %3: y6 6
q y y .
)he Christian !iew of *nowle'ge is thus largely 'eter"ine' by the H) . 1n obe'ient an'
grateful ac*nowle'g"ent of the 'ee's an' 'e"an's of 5o' is lin*e' with *nowle'ge of 5o'
an' what $e has 'one an' 'e"an's. It is in *eeping that this Christian *nowle'ge is not a
fi7e' possession but 'e!elops in the life of the Christian as lasting obe'ience an' reflection.
+or this reason y6 is regar'e' as a gift of grace which "ar*s the life of the Christian by
(G Hn this pt. cf. 15:11 y6 m an' /;:& : y6 m
6 6 . Cf. also Di'>. 2oh. , II, FAII, n. & on y6 m .
;< PhiloH"n. Prob. Dib. , ;. an' ,pict. -iss. , II, &<, &1 are only for"al parallels0 for here ym ()
"eans *nowle'ge of truth or reality in general.
;1 2)h#t, 3 (1/<&, 3//, &( ff.
;& Cf. 4. -ibelius, t.liche Studien f. ). /einrici (1/1., 1;( ff., an' on 1 )". &:. ( -ib. Past. 0 6n'. $b. on
1<:&(.
Con!. !onvivium (e8&0 !aesares .
1bst. De Abstinentia .
'eter"ining its e7pression ( 1 C. 1:% 0 1&:G 0
;3
& C. G:; 0 1 Cl., 1, &0 if there is here no
supple"entary gen., this 'oes not "ean that we are to assu"e a technical $ellenistic usage.
)his e7plains the "any 'esires an' 'e"an's for () y6 an' other state"ents
concerning it. Intrinsically the usage is that of popular 5ree*, an' we "ay always translate
?*nowle'ge.@ If the theoretical ele"ent 'eter"ines the concept, the practical conse8uences
are always i"plie'. It is characteristic that the gui'ing factor is not interest in Christian
learning but the e'ification of the co""unity which is to be a'!ance' by the y6 of the
in'i!i'ual ( =. 1%:1. 0 1 C. 1.:( 0 1 Cl., .G, %0 -i'. , 11, &. Phil. 1:/ f. shows plainly that
reflecti!e en8uiry is in!ol!e', but it is groun'e' in lo!e an' thus lea's to right action: q
y 6 g y6 g l, l
, q l . Cf.
also Phl". (: m q m 6 yq y
y6 y q l X . )he faith which Phl". shares
is to be effectual in his recognition of all that is gi!en to the belie!er an' of what "ust foster
union with Christ when it is e7presse'. )hat this *nowle'ge of the y "ust result in
action "ay be seen fro" what follows. In Col. 1:/ f. ym lea's to
m . )he new "an, who has put away heathen !ices, is renewe' l
ym ( Col. 3:1< . )he Christian husban' li!es with his wife y6 ( 1 Pt.
3:; . In Iarn. , 1G, 1 ethical instruction is a 'istincti!e for" of y6 an' , an'
the 'escription of the m in 1/:1 is intro'uce' as follows: c q
q y6 g y
Cf. also & Pt. 1:3 , % f. 0 3:1G 0 Iarn. , &, 30 &1, %.
Ee!ertheless, the theoretical ele"ent can be "ore strongly e"phasise'. y6 (or
y6 can be specifically theological *nowle'ge. )his grows, e.g., out of the stu'y of
#cripture. y6 is use' in this way in 5l. 3:; 0 2". &:&< 0 Iarn. , ;, 10 1., ;0 1(, &0 an'
y6 , which in Iarn. , 1, % "eans pri"arily Christian *nowle'ge in general, later 'enotes
the *nowle'ge attaine' by allegorical e7position of #cripture ((, /0 /, G0 13, ;. #i"ilarly, in 1
Cl., 3&, 10 .<, 1 (y l y6m) 0 .1, ., y6
is use' for the Christian *nowle'ge won fro" #cripture. In $er".!. , &, &, 1 un'erstan'ing of
the "ysterious is y6 . )he un'erstan'ing of parables or allegories
( ibid. , 3, 1, &0 ., 30 s. , %, 3, 10 /, %, 3 etc. is y6 . =ealisation that faith i"plies
*nowle'ge of ( 4t. 13:11 an' par. 0 cf. 6is.
&:&& lea's to the i'ea of y6 as stste"atic theological *nowle'ge. Paul intro'uces
his theological interpretation of baptis" at =. (:( with the wor's y6 .
Col. shows how faith lea's l ym X, l
l y6m ( &:& 0 an' the author
of ,ph., who 'esires such y6 for his rea'ers ( 1:1; 0 3:1/ 0 .:13 , gi!es "ore than one
e7a"ple of it ( ymm .
3. )he Influence of 5nostic :sage.
a. ,arly Christianity ha' to 'e!elop such y6 in conflict not only with polytheis" but
especially with heathen 5nosticis", which in con3unction with the 4ystery religions
co"pete' with its preaching. )he result, howe!er, was to bring the Christian "essage into
so"e analogy with heathen 5nosticis" an' to e7pose it to the acute 'anger of penetration not
"erely by 5nostic ter"inology but by 5nostic proble"s an' conceptions. )he 'anger was the
"ore acute in !iew of the current infection of 2ewish circles by 5nosticis". 2'., & Pt. an' 1
2n. are not the first writings to oppose 5nostic teachers in the Christian co""unities. =e!.
;3 It 'oes not see" possible to "e to "a*e a precise 'istinction between the y y6m an' the y
in 1 C. 1&:G (cf. the co"". , whether in respect of for" or of content. Certainly I 'o not agree with C.
6ei>sfc*er, Das apostol. +eitalter der christl. 0irche
3
(1/<&, %G<, that both for"s of y , as for"s of
, are to be 'istinguishe' fro" an' . 1ccor'ing to 13:& an' also 1.:( such a
sharp 'ifferentiation cannot be "a'e.
&:&. is not the first state"ent to the effect that they cym 2 .
;.

)he Past. are not the first epistles to conten' against 6 y6 ( 1 )". (:&< .
)he ter"inology of Col. an' ,ph. is not the first to be fashione' in opposition to 5nosticis".
;%
1lrea'y at Corinth there ha' been a "o!e"ent of 5nostic pneu"atics, an' Paul ha' ha' to
resist their influence. )he struggle for speculati!e wis'o" ( 1 C. 1:1; ff. , the insistence on
y6 , on the with which it in!este' the" in "atters of personal con'uct
( (:1&ff .0 G:1ff ., an' on 'e"onstrations of a pneu"atic 8uality ( & C. 1<J13 , shows that the
opponents were 5nostics0 so, too, 'oes the ten'ency towar's asceticis" ( 1 C. ; an' the
'enial of the resurrection of the bo'y ( 1 C. 1% . Paul for his part "aintains the uni8ueness of
genuine Christian *nowle'ge, but in so 'oing he appropriates to so"e e7tent the !ocabulary
an' approach of the 5nostics.
;(
)his is shown by the use of y6 in the absolute at 1 C.
G:1 , ; , 1< f. 0 13:G . Iut this brings the antithesis into clear focus. $e conce'es ( 1 C. &:( ff.
that the Christian, too, has a which "a*es possible for hi" a y6 of the
'i!ine plan of sal!ation which is conceale' fro" rulersda *nowle'ge which penetrates the
because it rests on the 'i!inely gi!en . $e conce'es that the
is e7alte' abo!e the an' is 3u'ge' of no "an. Iut the the"e of
this y6 is si"ply the 'i!ine act of sal!ation (
q , &:1& . $ence there is no 8uestion of !ague speculation. 1gain, this y6 is
achie!e' only by those who wal* accor'ing to the ( 3:1ff .. )hat the 5nostic 'oes
not ha!e a "ysterious 8uality which he can en3oy is shown plainly by 1 C. G:1 ff. :
ym , m cym 6 y6 l yq
, cym $ere it is plain 1. that the *nowle'ge of the one
5o' is not theoretical speculation, which allows the one who has it to li!e accor'ing to his
own caprice ( , !. / , but is genuine only when there is correspon'ing y 0 &.
that y is not a "ystical relationship to 5o' but fin's e7pression in
brotherly lo!e0 an' 3. that y6 'oes not arise fro" within "an but is groun'e' in
5o'`s *nowle'ge of "an (note the surprising substitution of the passi!e for the acti!e. )hat
this *nowle'ge of 5o' is $is election of grace, an' that cym ( ) is thus to
be un'erstoo' in ter"s of H) Z~W , is beyon' 8uestion. )here is an analogous case in 5l. .:/ :
c y , c ym . #ince *nowle'ge here is
the wholly nonK"ystical *nowle'ge i"parte' by "issionary preaching, ym can
only ha!e the sa"e sense as an' y elsewhere. Hpposition to 5nosticis" "ay
also be seen in 1 C. 13 . )he y6 gi!en to faith is not to be e8uate' here with H) NZ~ .
)he absolute use in !. G shows that it is !iewe', on the 5nostic analogy, as a pneu"atic
capacity for *nowle'ge. )his "uch is conce'e'. Ee!ertheless, 1. this y6 is set un'er
y , without which it is worthless0 an' &. it is 'escribe' as so"ething pro!isional an'
ina'e8uate which will pass away, whereas , an' y re"ain. 5nostic piety
is surpasse' by y an' eschatological faith, y6 is not the true relationship to 5o'.
In'ee', there is no 'irect relationship to 5o' as 5nosticis" clai"s, at any rate in this life.
6hen Paul uses y6 for the future relationship, he is certainly a'opting 5nostic
;. It is surely ob!ious that we ha!e here a for"ula of 5nostic teaching. Probably those un'er rebu*e were ta*ing
#atan "ythology seriously (Hphites, Cainites an' 'rawing licentious 'e'uctions fro" 5nosticis". )his is
preferable to the !iew that the author is si"ply twisting the slogan of opponents who really spo*e of the
.
;% )he conflict in Col. is against a false syncretistic an' 5nostic teaching. Eot "erely the !ocabulary but the
cos"ological speculation applie' in Christological e7position is influence' by this antithesis. In ,ph. there is no
pole"ic, the !ocabulary is applie' in a 'ifferent 'irection an' ecclesiological conceptions replace the
cos"ological0 cf. esp. -ib. 5efbr. 0 $. #chlier, !hristus u. d. 0irche im "pheserbrief (1/3<.
;( Cf. esp. =eit>enstein $ell. 4yst. , &%G ff.0 333 ff.0 Iousset, 0yrios !hr.
&
, 113 ff.0 13< ff. +or a 'ifferent !iew,
cf. B. -eissner, $ls. u. d. Mystik seiner +eit
&
(1/&10 1. #chweit>er, Die Mystik des Apostels $ls. (1/3<.
usage.
;;
Iut the ter" is robbe' of its 5nostic significance by the phrase 6
y6 , which is to be un'erstoo' as in 1 C. G:3 an' 5l. .:/ .
;G

#i"ilarly it "ight be shown that in the struggle against 5nostic pneu"atics in & C. Paul
a'opts the 5nostic approach an' 'escribes his own calling in ter"s of the 'isse"ination of
y6 . Iut the ob3ecti!e geniti!es use' with y6 show that it is pri"arily
ac*nowle'g"ent ( &:1. 0 .:( 0 1<:% . In the passage Phil. 3:G ff. , which also contains 5nostic
e7pressions, Paul un'oubte'ly borrows fro" the 5nostics in 'escribing the y6
X as a 'istincti!e "ar* of the Christian. Iut this y6 correspon's to the
resol!e to renounce ( !. .ff . an' consists in the *nowle'ge of
Christ as the Dor'. )he e7istential character of this e"erges plainly in the fact that this resol!e
is not "a'e once an' for all but "ust be continually renewe' ( !. 1&ff .. In !. /f . y6 is
e7plaine' as , i.e., being 'rawn into 5o'`s sa!ing act in !irtue of , which
ne!er possesses its ob3ect but loo*s to 5o' on the one si'e an' to the future on the other.
$ence y6 ( !. 1< is not with'rawal fro" e7istence in earthly history but e7perience of
the m an' the m 6 m
within historical life (cf. & C. .:; ff. , which for the Christian is change' by the e!ent of
sal!ation an' behin' which stan's the 6 ( !. 11 . )hat all this is
!ery 'ifferent fro" 5nosticis" is finally illustrate' by the fact that Paul is not 'escribing
in'i!i'ual e7periences but the character of Christian e7istence in general.
b. 1 greater role is playe' by y6 in 2ohn`s 5ospel an' 1 2ohn ( y6
'oes not occur, nor, perhaps intentionally, y6 than in any other early Christian
writings. 1part fro" its or'inary use, the wor' here 'enotes e"phatically the relationship to
5o' an' to 2esus as a personal fellowship in which each is 'ecisi!ely 'eter"ine' by the other
in his own e7istence. 1s the relationship between the +ather an' the #on, which elsewhere
can be 'escribe' as l ( 2n. 1<:3G 0 1.:11 0 1;:&1 0 cf. esp. 1 2n. &:3 , % 0 %:&< an'
e!en l ( 2n. 1<:3< , is a "utual y6 , so is the relationship between 2esus
an' $is own ( 2n. 1<:1.f. , &; 0 cf. ;:&/ 0 G:%% , which can also be 'escribe' as
( 2n. 1%:1 ff. 0 1;:&1 . Iut if the one who *nows is 'eter"ine' in his e7istence by the one
who is *nown, the "eaning of *nowle'ge is 'eter"ine' by the nature of the one who is
*nown. Iecause 5o' an' the #on are an' ha!e m ( %:&( , it is l6 m to *now
5o' an' 2esus Christ ( 1;:3 , an' it ?sufficeth@ to be shown the +ather ( 1.:G . )hus it is
ob!ious that y6 is the supre"e an' true "o'e of being. Iut it is also ob!ious that
"aterially this is un'erstoo' to be y . 5o' is y , so that the "an who is relate' to
$i" is relate' as one who lo!es ( 1 2n. .:G , 1( . )o be 'eter"ine' by lo!e is thus a criterion
of the *nowle'ge of 5o' ( 1 2n. .:; f. 0 cf. .:&<f ., as also of belonging to 2esus ( 2n. 13:3% .
Di*e y6, y 'eter"ines the relationship between the +ather an' the #on ( 2n.
3:3% 0 1<:1; 0 1%:/ 0 1;:&3 f. , &( an' 1.:31 , an' also between 2esus an' $is own ( 13:1 , 3. 0
;; 1 =abbi woul' ha!e spo*en of ?seeing@ 5o', though not in the sense of ecstatic an' "ystical !ision, cf. =.
Iult"ann, LE6 , &/ (1/3<, 1G( ff. Paul 'oes in'ee' begin: y , but the continuation:
y6m , shows that in the chapter he is 'iscussing the 5nostic proble".
;G =eit>enstein $ell. 4yst. , 3G3 ff. see"s to "e to be right in his !iew that in 1 C. 13:13 Paul is wrestling
against a for"ula of 5nostic origin, in which y6 is a 'i!ine power which in co"pany with other powers (
, , y constitutes the pneu"atic "an an' establishes his i""ortality. Paul not only re3ects
the 'escription of such "agnitu'es as (or but re'uces the nu"ber to three by the
e7clusion of y6 . Hn this 'iscussion, cf. also =. =eit>enstein, /istoria Monachorum u. /istoria :ausiaca
(1/1(, 1<< ff.0 &.& f.0 /istor. +eitschr. , 11( (1/1(, 1G/ ff.0 E55 (1/1(, 3(; ff.0 (1/1;, 13< ff.0 ,. Eor'en,
Agnostos <heos (1/13, 3%& ff.0 1. !. $arnac*, $reuss. #ahrb. , 1(1 1/1(, 1 ff.0 4. -ibelius, -ochenschr. f.
klass. $hil. , 3< (1/13, 1<.1 f.0 P. Corssen, Sokrates, ' , ; (1/1/, 1G ff. Hn the other han', =eit>enstein is
ob!iously wrong in his 'eri!ation of the correspon'ence between *nowing 5o' an' being *nown by $i" ( 1 C.
G:3 0 13:1& 0 5l. .:/ fro" "ystic usage. Corp. $er". , F, 1% ( (/. is no true analogy, for the
y m 'oes not really refer, as Paul 'oes, to the act of 5o' which in its concrete
fulfil"ent () is the foun'ation of the *nowle'ge of the in'i!i'ual0 it is concei!e' !ery generally.
#i"ilarly, there is no "aterial parallel in Porphyr.4arc. , 13 ( c m y6
since 5o'`s *nowle'ge is here groun'e' in the con'uct of the .
1.:&1 ff. 0 1%:1& , 1; . $ence it is plain that y6 'oes not "ean the *nowle'ge of
in!estigation, obser!ation or speculation, nor of "ystical !ision re"ote fro" historical
contacts or action0 it achie!es concrete e7pression in historical acts. )he y of 5o' for
the is actualise' in the sen'ing of the #on ( 2n. 3:1( 0 1 2n. .:/ f. , an' the y
of 2esus in obe'ience to the +ather an' ser!ice for the worl' or for $is own ( 2n. 1.:31 0 13:1
ff. 0 1%:/ , 1& f. . #ince the *nowle'ge of 2esus or of 5o' e7presses itself accor'ingly in
y , obser!ing the co""an'"ents (which ha!e in y their content "ight also be
calle' a criterion of y6 ( 1 2n. &:3J% 0 cf. 3:( . _et y6 , as 'eter"ination by
5o' or 2esus, is y not "erely in y as lo!ing action but also in awareness of
being lo!e'. )he saying: g yg g g ( 1%:/ can signify abi'ing both
in being lo!e' an' in lo!ing (cf. 1;:&( 0 1 2n. .:1( . In'ee', the for"er, an' awareness of it,
are the basis of the latter ( 1 2n. .:1< . )he phrase 6 y ( 2n. 13:3. 0
1%:1& "eans ?on the basis of the fact that I ha!e lo!e' you.@ )his "eans that y6
has pri"arily the sense of the recognition an' reception of lo!e, i.e., . Iut this shows
again that the y6 which is orientate' to 5o', which thus brings m to "an ( 1;:3 0
1.:G supra an' which the #on has been sent to "a*e possible ( 1:1G 0 1;:.ff ., 'oes not
connote a 'irect relationship to 5o' but has its ob3ect in re!elation, in 2esus. -irect
*nowle'ge of 5o' is e7clu'e' ( 1:1G , an' all preten'e' *nowle'ge is teste' by the
appearance an' clai" of 2esus ( %:3;f .0 ;:&G f. 0 G:1/ . 5o' 'oes not e7ist apart fro"
re!elation.
;/
2esus, howe!er, is re!elation for the sinful . )o see an' confess $i" is
to see the +ather ( 1.:;J/ 0 cf. 1.:&< 0 1 2n. %:&< . )o *now $i", howe!er, is not "erely to
ha!e infor"ation concerning the circu"stances of $is life ( (:.& 0 ;:&G . It is to *now $is
unity with the +ather ( 1<:3G 0 1.:&< 0 1(:3 . Eor 'oes this "ean a "ystical relationship with
2esus. It "eans un'erstan'ing $i" in $is obe'ience an' lo!e. It "eans seeing in $i" the
y , i.e., the Hne who" 5o' has sent an' who has sanctifie' $i"self for the
worl' ( 1.:31 0 (:(/ 0 1;:3 , 1Gf .. $e is also present as such in the procla"ation of the
co""unity, so that it "ay be sai': y6m q6,
c q6 ( 1 2n. .:( 0 cf. 3:1 . )he sa"e is true of the
, i.e., of the #pirit who is at wor* in the Church`s preaching. )he
worl' 'oes not *now $i", but the co""unity 'oes, because $e 'eter"ines its being
( 1.:1; .
#ince y6 thus "eans acceptance of the 'i!ine act of lo!e in 2esus, an' obe'ience
to its 'e"an', it "ight appear that 2ohannine y6 correspon's to H) Z~W . )here is
in'ee' a relationship, but we can also see the 'istincti!eness of the 2ohannine !iew when we
realise that it is para'o7ically buil'ing on the y6 of $ellenistic 5nosticis". )his
e"erges 1. in the way in which it can be co"bine' or use' interchangeably with !erbs of
seeing (e.g., 2n. 1.:;J/ , 1; , 1/ f. 0 1 2n. 3:( 0 .:1. . )he author is ob!iously oppose' to
those who allege a nonKhistorical !ision an' *nowle'ge of 5o'.
G<
Iut he accepts their
approach. 6hat they see* will be acco"plishe', but !ery 'ifferently. It also e"erges &. in the
apparently 'og"atic way in which K state"ents 'escribe the content of y6 .
)here is battle for a 'og"a (a , 2n. ;:1( f. , i.e., the 'og"a of the 'i!ine sonship of
2esus ( ;:&( 0 1<:3G 0 1.:&< 0 1(:3 0 1;:; f. , &3 , &% etc.. Certainly what is at issue is the
historical nature of re!elation. Iut this lea's to the offence of 'og"atic *nowle'ge. 6e
cannot o"it this trait in our 'epiction of 2ohannine y6 . It e"erges 3. in the fact that
obe'ience ( y is calle' the criterion of y6 ( ;11 . )his "eans that the
author 'oes not i'entify it with y6 (cf. Z~W . $is pole"ical thesis that y6
is actualise' in obe'ience ( esp. in 1 2n. is para'o7ical in relation to the presuppose' concept.
;/ )his is absolutely true, an' is the "eaning of 2n. 1:1 ff. 5o' was ne!er without the y , so that it has
always been true: cym ( 2n. 1:1< . #ince y this is true in a special
sense: there is no *nowle'ge of 5o' apart fro" 2esus. Cf. =. Iult"ann, L. '. L. , ( (1/&G, 11 ff.
G< 1 2n. "a*es it 8uite e!i'ent that the opponents are 5nostics.
+inally, it e"erges .. in the 'istincti!e interrelating of an' y6 . )hat
y6 'enotes a full an' true relation to the ob3ect "ay be seen fro" the fact that only
y6 an' not is use' of the "utual relationship of the +ather an' the #on.
In the relationship of "an to 5o', or to re!elation, 'enotes the first "o!e"ent
which, if "aintaine', has pro"ise of y6 ( 2n. G:31 f. 0 1<:3G 0 cf. 1.:&<
. +aith alone, which is constantly re8uire' by 2esus, is the 'oing of the will of 5o' which is
followe' by y6 ( 2n. ;:1; . y6 is i"possible where the 6or' is not hear'
( G:.3 , i.e., where faith is refuse' (cf. 2n. %:&. 0 (:(< with (:(. , (/ 0 1&:.(J.G 0 1;:G : to
hear or to recei!e the 6or' is to belie!e. In 2ohn, therefore, correspon's to the
H) Z~W , while y6 lies beyon'. +ar fro" signifying obe'ience or grateful
sub"ission, it is pro"ise' to these acts.
G1
)his 'oes not "ean, of course, that the ob3ect of
y6 is 'ifferent fro" that of . Eor 'oes it "ean that y6 is a
higher stage of 'e!elop"ent at which there is possession of what is *nown. )he nor"al
"o!e"ent fro" to y6 ( (:(/ 0 G:31 f. 0 1<:3G can be re!erse',
y6 gi!es new power ( 1(:3< 0 1;:;f .0 cf. 1 2n. .:1( 0 cf. )ob. 1.:. c .
)rue faith, i.e., the faith which ?abi'eth,@ contains y6 within itself (cf. 1 2n. &:. with
( . y6 is a constituti!e ele"ent in . It is faith`s own un'erstan'ing,
i'entical with the which no longer nee's to ?as*@ ( 2n. 1%:11 0 1(:&&J&. but for which
the 6or' of 2esus has the character of rather than ( 1(:&% , &/ .
Hn the basis of his 'istincti!e conception of the *nowle'ge of 5o' 2ohn can both !ary an'
'eepen the tra'itional use ( ;<% of y6 (q ) for con!ersion to
Christianity.
c. )here has been "uch 'ispute concerning the interpretation of 4t. 11:&; an' par. :
, y6 l
l q , c y6 l q l
l (the Ducan !ersion 'iffers only in style. 1part fro"
4*. 13:3& , this !erse, with its reference to the #on in the thir' person, stan's 8uite alone in
the #ynoptists, though it has affinities with 2ohannine usage. It har'ly see"s to ha!e any
original connection with the neighbouring !erses ( &%f .0 &GJ3< 0 the latter ha!e no par. in D*.
G&
)he te7t is uncertain, since the or'er of the state"ents which 'escribe the "utual
*nowle'ge of +ather an' #on !aries in the tra'ition, an' the state"ent that no one *nows the
+ather but the #on is perhaps a later a''ition. If it is original, then the relationship between
the +ather an' the #on is here 'escribe' as in 2ohn, an' the !iew of *nowle'ge is necessarily
the sa"e. Iut e!en if it is not genuine, the y6 can be un'erstoo' only in the
2ohannine sense, for in !iew of the d , the y6
cannot be e8ui!alent to the H) W NZ~ . $ere then, as in 2n., we ha!e 5nostic ter"inology, an'
the 8uestion whether this is an authentic saying of 2esus "ust be 'iscusse' along the sa"e
lines as the relation of the 2ohannine sayings to the #ynoptic.
G3

G1 +or this reason 2n. 'iffers fro" Paul in not using y6 for 5o'`s electing, though he has the thought of
election ( (:;< 0 13:1G 0 esp. 1%:1( , 1/ . In 1<:1.f ., &; , the *nowle'ge of 2esus 'oes not prece'e or un'erlie
that of $is 'isciples (note the 'ifference in tense fro" Paul. It correspon's to theirs an' is conte"porary with it.
)he relationship is that of "utual y6 . In this respect he ob!iously follows 5nostic usage ( (/. , an'
=. Iult"ann, LE6 , &. (1/&%, 11; f.. Hnly in G:3& 0 1.:31 0 1;:&3 "ay we see the H) concept of Z~W . )he
worl' will one 'ay realise to its horror (cf. the y which the will e7ercise, 1(:GJ11 that
2esus is the =e!ealer0 cf. Is. .1:&< 0 .3:1< : (/G .
G& Iult"ann )ra'. , 1;1 f.
G3 It is worth noting that #tr.KI. on 4t. 11:&; cannot a''uce any par. , an' that the =abb. par. in #chl. 4t. , 3G.
"erely illustrate the H) an' 2ewish concept of W NZ~ . )he $ellenistic nature of y6 in 4t.
11:&; , with which we "ay co"pare the par. 2ul.Con!. , 33(c "entione' on ;<; , is strongly felt by the
2ewish e7egete C. 5. 4ontefiore, <he Synoptic )ospels ,
&
II (1/&;, 1;% f. -al"an 62 , I, 1%G f., who also
regar's the c l l q of 4*. 13:3& as an a''ition, feels that the absolute use of ?the
+ather@ an' ?the #on@ is nonK2ewish, an' therefore regar's the state"ent as a !ery general one, i.e., as ?reference
1. The )ater De(elop"ent o# the ,sage.
)he wor*s of the 1pologists yiel' nothing 'istincti!e. ,7cept in 8uotations fro" the H) , they
follow popular usage, i.e., y6 an' y6 (or y6 an' ym
always 'enote theoretical *nowle'ge, pri"arily as *nowle'ge of 5o' or of the or
Christ,
G.
then as *nowle'ge attaine' fro" #cripture
G%
an' finally as theological *nowle'ge.
G(

)he battle against 5nosis an' wrestling with 5ree* philosophy le' the 1le7an'rians to reconstruct
the !iew of gnosis an' to 'istinguish between an' y6 , not as 2ohn 'oes, but in such
sort that y6 is regar'e' as a higher stage of Christian life0 the ym is the .
$ere we ha!e a 'istincti!e but obscure co"bination of the 5ree* conception of *nowle'ge an' the
5nostic !iew of the !ision of 5o'.
)hat an' y6 are lin*e' is often state' inci'entally an' with no atte"pt at
'eli"itation ( Corp. $er". , IA, .0 IF, 1<0 Porphyr.4arc. , &1J&.0 2ust.-ial. , (/, 1. )he
Christian 5nostics were the first to atte"pt a clear for"ulation. )hey were force' to 'o this
because they wishe' to "aintain their own position within the Church an' ha' thus to recognise
the or'inary Christians who were not ym (, ) as those who ha'
but not y6 . In this connection the wor' , originally the opposite of
, ca"e to 'enote a new category "i'way between the an' the
. 1ccor'ing to Cl. 1l.#tro". , II, 3, 1<, the use of an' y6 for two
'ifferent stages goes bac* to Aalentinus. Cl. an' Hrig. accepte' it as a basis for their scientific an'
speculati!e theology in the Church. If is a y6 6
ym, y6 is the 6 m m g
( Cl. 1l.#tro". , AII, 1<, %;0 cf. %% f.. is q 6
m ( ibid. , II, (, 31, but y6 (
ibid. , AI, 1., 1</. )he "o!e"ent is m l y6 , but always in such a way that
is ne!er wholly without y6 an' y6 is ne!er m ( ibid. , II, (, 310
A. 1, 1, so that it is possible to spea* of ym or ( ibid. , AI, /,
;(0 II, 11, .G. y6 lea's to fulfil"ent, to !ision ( ibid. , AI, ;, (10 1&, /G, an' when it is sai'
that it lea's to y ( ibid. , AII, 1<, %% an' %; this y ym ( ibid. , AI, /, ;3 an'
;% is i'entical with m . )his y6 can ne!er be lost: y y
q y6 c y l ( ibid. , AII, 1&, ;<.
G;

, .
*

In 5*. usage y6 "eans ?to note,@ ?to see so"ething (ba' in so"eone,@ ?to
catch so"eone@ (cf. the pap. , ?to see accurately,@ especially ?to *now to be guilty,@ ?to 3u'ge@
to so"ething which is true of e!ery father an' son, an' which "ay thus be applie' to 2esus an' $is +ather as
well.@ )his is 8uite i"possible. Perhaps there is a suggestion of 5nostic ter"inology in the
, cf. Corp. $er". , I, 3&: y l m y
, 6 m q . 1part fro" the co"". , cf. 1. $arnac*, ?
#pr^che un' =e'en 2esu @ in *eitr. &. "inl. in d. < , II (1/<;, 1G/ ff.0 Eor'en, Agnostos <heos , &;; ff.0 2.
6eiss, t.liche Studien f8r ). /einrici (1/1., 1&< ff.0 Iousset, 0yrios !hrist .
&
, .% ff.
G. ,.g., 1risti'. , 1%, 30 1thenag.#uppl. , 13, 10 2ust.1pol. , I, 1/, (0 -ial. , 1., 10 &<, 10 )at.Hr. 5raec. , 1&, .0
13, 10 1/, &0 .&, 10 y6 X y , 2ust.1pol. , II, &, &0 absol. of Christian
*nowle'ge, 2ust.-ial. , 3/, %. Hn the possibility of philosophical *nowle'ge of 5o', cf. 2ust.-ial. , 3 ff.
G% ,.g., 2ust.-ial. , &;,.0 (/, 10 //, 30 11&, 3.
G( Cf. 2ust.-ial. , ;., 3: y m ,
X .
G; Hn the "ysterious conception of y6 in Cl. 1l. (/.J(/( , cf. 1nrich, Das antike Mysterien;esen ,
133 ff. In its practical e7ercise, y6 is for hi" theological science or speculation as q
q m y6 which follows the 6 m ( #tro". , I, 1, 1%. In Hrig.
who 'istinguishes between an' y6 in the sa"e way as Cl. 1l. (e.g., Co"". in 2oh. , FIF, 3, 1( f.,
there is a greater e"phasis on the scientific character of y6 . Cf. also the 'iscussion , q
y6 q q in Ias.,p. , &3% ( 4P5 , 3&, G;&.
9 y6m . 1part fro" the le7., cf. -eiss"ann EI , &Gf.0 Efgeli, .;0 +. 6. 4o>ley ,7p. , G, #er. IA
(1/1&, 1.3f.0 -ib. Past. on )t. &:G .
(as often in the pap. , so"eti"es in the sense of selfK3u'g"ent (cf.
4
oult.K4ill. , an' then ?to ta*e
a low !iew of,@ ?to 'espise@ (cf. the pap. .
1

)he wor' is rare in the DFF. It "eans ?to con'e"n@ at -t. &%:1 (for ZQS } hiph in antith,
to , ?to ac8uit@ an' #ir. 1.:& : ym q q
( $eb. ~r pi. It apparently "eans ?to scorn@ at Pr!. &G:11 an' #ir. 1/:% . It is use' of selfK
3u'g"ent at #ir. 1.:& an' 2ob .&:( 2 (for cT 0 ,>. 1(:(1 2 (for gY{ , an' also )est. 5.
%:3: ym

l . )his usage
recurs in the E) at 1 2n. 3:&< f. : y6g q6 q , m
q6 y6 , where the play of wor's shows
that so"e ele"ent of *nowle'ge is still felt to be present. y, q q
y6g c . Cf. also 1ct. )ho". , /., p. &<;,
11 f.: l y, l c6 ym .
&
)he
"eaning in 5l. &:11 is har' to 'eter"ine: m
ym q Aet. Dat. has reprehensus, the
A
g an' 1"bstr. reprehensibilis . 6e
"ight ren'er ?'etecte',@ or better ?con'e"ne'@ or ?3u'ge',@ though the reference is not to
official 3u'g"ent but to what is "eant in =. 1.:&3 : c yg
( 2n. 3:1G is 'ifferent or in 2os.Iell. , &, 13% , where the ,ssenes re3ect the
oath: q y y6 .
)he "eaning is ?to con'e"n@ or ?to 'espise@ in -g., 1<, ;:
y6g, 6 y .
ym "eans ?one against who" no fault can be allege', an' therefore no
accusation allege' or sustaine'.@ In 5*. it is foun' only in inscriptions an' pap. of the i"perial
perio' (Efgeli, .;, where it is often lin*e' with . In the DFF it occurs only at &
4acc. .:.; : ym , an' in the E) "only at )t. &:G : (
y y ym .
, .
*

y6 usually "eans ?to *now beforehan'@ as hu"an foresight or cle!erness
"a*es this possible ( ,ur.$ipp. , 1<;& f.0 )huc. , II, (., (0 Plat.=esp. , IA, .&(c0 $ippocr.Progn. ,
1, though any real fore*nowle'ge of 'estiny is conceale' fro" "an (
$
o". $y"n. Cer. , &%( f..
In the DFF y6 is ascribe' to at 6is. G:G . #i"ilarly Philo spea*s of a
y6 6 m (through 'rea"s in #o". , I, & . )here is a peculiar
passi!e use at 6is. (:13 : (sc. ym , ?it
co"es to those who long for it, letting itself be *nown beforehan'.@ Cf. 1G:( : q (of
the 'estruction of the firstborn y6 q6 .
In the E) y6 is referre' to 5o'. $is fore*nowle'ge, howe!er, is an election
or foreor'ination of $is people ( =. G:&/ 0 11:& or Christ ( 1 Pt. 1:&< ( y6m , (/G 0
4oult.K4ill. 2.$. 4oulton an' 5. 4illigan, <he (ocabulary of the )reek <estament , 1/1% ff.
1 Hn the 'ifferent for"s of construction, cf. the le7. an' gra""ars.
& )here is a "aterially instructi!e par. to the use of y6m for selfKcriticis" in #tob.,cl. , III, %%G, 1 f.:
6 m q " yy6" c "
."
Ag Aulgate.
9 y6m, ym . D. ,'elstein, m (Ptoble"ata, IA, 1/31, (<ff.0 ,. +. B. 4^ller, Die
g8ttliche +uvorersehung und "r;.hlung (1G/&.
$o". $y"n. Cer. ad !ererem .
;<( .
1
In $er".". , ., 3, . it si"ply "eans 5o'`s fore*nowle'ge (cf. y6 in &
Cl., /, /. Hn the basis of prophecy the wor' y6 can be use' of belie!ers in &
Pt. 3:1; , as also in $er".s. , ;, % ym .
1nother possible "eaning in 5*. is that of *nowing earlier, i.e., than the ti"e spea*ing
(cf. -e"osth. , &/, %G0 1ristot.=het. , II, &1, p. 13/.b, 110 2os.Iell. , (, G . )his is foun' in
1c. &(:% , where the "eaning is strengthene' by the a''ition of m .
In 2ustin 5o'`s y6 is $is fore*nowle'ge ( 1pol. , I, &G, & etc. an' the
ym are belie!ers ( 1pol. , I, .%, 1 etc.. )he pole"ic against 'eter"inis",
howe!er, shows that the H) !iew has been aban'one' ( -ial. , 1.<, .. 1s Hne who si"ply *nows
beforehan', 5o' is calle' y6 in 1pol. , I, .., 11 etc., as is also Christ in -ial. , 3%, ;0
G&, 1. )here is also reference to prophetic fore*nowle'ge in 1pol. , 1, .3, 10 ./, ( etc. )at.Hr.
5raec. , 1/, 3 spea*s of 1pollo in the sa"e ter"s, so that what we ha!e here is the 5*.
un'erstan'ing.
ym in 5ree* "eans ?a'!ance *nowle'ge@ (a technical ter" in "e'icine fro"
the ti"e of $ippocrates. It is foun' in the DFF at 2't. /:( with reference to the
pre'eter"inati!e *nowle'ge of 5o'.
)he reference is to prophetic fore*nowle'ge at 2't. 11:1/ 0 2os.1nt. , G, &3. an' .1G 0 1%, 3;3
(the ,ssene 4enae" ym 6 m m etc. +or 2ustin 5o'`s
ym is $is fore*nowle'ge ( -ial. , /&, %0 13., .0 an' a"ong the gifts of the #pirit he
lists the y6m instea' of prophecy ( -ial. , 3/, &. )here is a si"ilar 'efinition
in Cl. 1l.#tro". , II, 1&, %., 1: q ym , q c y6
. )hat the 5ree* Christians un'erstoo' the concept in "antic ter"s "ay
be seen fro" )at.Hr. 5raec. , 1, 1, where the ym 6 m is parallel to l
m (cf. Preis. Laub. , AII, &/., an' fro" Cl. 1l.#tro". , I, &1, 133, 1 f., where
an' ym are parallel. )he "iraculous ele"ent in prophetic ym is
'escribe' in Ps.KCle". $o". , II, 11: y y y6 6 , q
y6 ym 6 .

q ym
y q y6 .
.
In 5*. the !erb yy6 "eans ?to thin* the sa"e as so"eone,@ ?to agree,@ then ?to
yiel',@ ?to recognise,@ ?to accept,@ ?to be aware,@ an' ?to par'on.@
1
It is foun' in the DFF only
in & 4acc. 1.:31 in the sense of ?to percei!e@ or ?to be aware,@ an' in . 4acc. G:&& in the sense
of ?to par'on@ (cf. yym in . 4acc. %:13 , as also Ign.)r. , %, 1. 2os. has
yy6 for ?to *now (with others@ an' ?to par'on@ ( 1nt. , (, /3 0 Iell. , 1, 1(; an'
yy6 c for ?to be aware (in conscience@ ( 1nt. , 1, .( . yym is use'
in 6is. (:( 0 13:G of one who 'eser!es par'on0 cf. 2os.1nt. , ;, &G% etc.0 2ust.-ial. , (%, &. In
Christian literature the !erb is first foun' in Ign.=. , (, & in the sense of ?to agree@0 then in 1then.
#uppl., 1G, 1 in the sense of ?to par'on,@ ?to forbear.@
)he noun yy6 in 5*. "eans ?agree"ent,@ ?forbearance,@ ?par'on@ (often with c
, ?to par'on@, though also ?to 'eser!e par'on@. 1ristot. 'efines it in ,th. Eic. , IA, 11, p. 11.3a,
&3 as y6 q . )hat it was highly !alue' is shown by the
saying ( -iog. D. , I, ;( 8uote' in Cl. 1l.#tro". , II, 1%, ;<: yy6 m m
. In the DFF it occurs in & 4acc. 1.:&< as ?patience@, also in #ir. Prol., 11, #wete an' 3:13 in the
e7pression yy6 c , ?to e7ercise patience.@ Cf. also Ign.=. , %:3. In 2oseph, it is use'
for ?par'on@ in 1nt. , (, 1.. etc.0 also in Philo#pec. Deg. , II, 1/( (the opp. of ,
so"eti"es, as also the !erb, with reference to sins y , #pec. Deg. , III, 3% 0 Ait.
4os. , I, &;3 0 +lacc. , ; 0 an' cf. on this pt. 1ristot.,th. Eic. , III, &, p. 1111a, &0 Polyb. , FII, ;, (:
c y y y c m q
1 Hn the un'erlying apocalyptic worl' !iew in 1 Pt. 1:&< ( ym c
m c 6 m , cf. esp. . ,sr. (:1ff . an' the co"". of =.
Bnopf an' $. 6in'isch, ad loc.
1 Cf. ,ur.Ion 1..<: yy6 y .
yy6 , c
y (cf. FA, 1/, 3 an' 4a7. )yr. , 33, 3a: the is q c ,
yym c y .
In the E) it occurs only at 1 C. ;:( : c ym yy6,
y , ob!iously in the sense of ?forbearance@ or ?concession.@ )hough the conte7t
"ight support ?personal opinion,@ there is no e7a"ple of this0 y6 is the wor' use' in
such cases.
Cf. yy6 in )at.Hr. 5raec. , &<, 1. In 2ust.-ial. , /, 1 yy6 "eans
?par'on@ ( yy6 .
.
Hn the 5*. usage, (/1, n. ; an' / . 4ost of the senses, apart fro" ?reason,@ are atteste'
in 2ewish an' Christian literature, though the ter" is co"parati!ely rare in the DFF. It is har' to
'ifferentiate the !arious nuances with any precision.
1. ?-isposition,@ ?will.@ 1s we fin' an' yq y6 in the DFF ( Pr!.
&:1( 0 . 4acc. /:&; , so we fin' yq y6 in Iarn. , &1, & (cf. -itt. #yll.
3
, ;%, &G p.
&Gv; I.C. q: y6 y c . $ere the "eaning is ?'isposition,@ as in 2os.1nt. , &,
/; 0 13, .1( . )he sa"e ren'ering best fits the l y6 of Ign.=. , ;, 10 Phl'. , 1, &,
or the y6 of Ign. Pol. , 1, 1, also the y6 of 5o' in Ign.,ph. , 3, &0 =. , G, 3
etc. or of 2esus Christ in ,ph. , 3, & (here $e is also calle' the y6 , while
y6 ( 2os.1nt. , 1%, 1.. 0 cf. 1p. , &, 1(( "eans ?accor'ing to the will of
5o'.@ In & 4acc. /:&< , an' often in the salutations in pap. letters, the "eaning of
y6 is ?as 'esire'.@ In the E) we fin' g g y6g at 1 C. 1:1< (lin*e' with
an' har'ly to be 'ifferentiate' fro" it0 cf. or
at Phil. &:& 0 .:& 0 =. 1&:1( etc.0 cf. )huc. , I, 113, &: y6 q .
1

)he sense is the sa"e in =e!. 1;:13 : (the 1< *ings y6 c an'
1;:1; (though infra : y cm 6
q y6 y6 0 cf. the y6 in -e"osth. ,
1<, %/ ( y6 an' elsewhere,
&
also in PhiloAit. 4os. , I, &3% 0
#pec. Deg. , II, 1(% 0 III, ;3 ( y6 an' 2os.1nt. , ;, (<
an' &;( . )he i'ea of ?consent@
3
is present in & 4acc. .:3/ 0 2os.1nt. , &<, &<& 0 Phl". 1. 0
Ign. Pol. , ., 10 %, &. Cf. also the selfK'escription of Isis on the By"e inscription:
.
y6
6 m l
y6 .
&. ?=esol!e,@ ?'ecision.@ It often has this "eaning in inscr. an' pap. 6e "ay also construe
=e!. 1;:1; in this sense ( supra . In & ,sr. the DFF often uses y6 for gZj R (resol!e or
e'ict of the *ing, also in -a. &:1. , cf. , which has y6 for N~Oh (royal co""an' in -a.
&:1% an' y for gZj R in 13:1< etc. In Philo#o". , I, G1 y6 "eans "uch the sa"e as
, an' in 2os.1nt. , 13, 1/( it "eans resol!e or intention. Hnly at 1c. &<:3 : y
y6 , ?he resol!e',@ 'oes it ha!e this sense in the E) 0 cf. Ign.Phl'. , (, &.
1 Il.K-ebr. ] 1(&, ;.
& Pr.KIauer , s.v.
3 Efgeli, 33.
. IC$ , %1 (1/&;, 3G<, .< f.0 6. Pee*, Der lsishymnus von Andros u. ver;. <exte (1/3<, 1&., .<.
3. ?Counsel,@ ?opinion.@ Cf. DFF 2: (for ~[k ?proposal@0 5r. #ir. (:&3 0 6is. ;:1% (e0
& 4acc. 11:3; etc. In 1 C. ;:&% : & C G:1< y6 "eans ?to gi!e counsel@0 cf. also
2os.1nt. , G, 3;/ 0 11, &%3 0 1 C ;:.< : q q y6 , ?accor'ing to "y opinion.@
.
1. ?)o "a*e *nown.@ In this sense the wor' is co""on in the DFF ("ostly for Z~W ,
hiph. both in secular conte7ts ( B. 1:27 0 Eeh. G:1& 0 Pr!. /:/ etc. an' in cases where
it has an e"otional ring.
)he priest, teacher or prophet "ay be the sub3ect ( 1 B. 6:2 0 1<:G 0 &G:1% 0 ,>. .3:11 , or
5o' $i"self, who causes $is power or grace to be *nown ( y6m , (/G 0 cf. 2er. 1(:&1 0
15:11 0 ;(:1. 0 /;:& etc., or 'eclares $is will ( 24:4 : 0 ,>. &<:11 :
6 , etc., or grants secret *nowle'ge ( 2er. 11:1G 0 -a. &:&3 , &G ff. O etc.. )he
cultic 'eclaration of the acts of _ahweh is calle' ymm in 1 Ch. 1(:G ( or
yy in 104:1 0 Is. 1&:. , an' also the confession of sin in 1:5 . In O -a. .:3 f.
0 %:G etc. ymm is use' of the interpretation of 'rea"s an' !isions.
)he E) use of ymm correspon's to that of the DFF. )he wor' often occurs in a
secular sense ( 1 C. 1&:3 0 1%:1 0 Col. .:; , / . ,!en here 5o' is fre8uently the sub3ect,
"a*ing *nown $is power an' sal!ation ( =. /:&& f. 0 1c. &:&G , 8uoting Ps. 1(:11 0 D*. &:1% .
1bo!e all, the ter" is use' for 5o'`s 'eclaration of $is secret counsel of sal!ation ($is
, e.g., in Col. 1:&; 0 ,ph. 1:/ 0 3:% , 1< 0 (:1/ (cf. in =. 1(:&% f. 0
Ign.,ph. , 1/, &f. an' elsewhere. ,!en the 'eclaration of 5o'`s acts by "en ( D*. &:1; ,
especially through preaching ( =. 1(:&( 0 & Pt. 1:1( , can be calle' ymm . In 2ohn, 2esus
is the sub3ect of ym as the =e!ealer ( 1%:1% 0 1;:&( . Iut the "a*ing *nown of our
re8uests to 5o' is also ym at Phil. .:( (cf. ym in Philo#acr.
1C. , 13& 0 -et. Pot. Ins. , %( 0 also Congr. , 1G 0 +ug. , 3G .
&. ?)o percei!e,@ ?to *now.@ )his sense is co""on not only in the pap. but also in the
DFF ( 1". 3:3 0 Pr!. 3:( 0 1%:1< 0 2ob 3.:&% 0 at 2ob .:1( 2 has y6 an' the DFF
ym . )he ter" is foun' in this sense in both Philo an' 2oseph. in both the act. an' the
pass. In the pass. it is har' to 'istinguish between the senses ?to be "a'e *nown@ an' ?to be
*nown.@ 6hen we turn to the E) we fin' this "eaning only at Phil. 1:&& : l
ymm. ymm is use' of the *nowle'ge of 5o' in Philo ( Poster. C. , 1(; 0 4ut.
Eo". , 1; 0 Corp. $er". , F, 1% (here of 5o'`s own *nowle'ge0 the y 0
1

-g., G, %0 1ct. 1n'r. , ( (p. .1, ;. It is also use' of being *nown by 5o' in 1ct. 1n'r. , I (p.
3G, ; an' &<, cf. / (p. .&, 3 f..
.
In 5*. ym "eans both ?*nowable@ an' ?*nown@ (cf. the inscr. an' pap. , though as a
"ore select ter".
1
In the DFF it is esp. use' as a part. pass. in the sense of ?ac8uaintance,@
?confi'ant,@ or ?relati!e@ ( 4 B. 10:11 0 0:11 0 %.:13 0 G;:G , 1G . It is not foun' in
2oseph. , but Philo uses it in Deg. 1ll. , I, (< f. , where the DFF has y6 . In =abb. usage
relati!es ( mWXU [k}oR are 'istinguishe' fro" ac8uaintances ( mWZU ~OhWTR .
&
#o in D*. &:.. :
yy ym , though in D*. &3:./ relati!es are inclu'e' a"ong
ym . In 2n. 1G:1%f. ym ob!iously "eans ac8uaintance.
In the "ore general sense of ?"a'e *nown,@ as in the DFF Is. 1/:&1 0 ,>. 3(:3& 0 75:1
an' O -a. 3:1G (where the DFF has , the wor' is often use' in 1c. in e7pressions
1 $er"etica, I, 3;(, #cott0 =eit>enstein $ell. 4yst. , &G(.
1 Cf. Efgeli, 1/.
& #tr.KI. , II, 1./ on D*. &:.. 0 #chl. 2. , 33& on 2n. 1G:1% .
such as ym y ( 1:1/ 0 &:1. 0 .:1< 0 /:.& etc.. In 1c. .:1( ( ym
the "eaning is perhaps ?clearly recognisable.@ ?=ecognisable@ (in the DFF only
at #ir. &1:; is certainly the sense in =. 1:1/ : ym
, though it is 'ebatable whether the gen. shoul' be un'erstoo' as a
partit., thus gi!ing us ?what "ay be *nown of 5o',@
3
or whether we shoul' follow the
analogy of such e7pressions as in 1 C. .:% or
in =. &:. etc. an' thus translate ?5o' in $is *nowability.@
.
In !. &< the
certainly 'oes not "ean ?what is in!isible to $i"@ but ?$e the In!isible.@
Cf. y6m , ;<% an' ym .
*ultmann
,
.
*

A. The General ,se o# .
1s regar's the E) , the following principal "eanings "ay be 'istinguishe':
1. )he strict physiological "eaning of ?tongue@:
1
$o".Il. , %, &/&, as the organ of taste:
PhiloHp. 4un'. , 1%/ : y6g g g , or "ore particularly of speech:
,ur.#uppl. , &<3 f.: yy y6 ym 0 PhiloConf. Ding. , 3( :
y6 6 m mm ym 0 cf. 1gric. , %3 : g y6
pg mg 0 Ait. 4os. , II, &3/ : 6 , 6
, q , y6g, q m yq 0 #ir. &G:1G : l
m y6 (cf. 1/ff .. +igur it can be use' of the spea*er, e.g., in Cratinus (
C1+ , I, /G: y y6 6 tm 0 2os.1nt. , 3, G% : y6
m y 0 P. H7y. , FI, 13G1, 1/Gff.: t c
y6 q q l q
4 0 Preis. Laub. , FII (Dei'en, 1G; f.: m
y6 m .
&. ?#peech,@ ?"anner of speech@: $o".Il. , &, G<.:

m y6
m 6m 0 Fenoph.4e". , III, 1., (: g Am y6g 0
1
en.
)act. , .&, &: y6 ('ialect yyg q
0 P. 5iess. , I, //, G f.: y6g g , #chol. in
-
ion.
)hr.
1
rt. 5ra"". ()ryph. (5ra"". 5raec., I, 3, p. 3<& $: m
l y6 (subK'ialects 0 PhiloAit. 4os. , II, .< : q tq y6
q Xm 0 -ecal. , 1%/ : q y6g , 5n. 11:; : ym
6 q y6 0 cf. PhiloConf. Ding. , / : y m l
3 Cf. Il.K-ebr. ] &(3, &.
. Cf. 75:1 : ym 0 Is. 1/:&1 : ym 0 ,7. 33:13 : m6 ( !l.
ym m () .
9 y6 . 4oult.K4ill. , 1&G0 Cr.KBC. , &(< ff.0 Di''ellK#cott , 3%30 Pr.KIauer , &%.. Hn glossolalia, P. +eine,
=,
3
, &1, ;./ ff.0 ,. 4osi"an, Das +ungenreden geschichtlich und psychologisch untersucht (1/1<, with bibl.
on p. AII ff.: ,. Do"bar', De la glossolalie che& tes premiers chr@tiens (1/1<0 2oh. 6. 1 B. , 33% ff.0 6't.
1g. , G3ff.0 ). B. Hesterreich, "inf8hrung in die Religionspsychologie (1/1;, ./ff.0 6. =einhar', Das -irken
des hl. )eistes (1/1G, 1&<ff.0 B. D. #ch"i't, D. $fingster&.hlung u.d. $fingstereignis (1/1/0 P. 6. #ch"ie'el,
? Pfingster>fhlung u. Pfingstereignis ,@ Pr. 4. , &. (1/&<, ;3ff.0 +. 2ac*sonKB. Da*e, <he *eginnings of
!hristianity , I (1/&<, 3&3 ff.0 Ich". B. , .&& f.0 $. 5^ntert, (on der Sprache der )8tter u. )eister (1/&1,
&3ff.0 =eit>enstein Poi". , %%ff.: $ell. 4yst. , 3&3 f.0 $. Deisegang, $neuma /agion (1/&&, 113ff.0 Ln. 1g. , I,
//ff.0 ,. +. #cott, <he Spirit in the < (1/&3, /&ff.0 Cle"en , 1%;f.0 $. =ust, Das +ungenreden (1/&.0 -under
der *ibel , & an' 3 (1/&. f.0 =55
&
, A, &1.& f.0 #chlatter, )eschichte d. erst. !hr. , &1ff., &1% f.0 +. I^chsel,
Der )eist )ottes im < (1/&(, &.& ff.0 3&1 ff.0 6. Iauer, Der -ortgottesdienst der .ltesten !hristen (1/3<,
33ff.0 Dt>". B.
3
, (Gff.0 Das < Deutsch , II (1/33, 13ff. ($. 6. Ieyer0 ibid. , 3(& ff. ($. -. 6en'lan'0 =. 4.
Pope, -1C , II, %/G f.
1 Hn y6 in 4*. ;:3% , cf. -itt. #yll.
3
, 11(/, .30 -eiss"ann DH , &%G ff.
1en. )act. 1eneas )acticus, conte"porary of Fenophon, who wrote his technical "ilitary wor* (
c. 3(< I.C. , e'. $. #chCne, 1/11.
-ion. )hr. -ionysius )hra7, 5ree* gra""arian an' rhetorician in =ho'es (1;<J/< I.C. , e'. 5. :hlig, 1GG3.
1rt. 5ra"". De Arte )rammatica .
m l , q (#cripture y6 y . +igur. of a ?people
with its own language@: -a. 3:; : l , , y6 0 Is. ((:1G 0 2't. 3:G 0 cf.
4. ,7. , 1., %: m[kQS Yh[R MTOh c lY{Oh 0 #*yla7 5eogr., 1% (
5
eogr. 5raec. 4in. , I, &., 4^ller:
q c (sc. the 2 y6 q A .
(interpolatione.
3. ?1n e7pression which in speech or "anner is strange an' obscure an' nee's e7planation@:
&
1ristot.
P
oet. , &1, p. 1.%;b, 1 ff.: q (properly q y6
ym c c 6 c, y6 c c, 6
y6 l , q y
"y" K c , q c y6 0 ibid. , &&, p. 1.%Ga, && ff.:
ym y6 .

g, q y c q 6 ym6
0 cf. =het. , III, 1<, p. 1.1<, 1& ff.: l c y6 y6, c
0
#
e7t. ,"p.
5
ra"". , 313: y6 (sc. m
m q 0 Plut.Is. et Hs. , (1 (II, 3;%e: c
l y c c 6
m l ` E y
t
p c, c q q
l y6 y . Hr again, ?archaic
e7pression@ : -io'. #. , IA, ((, (:. y y6 (accor'ing to the ol'
e7pression "" 0 5alen Ding. $ippocr. ,7pl. prooe" (FIF, (& f.,
B^hn: 6 m c q ,

, c y6 0 4. 1nt. , IA, 33: l
ym . +inally. ?select poetic e7pression@: Plut.Pyth. Hr. , &.
(II,.<( f.: (5o' has cause' the Pythia in its oracles to pass fro" obscure poetic e7pression to
un'erstan'able prose 6 c 6 6 c y6
m y m
y y
m 6, 0 cf.
1
nec'.
5raec. , I, G;, 1&: y6 6 6 q y 0 also
buintilian
I
nst. Hrat. , I, 1, 3%, cf. G, 1%: voces minus nsitatae of the lingua secretior quas )raeci
y6 vocant .
B. The ,se o# in the %T and !ts Bac.ground.
1. ?)ongue,@ esp. as an organ of speech: D*. 1(:&. 0 1:(. 0 'e"onically boun', 4*. ;:3% :
y6 ( n. 1 0 author of "any sins, 2". 3:1J1& (cf. also
2". 1:&( 0 1 Pt. 3:1< VV Ps. 3.:13 .
3

5eogr. 5raec. 4in. )eographi )raeci Minores , e'. C. 4^ller, 1G%% ff.
& Cf. on this pt. +. D^b*er, Reallexikon d. Mass. Altertums
G
(1/1., .1G f.
Poet. $oetica .
#e7t. ,"p. #e7tus ,"piricus, originally a physician probably practising in 1le7an'ria (c. &<< 1.-. , who
su""e' up the whole 'e!elop"ent of ancient scepticis" in his $yrrhonic "lements an' in 11 boo*s against the
"athe"aticians, 'irecte' against in'i!i'ual sciences an' the 'og"atic philosophical schools, e'. I. Ie**er,
1G.&0 $. 4utsch"ann, 1/1& ff.
5ra"". Adversus )rammaticos .
1nec'. 5raec. Anecdota )raeca , e'. I. Ie**er, 1G1. ff.
Inst. Hrat. ,nstitutio 9ratoria .
3 Hn the bac*groun' of 2". 3:1 ff. 0 1:&( , cf. the 2ewish an' $ell. "aterial in 2. 5effc*en, 0ynika u.
(er;andtes (1/</, .% ff.0 1. 4eyer, Das R.tsel des #akobusbriefes (1/3<, &(< f.0 3</ f. etc.0 -ib. $c*. 6n'.
an' #tr.KI. , ad loc. 0 cf. also Philo#pec. Deg. , IA, /< : () q c y6
m 4ut. Eo". , &.. : y6 0 #o". , II, 1(% : y6
m 0 cf.13& an' &(;0 1br. , &< : q c y6
y 0 Congr. , G< : y y6 0 #o". , II, %1 :
y6 .
)he stri*ing e"phasis on sins of the tongue is characteristic of practical 2ewish wis'o",
though we also "eet with si"ilar warnings in other ancient oriental tra'itions
.
an' they beco"e a
co""onKplace of ethical e7hortation in the $ellenistic perio'.
%
In the H) such references occur
"ainly in the Psalter, 2ob an' Pro!erbs, an' cf. also #ir. _et there are also references in the
prophets, an' 2er. uses the ter" y6 al"ost e7clusi!ely in this connection. 1"ong
in'i!i'ual sins, "ostly against the /th co""an'"ent, arrogance an' boasting "ay be specifically
"entione' ( 11: , . 0 4i. (:1& , where the DFF with its ten'ency to e"phasise the sin of
pri'e rea's the MWOhTU }R of the 4as. as a for" of g[O} 0 3 4acc. &:1; 0 (:. .
Eo one escapes these sins of the tongue ( #ir. 1/:1( , though with the thought that "an
beco"es a sinner through the tongue ( :1 0 Pr!. (:1; 0 cf. $er".!. , &, &, 3 there is the
further thought that the offen'er with the tongue gi!es rise to fresh e!il ( Pr!. 1<:31 0 1;:. .
In'ee', the tongue hatches e!il ( 51:4 DFF0 cf. Is. %/:3 . )he "ischief 'one is incalculable (
#ir. &G:1. ff. . 1s a scourge ( m 5:21 0 #ir. &G:1; , or a swor' ( 56:4 0 (3:3 0 #ir. &G:1G ,
or a bow an' arrow ( 2er. /:3 , G , or the sharp tongue of a serpent ( 1: , the tongue is a
terrible weapon which can 'estroy "en ( 6: 0 2er. 1G:1G . $ence we "ust be on the watch
against rashness in our use of it ( #ir. .:&/ . Iut only , i.e., a "oral an' religious
attitu'e an' culture, can gi!e power o!er it ( Pr!. &;:&< 0 $os. ;:1( 0 cf. #ir. .:&. 0 Is. %<:. . )his
"ust be attaine' or praye' for ( #ir. &&:&; . +or life an' 'eath 'epen' upon the tongue ( Pr!.
1G:&1 . In'ee', Co'. 1 has m at this point, cf. #ir. %:13 : y6 6
6 . )hus all the conse8uences of sinning with the tongue recoil on those who
co""it it. It ho!ers as a scourge o!er all "en ( #ir. &(:( . )o war' it off "eans security an'
happiness ( #ir. &&:&; 0 &%:G .
In the H) the purely ethical e7hortation with regar' to sins of the tongue has a religious
significance e!en though there is no 'irect reference in "ost cases. +or in the last resort 'eception
an' falsehoo' an' arrogance an' boasting are 'irecte' against 5o' ( $os. ;:1( , 0 3
4acc. &:1; 0 (:. , . 1gain, in the sections 'ealing with this for" of sin there is an
un"as*ing of e!en the inner 'etails an' the final conse8uences of the sin of "an which, as a call
to repentance, attains a profun'ity that can har'ly be surpasse' in the soil of the practical wis'o"
of 2u'ais". It stan's at the place occupie' by sins of thought in the Christian su""ons to repent (
Ps. %1:& DFF: y q y6 , though the 4as. 'iffers: cf. Is. %/:3 .
(

In a figurati!e sense the tongue can be the sub3ect of 3ubilation: 1c. &:&( ( 15: :
y q y6 , an' praise: Phil. &:11 ( Is. .%:&3 : y6
y . 1t 1c. &:3 : y6
c c 6 (?there appeare' unto the" tongues as
of fire, which parte' an' one of which alighte' on each of the"@, tongue is an i"age for
fla"e ( Is. %:&. QS cj m[kQS YR 0 cf.
)
g. II ,st. , (, 130 the reference is to the hea!enly power of
5o' 'escen'ing on each of the 'isciples asse"ble' on the 'ay of Pentecost ( ;&. 0
.
&. ?Danguage,@ 1c. &:11 : m 6 q
y6 VV !. G : cg lq q q6 cf. !. ( . +igur.
( ;&< it "eans ?people@ in =e!. %:/ 0 ;:/ 0 1<:11 0 11:/ 0 13:; 0 1.:( .
3. 5lossolalia.
)he peculiar pheno"enon of () y6g (y6) ( 1 C. 1&J1. 0 1c.
1<:.( 0 1/:( , with which we shoul' lin* the y6 of 4*. 1(:1;
an' the c y6 of 1c. &:. , "ay be un'erstoo' only in the light of the
!i!i' 'epiction in 1 C. 1.:& ff. #pea*ing with tongues, li*e , is a
, a spiritually effecte' spea*ing ( 1.:&ff ., 1. ff. , 3;ff .0 cf. 1&:1< , &G , 3< , not to
"en, but to 5o' ( 1.:& , &G , in the for" of a prayer, possibly of praise an' than*sgi!ing an'
possibly sung ( 1.:& , 1.J1; 0 cf. 1c. 1<:.( 0 its !alue is for the in'i!i'ual concerne' rather
. +or the Iabylonian "aterial, cf. 1H) , &/1 an' &/30 cf. also the pro!erbs of 1"enK(e"ope, ibid. , 3G ff.
% n. 3 for bibl.
( I a" in'ebte' to 5. Iertra" for this section.
)g. II ,st. )argu" II on ,sther ()argu" sheni.
than for the co""unity as a whole ( 1.:.ff ., 1( f. , &G . In this inspire' utterance the
is swallowe' up ( 1.:1. , 1/ , so that "ysterious wor's, obscure both to the spea*er
an' to the hearers, are spo*en in the !oi' ( 1.:& , / , 11 , 1%f .. )here is an unarticulate'
soun' as of an instru"ent playe' with no clear 'ifferentiation of notes ( 1.:;f .. 1n
i"pression is left of spea*ing in foreign languages ( 1.:1<f ., &1 . )he uncontrolle' use of
tongues "ight thus "a*e it appear that the co""unity is an asse"bly of "a'"en ( 1.:&3 ,
&; . _et tongues are a legiti"ate sign of o!erwhel"ing power ( 1.:&& . )here are !arious
*in's ( 1&:1< , &G 0. cf. 1.:1< 0 so"e are tongues of "en an' others of angels ( 13:1 . )o
"a*e glossolalia ser!iceable to the co""unity, howe!er, either the spea*er or another brother
"ust be able to gi!e an interpretation ( 1.:% , 13 , &;f .0 1&:1< , 3< . In Corinth, therefore,
glossolalia is an unintelligible ecstatic utterance. Hne of its for"s of e7pression is a "uttering
of wor's or soun's without interconnection or "eaning. Parallels "ay be foun' for this
pheno"enon in !arious for"s an' at !arious perio's an' places in religious history.
;

In 5*. religion
G
there is a series of co"parable pheno"ena fro" the enthusiastic cult of the
)hracian -ionysus with its y6 ( 1ristoph.=a. , 3%; to the 'i!inatory
"anticis" of the -elphic Phrygia, of the Iaci'es, the #ybils etc. $eracl. +r. (I, /(, ; ff., -iels:
2 q y 6
yy . Cf. also Plato on an' in )i". , ;1eJ;&a:
c ,

q
m q q
. c c p
q m,
g, y , g q
q q q y c c
q cy m c ,

y y6 c
6 q q 6 6 y

, y, l ly6
m , , c m
. Cf. also Philo#pec. Deg. , IA, ./ : c y
c ,

c cq
c

q yy6 yq,
c y m q
, c q
m y l y
m Cf. further I, (%0 =er. -i!. $er. , &(% 0 Ia"bl.4yst. , III, . (p. 1</,
11 (p. 1&( etc. Eor is there lac*ing a connection between $ellenistic prophecy an' what Irenaeus
(I, 13, 3 can tell of the Christian 5nostic 4arcos,
/
whose 'e"onic prophetic gift is transferre' to
a wo"an: q c q 6, 6
6, , or Celsus` 'escription of the
i"pulse of Christian ecstatics ( Hrig.Cels. , ;, G f., na"ely, after prophetic utterances, which are
intelligible e!en though uttere' with the clai" to be spo*en by a 'i!ine ,go,
ym g , c y6
cm y c, q c q y
q, m, g , c (;,
/. )he unintelligible lists of "agical na"es an' letters in the "agic pap. ( voces mysticae , which
are use' in the in!o*ing an' con3uring of go's an' spirits,
1<
"ay also be analogous to this
; Cf. the "aterial in Do"bar', 4osi"an, Hesterreich, 5^ntert, op. cit.
G Cf. ,. =oh'e, Psyche
/J1<
(1/&%, II, &< ff., %1, %G ff., (G etc.0 =eit>enstein Poi". , %% ff.0 2oh. 6. 1 B. , 33Gf.0
$. Deisegang, Der /l. )eist , I, 1 (1/1/, 1(G ff.0 cf. 1&% ff.0 $neuma /agion , 11G ff.: Dt>". B. , (G f.
/ Cf. =eit>enstein Poi". , &&< ff.
1< ,.g., Preis. Laub. , FIII (Dei'en, %GG ff.: , , l ,
cm Am, q , , mmm : mmm 26,
Am, Zy, A, Am, B, m .
obscure an' "eaningless spea*ing with tongues. 6ith these "ystical 'i!ine na"es etc., in which
there are echoes of all the !arious oriental languages,
11
we "ay certainly couple the !iew that
they 'eri!e fro" supraterrestrial tongues use' by the go's an' spirits in hea!en, each class ha!ing
its peculiar m or , e.g., in the $er"etic prayer in Preis. Laub. , FIII (Dei'en,
13/ ff.: , , g mg g
q, 6 m
. Cf. the utterance which is falsely ascribe' to Plato, but which reflects the
$ellenistic !iew, in Cl. 1l.#tro". , I, 1.3, 1: m c
, c 6 m 6
6, m c 6 6m, q 6 yy
mq c , q 6 m m or Corp. $er". , I,
&(a: )he soul which has "ounte' to the inter"e'iate *ing'o" of the y
m 6
m c q yq 6 mg lq 6
. #i"ilarly, there is reference to the tongues of angels in the )est. 2ob (.Gff.,
1&
which is a
2ewish wor* that has un'ergone Christian re!ision. $ere the three 'aughters of 2ob are gi!en
"agic gir'les by their father shortly before his 'eath: the first puts on her gir'le
cm yy c
y, y c yy
yyg mg q yyq y 0
the secon' spea*s the 6 m ( 6? 0 the thir' the
6 X . )he content of the ecstatic song of praise of the secon' 'aughter is
, an' it is a''e' by way of e7planation:
y6 6 6, K . )he
thir' e7tols 6 6 q 6 (with the
e7planatory a''ition:
yy A . 1ll three
g c y y , c
g q q y . )he !oices of the four archangels,
which in their 'ifferent waysK"agnify the Dor' of glory, are alrea'y referre' to in ,th. ,n. , .<.
Paul is aware of a si"ilarity between $ellenis" an' Christianity in respect of these
"ystical an' ecstatic pheno"ena. )he 'istinguishing feature as he sees it is to be foun' in the
religious content ( 1 C. 1&:& f. . $e can accept spea*ing with tongues as a wor* of the $oly
#pirit, as a charis"a ( 1 C. 1.:3/ 0 1 )h. %:1/ . In'ee', he can lay clai" to it hi"self ( 1 C.
1.:1G 0 13:1 0 & C. 1&:. . Iut he 'e"an's that its e7ercise before the asse"ble' co""unity
shoul' be subor'inate' to the principles of general e7hortation, or'er, li"itation an' testing
( 1 C. 1.:&( ff. , .< 0 1 )h. %:&1 f. . $igher than the gift of tongues, which in !iew of their
pagan bac*groun' the Corinthians are incline' to !iew as the spiritual gift par excellence ( 1
C. 1.:3; 0 , is the gift of prophecy, an' superior to all the gifts of the
#pirit, which in the"sel!es are !alueless an' transitory, is y ( 1 C. 13 .
b. If the 3u'g"ent of Paul on glossolalia raises the 8uestion whether this early Christian
pheno"enon can be un'erstoo' "erely in the light of the ecstatic "ysticis" of $ellenis", the
accounts of the e"ergence of glossolalia or relate' utterances of the #pirit in the first
Palestinian co""unity ( 1c. 1<:.( 0 G:1% ff. 0 &:& ff. "a*e it plain that we are concerne'
with an ecstatic pheno"enon which is share' by both 2ewish an' 5entile Christianity an' for
which there are analogies in the religious history of the H) an' 2u'ais".
13

)he ecstatic fer!our of the gWcU WXU \R , who see" to be robbe' of their in'i!i'uality an'
o!erpowere' by the #pirit (cf. 1 #. 1<:% ff. 0 1/:&< ff. 0 also 1 B. 1G:&/ f. , fin's e7pression in
bro*en cries an' unintelligible speech which "ight be 'eri'e' as the babbling of "a'"en ( & B.
11 )he "agician boasts ( Preis. Laub. , AIII pDon'onq, &< ff.: l .
1& 4. =. 2a"es, Apocrypha Anecdota , II ( <exts and Studies , A, 1 p1G/;q, 13% ff.0 =eit>enstein Poi". , %;. #o
far as possible I follow =eit>enstein`s collation of the te7t.
13 Cf. P. Aol>, Der )eist )ottes (1/1<, In'e7, s.v. ?5lossolalie@0 IoussetK5ress". , 3/. ff.
/:11 . In'ee', 'run*ar's can still "oc* Isaiah`s ecstatic babbling of obscure wor's, an' he can
gi!e the sharp answer: ?_ea !erily, with sta""ering lips an' another tongue will _ahweh spea*
to this people@ ( Is. &G:1< f. . ,!en in the case of the el'ers upon who" the #pirit i"parte' by
4oses 'escen's ( Eu. 11:&% ff. the en'ow"ent fin's pri"ary e7pression in ecstatic fren>y, i.e.,
in ra!ing gestures an' outcries after the "anner of the gWcU WXU \R . $owe!er, this 'i' not last, for ?it
was followe' by "ore sober en'ow"ent for office.@
1.
)he later literature gi!es us "any
e7a"ples of ecstatic speech, though not necessarily of spea*ing in tongues, esp. in the
apocalypses, e.g., ,th. ,n. ;1:11, where ,noch, ha!ing been ta*en up into hea!en, says: ?I then
fell on "y face, an' "y whole bo'y "elte', an' "y spirit was transfor"e', an' I crie' with a
lou' !oice, with the spirit of power, an' I praise' an' e7tolle' an' "agnifie' ($i"@0 -a. .:1(
DFF: m m
q q 6 mg
q . +or a''itional $ellenistic 2ewish "aterial fro" Philo an' the )est. 2ob, ;&& f.
c. )he e!ent of Pentecost, as recor'e' in 1c. & , belongs to the sa"e conte7t. )his
c y6 bears essentially the sa"e characteristics as the glossolalia 'epicte' by
Paul. It is an en'ow"ent of the #pirit ( !. .f .0 cf. !. 1(f .. It ta*es ecstatic for"s ( !. . :
yy 0 !. &f .: the !isionary acco"panying pheno"ena of the win' fro" hea!en
an' fiery tongues which arouse astonish"ent ( !. ; , 1& . )he awareness of the spea*ers
see"s to be lost as in the case of 'run*ar's ( !. 13 . )here is neither an or'erly succession of
in'i!i'ual spea*ers nor an o!erri'ing concern for the hearers. )he y
( !. 11 see"s to consist in praise of 5o' (cf. 1<:.( : y .
1s 'istinct fro" Paul an' 1c. 1< an' 1/ , howe!er, this e!ent is 'epicte' in ter"s of spea*ing
in foreign tongues ( y6 , !. 11 VV , !. ( , G . In the asse"ble' crow' of
2ews an' proselytes of the diaspora each can 'etect his "other tongue on the lips of these
5alilean 'isciples ( !. G , 11 . )his philological "iracle, which is no "ere "iracle of hearing,
is the uni8ue feature in this outpouring of the #pirit as recor'e' in 1c. 1ll atte"pts, howe!er,
either to establish its historicity or to e7plain its "eaning, inclu'ing that of Lahn,
1%
co"e up
against the 'ifficulty that for each to hear his own tongue presupposes so"ething which both
here an' elsewhere see"s to be e7clu'e', na"ely, a "ultiplicity of languages. )he
( !. / , which is surely authentic, "a*es 8uite i"possible the i'ea of foreign tongues. In
a''ition, there woul' be no occasion for scorn if un*nown languages were spo*en intelligibly
(cf. !. 11 , 13 . +inally, in 1<:..f ., cf. 11:1% , 1; , particular stress is lai' on the si"ilarity
between glossolalia in Caesarea an' the Pentecost inci'ent in 2erusale". It thus see"s that,
perhaps 'ue to two sources, the tra'ition in 1c. & is confuse', an' we are not gi!en any !ery
reliable picture of what really happene'. )he historical *ernel is a "ass ecstasy on the part of
the 'isciples which inclu'es outbrea*s of glossolalia. )his first e7perience of the presence of
the #pirit in the early co""unity lea's to enthusiastic possession, which is 8uic*ly followe',
howe!er, by the or'erly prophetic witness of Peter ( !. 1.ff . an' "issionary enterprise.
=eflection on the basic significance of the reception of the #pirit at Pentecost le' the
co""unity to see a parallel with the establish"ent of the 2ewish co""unity as 'epicte' in
2ewish tra'ition, na"ely, that in the gi!ing of the Daw at #inai the 6or' of 5o' was
'istribute' into ;< languages, so that each nation recei!es the co""an'"ents in its own
tongue.
1(
)he "iracle of tongues by which the 5ospel is trans"itte' to the nations at
Pentecost thus correspon's to the "iracle by which the Daw is publishe' to the worl'. )he
result of this reflection, which sees in Christianity a new worl' religion as 'istinct fro"
2u'ais", is containe' in the Ducan account of Pentecost, which is a legen'ary 'e!elop"ent of
the story of the first an' significant occurrence of glossolalia in Christianity.
1. Aol>, op. cit. , &G.
1% 1c., I, 1<&f. Ln. sees here the antithesis to the confusion of tongues at Iabel an' an in'ication that the #piritK
fille' co""unity of belie!ers is to proclai" the 5ospel to all nations.
1( ,7a"ples are gi!en in #tr.KI. , II, (<. f.0 cf. Philo#pec. Deg. , II, 1G/ 0 -ecal. , 3& ff. , .( f. Cf. also #chl.
5esch. '. erst. Chr. , &1 ff.
'. )he 8uestion how the wor' y6 ca"e to be a technical ter" for this ecstatic "o'e
of e7pression has recei!e' 'ifferent answers. Hf the three "ain "eanings of y6 ,
?tongue@ ( ;1/ , ;&< is the least a'apte' to furnish an e7planation. It is an intrinsically
unli*ely assu"ption that glossolalia si"ply "eans spea*ing with the tongue as an instru"ent
of the #pirit, i.e., to the e7clusion of hu"an consciousness. #uch a !iew woul' 'o 3ustice
neither to the e7pressions of Paul (the in'i!i'ual pneu"atic has y ym6 in 1 C.
1&:1< an' is calle' 6 y6 ( plur. in 1.:% , cf. !. 1G an' 13:1 nor to those
of 1c. (in &:11 , cf. !. ( , G , the "eaning ?tongue@ is 8uite i"possible, an' logically the sa"e
is true in !. . . Eor is there any support in the sources for the con3ecture that 1c. &:3 f. le' to
the early Christian use of y6 as a technical ter" for ecstatic utterance.
1;
)he sense of a
?strange, unintelligible or "ysterious wor'@
1G
( ;&< fits one essential aspect of y6
in Paul ( 1 C. 1.:& , / , 11 , but it is the aspect which the apostle "ost sharply criticises, so
that it coul' har'ly be the "ost pro"inent aspect e!en in the Corinthian churchda potiori fit
denominatioA Hb!iously y6 is for Paul "ore than an isolate' oracle ( 1 C. 1.:&( :
y6 c along with q , c
c . )he fact that he calls the charis"a y ym6 ( 1 C. 1&:1< , &G 0 cf. 1.:1<
in'icates that in his !iew the 'istincti!e feature is to be foun' in the wealth an' !ariety of
y6 . )he wor's c ( 1c. &:. an' ( 4*. 1(:1; are a further in'ication
that the essence of the gift lies in the fact that it is i"plies the new an' unusual. It thus see"s
"ost li*ely that the wor' y6 has here the sense of ?language@ ( ;&< , ;&& , an' that
it is use' as a ?technical e7pression for a peculiar language,@
1/
na"ely, the ?language of the
#pirit,@ a "iraculous language which is use' in hea!en between 5o' an' the angels ( 1 C.
13:1 an' to which "an "ay attain in prayer as he is sei>e' by the #pirit an' caught up into
hea!en ( & C. 1&:& ff. 0 cf. 1C. 1.:& , 13 ff. 0 1c. 1<:.( 0 &:11 . )he hea!enly origin of the
pheno"enon is certainly gi!en strong e"phasis in 1c. &:& ff. )his interpretation,
&<
which
'oes not gi!e any final answer to the 8uestion whether y6 is an abbre!iate'
e7pression for c y6 ( 1c. &:. , cf. 1 C. 1.:&1 ,
&1
"eets the facts of
the case both in Paul an' in 1c., e!en though it is not always possible to gi!e a strict
ren'ering of y6 . It is also in *eeping with $ellenistic usage an' syncretistic "o'es of
thought, yet not to the 'etri"ent of its lin* with 2ewish conceptions ( ,th. ,n. .<.
Di*e other ecstatic pheno"ena in early Christianity, glossolalia is "ore than a tribute to
the century of its origins. In the #pirit the young co""unity learne' by e7perience ?that
'ecisi!e e7periences begin with a powerful act as with an upwelling spring.@
&&
Iut the first
enthusiastic surge 8uic*ly assu"e' fruitful for"s of spiritual acti!ity. ,cstatic egois" was
harnesse' to general e'ification (Paul. 6e can thus see that the 'i!ine power of the #pirit 'i'
in fact rule in the co""unity. 1ny subse8uent pheno"ena of glossolalia in Church history
can only be hollow i"itations of this first springti"e of the #pirit.
&3


*

a. ?#pea*ing another language,@ ?of an alien tongue@ ( synon. , e.g., Polyb. ,
FFIII, 13, &: cy6 0
Hnosan'er, &(, &: cy6 6 6 0 #trabo, AIII, 1, &. b.
?#pea*ing 'ifferent languages,@ PhiloConf. Ding. , G ( opp. m . In both senses it is the
e8ui!alent of ym (cf. PhiloPoster. C. , /1 0 2os.1nt. , 1, 11; . cym
'oes not occur in the DFF but is foun' in A at 11:1 0 Is. 33:1/ .
1; Ich". B. , .&&, n. 1.
1G #o esp. +. Ilee*, )h#tBr , & (1G&/, 3 ff.
1/ 4osi"an, op. cit. , 3%, cf. 13< ff.
&< Cf. 6. Iousset, 551 (1/<1, ;;3: ?:tterance with tongues is the speech of angels in which the secrets of the
hea!enly worl' are re!eale'.@
&1 Il.K-ebr. ] .G<, 3.
&& Aol>, op. cit. , &G, n. %.
&3 Cf. 4osi"an, Do"bar', Hesterreich, op. cit.
9 cym . Cr.KBC. , (30 Pr.KIauer , ./<0 Di''ellK#cott , ;<10 co"". on 1 C. 1.:&1 .
In the E) it occurs only at 1 C. 1.:&1 : cy6 (?"en of foreign speech@
cm m q

m
l . $ere Paul is e7poun'ing Is. &G:11 f. , apparently accor'ing to a te7t
relate' to A 0
1
DFF: m, y6 c,
q . $e sees in it a
prophecy of early Christian glossolalia which 'oes not ai" at the e'ification of the
co""unity an' is thus unprofitable (cf. !. && . 5lossolalia in this sense is a "iraculous
'i!ine sign which wor*s in unbelie!ers to ?bring about a final an' 'ecisi!e repu'iation of
5o'.@
&
In Is., of course, the "en of another speech are 1ssyrians, whereas for Paul they are
"en who spea* the language of hea!enly spirits ( glwssa, ;&( . Iut this is si"ply an
e7a"ple of Paul`s so!ereign reinterpretation of the H) , for which there are "any parallels
a"ong the =abbis, an' of which this is an instructi!e instance.
3

*ehm
!
*

)his 'oes not 'eri!e fro" y but fro" the ol' part. y , ?born,@ as in y,
y . It originally 'enotes the true son as oppose' to the a'opte',
1
or the legiti"ate as
oppose' to the . It thus "eans ?true born.@ In a wi'er sense it "ay be use' for the wife as
'istinct fro" the . +igur. it "eans ?regular,@ ?unfalsifie',@ ?genuine,@ or ?pure.@ It is a
fa!ourite wor' in the pap. , co""on in Philo an' 2oseph. , but in the DFF occurs only in the
apocryphal writings ( #ir. ;:1G 0 3 4acc. 3:1/ .
In the E) it is not foun' in the
#
ynopt. or 2n. (inclu'ing =e!.. 2n. uses
instea'. )he E) always uses it of persons by way of recognition. )hus in Phil. .:3 the
y has shown hi"self to be a true fellowKwor*er, an' in 1 )". 1:& 0 )t. 1:. )i"othy
an' )itus are genuine sons of Paul because they ha!e a true faith.
&
In relation to & C. G:G :
y y m , cf. the #estos inscr., ;:
q y .
3
Phil. &:&< :
ym 6 , is to be co"pare' with & 4acc. 1.:G : ym
6 (in 3 4acc. 3:&3 the a'!erb is use' in a 'ifferent sense an' P. Don'., 13<, 3 (1v&
cent. 1.-. : ym .
.

*8chsel
, " , !
.
*

A. The Gree. ,sage.
1. 1cc. to Phrynichus, 33( this is an Ionic wor', use' by. Phocyli'es of 4iletus ( c. %.< I.C. 0
but this 'eri!ation is 'ebatable.
1
Di*e the synon. 1ttic m it is probably ono"atopoeic,
1 Cf. the note on 1 C. 1.:&1 in Hrig.Philocal. , /, & (p. %%, =obinson: y l g
g g A cq 0 also $. Aoll"er, Die at.lichen !itate bei $ls.
(1G/%, &; f.0 Dt>". B.
3
, ;30 H. 4ichel, $ls. u. s. *ibel (1/&/, (. f.
& Ich". B. , .&<.
3 4ichel, op. cit. , 1(G.
9 y . Pr.KIauer , s.v.
1 Cf. yq yy in e7planation of y , -e"osth. , .., ./.
#ynopt. #ynoptist.
& Cf. y l l in =eit>enstein Poi". , 13, 30 3.<.
3 -iener Studien , I (1G;/, 33 ff., c. 1&< I.C.
. I owe this to Iertra".
9 yyym . Pr.KIauer , &%;0 Di''ellK#cott , 3%%0 P. 4elcher, De sermone "picteteo quibus rebus ab Attica
regula discedat (VV -iss. phil. $al. , 1; p1/<;q, 1J11., (1.
1 Cf. the bibl. in Pr.KIauer &%;.
&
but it is less correct an' elegant, appearing in literature only in the postKChristian epoch. )he
ol'est incontestable attestation is in P. Petr. , III, .3, col. 3, &< in a letter 'ate' the ;th year of
Ptole"y III (&.1v3/ I.C. , where we rea' in 1, 1/ff.: y m
3

, 6 l

q q,
m yyy cyq. q l,
c q . )he "eaning here is ?to be
'issatisfie'@ or ?to e7press 'issatisfaction,@ 3ustifiably, as it appears, in this instance. )here is a
si"ilar use in P. H7y. , I, 33, col. 3, 1. (&n' cent. 1.-. , where it 'enotes ?e7pressions of
'ispleasure@: Pm yy at the procession of so"eone con'e"ne' to 'eath who"
they 'isli*e'.
)o the few e7a"ples fro" the pap.
.
we "ay a'' one or two literary attestations. ,pict.-iss.
, I, &/, %%: c y m ,
6 m, ymq m q
yyym, , c 6 l
c . $ere the wor' has the sense alrea'y note', as also in IA, 1, ;/: , q
c yyy , where yyy , use' with in the sense of acti!e opposition,
in'icates !erbal protest against a 'istasteful action, i.e., the enforcing of "ilitary ser!ice on the
sage. In 4. 1nt. , &, 3 we ha!e the a'"onition: q c 6 m p, q
yyym g, m 6
. $ere yyy 'enotes ?gru"bling at 'isappointe' hopes.@ It is i"portant that the last
e7a"ple gi!es us "uch the sa"e "eaning as the first in &.lv3/ I.C.
&. In relation to the general use of yyy in nonK2ewish an' nonKChristian 5ree*
%

we can easily 'iscern its basic sense in spite of !ariations. It carries with it the thought of a
legal clai" an' the !iew that no satisfaction has been or is being 'one to this clai". Ioth the
clai" an' the opinion are, of course, sub3ecti!e. )his aspect is not affecte' by the possibility
that both "ay so"eti"es see" to be fully 3ustifie'. )he e7a"ples also show us that fro" the
!ery first yyy has no particular religious associations. )o be sure, in 4. 1nt. it is use'
as the opposite of the fitting attitu'e of than*fulness to the go's. )his 'oes not "ean,
howe!er, that it is in any sense a technical ter". It shoul' be note' that the personal reaction
'enote' by yyy is not represente' as 'irecte' against the go's, but si"ply as a
personal reaction. 1t "ost in this passage we coul' only say that it is a reaction which as such
i"putes in3ustice to the go's, an' e!en this is perhaps saying too "uch. )he state"ent thus
helps to clarify a point which is not always 8uite so clear, na"ely, that behin' yyy
stan's "an in his totality0 yyy 'escribes a basic personal attitu'e an' the e7ternal
con'uct shape' by the te"pera"ent an' situation of the in'i!i'ual.
(
6e ha!e here a
presupposition for the use of the wor' in the DFF to the e7tent that in biblical religion "an is
always a 'istinct an' selfKcontaine' whole.
)he unilateral character of the ter" perhaps gi!es us a secon' presupposition. 1 strong
wor' was nee'e' to 'escribe a particular attitu'e of the people of Israel in certain
circu"stances ( ;3< . yyy is such a wor'. )his "ay be seen fro" all the
e7a"ples. Eor shoul' we ignore the subsi'iary ele"ent of censure. )he attitute 'enote' by it
is not see"ly in those who 'isplay it. 6e can see this alrea'y in the first e7a"ple in the pap.
)he writer of the letter uses the yyy of his wor*ers as a "eans of pressure, but he
& yyym is use' of the cooing of 'o!es in Poll.Hno". , A, G/.
3 )his "eans here a colu"n of wor*ers.
. Cf. Preisig*e 6Crt. , 3<3. )he "ost i"portant e7a"ples are "entione' abo!e.
%
#o far as I can see, the only literary e7a"ple apart fro" those "entione' is Ps.KDuc.Hcyp. , ..
f.:
mq y l yyym ym .
( )his is true e!en in P. H7y. , I, 33, col. 3, 1., where one "ight "ost easily assu"e a 'ifferent usage.
"a*es it plain that their attitu'e is unusual an' therefore that attention shoul' be pai' to it,
though he 'oes not i'entify hi"self with it but "erely reports it. It is in *eeping with this
aspect that the ter" is always use' of others. In other wor's, this is a trait which e!en on
5ree* soil "ar*s one as a m ( 3&< . 1s with the latter ter", we thus ha!e here
an i"portant presupposition in respect of the biblical usage. In'ee', it is one which greatly
facilitates its incorporation into the biblical worl' of thought an' utterance as this is shape' by
the concept of 5o', an' as it 'oes not "erely 'epict "an, but con'e"ns hi".
B. a"ong Gree. *e&s.
1. In the DFF yyy occurs 1% ti"es, an' yyy ( ;3% 1< ti"es.
;
In 1&
cases it is base', on the #e".0 it is use' ; ti"es for m[OY , once for y[OY y[kY\h : Is. 3<:1& , 3 ti"es
for m\ j[kcNR MU ( Eu. 11:1 0 Dain. 3:3/: 2. 10:25 an' twice for mis}h (*al: Is. &/:&. 0 niph:
105:25 . 1"ong the passages which 'o not use a for" of m[OY , Is. 3<:1& i"ports into
yyy an interpretation of the original by the translator, i.e., in respect of the 'isobe'ience
an' 'eficient trust of the people along the lines of the tra'itional national sin, though it is also
possible that he ha' a corrupt te7t, or "a'e a "ista*e, an' thus presu"e' a for" of m[OY for y[kY\h .
In Is. &/:&. again it is ob!ious that there is an ele"ent of interpretation, as we can see especially
in the ren'ering of ros YP as . )hus we ha!e l c yyy
for ros YPl[O~TR YRWU gW\UiR[k}[R . In this way the pro"ise is accentuate'0 e!ery apparent
intellectual ele"ent is e7clu'e'.
G
)hose who ha!e pre!iously "ur"ure' against 5o' will learn to
obey $i". )he two ter"s yyy an' , both controlle' by the concept of 5o',
are thus seen to be opposites. )his goes "uch beyon' the original on a presupposition which is in
full *eeping with the use of yyy . )here is a si"ilar 'e!elop"ent of the original in Eu.
11:1 , where M[hkMWR W\jyRch XR Z}s gW\ U\Rck NR TU {OR gZh Mh WMU WR[s is translate' q yyym
c K . )he attitu'e of the people is thus lifte' out of the real" of "ere
"oo' an' seen as culpable guilt. It is best to ta*e Da". 3:3/ in the sense that the yyy ,
i.e., 'issatisfaction, is really against oneself ( rather than against 5o'.
1 closer analysis of these passages brings out two factors. )he first is the inner
consistency of the wor' e!en where it 'eri!es fro" 'ifferent #e"itic roots. 6e are not to
attribute this to the translators, but to the fact that they foun' here an establishe' ter" a'apte'
to e7press both the concern of the te7t an' their own concern. )he secon' is the theological
character of the ter". $ere alrea'y yyy always signifies an ungo'ly attitu'e on the
part of "an an' not "erely 'issatisfaction at an unfulfille' pro"ise, as in or'inary 5ree*. _et
the latter contributes in full "easure the suggestion that the whole "an shares in the attitu'e
thus 'escribe'.
&. )he ter" which colours yyy in the DFF, an' which is nor"ally translate'
yyy , is m[OY . It occurs only in ,7. 1%J1; an' Eu. 1.J1; , apart fro" 2os. /:1G .
#i"ilarly, the 'eri!ates M\OhYNOR an' M\h[OYNOR are foun' only in these passages. )he root m[OY is
always ren'ere' yyy K. It is thus in the light of this ste" that we are to un'erstan'
yyy in the DFF.
m[OY "eans ?to "ur"ur,@ an' e7cept in 2os. /:1G it refers to the attitu'e of the people when
'eli!ere' fro" ,gypt but not yet brought into the pro"ise' lan', an' therefore 'iscontente'
with its lot. :sually the "ur"uring is against 4oses ( ,7. 1%:&. 0
/
1;:3 , or 4oses an'
; 1s counte' by $atchK=e'path. In the DFF m[OY is always ren'ere' either yyy or yyy , an'
m\j[ kcNR MU always yyy .
G Is. &/:&.a rea's: M\hWXOU rs [O}lWZj Nk [OZ~RWh[R .
/ $ere, of course, we ha!e yyy , as in ,7. 1(:& , ; , G 0 Eu. 1.:& , 3( 0 1(:11 .
1aron ( ,7. 1(:& 0 Eu. 1.:& 0 1;:( , &< , though there can be no 'oubt that it is finally against
5o', at whose co""ission these "en le' the people out of ,gypt (cf. ,7. 1(:; , G 0 Eu.
1.:&; , &/ , 3( .
1<
)he "ur"uring always has so"e concrete groun', na"ely, hunger or
thirst in the 'esert ( ,7. 1%:&. 0 1(:3 , or the pro7i"ity an' yet apparent unattainability of the
pro"ise' lan' ( Ea. 1.:1 . )here is, of course, a certain 3ustification for it. )he
presupposition of the whole attitu'e is the election of the people in the e7o'us. )his is grace
no less than the pro"ise of the lan'. Iut the people "a*es of it a clai", i.e., a clai" to be
care' for in e!ery respect an' to be brought to the goal without effort. 6hen the people
"ur"urs, it is always because it thin*s that 3ustice has not been 'one or is not being 'one to
its clai". )he te7ts lea!e us in no 'oubt, that the clai" an' this assess"ent of the situation are
both wholly sub3ecti!e. _et they also lea!e us in no 'oubt that in such an attitu'e 5o' is
re'uce' to hu"an stan'ar's an' is robbe', or is in process of being robbe', of $is
so!ereignty in relation to the people. )his is why the "ur"uring of the people is a te"pting of
5o' ( ,7. 1;:& etc. or a scorning of 5o' ( xcj \U , Eu. 1.:11 . )his is why it is se!erely
punishe'. +or "ur"uring is an attitu'e of the whole "an. $ence it incurs guilt which "ust be
punishe'. +inally, this helps us to see why the right attitu'e, in contrast to "ur"uring, is
mWTU cu MP , i.e., uncon'itional acceptance ( Eu. 1.:11 or obe'ience, hear*ening to the !oice of
5o' ( Eu. 1.:&& .
In *eeping with what has been sai', we can appreciate that yyy was peculiarly
fitte' by its presuppositions to e7press the point at issue in m[OY , but that in so 'oing it
recei!e' a 'istinctly religious accentuation which was not present in the 5ree* worl'. It now
suggests the 3u'g"ent an' con'e"nation of 5o' by the "an who" 5o' has boun' to
$i"self, who therefore owes $i" trust, gratitu'e an' obe'ience, but who instea' constitutes
hi"self $is 3u'ge. It also suggests 5o'`s 3u'g"ent on this "an.
1t this point we can easily fit the yyy passages alrea'y "entione' ( ;&/ into the
history an' usage of the ter". )his is true of 105:25 , where mis}h is the original, an' -t. 1:&; ,
where we ha!e yyy , since both passages refer to the "ur"uring of the people
after the return of the spies ( Eu. 1.:1 ff. .
11
In 2. 10:25 there is no historical allusion, but
the usage is the sa"e, especially when we consi'er the $eb. : q m
yyy VV m\j[kcNR WU cYk }h [k\ g{hrh [R
1&
0 chastise"ent will not cause the "an who *nows 5o'
to beco"e e"bittere'.
Hf the re"aining passages ( 2u. 1:1. 0 2't. %:&& an' 5:16 , the last is the only one to ha!e
a $eb. original, but it is too te7tually uncertain to be of "uch help. Perhaps the translator ha'
another te7t,
13
or perhaps he trie' to enhance the se!erity of the !erse by referring the
yyy to ungo'ly ene"ies.
1.
It is i"possible to say. In 2u. 1:1. yyy is lin*e' with
an' is 'esigne' to strengthen a re8uest. In 2't. %:&& the wor' e7presses in'ignation an'
li!ely protest. In these two cases the usage is the sa"e as that of secular 5ree* both before an'
after Christ.
1%
)here are thus e7a"ples of this in the DFF too.
3. )o co"plete the history of the ter" we shoul' ta*e a brief glance at later 2ewish usage,
an' also at that of Philo an' 2osephus. In this case the fin'ings are particularly instructi!e. +or
1< Cf. esp. Eu. 1(:11 : ?6hat is 1aron, that ye "ur"ur against hi"e@ 4oses an' 1aron are representati!es (
gWrU [ OYQRS of 5o' to the people. Cf. .1. an' esp. .1% .
11 )he translator of 105:24 f. see"s to ha!e been fa"iliar with . 1:1. 0 cf. 105:24b with .
1:2 .
1& )his wor', or perhaps m[kX\h , is not in the original an' "ust be supplie'0 cf. =. #"en', Die -eisheit des
#esus Sirach (1/<(. ad loc.
13 Cf. I$B& , ad loc. 1ccor'ing to 5. Iertra" 5:16 rests on a confusion of m[OY an' mWYU
1. )he wor' har'ly fits the co"parison of the ungo'ly with hungry 'ogs.
1% ;&G .
we fin' confir"ation of the fact that, notwithstan'ing certain !ariations in 'etail, the "eaning
of the wor' as 'eter"ine' by the un'erlying m[OY in ,7. 1%J1; an' Eu. 1.J1; beco"es the
"ain sense of the ter" in all later 2u'ais". )he =abbis, Philo an' 2osephus are here at one. It
'oes not affect the thesis that goo' care is often ta*en to a!oi' the wor'. +or since we can
un'erstan' the reasons for this, the affir"ation only ac8uires the greater weight.
a. )he =abbis engage in e7egesis an' syste"atic 'eclaration of the Daw a"ong those who
*now the te7ts which are e7poun'e' or ta*en as a startingKpoint. $ence there is no e!a'ing
the "ur"uring of the people0 it is atteste' in the )orah. Iut this "eans that there is no
e!a'ing the wor' which the )orah uses for it ( m[OY . It is thus the "ore instructi!e to see the
atte"pts "a'e to 'i!est this "ur"uring of its ungo'ly an' hostile character an' to ren'er it
har"less. 1 co""on way of 'oing this is to interpret the H) wor' in ter"s of the less
pregnant gZs }s NR MU or ( 1ra". gZs }s N R cU .
gWZU }R MU in the H) "eans ?to cause to thun'er,@ an' in 1 #. 1:( ?to pro!o*e to anger.@
4aterially, then, it is not relate' to m[OY . Hn the other han', in #yr. gZ} "eans ?to lift up one`s
!oice,@ an' gZ}Nc can so"eti"es "ean ?to "a*e oneself 'isagreeable@ etc. )he latter beca"e
the usual ren'ering of m[OY in the )argu"s0
1(
m[OY itself ne!er occurs.
1;
,!en "ore i"portant is
the fact that the =abbis, when they ha!e occasion to refer to the "ur"uring of the people, 'o not
use the ter" suggeste' by the te7t, but gZs }s NR rU , e.g., 4. ,7. on 1(:; (p. 1(&, 1<, $oro!it>K
=abin: ?6hat then are we, that ye "ur"ur against use@ )hey (i.e., 4oses an' 1aron say: ?6hy
'o you pay such particular regar' to us, that you rise up an' "ur"ur against us ( [O\WYjZh gWTU Z }s NR TU
gNOP cs QPS .@( gZs }s NR MU , howe!er, is not an e7act e8ui!alent of m[OY . If it were, all woul' be in
or'er an' the specific "eaning an' theological thrust of m[OY woul' be "aintaine' in a new for".
In fact, howe!er, gZs }s NR MU is the wor' use' by later 2u'ais" for gru"bling 'issatisfaction in
general. :nli*e m[OY , it is not relate' specifically to the concept of 5o'. Cf. 4. ,7. on &<:& (p.
&&1, &1 : ?$e "ur"ure' ( gZ}NT MWM[ (against the *ing because he ha' not been set o!er the
treasure of sil!er an' gol'@0 3Ier., %c, &. f.:
1G
?1 wor*er who wor*s only a short ti"e but shows
particular s*ill is gi!en the sa"e wage as his fellows who ha' to wor* the whole 'ay0 hence the
wor*ers "ur"ure' ( mWTZ}NT [WM[ etc. 4ost pertinent of all, howe!er, is the use of NTP [kZ}R NOs in
place of the H) M\OhYONOR to e7press Israel`s "ur"uring against 5o' ( 4. ,7. on 1%:&. pp. 1%%, 3 ff.,
$oro!it>K=abinq0 cf. cNOh TR Zs }R NO , )g. H. , ,7. 1(:1& 0 cNh [OTZ }R NO )g. H. , ,7. 1(:; f. , li*e the
protest of so"eone who has been cheate' in wages, business etc. ( I4 , ., (0 (, 1. In other wor's,
we are brought bac* to the situation which obtaine' prior to the a'option of yyy by the
translators of the H) to e7press the specific attitu'e of the co!enant people of Israel 'enote' by
m[OY .
)he wea*ening of the sinful ele"ent in Israel`s "ur"uring against 5o' can be
acco"plishe' in another way. )he te7ts lea!e us in no 'oubt as to the true character of this
"ur"uring e!en where it is not e7pressly state' to be against ( YZs 5o' ( ;3< . )he
=abbis coul' har'ly a!oi' the force of this, an' in 4. ,7. on 1%:&. (p. 1%%, . f., $oro!it>K
=abin, for e7a"ple, "ur"uring against 4oses is recognise' to be also against 5o' ( YZs
M}h [ OXiORMs . Iut "itigation is foun' by representing this as a "ur"uring before 5o', so that it
loses "ost of its character as guilt.
1/

1( ,.g., )g. H. , ,7. 1%:&. 0 1(:& , ; etc.
1; De!y 'oes not ha!e the root either in Chal'. 6Crt. or 6Crt.
1G yyy .
1/ )here is so"ething of a par. in the efforts "a'e by the =abbis to rob -a!i' of bla"e in the affair with
Iathsheba ( 3&%, inclu'ing n. %G f. .
4. ,7. on 1(:G (p. 1(&, 1%: ? an' lo, you stan' up an' "ur"ur ( gWTU Z }s NR TU , before (
W\jR YU the Hne who li!es an' continues to all eternity. #. Eu. , G. on 1<:3% (p. G<, 1. f.,
$oro!it>: ? then began the Israelites to "ur"ur ( gWTU Z }s NR TU before 5o' ( g[koTOh Ms W\jR YU @
etc.
b. )he situation is e!en clearer in Philo an' 2osephus. )hey are writing for nonK2ews, an'
in so far as they recor' the history of their people they are concerne' to "a*e it as glorious
an' i"pressi!e as possible. $ence they "ust either suppress any conflicts between 5o' an'
$is people or represent the" rather 'ifferently fro" #cripture. )he repeate' "ur"uring of the
people is part of the scriptural recor' of these conflicts. It is noticeable, howe!er, that, while
the =abbis "a*e "ention of this in other ter"s, Philo an' 2osephus 'o not "erely a!oi' the
wor' yyy but 'epict the e!ents the"sel!es fro" a !ery 'ifferent angle. 6e can
un'erstan' this only if the wor' was so repugnant both to the authors an' rea'ers that it ha' to
be a!oi'e' on apologetic groun's.
&<

2osephus "a*es the "ur"uring of Israel against 4oses at 4arah ( ,7. 1%:&3 f. an urgent
appeal for help ( 1nt. , 3, ( ,
&1
that in the wil'erness of #inai ( ,7. 1(:& f. a co"plaint ( 1nt. ,
3, 11 an' "o!e"ent ( 1nt. , 3, 13 against 4oses,
&&
that in =ephi'i" ( ,7. 1; :l ff. a l
y m ( 1nt. , 3, 33 , that after lea!ing #inai ( Eu. 11:1
&3
a
against 4oses ( 1nt. , 3, &/% , an' that after the return of the spies ( Eu. 1.:1 ff.
illKa'!ise' co"plaint lin*e' with against 4oses an' 1aron ( 1nt. , 3, 3<( . 1t
e!ery point the aspect of co"plaint against 5o' is ignore'. )his is true e!en on the last occasion
when 4oses spea*s of the an' of the people ( 1nt. , 3, 311 , for neither
wor' presupposes the thought of 5o' to 5*. ears.
In Philo we fin' such wor's as , use' in respect
of ,7. 1%:&3 f. ( Ait. 4os. , I, 1G1 f. , , followe' by an of 4oses, in
respect of ,7. 1(:1 ff. ( ibid. , 1/&, ym m in respect of ,7. 1;:1 ff. ( ibid. ,
1/(. )he "ur"uring of Eu. 1.:1 ff. is represente' as cowar'ice ( an' is ascribe' to
only G< of the people ( ibid. , &33 f.. ,!erything is a "atter of "oo' an' concerns only the
people an' not 5o'. )here is a certain e7ception in Ait. 4os. , I, &3( , where 4oses 'escribes the
attitu'e of the cowar's as an' of the bra!e as
y , but this 'oes not alter the basic picture nor affect its rationalistic character.
6e "ay thus conclu'e that the unani"ity of the theological 3u'g"ent on Israel e7presse'
in m[ OY v yyy is not "aintaine' in later 2u'ais". Iy choosing yyy , the DFF
reaches a high point of usage an' un'erstan'ing which is ne!er again reache' in 2u'ais".
C. in the %T.
+or a true grasp of the E) usage we "ust see it against the DFF bac*groun' an' also ta*e
into account the 'e!iations of later 2u'ais". )hree groups call for notice.
1. In 4t. &<:11 yyy a"ounts to little "ore than the gZs }s NR MU of later 2u'ais". )he
=abbis, too, can spea* of the gru"bling of wor*ers who 'o not thin* that they are properly
pai' ( ;3& . )he wor' is use' in its strict secular sense in D*. %:3< , where it 'enotes the
'issatisfaction of the religious lea'ers at 2esus` 'ealings with publicans an' sinners, which as
they see it are 8uite i"proper. )he two instances of yyy in D*. 1%:& an' 1/:; (
;3% "ay be place' in the sa"e category.
&< In !iew of the e7tent to which 2osephus 8uotes his sources in the 1nt. , an' esp. the DFF, his attitu'e at this
point is 'oubly stri*ing.
&1 4aterially, cf. also 6is. 11:. .
&& $ere we also ha!e a warning against the threatene' stoning of 4oses on the groun' that it woul' be a
(3, &1.
&3 $ere the DFF has yyy e!en though there is no m[OY in the original.
&. )here is a 'irect connection with m[OY v yyy at 1 C. 1<:1< : c yyy,
c 6 yyy, 6 . )his
state"ent recalls the historical "ur"uring of the people an' by its a'option of the special H)
ter" accepts the fact of its guilt. )o this 'egree it testifies to the rea'option of the theological
assess"ent of "ur"uring which was aban'one' by 2u'ais". )his was probably a 'irect result
of the 'eepening of the concept of 5o' by 2esus.
&.
Eo less significant is the transfer of the
wor', an' the 3u'g"ent containe' in it, to the Christian co""unity, at least as a possibility.
1t this point we can see on the one si'e the consistency with which Paul carries through the
thought of the new co!enant people ( q : 5l. (:1( an' on the other the
'anger which threatens this people if it allows its own 'esires an' cra!ings to shape its
e7pectations an' is not content with what 5o' pro"ises an' gi!es. It was along such lines that
the ancient co!enant people was betraye' into "ur"uring 'isappoint"ent, an' therefore into
sin against 5o', an' therefore into 6 .
3. In the 5ospel of 2ohn yyy is use' at (:.1 , .3 for the re3ection of 2esus by the
2ews an' at (:(1 for the sceptical attitu'e of the 'isciples,
&%
while at ;:3& it is use' of the
in its speculation whether 2esus is after all the Christ. )he 8uestion thus arises
whether there is any fi7e' usage in 2n. )he first three passages agree, but the fourth see"s to
stan' apart.
a. 6hat yyy "eans at (:(1 "ay be seen fro" !. (1b :
0 In the yyy of $is own, 2esus sees the 'anger of sinning against $i",
an' perhaps e!en the act. I""e'iately prece'ing are $is wor's concerning the eating of $is
bo'y an' 'rin*ing of $is bloo' as a presupposition for the reception of eternal life. )he
'isciples cannot accept this saying. It "a*es no o''s whether they call it because
of its bol'ness or because of their 'eficient insight ( (:(< . )he essential point is that they
"easure 2esus by their own e7pectations, which are also those of their people, an' that on this
basis they criticise $i", i.e., they e7press 'issatisfaction, which "aterially is criticis" of 5o'
an' 'issatisfaction with $i", since 2esus is the l 6 ( (:(& . )hus the
group of 'isciples, li*e Israel in the 'esert, reaches a necessary point of 'i!ision an' 'ecision.
It is no acci'ent, but belongs to the heart of the "atter, that there follows the parting fro"
2esus of those ( (:(. , cf. (( an' that in the case of those who re"ain
yyy gi!es way to confession ( (Gf .. )his contrast "a*es it plain that the whole "an
is again at sta*e in yyy .
b. )he "ost i"portant aspects of the use of the wor' in (:.1 , .3 are the sa"e. )he hearers
of 2esus a"ong the people "easure 2esus by their own stan'ar's an' re3ect $i" on this
groun'. In so 'oing they 'isplay mutatis mutandis the sa"e attitu'e as that of their fathers in
the wil'erness. It has often been note' that 2ohn refers here to though in the whole
passage 2esus is ob!iously a''ressing 5alileans ( (:&&ff .. )he point is that is
use' for the 2ewish people as officially
&(
represente'.
&;
_et the author see"s to ha!e
so"ething "ore in his "in' in his choice of this wor'. $e is perhaps in'icating that the
attitu'e of the hearers 'eri!es fro" a ?2ewish "o'e of thought.@
&G
$e is particularly
influence', howe!er, by the connection between an' yyy which is so
fa"iliar to hi" fro" the history of the 2ewish people. )he 5alilean hearers of 2esus show
the"sel!es to be by the fact that they are yyy an' that they withhol'
at the 'ecisi!e "o"ent. )he ,!angelist thus sees 'isaster o!erta*ing the people a
&. )he 1st chapter of . ,sr. gi!es us another e7a"ple which is al"ost certainly Christian in origin. In 1:1%f . (p.
&, IenslyK2a"es 5o' says: !oturnix vobis in signo fuit, castra vobis ad tutelam dedi, et illic murmurastis, et
non triumphastis in nomine meo de perditione inimicorum vestrorum, sed adhuc nunc usque murmuratis .
&% 2ohn "eans 'isciples in the wi'est sense ( .
&( Iau. 2. on 1:1/.
&; Iau. 2. , ad loc. 0 $. 2. $olt>"ann, Das "v. des #oh.
&
(1G/3, on &:1/.
&G #chl. 2. , 1;% f. Ln., ad loc. is content with the purely for"al e7planation that the 5alileans are calle' 2ews in
characterisation of their hostile "oo'.
secon' ti"e because it cannot resol!e to recognise 5o' as 5o' but insists that 5o' "ust be
gui'e' by itself an' its own opinions an' e7pectations. )his thought runs though the whole
5ospel fro" 1:11 onwar's. It helps us to see why is selecte' to su" up an' to
'elineate the circles which treat 2esus with chilly reser!e or e!en with open re3ection.
c. Perhaps 2n. ;:3& is to be !iewe' in the sa"e light. Co"parison with ;:1& (
yyy shows us that yyy 'oes not 'enote "ere 'iscussion of 2esus, or secret
appro!al of $is clai", but !acillation. It is in *eeping that the religious lea'ers fin' this
'angerous, since there is the possibility of the turning fro" the". Hn the other han',
the ,!angelist can use yyy in the sense of a. an' b. because !acillation is not
acceptance an' thus falls un'er the 'i!ine 3u'g"ent ( . 4oreo!er, the story of the
relationship between 2esus an' the up to the m pro!i'es e7ternal
3ustification for ascribing H) yyy to !acillating hearers. )he wor' thus inclu'es a
3u'g"ent, as accounts of the fact always carry the i"plie' 3u'g"ent of their author ( ;&G .
&/

".
*

1"ong 5*. writers this wor' occurs only in $elio'.1eth. , ;, &; in the sense of ?to whisper (a
"essage or tas*.@ It is foun' 1< ti"es in the DFF an' so"eti"es as a te7tual alternati!e for
yyym . ,7cept in -t. 1:&; ( mis}h niph
1
an' 2. 4:24
&
it is always use' for m[OY
3
an'
cannot be 'istinguishe' in sense fro" yyym .
In the E) it is foun' only at D*. 1%:& 0 1/:; , where it 'enotes the 'issatisfaction of the
4 an' y at the con'uct of 2esus. )here is no 'irect lin* with DFF
usage. 6e best ta*e it in ter"s of $ellenistic usage. )o atte"pts to fin' here the 2ohannine
application ( ;3. there is the ob3ection that Du*e 'oes not present the sa"e group of i'eas
as 2ohn, so that it is "ost unli*ely that there shoul' be this isolate' e7a"ple.
.
*

1cc. to Phrynichus, 33( this is an Ionic wor' li*e yyym , an' it is suppose' to ha!e been
use' by 1na7an'ri'es ( c. 3;% I.C. for ( +r. , 31, C1+ , II, 1.( in the sense of
?"ur"uring@ ( ;&G . )hus far the only literary e7a"ple *nown is in 4. 1nt. , /, 3;:
yyy
q c y da thought si"ilar to that e7presse'
in &, 3 ( ;&G , i.e., gru"bling 'issatisfaction at 'isappointe' e7pectations. In Catal. Co'. 1str.
5raec. , AII, 13/, 11 it is foun' in the sa"e sense alongsi'e , an' in P. 4asp. ,
(;1%/, &; it is use' in the articles of association of two buil'ers (-ec. 1(, %(G alongsi'e
py, an' q cym .
It occurs 11 ti"es in the DFF (not counting yyy in Eu. 1.:&; . Hf these ,7. 1(:; , G
(twice, / , 1& 0 Eu. 1;:% , 1< (&<, &% use it for N[k\OYNOR or N[k\[OYNOR to su" up the "ur"urings of
Israel. )he sense is e7actly the sa"e as that of m[OY v yyy . =ele!ant, too, is #ir. .(:; :
yyy (original: MZh }h MXOh ~OU 0 the reference is to the yyy of Eu. 1.:1
ff. #o, too, Ps. #ol. 1(:11, where a righteous "an, in the sa"e situation as that of the people in the
&/ Dater Christian usage can be ignore', since it is ne!er "ore than for"al, e.g., ,!. Pt., &G, where it occurs
along with as a sign of penitence, or )est. #ol. , /, 3 (p. 3%9, 11, 4cCown, where it is
use' of the la"entation ( of an i"prisone' 'e"on.
9 yyym Pr.KIauer , &G..
1 on this passage ;31 .
& )he $eb. has mi}W for yyy .
3 Cf. 2os. /:1G , where it is not so easy to integrate m[OY with the nor"al H) usage.
9 yyy . Pr.KIauer , &%;, Di''ellK#cott , 3%(.
'esert, prays: yyy y
1
. Hn the
other han', in 6is. 1:1< ,
&
11 the wor' 'enotes the "isuse of the tongue in the wi'est sense, as
also in Is. %G:/ , where the DFF "a*es
3
the m[Pch l}XOP }O XOs a p yyy .
.
In Ps. #ol.
%:1% the reference is si"ply to the gru"bling attitu'e of a ?benefactor.@
)he case is "uch the sa"e as with yyy . 1 "ore general use goes han' in han' with
the "ore specific. )he =abbis substitute NTP [kZ}R NOs (or correspon'ing 1ra". constructions for
N[k\OYNOR , an' this is as little a'apte' as gZs }s NR MU to bring out the true point at issue in m[OY v
yyy , as illustrate' by the conte"porary use of the ter" both in theological an' secular
conte7ts.
%
)hus it can "ean no "ore than ?e!il report@ or ?calu"niation,@ e.g., b. Ier., 1&a:
mW\UWTOU Ms NTP [kZ}R NOs ?calu"niation by heretics,@ etc. 1t the !ery "ost, therefore, we can spea* of
only a for"al an' not a "aterial par. between yyy v M\OhYNOR an' NTP [kZ}R NOs .
(

In the E) it is foun' . ti"es: 2n. ;:1& 0 1c. (:1 0 Phil. &:1. 0 1 Pt. .:/ . a. In 2n. ;:1& there
is no 'irect a'option of the theological use of yyy in the DFF as this was shape' by
the thought of 5o'. )hat is to say, the wor' is not use' to 'epict the "ur"uring of Israel. Hn
the other han', there is a lin* with it as the ,!angelist consi'ers the situation in the pri"iti!e
co""unity (cf. yyy in 2n. ;:3& . yyy is use' here to 'enote the !acillation
of the people towar's 2esus as alrea'y 'iscusse' ( ;3% .
b. 1t 1c. ( :l there is ob!iously no connection with H) yyy . )he reference here
is si"ply to the 'issatisfie' gru"bling of one part of the co""unity at clai"s which are not
"et (cf. 4. 1nt. , /, 3; an' the Ducan use of yyym an' yyym . )he sa"e
is e!en "ore true of 1 Pt. .:/ , where there is the a'"onition: l
yyy , which will free hospitality fro" either inwar' or outwar' unfrien'liness
(cf. Ps. #ol. %:1%0 supra .
c. Phil. &:1. probably stan's so"ewhere between a. an' b.: m
yyy6 y6 . It is possible that Paul is here thin*ing of the "ur"uring
of Israel, as in 1 C. 1<:1< ,
;
an' that this lea's hi" to the a'"onition. :n'erstoo' in this
way, the a'"onitiondcf. the !erses which followdwoul' tally with the general thought of
the epistle, which is one long appeal for uncon'itional selfKsurren'er to 5o' in Christ.
! .
1part fro" the E) this wor' occurs only at Pr!. &(:&& 2 for miOh}R \U ( A: 0 Pr!.
&(:&< for miOh}R \U (DFF: ; 2: A: ); Is. 2:24 (DFF: l
yyy ).
In the E) it is use' only at 2'. 1( : yyy , to 'escribe false
teachers as "en who are ?'issatisfie' with their lot
1
an' therefore with 5o',@ though not
1 Cf. 6is. 1 , where yyy is use' with , in !. & an' in !. ( . Cf.
also -i'. , 3, (, where it is lin*e' with 0 also ;33 .
& )he only plur. in the DFF, or anywhere apart fro" Phil. &:1. .
3 )his is 8uote' in Iarn. , 3, %dthe only instance of yyy in the postKapost. fathers. yyy 'oes
not occur at all, but we ha!e yyy in -i'. , 3, ( an' yyy in -i'. , ., ; an' Iarn. , 1/, 11 (neither in
the E) .
. )he thought of 5o' is always present in m[Pch , an' this "ay well affect the "eaning of yyy .
% ;3& .
( )he list of par. in #chl. 2. , 1G/ "ight well lea!e this i"pression, but it is wrong.
; )he use of y/y perhaps points in the sa"e 'irection with its suggestion of secret
'oubt0 cf. Doh., ad loc.
1 Cf. Philo Ait. 4os. , I, 1G .
gi!ing to 5o' what they owe to $i" as such. ,!en though there is no 'irect connection with
the DFF usage, there is an ob!ious si"ilarity.
Rengstorf

*
( y
)his "ostly has a. the strict sense of a ?"agician,@ esp. one who wor*s with !erbal for"ulae.
)hose who belie!e in 'e"ons ta*e hi" 8uite seriously, though he is so"eti"es 'eteste', esp. by
the e'ucate'. Cf. Philostr.Ait. 1p. , %, 1&: 1pollonius 'oes not prophesy on the basis of y
, but on that of 'i!ine re!elation, inspiration.
1
)o be sure, y can gi!e rise to the sa"e
antithesis between con3uring an' true re!elation which is free an' for that reason full. )he only
'istinction between y an' y is that the latter is "ostly use' for the lower practitioner.
?)o goetia belong con3urations, since it nor"ally wor*s with the help of e!il, lower an' stupi'
"aterial 'e"ons.@
&
)hus 1ristot. +r. , 3< e7pressly refuses to ascribe yq y to the
y . )his is not a har' an' fast 'istinction, but when strictly use' y usually bears this
'erogatory sense. b. It is thus use' for the ?false "agician@dthis is ne!er true of y in "ore
precise usage. c. It thus co"es to 'enote the ?charlatan@ in a "ore general sense, as in $ero'ot.
Cf. y in & 4acc. 1&:&. f or ?pretence.@ )his is the only occurrence of the root y J in
the DFF. y is foun' in A Pr!. &(:&& in the sense of ?'elu'ing.@
)he use of the wor' group in Philo is instructi!e. In the pri"ary sense we only ha!e
y ( #o". , I, &&< , where all "agical practices are repu'iate'. _et y is also use'
figur. to 'enote the confusion an' 'elusion of i'olatry in Prae". Poen. , &% . )he "an who abuses
the 'i!ine gift of speech is groupe' with charlatans ( y in =er. -i!. $er. , 3<& . )he
or sensual "an is also calle' a y (?charlatan@ in the list of !ices in #acr. 1C. ,
3& . 4ost i"portant is #pec. Deg. , I, 31% , where an' y are contraste'. )he one
is the bearer of true re!elation, whereas the other co"poses his own allege' 'i!ine sayings. +or
Philo y is basically the opposite of truth (cf. esp. Prae". Poen. , G 0 #o". , II, .< . It "ay
thus be use' as an e8ui!alent of falsehoo' or 'eception (with in Hp. 4un'. , 1(% , e!en
where there is not the slightest suggestion of "agic (as in Plant. , 1<( . It can thus signify
hypocritical con'uct ( -ecal. , 1&% 0 cf. Deg. 5a3. , 1(& , 'eception (of q in Post. C. , 1<1
or the natural sensual "agic of wo"an ( Ait. 4os. , I, 3<1 . In the figur. sense it can also be use',
of course, with reference to the worl' of thought of alien religions ( Hp. 4un'. , & 0 Prae". Poen. ,
G . Philo is not thin*ing only of har"less 'eception0 y (li*e y always carries with it
the thought of 'eliberate 'eceit.
In the E) the only occurrence is at & )". 3:13 . In ,ur.Ia. , &3. -ionysus is calle' a
y , ob!iously in the sense of one who entices to i"pious action by apparently pious
wor's,
3
an' this is the "eaning in & )". 3:13 . )he y are here i'entical with those
'escribe' in !. (f . )here is no contrast here between "agic an' re!elation. 1s in Philo, the
wor' is use' figurati!ely, yet in such a way that the 'anger an' e!il effects of these y
are fully appreciate' ( m .
Delling
,
*
( m .
A. Genu#lection in the %T.
9 y . ). $opfner in PaulyK6. , FIA (1/&G, 3;3 ff.0 +. Pfister, ibid. , #uppl. IA (1/&., 3&. ff.0 H.
6einreich, ? 5ebet un' 6un'er ,@ )enethliakon f. -. Schmid (1/&/, In'e7, s.v. , p. 3%< f.0 occasional re"ar*s
by 1. -. Eoc* in +. 2ac*sonKB. Da*e, *eginnings of !hristianity , IA (1/3&, %1(J%..
1 6einreich esp. ( op. cit. e"phasises this 'istinction, but his "aterial 'oes not 3ustify any clear 'ifferentiation
between y an' y .
& $opfner, 3;G.
3 6einreich ob!iously ta*es a 'ifferent !iew (&G3, &/%.
9 y . C. #ittl, Die )eb.rden der )riechen u. R3mer (1G/<, 1;; ff.0 $. Iol*estein, ? )heophrastus
Chara*ter 'er -eisi'ai"onia @ ( =AA , &1, & p1/&/q, &%ff.0 2. Deipol't, -ar #esus #ude6 (1/&3, ..ff.
,7cept in $b. 1&:1& (cf. Is. 3%:3 0 Pr!. .:&( 0 5r. #ir. &%:&3 0 also Polyb. , FF, 1<, /
y is use' in the E) only in connection with genuflection. 6e ha!e a.
y in 4*. 1%:1/ 0 D*. &&:.1 0 1c. ;:(< 0 /:.< 0 &<:3( 0 &1:% . ,8ui!alents are
y in 4t. &;:&/ VV 4*. 1%:1/ 0 4t. 1;:1. 0 4*. 1:.< 0 1<:1; 0 in
4t. G:& VV 4*. 1:.< 0 though in 4*. 1%:1/ the sense is ?to 'o ho"age@0
m or y , D*. &&:.1 VV 4t. &(:3/ VV 4*. 1.:3% 0 4t. G:& VV D*. %:1& .
b. y in liturgical style at =. 11:. (DFF: 0 =. 1.:11 0 ,ph.
3:1. 0 Phil. &:1< . )he e8ui!alents "a*e it clear that no 'istinction is inten'e' between
bowing the *nee an' full prostration. 5enuflection is lin*e' with prayer to 5o' ( D*. &&:.1 0
1c. ;:(< etc.0 ,ph. 3:1. , with re8uests to the 0yrios ( 4t. 1;:1. 0 4*. 1:.< , with greeting
of the ( 4*. 1<:1; , with ho"age to the ( 4t. &;:&/ or to Iaal
( =. 11:. , or to 5o' the 2u'ge ( =. 1.:1< f. , or to the 0yrios at $is enthrone"ent an'
procla"ation as Dor' of the worl' ( Phil. &:1< . )he gesture thus e7presses supplication,
abase"ent, worship, sub3ection etc.
B. Genu#lection outside the %T.
)he history of this ter" belongs to that of the wi'er concept of .
() y an' y (as an in'epen'ent gesture are sel'o"
"entione' a"ong the 5ree*s an' =o"ans, ,ur.)ro. , 13<%. 4ostly we ha!e a Datinis" (cf.
genua ponere , Curtius, AIII, ;, 13, buintil., IF, ., 110 genua submittere , H!i'.+ast. , ., 31;0
Plin.$ist. Eat. , AIII, 1, 30 genua inclinare , Ps.KAergil 1nthol., 1;&, 1<b etc., y
is foun' in Polyb. , FA, &/, /0 FFFII, &%, ;0
C
ornut.
E
at. -eor. , 1& (though ,ur.Phoen. , &/3:
y . ,8ui!alents are , $'t. , I, 13.0 AII, 13(0 y ,
P
s.KDuc.
-
ea #yr. , %%0 , #ui'. etc. In 5*. an' Dat. there is usually no 'istinction
between genuflection an' full prostration.
1
It is practise' a. by a sla!e before his lor',
E
onnus
-
ionys. , &%, &, though not a"ong citi>ens, $'t. , AII, 13(0 Isoc. , ., 1%1. )his custo"
ca"e to 5reece an' =o"e fro" the ,ast,
D
i!. , FFF, 1(, .G. )he l falls on his *nees
before his patron an' thus ac*nowle'ges hi"self to be his sla!e, $elio'.1eth. , F, 1(0
Eonnus-ionys. , &&, 3;. f. b. )here is genuflection before the go's in prayer ( Di!. , FFAI,
/, (0 Plut.
C
. 5racch. , 1( pI, .G&cq, esp. before chthonic 'eities ( ,ur.)ro. , 13<3 ff., in
popular religion ( 1ristoph.1!. , %<1 ff., or in cults which stan' un'er unofficial or oriental
influence
&
such as the cult of $elios ( #oph. +r. , (;&0 Plat.Deg. , F, GG;e or in a hy"n to
-ionysus Dysios ( 1el. 1rist. , %<, 3/. In the nor"al worship of the official go's there was
no bowing of the *nee.
In the DFF genuflection is ren'ere' ( ) y , B. :54 0
1/:1G ('istinguishe' fro" in the sense of throwing a *iss with the han',
() y , 4 B. 1:1 (cf. /:&. 0 -a. (:1< 0 1 Ch. &/:&< (with
VV to cast oneself to the groun'0 1 ,sr. G:;< 0 3 4acc. &:1 (= &<0 ,
Is. .%:&3 0 , y , & Ch. (:13 0 & ,sr. /:% . )he $eb.
e8ui!alents are TWU{Os}R XOU lYZs ( zR }s XOh ( , Ps. /%:( with Mrh QhS hithp an' Z}s Oh
Cornut. D. 1nnaeus Cornutus, ot Deptis in 1frica, at the ti"e of Eero, who in his /ellenistic <heology gi!es us a
picture of later #toic theology an' allegory, e'. 1. Eoc*, 1/&(.
Eat. -eor. De atura Deorum .
Ps.KDuc. Pseu'oKDucianus.
-ea #yr. De Syria Dea .
1 #ittl, 1%(.
Eonnus Eonnus, of Panapolis in ,gypt, a Christian, but author in the .th century 1.-. of a -ionysus epic in .G
boo*s, e'. 1. Du'wich, 1/</ ff.
-ionys. Dionysiaca .
Di!. )itus Di!ius, of Pa'ua (%/ I.C. J1; 1.-. , the great historian of 1ugustan =o"e, e'. 5. 6eissenborn an'
4. 4^ller, 1/&( ff.
C. 5racch. De )a7o )raccho .
& Cf. H. 6alther, Bstr. #hft. , 13 (1/1<, *eiblatt , &&/ ff.
0 TWU{Os}R XOU lYZs ( Z}s {Oh ( , Is. .%:&3 0 1 B. G:%. 0 1/:1G 0 & ,sr. /:% 0 ~~soh , 1 Ch.
&/:&< ( 5n. .3:&G 0 ,7. .:31 0 1&:&; VV with , Mrh QhS hithp, but 5n.
&.:&( , .G VV . )he gesture of genuflection occurs as a sign of hu"ility an'
worship in the prayer of the in'i!i'ual or the co""unity to 5o' at 1 Ch. &/:&< 0 1 B. G:%. 0 1
,sr. G:;< 0 & ,sr. /:% 0 -a. (:1< 0 3 4acc. &:1 (=, an' as a sign of abase"ent,
ac*nowle'g"ent an' ho"age before 5o' at B. 1:1 0 Is. .%:&3 , before the *ing at 1
Ch. &/:&< , an' before the m at 4 B. 1:1 . #tan'ing, howe!er, is
"ore usual in prayer ( 5n. 1G:&& 0 1/:&; 0 1 #. 1:&( 0 Ps. 13. f. .
In the =abbis there is a syste"atic 'ifferentiation between in'i!i'ual gestures. a. MZh W}U {OR
'enotes brief falling on the *nee0 b. M~hWoU signifies falling on one`s face0 c. MWh[hM NOs QRS MU is use'
for prostration with outstretche' han's an' feet. Iar bappara spea*s of four prostrations: a.
MZh W}U {OR , inclining0 b. Mh WU {OR , bowing0 c. MWh[hr NOs QRS MU , casting oneself 'own0 '. M{hW}U XOR ,
*neeling.
3

In the Christian Church *neeling was custo"ary both in in'i!i'ual prayer an' public worship.
1lthough !arious ter"s are use' ( y , 4art.
1
n'r. , G0 1ct. )ho". , 1(;0
$er".!. , 1, 1, 30 &, 1, &0 3, 1, %0 , 2ust.-ial. , /<, %0 , 1 Cl., %;, 1,
y is the co""onest,
.
an' beco"es a technical ter" for *neeling in 'i!ine ser!ice
(e.g., Const. 1p. , AIII, 1<, &0 Hrig.
H
rat. , 31, 3. Ien'ing the *nee e7presses a. sub3ection (1 Cl.,
%;, 10 b. abase"ent in confession an' sorrow ( Chrysost. #er". 'e 1nna, ., 4P5 , %., ((; f.0
Ias.
#
pir. #ct. , &;, 4P5 , 3&, 1/&c0 c. petition, Const. 1p. , II, &&, 1.. )here is an ob!ious
inter"ingling of pagan an' Christian custo" in 1ct. 2oh. , .&: (the people after the crash of the
te"ple of 1rte"is in ,phesus ( l c 6 l c
y l c c l c
6 .
%
)he "eaning of the sy"bolical gesture of *neeling in prayer "ay be
gathere' fro" Ps.K2ust. buaest. et =esp. a' Hrth. , 11%: If *neeling is "ore efficacious in prayer
than stan'ing, why 'o not worshippers *neel on the Dor'`s -ay an' between ,aster an'
Pentecoste tq m q ,
6m q6 X q6, l
6m . Hn ( 'ays y is the of the fall, an' on the ;th
q y is the m .
In "o'ern #ynagogue worship there is still genuflection to the 'egree that on the -ay of
1tone"ent, at the point in the liturgy which correspon's to the utterance of the na"e of _ahweh
in the worship of the te"ple (when there was prostration, cf. 2o"a (, &,
(
an' also on Eew _ear`s
-ay, at a certain point in the liturgy, there is *neeling an' then full prostration.
Schlier

*

1. #cribes in the E) Perio'.
3 #tr.KI. , II, &(<, I, .<10 cf. also #. Brauss, Synagogale Altert8mer (1/&&, .<1 f.
1n'r. Andromache .
. Cf. ,ustath. )hessal.Co"". in Il. , ((/, 3&: c y c l6
y y y m y .
Hrat. De 9ratione .
#pir. #ct. De Spiritu Sancto .
% Cf:. +. 2. -Clger, Sol Salutis ,
&
(1/&%, ;G, n. 3.
( #tr.KI. , II, 311 ff.
9 y . #ch^rer, II, 3;&J..;0 #tr.KI. , I, ;/JG&0 (/1J(/%0 II, (.;J((10 2oach. 2ere"ias, #erusalem
&ur +eit #esu , II, 1 (1/&., &;J3&0 II, I (1/&/, 1<1J11.0 1&&J1&;0 2. $oh, ? -er christ , y ,@ IL ,
1; (1/&/, &%(J&(/0 #chl. 4t. , 33, 1(3f., (G( f.0 1. #chlatter, Die <heologie des #udentums nach dem *ericht
des #osefus (1/3&, 1// ff.0 ,. #ellin, ,sraelit.178dische Religionsgeschichte (1/33, 1.<f.
Hnly once in the E) ( 1c. 1/:3% is y use' as the title of a higher ,phesian
official in the or'inary 5ree* sense of ?cler*@ or ?secretary.@
1
)he nor"al 2ewish use,
howe!er, is !ery co""on.
&
1ccor'ing to this use, first atteste' in the DFF in & ,sr. an' 1
Ch., y is a translation of the $eb. }j [k ( 1ra". c}h R h which "eans a ?"an
learne' in the )orah,@
3
a ?rabbi,@ an ?or'aine' theologian.@
}j [ k ?scribe@ or ?secretary,@ was a title of royal officials,
.
an' only fro" the ti"e of
,>ra,
%
Eeh., 1 Ch. an' #ir. 'i' it co"e to 'enote a "an learne' in the )orah, cf. also the
earliest =abbinic tra'itions (13 Iera*ha of the 1G petitions in 4eg. )aan. , 1&.
(
1part fro" a
few isolate' occurrences in the )annaitic perio',
;
the E) is our final witness for this use of
}j [ k v y . Eeither Philo nor 2osephus
G
uses the ter" for biblical scholars of
their own 'ay. In postKChristian =abbinic literature the rabbis of the 'ay are calle' gWTU {hr ,
while gW}U R [k is use' for scholars of an earlier perio', an' in e!ery'ay life for biblical
instructors an' secretaries (cf. y in 2osephus.
/

)he rabbis for"e' a close' or'er. Hnly fully 8ualifie' scholars, who by or'ination ha'
recei!e' the official spirit of 4oses, "e'iate' by succession
1<
(cf. 4t. &3:& , were legiti"ate
"e"bers of the guil' of scribes. )he high reputation of the rabbis a"ong the people ( 4*.
1&:3G f. 0 4t. &3:( f. reste' on their *nowle'ge of the Daw an' oral tra'ition, an' also of
secret theosophic, cos"ogonic an' eschatological 'octrines conceale' by an esoteric
'iscipline.
11
#ociologically the rabbis were the 'irect successors of the prophets, i.e., "en
who *new the 'i!ine will an' proclai"e' it in instruction, 3u'g"ent an' preaching.
1&
1s
incu"bents of the teaching office, they 8uestione' 2esus on $is "essage an' $is
transgression of the $alacha. 1s "e"bers of the #anhe'ri" on which the lea'ing rabbis sat as
lea'ers of the Pharisaic co""unities
13
an' thus constitute' one of the three parties of which
this supre"e asse"bly of the 2ews consiste', they too* part in the prosecution an'
con'e"nation of 2esus.
&. )he 2u'g"ent of 2esus on the #cribes.
)o un'erstan' the 3u'g"ent of 2esus on the theologians of his age, we "ust 'istinguish
the" sharply fro" the Pharisees, whose societies were "ostly co"pose' of s"all people with
no theological "astery.
13
1 certain obscurity has been cause' by the e7pression ?scribes an'
Pharisees@ (use' only in 4t. an' D*.. It is helpful to co"pare 4t. &3:1J3( with the parallel
tra'ition in D*., for this shows us that a 'istinction is to be "a'e between the sayings against
1 4oult.K4ill. , 13&a0 Pr.KIauer , &%/.
& #ynpt. , 1c., elsewhere only 1 C. 1:&< ( 2n. G:3 .
3 Cf. the synon. ( 4t. &&:3% 0 ( D*. %:1; 0 in 2oseph. y 6
m m ( 1nt. 1;, 1./ , ly ( Iell. , (, &/1 .
. 1cc. to official lists fro" the ti"e of -a!i' an' #olo"on ( & #. G:1% ff. 0 &<:&3 ff. 0 1 B. .:1 ff. , the soter666
was one of the ( or G highest officials0 cf. B. 5alling, ? -ie $alle 'es #chreibers ,@ P2I , &; (1/31, %(.
% )he transition "ay be seen in the Ioo* of ,>ra. In the royal 'ecree in ,>ra ;:1&J&( ?scribe of the law of the
5o' of hea!en@ is still an official title (=. Bittel, )eschichte des (olkes ,srael , III p1/&/q, %;; ff.0 $. $.
#chae'er, "sra der Schreiber p1/3<q, .G f.: ?secretary or "inister of the law of the 5o' of hea!en@da first step
towar's the later 'ignity of the e7ilarch0 ,. #ellin, )eschichte des israelitisch178dischen (olkes , II p1/3&q, 13;.
In ,>ra ;:( , 11 , howe!er, it is gi!en its later "eaning.
( In both passages gW}U R [k Ns WYjOR or cWOh}s R h O (the rest of the scribes is a fi7e' e7pression ta*en o!er
fro" an earlier perio' ( #tr.KI. , I, G<.
; #tr.KI. , I, G<.
G 1n e7ception in 2oseph. is ly in Iell. , (, &/1 .
/ +or e7a"ples, cf. #tr.KI. , I, ;/ ff.
1< #tr.KI. , II, (%. f.
11 2oach. 2ere"ias, #erusalem &ur +eit #esu , II I, 1<( ff.
1& ,bid. , 11< f.
13 ,bid. , 11%J1.<, esp. 1&&J13<.
the scribes ( D*. 11:.(J%& 0 &<:.( an' those against the Pharisees ( D*. 11:3/J.& , .. .
1.
It
is only in this light that we can un'erstan' the accusations against the scribes. 1s 'istinct
fro" those "a'e against "e"bers of the Pharisaic co""unities, they refer wholly to the
theological learning of the scribes an' the resultant social clai"s an' pri!ileges. )he #er"on
on the 4ount in 4atthew, li*e 4t. &3 , contains a section against the scribes an' Pharisees.
Ioth groups are "entione' in 4t. %:&< , an' then the theologians are single' out in %:&1J.G
an' "e"bers of the Pharisaic societies in (:1J1G .
)he charges of 2esus are le!elle' against the con'uct an' teaching of the theologians of
$is ti"e. 1s regar's the for"er, 2esus sees a lac* of hu"ility ( 4t. &3:% ff. etc., of
selflessness ( 4*. 1&:.<a an' of sincerity ( 4*. 1&:.<b etc.. $is "ost serious accusation,
howe!er, is that they 'o not practise what they 'e"an' in their teaching an' preaching ( D*.
11:.( etc.. )he "ain reproach against their 'octrine is that their casuistry 'efeats the true will
of 5o' containe' in the law of lo!e. )his is state' particularly clearly in the e7a"ple of the
fictional 'e'ication in 4*. ;:/ ff. an' par. In contrast, 2esus brings out the full seriousness of
the true will of 5o' in the powerful antitheses of the #er"on on the 4ount ( 4t. %:&1J.G .
3. Paul, hi"self an or'aine' scribe,
1%
saw in the re3ection of the preaching of the cross by
2ewish theologians a fulfil"ent of the saying in Is. 33:1G ( y; , which
accor'ing to his e7position prophesie' the futility of hu"an wis'o" an' the para'o7 of
'i!ine election ( 1 C. 1:&< .
.. )here is reference to the Christian y
1(
in 4t. 13:%& 0 cf. %:1/ 0 1(:1/ 0
1G:1G 0 &3:GJ1& . )he +irst 5ospel, especially in its proof fro" #cripture, shows us this scribe
at wor*.
#oachim #eremias
#, #!, , #, #,
$
*

1. D*. 11:.3 is to be seen in the light of 4*. 1&:3G f. 0 D*. &<:.( , where the 'esire for honour rightly refers to
the rabbis rather than the Pharisees.
1% )his "ay be 'e'uce', e.g., fro" his part in capital prosecutions ( 1c. &(:1< .
1( Cf. $oh, op. cit. , &%(J&(/0 #chl. 4t. , ../J.%1.
9 ym . -eiss"ann I. , 1<GJ1110 EI , ;;f. +. =. 4ontgo"ery $itchcoc*, ?)he :se of y ,@
2)h#t. , 31 (1/&/ f., &;1J&;%0 ,. 4a3erKDeonhar', Ay ( -iss. 4arburg, 1/130 6. Iuss"ann,
Synopt. Studien , III (1/31, 1G. ff.0 $. 5. 4eecha", ,7p), .. (1/33, 3G. f. yy : 5. )hie"e, D.
,nschriften von Magnesia am M.ander u. '. E) . (1/<(, &&0 2. +. 4arc*s, Symbola critica ad epistolographos
)raecos (1GG3, &;. Hn 1 C. .:( : 6. D^tgert, ? +reiheitspre'igt un' #chwar"geister in Borinth ,@ I+)h , 1&
(1/<G, /;ff.0 1. #chlatter, ? -. *or. )heologie ,@ I+)h , 1G (1/1., ;ff. Hn the autographe' en'ings: -eiss"ann
DH , 133 an' 13;0 5. 4illigan, <he < Documents (1/13, &.f.: $. ,r"an, M@langes icole (1/<%, 13<ff.0
2)h#t. , 31 (1/&/ f., &;1 ff. ( supra . H. =oller, D. 'ormular der paulin. *riefe (1/33. l y :
-eiss"ann DH , 3&1 f.0 1. 6ilhel", Hestr. 2hft. , 3 (1/<<, ;;. Hn the Canon: #ch^rer, II, 3(3 ff.0 +. Iuhl,
0anon u. <ext des A< (1G/10 5. 6il'eboer, D. "ntstehung des at.lichen 0anons (1G/10 I. Poertner, D.
Autorit.t der deuterokan. *8cher des A< (1G/3: 5. $Clscher, 0anonisch. u. Apokryph. (1/<%0 ,. BCnig, ?
Banon u. 1po*ryphen ,@ I+)h , &1 (1/1;, .</ ff.: 6. #taerc*, ? -. #chriftK u. Banonbegriff 'er 3^'. Iibel ,@
L#)h , ( (1/&G, 1<1J11/. =abbinic 'esignation an' !iew of #cripture: 5. #urenhusius, B
y (1;13, 1J3(0 IoussetK5ress". , 1%3ff.0 #ch^rer, II, 3/<J.1.0 6eber, G<J11G0 4oore, I, &33J
&%<0 1. #chlatter, D. <heologie des #udentums nach d. *ericht d. #osefus (1/3&, (.J;&, 1%1f.0 5. 1icher, ? -as
1) i. '. 4ischna ,@ I#t. , 11 (1/<(. 2esus an' Paul an' the H) : De (et. <est. locis a $aulo apostolo allegatis ,
-iss. Deip>ig (1G(/0 $. Aoll"er, D. at.lichen !itate bei $aulus (1G/%0 2. $fnel, ? D. Schriftbegriff #esu ,@
I+)h , &. (1/1/: Dt>". 5l. , ,7curs. on .:31: ,. !. -obsch^t>, ?)he 1ttitu'e of 2esus an' #t. Paul towar' the
Iible,@ <he *ible Mag. (1/1.0 P. Iratsiotes, O q 6 (1/&%0
6. 6in'fuhr, ? -. 1p. Paulus als $agga'ist ,@ L16 , .. (1/&(, 3&; ff.: ,. !. -obsch^t>, ? Lu" paulin.
#chriftbeweis ,@ LE6 , &. (1/&%, 3<(0 1. !. $arnac*, ? -. 1) i. '. paulin. Iriefen u. i. '. paulin. 5e"ein'en ,@
#1I (1/&G, 1&.ff.0 H. 4ichel, $aulus und seine *ibel (1/&/0 5. #chren*, ? Die )eschichtsanschauung des
$aulus auf d. /intergrund s. +eitalters,C #ahrbch. d. <heol. Schule *ethel , 3 (1/3&, ;.ff. +lorilegia: ,. $atch,
"ssays in *iblical )reek (1GG/0 =. $arris, <estimonies IvII (1/1(J&<0 Dt>". 5l. =elations to $ellenis": =.
Iult"ann, D. Stil der paulin. $redigt u. d. kynisch1stoische Diatribe (1/1<, /.ff.0 =. $ir>el, y
, 1#5 , FF, 1 (1/<<, &;f.0 ,. +ascher, (1/&;, 1%&ff.0 ,. !. -obsch^t>, ? Ao" !ierfachen
#chriftsinn ,@ /arnack1"hrung (1/&1, 1J13. PostK1post. +athers: 1. !. $arnac*, op. cit. 0 6n'. Iarn. , 313J
# .
A. The General ,se o# #
1. )he wor' is foun' in $o"er. It is use' of the tearing of the flesh by a lance, an' of
engra!ing in tables.
1
)he sense of ?car!ing,@ ?engra!ing,@ is probably the original. In the DFF,
where it is al"ost always use' for XNs {Oh (pre'o"inantly *al, occasionally niph or for XNs {OR , it is
!ery co""on. It is use' of y q on the plate of the highKpriest ( with gen., ,7.
3(:3/ p 3/:3< q0 of the car!e' figures in 1 B. (:&G ( &/ : cy y 0 of the
hewing out of a cha"ber in the roc* in Is. &&:1( 0 of the engra!ing of the Daw on the stones of
2or'an in -t. &;:3 0 2os. /:% ( G:3& 0 of inscribing on bron>e tablets in 1 4acc. 1.:1G (with the
'at. . 6riting on tablets "ay be "eant in this conte7t, since it is often har' to 'eter"ine how far
the original i'ea of engra!ing or inscribing is still present: l or or
, Is. G:1 0 $ab. &:& 0 Is. 3<:G 0 figur. . : ( 31:33 : , Pr!. 3:3 A:
. #i"ple writing is certainly "eant in -a. %:% DFF:
.
In the E) , apart fro" yy , we ha!e the original sense of engra!ing in 2esus`
y or y l q y in 2n. G:( , G , also in D*. 1:(3 , where Lacharias
writes the na"e of 2ohn on a wa7e' tablet ( ,
&
an' finally in =e!. &:1; ( ;.% .
&. y is co""only use' for ?painting@ or ?'rawing,@ e.g., 1ristoph.=a. , %3;0 $'t. , II,
.10 Fenophanes, 13 (I, p. %/, 1, -iehl0 Plat.5org. , .%3c0 2os.1p. , &, &%& .
3. It is use' of the acti!ity of writing generally. 6hen Paul 'ictates his letters (in =. 1(:&&
)ertius is the true y , he usually appen's a greeting in his own han', as in & )h. 3:1; :
m ym 0 5l. (:11
3
( ;(. . )here can be no 'oubt that the 'ictating is also calle'
y , for y 'oes not "ean only to write with one`s own han'. )hus in 1 C. .:1. or
1.:3; all that is "eant is that Paul now i"parts this to the co""unity, whether by 'ictation or in
his own han'. In the light of this incontro!ertible fact it "ay be as*e' whether the y
of 2n. &1:&. "ight not si"ply "ean that the belo!e' 'isciple an' his recollections stan'
behin' this 5ospel an' are the occasion of its writing. )his is a !ery possible !iew so long as we
'o not wea*en un'uly the secon' aspect. In'ee', it woul' be 'ifficult to press the for"ula to
i"ply other than an assertion of spiritual responsibility for what is containe' in the boo*:
.

6hen Paul refers to an earlier letter, he can say, e.g., in 1 C. %:/ : cy g
g .
%
y can be use' both of an earlier writing of the co""unity ( 1 C. ;:1 an'
also of prece'ing "aterial in the letter of the apostle ( 1 C. /:1% . +or sen'ing a co""unication
by 'elegates 1c. 1%:&3 has: y (of the 'ecree sent by Iarnabas an'
31(0 1. !. :ngernK#ternberg, D. traditionelle at.liche Schriftbe;eis 'e Christo u. 'e e!angelio i. d. alten 0irche
(1/13. )he -octrine of #cripture in the 5*. +athers: #uic. )hes. ('og"atic stan'point. +or further liter., v.
4ichel, op. cit.
1 Il. , 1;, %//0 (, 1(/: (both aor..
& ym VV }Tk cYj is a''e' ( 4 B. 10:6 0 cf. on this #e". e7pression Il.K-ebr. , .&<, &0 ,. Biec*ers,
,ndogerm. 'orsch. , 3% (1/1%, 3. ff. Hn this whole 8uestion, cf. #tr.KI. , II, 1<G ff.
3 )he y cy g g ( Ln. 5l. , ad loc. "ight be relate'to the whole letter,
but also to an autographe' conclusion. Cf. 1 C. 1(:&1 . 6hether or not Paul 'ictate' all his epistles can har'ly be
'eci'e' so long as the authenticity of & )h. an' =. 1( is 'ebate'. Cf. 2)h#t. , 31 (1/3<, &;3 f., where there is
a''itional "aterial on the en'ings an' 'ictation in the case of =o"ans.
. Cf. 2. $. Iernar', 2oh. (1/&/, II, ;130 2)h#t. , loc. cit. 1ppeal to 2u. G:1. DFF an' the writing of the
by Pilate ( infra an' n. 1< har'ly touches the heart of the "atter. )he 8uestion of writing with one`s own
han' is 8uite subsi'iary in 2n. &1:&. .
% Hn y in 1c. &3:&% 0 & Pt. 3:1 , cf. & Ch. 3<:1 0 & ,sr. .:( 0 1 4acc. 13:3% 0 & 4acc. /:1G 0
3 4acc. 3:11 , 3< (where we ha!e as in 1c. &3:&% 0 4. ,7. ,1G, (: 4oses N}P iOPcU XOR [kY XNs {Oh (to 2ethro0
)anch rYQW[ , % , 1(. . y can also be use' for writing a letter, as in $'t. , I, 1&%0 cf. 4 B.
10:1 0 & Ch. 3&:1; . In 1c. 1G:&; the reference is to a letter of the brethren co""en'ing 1pollos.
#ilas. 2 cy ( 1 Pt. %:1& "ight be ta*en in the sa"e way,
(
but the
reference coul' also be to the scribe
;
or to an associate in co"position.
G

.. ?)o set 'own@ or ?to 'raw up.@ )hus in Plat.Deg. , FI, /&3c0 /&.a, y
"eans ?to "a*e testa"entary 'isposition.@
/
1gain, in 2er. 3/:&% cy refers to a
bill of sale.
In the E) y is use' in this way in relation to the (
, (1; in 4*. 1<:. an' the 'ebt in D*. 1(:( f. )he writing, or "ore strictly the or'er for
the writing of the
1<
on the cross by Pilate in 2n. 1/:1/ , together with the ob3ection an'
the stri*ing answer: yy yy in !. &1f ., ob!iously refers to a si"ilar public
'ocu"ent. 1 !oluntary putting on recor' of 'ebt is also to be seen in Phl". 1/: y6
cy g g .
It is ob!iously fro" this usage, with its sense of public accusation, that there 'e!elops in 1ttic
3u'icial ter"inology the phrase y in the sense of ?to accuse so"eone.@
11

Cf. 1ristoph.Eu. , 1.G&0 -e"osth. , 1G, 1<30 Plat.
,
uthyphr. , &b. )his is not foun' in the E) . Eor
is the sense of ?to enter as,@ ?to in!entory@. 2os. 1G:/ (recor'ing of the lan'0 1Ch. .:.1 0 2er.
&&:3< 0 1 4acc. G:&< 0 an' often in an i'eal figurati!e sense in Philo=er. -i!. $er. , &.% , &%< .
?)o characterise so"eone as@: $'t. , AII, &1.0 PhiloPoster. C. , G< 0 Deg. 1ll. , III, 1/G 0 #pec.
Deg. , II, 13& . ?)o be !iewe' or treate' as@: -et. Pot. Ins. , 1.1 0 Ait. 4os. , I, 3% .
%. Co"position of a 6riting or Inscription in a =oll or Ioo*.
4al. 3:1( 0 Iar. 1:1 : y l . (3&:1< 0 )ob. 1&:&< : : . 4
(3(:1G 0 -a. 1&:10 (with acc. : 1 ( 13/ :1(0 . 4 (3(:& . +or the E) bi!blo
, . +or y in the sense of ?to 'escribe@ in Polyb. , II, %(, . there is a par. in =e!.
&&:1G f.
In the H) writing 'own is an i"portant "ar* of re!elation. )hus 5o' $i"self writes
'own in ,7. &.:1& 0 31:1G 0 3&:1% , 3& 0 3.:1 0 -t. .:13 0 /:1< etc. 4oses writes 'own the
co""an'"ents of the Dor' in ,7. &.:. 0 3.:&; 0 2oshua in 2os. &.:&( , #a"uel in 1 #. 1<:&% .
)he *ing is to cause the Daw of 5o' to be written 'own ( -t. 1;:1G . )he people is to write
the wor's of 5o' on the 'oorKposts ( -t. (:/ 0 11:&< . )he authoritati!e significance of
writing in the H) , in so far as it "e'iates the 'eclaration of the will of 5o', is fully en'orse'
in the E) , e!en though the "eaning of the authority is !ery 'ifferent, cf. the y of Paul
when he 'iscusses the purpose of H) #cripture in 1 C. /:1< 0 1<:11 0 =. .:&3 0 1%:. .
1&
Hn the
other han', fro" the stan'point of the history of re!elation the significance of y is
gi!en a re"ar*ably 'ifferent e"phasis in the E) generally. )hus 2esus $i"self is ne!er
( +or e7a"ples fro" the postKapost. fathers, cf. 6n'. Pt. , ad loc.
; ,us.$ist. ,ccles. , IA, &3,11: q K y . 1 'ifferent sense is borne by the
yy 6 6 of D*. 1G:31 , where the has "uch the sa"e force as an . In
,st. G:1< y m "eans in the na"e of the *ing.
G Hn the co""on E) phrase y , ?to write to so"eone@ ( =. 1%:1% 0 & C. &:. 0 1 C. 1.:3; 0
5l. 1:&< etc., cf. Pr.KIauer , where so"e DFF e7a"ples are gi!en. Cf. 2os.1nt. , 1&, 1( . 6ith inf. , 1c. 1G:&; .
Hn y in 2n. %:.( 0 1c. &%:&( (+estus of litterae dimissoriae to Caesar0 1 C. ;:1 0 & C. /:1 0
1 )h. .:/ 0 %:1 0 2'. 3 0 1 2n. &:&( , cf. 2os.1nt. , 1;, G1 0 1G, &(& 0 &<, 1%. 0 Ait. , (& . yy , ;.G .
/ +or the !arie' use in the pap. , cf. Preisig*e 6Crt.
1< Hn ( 4t. &;:3; : l 0 D*. &3:3G : y , which "ight be use' either of the tablet with the
na"e of the 'elin8uent or of the inscription itself (Colu"ella, /: scribere titulum , cf. #uet. Calig., 3&:
praecedente titulo qui causam poenae indicaret 0 an' perhaps also ibid. , -o"it., 1<: cum hoc titulo 0 ,us. $ist.
,ccl. , A, 1, ..: y yy Pm . In )ac. 1nn. II, &&
Caesar sets up a pile of weapons with a titulus (inscription. +or ol'er liter., cf. H. LCc*ler, D. 0reu& !hristi
(1G;%, ..1. Cf. also 2)h#t. , op. cit. , &;& f. Hn yy t . in 2n. 1/:&< , cf. #chl. 2. , ad
loc. with e7a"ples fro" 2oseph. an' the =abbis.
11 Cf. #ui'. , s.v. y : y, q y .
,uthyphr. "uthyphro .
1& +or reasons of con!enience this Pauline y is treate' un'er y , ;%/ . Cf. on this y
Philo=er. -i!. $er. , 1;& :

y .
presente' as Hne who wrote 'own re!elation, nor e!en as Hne who cause' others to write,
e7cept in the case of the 1pocalypse. 6e "ay also re"e"ber the natural tone of the c
y of D*. 1:3 in this connection. )here is certainly an awareness that writing in
the ser!ice of the 5ospel is un'erta*en for a supre"e purpose an' before 5o' ( 5l. 1:&< 0 =.
1%:1% . Iut neither in the #ynoptists nor in Paul is there the e"phatic clai" to be writing
sacre' literature. In this regar' the 2ohannine writings stan' apart. In the +ourth 5ospel the
procla"ation of the *ingship of Christ in the on the cross is particularly significant
( ;.. , an' so, too, is the conclu'ing state"ent that the goal of the wor* is faith in Christ
the #on of 5o' ( &<:3<f . an' the e"phatic e8uation of an' y in the
witness of the author ( &1:&.f .. 6hen 8uoting the H) , 2ohn al"ost always uses the
intro'uctory yy ( ;./ , an' in &<:31 , when spea*ing of the ai" of his own
writing, i.e., to awa*en faith, he can use a wor' which elsewhere he reser!es for H) #cripture,
na"ely, yy . In'ee', in the pre!ious !erse ( !. 3< we alrea'y fin' the e7pression:
c yy q q . )his sole"n state"ent is stri*ing.
Eaturally, it 'oes not i"ply that the unhear' of wealth of the acti!ity of 2esus can be
a'e8uately presente' in literature ( &1:&% . _et there is a no less sole"n e"phasis on the
testi"ony of writing in 1 2n.
13

,!en "ore e"phatic, in accor'ance with the sense of apocalyptic 'eclaration, is the
con!iction of the re!elatory significance of writing in the 1pocalypse. )he writing of the
'i!ine stan's un'er the pro"ise an' 'irection of 5o'. )his refers to the whole boo* ( 1:11 ,
1/ . Ilesse' is the "an who *eeps g yy ( 1:3 , cf. &&:1/ . 6ith
e8ual sole"nity the e7alte' Dor' re8uires of the yy of the se!en churches that he
shoul' write: y ( &:1J3:1. .6hen it is i"portant to e"phasise the sacre' !ali'ity an'
i"port of certain sayings, the 'i!ine recei!es the specific co""an': y ( 1.:13 0 1/:/ 0
&1:% ,
1.
an' there is a correspon'ing prohibition in 1<:. . )he fact that what is written has a
hypostatic bac*groun' in the hea!enly worl' testifies to the significance of the roll written on
both si'es in %:1 etc.
1%
an' the repeate' "ention of those whose na"es are written in the
boo* of life or of the Da"b throughout the 1pocalypse ( , (1; . 1part fro" this
use of y for literary inscription, howe!er, the wor' y is often lin*e' with
in i"ages which ha!e a strong personal reference. In &:1; , for e7a"ple, there is the
pro"ise to the one who o!erco"es, as by strenuous effort in the ga"es, that he will recei!e
the white stone with a na"e engra!en on it, i.e., a new na"e.
1(
1gain, in 3:1& the fact that
the !ictor belongs wholly to 5o' is e7presse' in the writing upon hi" of the sacre' na"e.
1gain, the 1...<<< bear on their forehea's the 'i!ine na"e ( 1.:1 .
1;
1gain, there is
reference to a na"e on the forehea' of the whore ( 1;:% . +inally, we rea' of the secret an'
"anifest na"e of the returning Dogos, In all such cases y or yy is use'.
)he 5o' of re!elation proclai"e' by the 'i!ine 'eclares $i"self in rea'able signs. $e 'oes
not "erely "anifest $i"self0 $e also gi!es forceful e7pression to $is will to sa!e. Eor is the
sacre' boo* the final thing. )he perfect e7pression of the 'i!ine will consists in writing on
an' in persons.
(. y in Degislati!e 1cti!ity.
1lrea'y in Pin'.Ee". , (, ; y is use' in the sense of ?to prescribe@ or ?to 'ecree@:
y "eans ?to gi!e or lay 'own laws.@ In -e"osth. , &., .G y is use'
with 0 in Fenoph.4e". , I, &, .& we rea': cy 0 I, &,
.. refers to the legislati!e acti!ity of the usurper. )he sa"e usage is foun' in the H) , e.g., of 5o'
13 Cf. the state"ents in 1 2n. 1:. 0 &:1 0 %:13 an' the repeate' ym an' cy in &:1&J1. .
1. Hn y y ( =e!. &1:% , cf. . 7:2 an' the X[kN{OR [kY }Ts ch an' si"ilar e7pressions in
).#anh. , &, (0 #. -t. , 3%; on 3.:% 0 4. ,7., &&, &..
1% In relation to the art. , it "ay be a''e' that the tables of the Daw are written on both si'es, also
the roll in ,>. &:1< (cf. ,7. 3&:1% , )hey are also written by the finger of 5o' ( ,7. 31:1G 0 -t. /:1< .
1( Ln. 1p*. ,. I, &;( ff.0 $a'. 1p*. , %<.
1; Hn =e!. 3:1& , cf. b. 2o"a, Ga0 ,7. r. , 1% on 1&:&.
in 4 B. 17:7 ( 0 of -arius an' Cyrus in 1 ,sr. .:%% , %( 0 (:1( ( 1; 0 of the
instruction of officials by -e"etrius in 1 4acc. 13:3; . 2osephus an' Philo ha!e the sa"e
e7pression. )hus in 2os.1nt. , 3, &13 we fin' cy 0 in 11, /& , with reference to the
written or'er of Cyros, l with the infin. 0 also 1&, &<1 . Cf. also with : 11, 1&;
an' cf. &1(. Philo,br. , (. : y with . y : ConfDing0, 11& 0
#o". , I, /& an' /% 0 Ait. 4os. , I, 3<< 0 II, 1. 0 -ecal. , 13& . Hf the co'ification of laws in the
Chal'ean language, Ait. 4os. , II, &( 0 y , Conf. Ding. , 1(< 0 Congr. , 13;
y 0 of the issuance of the 'i!ine 'ecree ( y : Conf. Ding. , 1/; 0 of the
3u'icial sentence: -ecal. , .< .
In the E) , too, we ha!e m cy
1G
in the sense of legislati!e prescription:
4*. 1<:% : q q 0 1&:1/ , par. D*. &<:&G : m cy q
, followe' by -t. &%:% f. )he "eaning of =. 1<:%
1/
is si"ilar. In 2n. 1:.% 0 %:.( ,
&<

howe!er, the y of 4oses signifies his prophesying of the 4essiah. _et for"ally 1 2n.
&:; f. : q q ym (cf. & 2n. % , again suggests legislati!e acti!ity,
e7cept that the no"istic character of the new law is change' by the fact that the
co""an'"ent is true in $i" (2esus. In =. &:1% : cy y
, the reference is to the counterpart of the 4osaic co'ification. $eathen 'oers of
the Daw "a*e it clear that the re8uire' wor* of the Daw is co'ifie' in their hearts.
B. The 2pecial ,se o# and .
y, is always ?that which is fi7e' in writing.@ P. 1"h. , ;G, 1; (&n' cent. 1.-. :
y , ?written bon' of in'ebte'ness.@ It is often use' as the opp. of nonKwritten
or !erbal, cf. 1P+ , IA, &%/ f. #o also ,p. 1r. , %(: y6 , pre!iously y;
y y , ?written utterance@: P. Petr. , III, &1/, 3G. (. further 4oult.K4ill. , s.v. In the
DFF (always for XNOh {RTU ,( & Ch. 3(:&& 0 & ,sr. 1:1 : y , an' 1 ,sr. &:& :
y6 , for the written 'ecree of Cyrus, an' & 4acc. 11:1% : y6 6
m , "e"oran'u" on the 2ews lai' before Dysias by 4accabeus.
1 stoc* e7pression for written laws is yy ( ;.G . )here is a stri*ing
si"ilarity between the use of y as a legal e7pression in the 5ree* sphere an' its legal
use in the Israelite an' 2ewish sphere. )he innu"erable references to yy in
the H) correspon' to the !iew that the written Daw is authoritati!ely bin'ing. )he sa"e is to
be sai' of yy . )his 'enotes not "erely the appeal in 5ree* law to the i"pregnable
authority of the law but also the !ali'ity of what is written for Israel both in the absolute
religious sense an' also in the 3uri'ical.
&1
6hat is 8uote' as yy is nor"ati!e
because it is guarantee' by the bin'ing power of _ahweh the Bing an' Dawgi!er. )his is
basically true of the Daw of 4oses, but is then applie' also to the prophets an' ketubim . If
the assertion that the has legal !ali'ity in Israel 'oes not e7press the whole "eaning
of the e"bracing authority of the 'i!ine wor* of re!elation, the usage can har'ly be
un'erstoo' apart fro" the legal ele"ent. In the =abbis the legal !iew of the written wor' is
'e!elope' in isolation. )he E) conception of yy an' yy , howe!er, is
rather 'ifferent ( y , ;%; .
1. )he #pecific :se of yy .
1G Cf. 2os.1nt. , 3, ;. 0 ., 3&( 0 1;, 1%/ 0 PhiloHp. 4un'. , 1(3 . Hn the other han', cf. 2os.1nt. , 1, /% :
m y , ?has reporte'.@ )anch. c}oW[ 1G an' 1<: 2eroboa" says: M}h [kNO XOs XNs {Oh MQPS T .
#i"ilarly Philo#obr. , (G : y cy ( 5n. ./:&& .
1/ I5 lat syr Chrys 1"brst Pelag: y q , acc. of ob3ect.
&< 1:.% : cy ( acc. of person0 %:.( : .
&1 In the 'ebate between Cr.KBC. , &(. an' -eiss"ann I. , 1<G ff. both are really right. Cf. #chl. 4t. , 3%.
a. Hn the si"ple use as in 4t. .:.J1< 0 D*. .:G 0 1/:.( 0 1 C. /:/ ( mm q
0 1.:&1 ( q) ,
&&
cf. & ,sr. %:; 0 5*. a''ition to 2ob .&:1;a 0 :7 0 1 4acc. 1(:&.
0
)
est. Leb. 3:.: yg mm yy . 2osephus 1p. , 1, 1%. :
yy (our boo*s. ,lsewhere 2oseph. prefers yy
l , 1nt. , 3, G1 0 /, &G ( PhiloAit. 4os. , II, 1GG or mm
, 1nt. , 13, &/; .
&3
)he sa"e for"ula is use' of bron>e tablets with 2ewish rights, Iell. ,
;, 11< 0 of Phoenician annals, 1p. , &, 1G 0 of the "e"oirs of Aespasian, Ait. , 3.& 0 of the
historical boo*s of )yre, 1nt. , /, &G3 . In Philo=er. -i!. $er. , 1<& 0 Congr. , 1&( 0 -ecal. , .; .
In the =abbis the si"ple yy is X[ON{Oh )anch. zY zY / an' (;0 5enr., 11, 1 on &:3.
&.
In
the inscr. an' pap. the reference is !ery often to a nor"ari!e recor', as in Inschr. Priene , 1<%, G3
(/ I.C. : Km m yy ,
P
. $al. , 1, /( (3r' cent. I.C. .
b. )he confir"atory for"ula 6 yy is foun' in 4*. 1:& ( q
g , as in & Ch. 3&:3& 0 D*. &:&3 ( q 0 1c. ;:.& ( q 6
6 0 1%:1% . It occurs 1. ti"es in Paul, 1< ti"es in =. an' . in C.
&%
In the DFF, cf. 4
B. 14:6 ( q m m 1 al0 & Ch. &3:1G 0 )est. D. %:. ( 6
m 0 )anch. zY zY , 1( , ;3 M}h [kNO XOs X[ON{OhQPS [kT{OR 0 Pes. Bah., %0 %<a0 )anch. ZW}yN 1& ,
.1 an' in countless other passages: XWNU {R~U{OR 0 -itt. #yll.
3
, ;3(, .. (/& I.C. 0
C
P= , 1%., 110 1 Cl.,
.G, &.
c. Hn yy , 5l. 3:13 : , P. Par. , 13, 13 (1%; I.C. 0 P. Dei'. H., 1/ (G/
I.C. .
&(

'. yy , 4*. ;:( 0 D*. 3:. ( q ym 0
1c. 13:33 ( q); 6 , 1 C. 1<:; 0 cf. & Ch. 3%:1& ( q
1, vl. 0 2 E. 20:7 1= ( q 0 -itt. #yll.
3
, .%, ...
e. yy , =. 3:. 0 /:13 etc. Cf. )egea buil'ing inscr. ( c. 3r' cent. I.C. in
P. Cauer, Delectus ,nscriptionum )raec. (1GG3, .%;, %< f.0 Inschr. Perg., &%1, 3% (&n' cent. I.C.
0 , 2os. /:. ( G:31 ( q m 0 I5: , &%&, / (/G 1.-. 0 Inscr. 4ar.
1eg.,;(1, .1 (=ho'os, 3r' cent. I.C. : yy 0 P. Par. , ;, (
(&n' or 1st cent. I.C. .
f. m yy , 4t. &:% ( 0 )anch. WNorX . 0 11< : zR {OhQPS
XWNU { OR 0 Cant. r. , G, 1. (on 4i. %:& : XWNU {OR zR {Oh 0 1 Cl., 1;, 3.
&;

g. Hn yy , 4t. .:( 0 4t. 11:1; , cf. Phil.Post. C. , &. .
h. yy y , 4t. .:1< 0 1c. 1:&< ( q 6 0 =. 1&:1/ 0 1.:11 0 1 C.
1:1/ 0 5l. 3:1< etc., cf. )anch. zY zY G , (( an' often elsewhere XWNU {R~OU 0 Phil.Post. C. , 1<& 0 1;(
0 1;/ 0 1 Cl., 3(, 30 3/, 3 etc.
i. Hn yy , 4t. 11:1< 0 4*. 1.:&1 an' 4t. &(:&. : , cf. WTU
[kXO X[ON{OhQPS in ). #ota, (, ( an' ; of 1braha" an' 4oses.
&G
Cf. also Pes. Bah., &G, 1G%b: MyP
MO WXOj XWNU {R~OU rs WQUS Th 0 )anch. XQW[ , 13 , 1G. .
&. )he #pecific :se of yy .
&& Hn yy , 4t. .:; , cf. y , ;%G , n. .3 . +or q c yy in 1 C. .:( ,
cf. ;(< , an' n. %% . +or the stri*ing e7pression in 2n. &<:31 , cf. ;.% .
)est. Leb. <estament of +ebulon .
&3 Cf. $. -r^ner, 2ntersuchungen 8ber #osefus ( -iss. 4arburg, 1G/(, %., n. 1 G%0. +or yy in
1rrian, cf. $. 6ilc*en, Philol. , %3 (1G/., 11; f.
&. Hn 2n. G:1; : q q yy (the outsi'er 8uotes the Daw, cf. the =abbin. par.
in #chl. 2. , &<( f.
P. $al. $apgrus1Sammlung d. 2niversit.t /alle , e'. 5raeca $alensis in -i*aio"ata, 1/13.
&% +or lists of for"ulae in Pl., cf. 4ichel, ;&0 for e7a"ples fro" Iarn. , ibid. , &</, n. 10fro" 1 Cl., ibid. , &<1, n.
&.
CP= !orpus $apyrorum Raineri archiducts , , e'. C. 6essely, 1G/%.
&( A. further -eiss"ann I. , 11<.
&; In the DFF l yy is often use' for nonKbiblical sources, e.g., in 2 B. 1:1 0 B. :5a
0 11:.1 0 & Ch. 33:1/ 0 ,st. 1<:& 0 though also for biblical, e.g., in B. 22: 0 4 B. :2 etc.
&G 1cc. to #chl. 4t. , 3(3.
In illustration of the class, use of yy for ?written laws@ we "ay refer to
-e"osth. , %G, &.0 Plat.Deg. , AI, ;%.e: yy 0 1ristot.=het. , I, 1<, p. 13(Gb,
; ff.: yy , opp. y . )here is a si"ilar use of y for a "e'ical
prescription in Plat.Polit. , &/%'.
Hf the countless references to the H) as yy in the DFF we "ay "ention
() q or g q mm , B. 2: (1 al0 -a. /:110 )ob. ;:1& c 0
q , & Ch. 3%:&( 0 y yy
, & Ch. 3%:1/ 0 q , 4 B. 2:24 . Hf the "any references to the wor's
of the written Daw, cf. -t. &G:%G 0 3<:1< 0 2os. /:; ( G:3. 0 1 B. &:3 0 cf. & Ch. 31:3 0 2 E.
1:14 . )here are also innu"erable references to specific boo*s, e.g., 1 B. 1.:1< 10 & Ch. /:&/ 0
&(:&& etc.
)he fin'ings are si"ilar in the case of 1risteas, 2osephus an' the =abbis. ,p. 1r. , 311:
yy 0 2os.1nt. , 11, ( 0 1nt. , 13, &/; , of the 'i!ergent attitu'e of the #a''ucees to
yy an' 6 m . ,lsewhere 2oseph. prefers the
yy l ( 1nt. , 1, &( or y ( Iell. , (,
311 0 cf. 1nt. , /, &<G . In the =abbis there is a regular occurrence of the for"ula X[ON{OhQPS MTh , e.
g., gWcU WXU \ORXOs in 4. ,7. , 1;, 1..
In the E) yy is use' less fre8uently of #cripture. It is "ost co""on in D*.
an' 2n., rarer in Pl. Cf. D*. .:1; 0 &<:1; 0 &&:3; . It shoul' be e"phasise' that with respect to
2esus D*. gi!es pro"inence to yy in connection with the thought of
fulfil"ent ( m, m , y , ;%G , e.g., in 1G:31 0 &1:&& 0 &.:.. 0 1c. 13:&/ 0
&.:1. (cf. D*. &.:&; , y , an' "ost co"pletely in D*. &.:.. (the
Daw of 4oses, the Prophets an' the Psal"s. It is he who "ost stri*ingly an' i"pressi!ely
un'erlines the fact that all the #criptures bear witness to Christ.
Hn this , cf. 2os. /:; ( G:3. infra 0 &3:( 0 )anch. [t , % , 1( 0 c}oW[ , 1% , / : MTh lY{Oh
M}h [kN O XOs X[ON{OhQPS .
Hnly at G:1; 'oes 2n. spea* of the as yy . $e prefers yy .
)hus he has the si"ple c yy ( ) at (:.% , or as a
8uestion at 1<:3. ( q 6 , or with the succee'ing at 1%:&% . Hr he has
6 yy at (:31 0 1&:1. or yy at &:1; .
Paul uses yy only in 1 C. 1%:%. : y yy ( Is. &%:G
an' & C. .:13 : yy .
Hn the latter, cf. 2os. /:; ( G:3. : yy q m
0 4 B. 22:1 0 1 Ch. 1(:.< ( q 0 & Ch. 3.:&1 ( q q , of
the boo* of the co!enant0 1 ,sr. 1:1< ( q m 0 & ,sr. 3:& ( q m 0
Iar. &:& . In the sing. , 2 E. 1:15 0 & ,sr. 3:. . +or the plur. , cf. Inschr. Priene , 1&, 1&
(3<< I.C. 0 -itt. #yll.
3
, /%%, &&0 1<1(, (. +or the sing. , cf. 5n. r. , ;/ on 33:1G X[ON{OhQPS WU YR 0
)aan. , 3, 3: X[ON{Oh{Os 0 -itt. #yll.
&
.3G, 130 G.0 Hrig.
C
o"". in 2oh. , 1;, p. ./..
#o"eti"es yy or yy is use' in relation to 2esus. )his is e7presse'
by a 'at. or . Cf. D*. 1G:31 : yy 6
6 l 6 , where the 'at. belongs to yy in the
sense of ?concerning@ or ?with reference to@0
&/
cf. 1 ,sr. .:.; 0 3 4acc. (:.1 . In 2n. 1&:1(
the sa"e thought is e7presse' in the phrase q yy . 1nother e7a"ple
is 4*. /:1&f. , where the yy is lin*e' with with the acc.
Co"". in 2oh. ,n #ohannem !ommentarius .
&/ 6ith Bl. D*. , ad loc. an' Pr.KIauer , Lurich Iible. +or a 'ifferent !iew, cf. Ln., Cr.KBC. , who relate the 'at.
to .
yy is also foun' in Church usage, as in Hrig.Princ. , IA, &, ( (p. 31(.
yy refers to the sayings of 2esus in Iarn. , ., 1.0 1., (, an' the sayings of the apostles in
Hrig.Princ. , III, 1, 1/ (p. &3&, (, a 8uotation fro" 1 C. 3:( f. 0 cf. 2n. I, 3, 1G: 6
m yy . )his is in *eeping with the consoli'ation of the E) Canon.
#!.
*

A. #! in 2ecular Gree..
1. In the first instance y "eans inscribe' ?writing,@ or ?written characters,@ or in a
rather wi'er sense the ?art of writing.@ #oph.)rach. , (G3: y .
$ence, as in the case of y , it "ay be use' for ?what is inscribe',@ i.e., ?inscription@0 this
is still !ery close to the original "eaning: )huc. , I, 13.0 I5 , FII, %, Eo. (;/ (#yros0 ,pigr.
5raec. , 3.; (Chios. #o, too, in the DFF: 3 4acc. &:&; of the inscription on the pillar at
1le7an'ria0 #ir. .%:11 ( XNh {RXOU of the engra!en inscription on the breastplate of the highKpriest.
2os.1nt. , 1%, .1; of the inscription in the te"ple warning aliens0 PhiloPoster. C. , 113 . Hf the
'i!ine characters on the tables of the Daw: ,7. 3&:1( : q yq yq
0 -t. 1<:. (in both cases XNOh {RTU 0 cf. 2os.1nt. , 3, 1<1 0 PhiloAit. 4os. , I, &G; .
)he "ysterious inscription on the wall at Iabylon, -a. DFF %:(J&( ( XNh {OR .
In the DFF y is always the ren'ering of X[ON{Oh , XNh {OR , XNOh {RTU an' once QS }h ~RTU & Ch.
&.:&; . Hn the other han', }P j is ne!er y but , ( , (1. .
)he reference in Plat.Phae'r. , &;.b is to the ?art of writing.@
&. ?Copy@ or ?'rawing@: $'t. , II, ;30 IA, 3(0 Plat.#y"p. , 1/3a: y . Philo uses
this in a platonising sense of the original plan of the tabernacle which 4oses saw on the "ount:
Ait. 4os. , II, ;. 0 of the e7e"plar of the wor*s of nature: #pec. Deg. , IA, %% 0 of the !irtuous life
as yq : Airt. , %1 0 2os. , G; 0 H"n. Prob. Dib. , (& an' /. . )he ter" is use' for
?picture@ or ?painting@ in $'t. , III, &.0 PhiloAit. 4os. , I, 1%G 0 #pec. Deg. , I, 33 0 Deg. 5a3. , 1%1
( y with 0 1br. , 11 (with 0 Cher. , 1<. (
y 0 ,us.
A
it. Const. , III, 3. It is use' for ?art@ in 2os.1nt. , 1/, ; 0 Iell. , ;,
1%/ .
3. It can also "ean ?written state"ent in personal or official 'ealings.@ In the wi'est sense it
"eans ?what is written@ or ?writing.@ $ence a written report is a report y :
Polyb. , I, %(, 110 cf. 1 Ch. &G:1/ : yg cm
2m6 ( XNh {OR 0 #ir. 3/:3& : y ( XNh {RXOU , ?I put it 'own in writing@0 .&:;
of the writing 'own of what is recei!e' an' spent, a. ?Detter@: & Ch. &:1< , yg ?by letter@
( XNh {RXOU 0( & Ch. &1:1& ( XNOh {RTU 0 2os.1nt. , 1&, &&( . 1lso in "o'ern 5*. b. ?Piece of writing@:
P
.
$ibeh , ;G, 1G (3r' cent. I.C. 0
1
PhiloDeg. 5a3. , &;( . c. ?=ecor',@ ?'ocu"ent@: 1 4acc. 1.:.G :
y y 0 ?copy@ G:&& 10 1.:&;0 ?genealogy@: & ,sr. &:(& 0 1 ,sr. %:3/ (
yq y 0 2 E. 17:64 ( yq . ?Contract@: CP= , &&.,(0 P.
1"h. , .3, 13 (&n' cent. I.C. . Hf the state archi!es as a repository for 'ocu"ents: I5 , FI, &<3 I,
1<< (-elos, 3r' cent. I.C. . '. ?Dist,@ ?in!entory,@ ?sur!ey@ Polyb. , III, 33, 1G0 ,>. 13:/ : yq
( XNh {OR .
&
e. ?-ecree,@ ?e'ict@: -a. (:G (/ of royal e'icts ( XNh {OR . ,us.,ccl.
$ist. , AIII, ., %0 IF, ;, & of i"perial e'icts.
&
f. ?1ccusation@ in legal 1ttic, an' hence "ore
generally.
3
Cf. PhiloPoster. C. , 3G 0 #acr. 1C. , ;1 : yq .
.. ?Publishe' wor*@ in the literary sense. In 2os.1p. , 1, &3( yq 'oes
not ha!e this literary sense, but in #ir. ..:% y c yg bears this "eaning.
In 2os.1nt. , &<, &(1 0 1p. , 1, &< 0 %G y is use' in a literary connection. )he wor' is
use' of nonKbiblical boo*s in 1 4acc. 1&:&1 0 of the historical wor* of Ei*olaos in 2os.1nt. , 1(,
9 y . +or bibl. ym , ;.& f . )he 'efinitions of $esych. an' #ui'. e"phasise the official an' 3u'icial
usage ( supra .
Ait. Const. (ita !onstantini .
P. $ibeh <he /ibeh $apyri , e'. I. 5renfell an' 1. $unt, 1/<(.
1 A. further Preisig*e 6Crt. , s.v.
& Hn '. an' e., ibid.
3 Hn f. v. Di''ellK#cott , s.v.
1G% 0 of philosophical writings in Philo1br. , &3 0 4igr. 1br. , 3. 0 cf. y
in 1br. , 11 . It is also use' of the present wor* of the author in 2os.1nt. , 3, ;. 0 1p. , &,
1.; 0 Philo,br. , 11 etc., or with reference to pre!ious !olu"es in 2os.1nt. , 1/, &/G 0 Philo#o". ,
I, 1 . It is use' for ?authorship@ in 2os.Ait. , 3(1 , esp. 2osephus` own authorship in Iell. , %, &< :
y 0 ,us. $ist. ,ccl. , I, 1, %.
%. ?6ritten law or statute.@ Plat.Deg. , FI, /3.c of written law0 y with ref. to
laws: I5: , 13(, 1< (13% 1.-. . )he sing. is so"eti"es use' in this sense in the DFF, perhaps
with so"ething of the suggestion of ?$oly #cripture.@ 1t & ,sr. ;:&& : c
y ( XNh{RO the "eaning is si"ply ?prescription,@ but so"eti"es there see"s to be a certain
influence of the use in the sing. for ?$oly #cripture@: 1 Ch. 1%:1% : m
yq q y ( M[hkMWR }Xs ~R{OU 0( & Ch. 3<:% :
q y ( X[ON{Oh{Os ,( 3<:1G :

cy q y ( cYkXOR
X[ON{Oh{s ?in a contrary "anner to that prescribe'.@ In all such cases, howe!er, we ought to ren'er
y as ?legal regulation,@ since the 4as. ne!er gi!es any reason for thin*ing of it as a title for
#cripture. Cf. & Ch. 3%:. : q yq m ( XNh {OR 0 also 1
,sr. 1:. . In PhiloAit. 4os. , II, &<3 y can "ean ?account of the 'i!ine or'er.@ Cf. the
"e'ical use in 5alen, FII, p. &/30 FIII. p. (3G0 FA, p. /1G, B^hn, where yq
"eans ?"e'ical prescription.@
B. #! as 3oly 2cripture.
1. y of the ($oly #criptures, or the Collection of In'i!i'ual Ioo*s.
It is to be note' that l l y is a specifically =abbinic "o'e of e7pression which
is also foun' in Philo an' $ellenistic 2u'ais" but not in the H) . In the =abbis the for"ula is
QS ~PoOk Ms WXj NR {OU .
.
)he usage in 2osephus falls short of this. It is infre8uent, e.g., 1p. , &, .% :
Ptole"y Phila'elphus 'e"an's 6 l6 y6 . $ere the
concept of boo* is containe' in , but the contain sacre' utterances ( ;%& .
Philo, on the other han', often spea*s of l l y an' he ob!iously "eans the H) , esp.
the Pentateuch: 1br. , (1 0 Congr. , 3. 0 /< 0 -ecal. , G 0 3; 0 +ug. , . 0 Hp. 4un'. , ;; 0 =er. -i!.
$er. , 1<( 0 1%/ 0 &G( 0 #pec. Deg. , I, &1. 0 II, 1<. 0 13. . Aery occasionally the superlati!e is
use': 1br. , . : lm y . )here is also a use of the sing. in Ait. 4os.
II, G. with reference to the curtains fre8uently "entione' in ,7. &( : l
y 6 . )he sing. in )est. E. %:;: l yq y , 'oes not
refer to the H) but to a !isionary apocalyptic oracle ( ;%& .
%

It is worth noting that in the E) holiness is !ery rarely applie' to #cripture. It is not foun'
at all in the 5ospels, though use' there of the +ather, the #pirit, an' the angels ( y .
(

)here is thus no for"ula to 'enote the perfection of #cripture in the sense of the concept of
'i!ine holiness. Paul 'oes once say in =. 1:& : yy 6 6
y y
;
(not l when spea*ing of the 5ospel. 6e "ay also
thin* of =. ;:1& with its reference to the y. l is use' in relation to
y only at & )". 3:1% ( y , ;(% .
. )anch. a''ition to r}o , 1 , /% 0 ).#hab. , 13, 10 I 1, (. Cf. De!y Chal'. 6Crt., I, 3/%0 De!y 6Crt., II, .3% f.0
5. 1icher, D. A< i. d. Mischna (1/<(, &&0 #tr.KI. , III, 1..
% $Cnel, 1G, has a'!ance' the thesis that in 2ewish usage cWXN{ without attribute 'oes not ha!e the pregnant
sense of ?#cripture " @, but that for this purpose Q~oM is always a''e' li*e l to l
y in $ellenistic 2u'ais". In face of the =abbinic X[ON{OhMs , gWXU [ON{ORMs , howe!er, this thesis can har'ly
be sustaine' ( infra0 ;./ .
( It is noteworthy that in 4t. ;:( y is use' of the "essage which the 'isciples ha!e to 'eli!er.
; Cf. $ipp.=ef. , I, praef. G, also without art. )hat the lac* of article is of no significance "ay be seen fro" =.
1(:&( , or in the sing. 1 Pt. &:( 0 & Pt. 1:&< .
6e "ay thus conclu'e that the phrase l l y perpetuates in the Church a
2ewish an' $ellenistic rather than a specifically early Christian usage.
l l y occurs in 1 Cl., .%, &0 %3, 1. It is use' of the boo*s burnt in persecution in
,us.$ist. ,ccl. , AIII, &, 1. Cf. Philostorg. $ist. ,cc. , AIII, 11 (p. 11&, 130 5elas.$ist. ,ccl. , II,
&1, 1.0 sing. : q l q6 y , III, /0 without q6 :
)
h'rt. ,p. , 1., 4P5 , G3, 11GGc.
l y is often foun' in the early Church: 5elas. , II, 1(, 1., cf. II, &<, %0
4
etho'.#y"p. , IA, 3, //0 Philostorg.
A
it. et
4
art. Duc. , & (1G%, 1G0 sing. of the H) : Chrysosto"
$o". in 5n. F, 3 ( 4P5 , %3, G.0 l y in relation to a E) passage: ,us.
4
arcell. +r.
, p. 1G(, Eo. (0 p. 1/&, Eo. .30 p. &1&, Eo. 1&1 etc. q y of the E) : p. 1/&, Eo. .&.
,lsewhere l y is use': Cl. 1l.#tro". , AII, 1, .0 1(, /., 10 4etho'.
=
esurrect. ,
I, (&, . (of the H) , De!it..
Hf the H) as a whole the si"ple plur. l y is e8ually well establishe', though this
"ay refer to the state"ents therein containe'. In the =abbis we fin' WXU [ONXOR Ms ( #. -t. 1 on
1:1 or WXU [ONXOR XOs ( 4. ,7. , 1/, 1/. Philo occasionally has l y ( 1br. , &3( , or
l y with reference to the 4as. an' the 5*. translation ( Ait. 4os. , II,
.< . In the E) , too, l y is constantly use' of the H) Canon. It cannot be shown that
the reference is only to in'i!i'ual passages. )o be sure, in 4t. &1:.& the phrase is followe' by
ym y ( Ps. 11G:&& f. an' in 4t. &&:&/ those who
scoff at the resurrection are answere' by the phrase q l y
, an' then by a 8uotation fro" ,7. 3:( .
G
Hn the other han', in 4t. &(:%. : 6
m6 l y m y , there is no "ention of any
particular writer ( par. 4*. 1.:./ , an' the sa"e is true of 4t. &(:%( , e7cept that here one
portion of the #criptures is specifically "entione' ( l y 6 6 . 1
particularly plain argu"ent for the !iew that l y can "ean #criptures an' not 3ust
passages of #cripture is the eluci'ation of y in D*. &.:&; by
mm m m . )his e7pository
instruction of the risen Dor' is 'escribe' in D*. &.:3& , .% as a y
/
of the y
. #i"ilarly, it is highly 'oubtful whether the reference in 2n. %:3/ : y
, is to passages or oracles
1<
an' not to the #criptures. In 1c. 1;:& , 11 0 1G:&. 0 &G , the
reference is to so"ething co"prehensi!e, either in ter"s of searching the H) or see*ing
proofs for Christ fro" the #criptures. )he four passages in which Paul uses l y
(without y , i.e., 1 C. 1%:3 f. ,
11
the repeate' y 0 =. 1%:. :
m 6 y6 0 =. 1(:&( : y6 6 , all point in the
)h'rt. )heo'oretus, author in ..Gv/ 1.-. of a Church history in % boo*s an' one of those who thus continue' the
wor* of ,usebius, e'. D. Par"entier, 1/11.
4etho'. 4etho'ius, bishop of Hly"pus, "artyre' 311 1.-. Hf his writings the only one that has co"e 'own to
us co"plete in 5ree* is the Symposion , though others e7ist in translation, e'. 4P5, 1G, 1G%;.
Ait. (itae .
4art. 4. Aalerius 4artialis, of #pain. the "ost fa"ous Datin epigra""atist in the 1st century of i"perial =o"e,
e'. 6. $eraeus, 1/&%.
4arcell. +r. Marcelli 'ragmenta .
=esurrect. De Resurrectione .
G Par. 4*. 1&:&. #chl. 4t. , (%3 8uotes in this connection the relate' e7pression in #. Eu. , 11&.
/ Hn this e7pression, cf. the rNs Oh in 3 Chag. , ;;' ( #chl. D*. , .%/.
1< #chl. on 2n. %:3/ : $fnel, 1%.
11 Iult"ann, III, 1G( ff. has a'!ance' the interesting hypothesis that Paul`s y refers to early
stories of the passion an' resurrection which un'erlie the present 5ospels. 2^licher has suggeste' that =. 1(:&(
refers to current prophetic wor*s. Iut in face of the broa' tra'ition in the use of the for"ula these theories are
8uite untenable. 1n erstwhile =abbi can only ha!e ha' the H) in !iew in using such a phrase as
y . )here are goo' reasons for the fact that this tra'itional for"ula occurs only in 1 C. 1%:3 f. , na"ely,
that he is here 'ealing with a for"ulation han'e' 'own by the early co""unity. Hn the other han', there was no
reason why he shoul' not !ary the current for"ula0 there are countless e7a"ples of such !ariation fro" the ti"e
of the H) itself right on into the 5*. Church.
sa"e 'irection0 they lin* the sa!ing act of Christ, $is suffering, 'eath an' resurrection, an'
the 5ospel in general, with all the H) #criptures an' their prophetic witness.
&. y of In'i!i'ual Passages of #cripture.
It is incontestable that in the #yn., 1c. an' 2n.0 q y is also use' for in'i!i'ual
biblical state"ents, though we cannot say that it is use' only in this sense.
1&

Cf. . 4acc. 1G:1. , where ob!iously the q yq q
y refers to the !erse fro" Is. which is then cite' ( Is. .3:& DFF. In the =abbis: X[ONXOh
}Tj [kc }rj cs , 4. ,7. , 1., 30 )anch. ctW[ , &< , 1%G . Philo =er. -i!. $er. , &(( : c
g yg (the particular !erse 5n. 1%:13 0 1br. , 131 : p
y .
)he following in'i!i'ual references "ay be note' in the E) : 4*. 1&:1< : q yq
0 D*. .:&1 : q yq 0 2n. 1/:3; : kai5 pavlin e#tevra grafhv 0 1c. 1:1( :
c m q yq q y
(there follows 6:25 0 1</:G 0 1c. G:3& , where q q
y which the treasurer rea's is Is. %3:; f. 0 an' 1c. G:3% :
y . Hn the basis of these fin'ings it is also li*ely, though not certain, that
y 'enotes an in'i!i'ual saying whene!er followe' by a 8uotation, e,g., in 4*. 1%:&G %
lat sy P 0 2n. ;:3G 0
13
13:1G 0 1/:&. , 3( . _et e!en in such cases there "ay well be a reference
to #cripture as a whole.
$ow 'oes it stan' with Paule Hur best startingKpoint is 5l. 3:G , && ( ;%. , where the
personification of y "a*es it 8uite inconcei!able that Paul shoul' si"ply ha!e in !iew
an in'i!i'ual te7t. Hn the other han', the reference "ay well be to a single saying in the %
instances (or ( if we inclu'e 1 )". %:1G of y q y
1.
( 5l. .:3< 0 =. .:3 0 /:1; 0
1<:11 0 11:& , for here we ha!e a 8uotation following. )he situation is co"plicate', howe!er,
by =. 11:& : q y q y . +or it is better to ta*e this to signify the
utterance of all #cripture in ,lias, or in the story of ,lias, rather than this particular passage in
,lias. 1gain, we can see fro" =. 11:. : y ,
1%
that Paul can use
other e7pressions to e"phasise a particular passage. $ence it is "ore li*ely that he is using q
y for the H) as a whole. )here is e!en the possibility that when he uses the phrase
y q y he has no fi7e' conception in his own "in', as often happens when there is
a !ariation in usage. 6e can certainly trace this twofol' use of y right on into the early
Church ( infra0 ;%% .
In 2". &:&3 the situation is "uch the sa"e as in Paul`s general use of y q y .
+ollowe' by D!. 1/:1G , q y ( &:G ob!iously refers to a single passage.
)hus the true parallel is not & ,sr. (:1G : q yq m , but the
X[ ON{Oh{Os of the =abbis. In 2". .:% , howe!er, the 6 q yq y "ust
surely be with reference to #cripture as a whole.
)he postKapost. fathers ha!e instances of both for"s of usage. )hus there is reference to all
#cripture in, e.g., 1 Cl., .&, %: y q y 0 & Cl., (, G: y q yq
0 Iarn. , (, 1& (where q y is e8uate' with 5o'. )here is 'ubiety in 1 Cl., 3., (0
1& $fnel, 1., clai"s that this is so in the case of the 5ospels, but it see"s to "e to b highly 'ebatable in that of
2n.
13 6e cannot be sure whether the reference here is to a co"bination of H) passages ( #chl. 2. , &<< f.: 4oses`
'ispensing of water along with Is. ..:3 0 ,>. .;:1 0 Lech. 1.:G , cf. 1*iba, #. -t. , .G on 11:&&, or to a particular
!erse in the Canon ($fnel, 13: )g. Cant., ., 1%, or perhaps e!en an apocryphal saying. Cf. Iau. 2. , ad loc.
1. Hn ?saying of #cripture@ in =abb. usage, cf. #chl. 2. on ;:3G, .& (p. &<<, &<&. )he for"ulae }Tj [kc X[ON{OhMs
or X[ ON{OhM s }Ts ch QPS are fi7e'.
1% Hn in 2os. : #chl. )heol. '. 2u't. , (;0 y an' , ((.
3%, ;0 & Cl., 1., 1f.0 Iarn. , ., ;0 %, .0 13, &. Hn the other han', in'i!i'ual passages are plainly in
"in' in 1 Cl., &3, 3: q yq (apocryphal an' & Cl., &, .: c c y (a E)
!erse. )his twofol' usage persists in later writers. Cf. $ipp.=ef. , A, ;, &.: l
g yg , AI, 1<, &: q y , with Hrig.Co"". in 2ohn. , F, 1., G1: g
g yy yg , though he, too, can elsewhere use both y an'
y of #cripture as a whole. 4etho'.#y"p. , AIII, G, 1/1 can still say: c yg .
3. y is ne!er use' in the E) of a single boo* of the Iible, though this usage is
elsewhere co""on in $ellenistic 2u'ais". )he only possible e7a"ple is & )". 3:1( :
yq , but accor'ing to current analogies this ob!iously "eans e!ery passage
of #cripture.
1(

Instances of its use for in'i!i'ual boo*s are & ,sr. (:1G : q yq
m ( XNh {OR 0( & Ch. &.:&; : q yq 6 m ( QS }h ~RTU 0 )est. Leb. 3:.:
yg mm . Hf the )orah at least: 2os.1nt. , III, 3G 0 Philo Ait. 4os. , II, %1 0 of
the -ecalogue: #pec. Deg. , I, 1 0 of the first table of the Daw: -ecal. , %1 : q y . In the
5*. fathers, Hrig.Cels. , I, 1&: q l y 0 AI, ./:
q 6m ym y (5enesis0 ,us.4arcell. +r. Eo. &3: q t
y 0 of the 5ospel: Hrig.Cels. , II, &;: q 6 y 0 cf. I, %/: q yyq
y .
.. y e"phasising the :nity of #cripture: the )otality of H) #cripture.
In )est. Leb. , IF, % it is sai' of the H) : yg 6 m . 1gain, in ,p. 1r.
, 1%%0 1(G: y , the ter" is synon. with an' 'enotes #cripture as a whole.
1;
)his usage "ight well ha!e 'e!elope' out of the =abbin. X[ON{OhMs . 6e certainly 'o not ha!e it
in 2oseph. or Philo, where the plur. alone is use' for all #cripture.
1G

1t this point we "ust resu"e our 'iscussion of y in Paul. It has been briefly
"entione' ( ;%3 that in 5l. 3:G : q y , an' 5l. 3:&& :
q yq , Paul ta*es the unity of #cripture so seriously that
he can personify it. Iut there is no sense in this unless he has in !iew its i'entification with
5o'`s own spea*ing (cf. =. 11:3& , where is use' of 5o' $i"self. )he only
point of Paul`s hypostatising of #cripture is that he regar's it in its essential unity as a
'eclaration of the 'i!ine will.
1/
In this respect, of course, he is si"ply using a custo"ary
=abbinic "o'e of e7pression.
&<

Hur fin'ings with regar' to Paul ha!e an i"portant bearing on the un'erstan'ing of the
postKpauline 5ospel of 2ohn. If there can be no 'oubt ( ;%3 that the "eaning in 2n. 1/:1;
is ?saying,@ an' if this is at least a possible, though not a necessary, ren'ering in ;:3G , .& 0
1( Cf. Pr.KIauer , #chlatter, as against Cr.KBC. , 4eecha".
1; 6:5 : yg 6 , 'oes not refer to the H) , cf. $. 5un*el, $salmen
.
(1/&(, 3;/ (an'
, (&< . Eor 'oes -a. 1<:&1 : yg (DFF: yg XNh {OR( , where the
reference is to the secret apocalyptic boo* of 5o' in which future e!ents an' national 'estinies are written.
1G )hough cf. I5: , %&;3 (%th cent. 1.-. : q y 0 P. Don'., /G1, . (.th
cent. 1.-. : yy g yg .
1/ )he y, of Paul in 1 C. (:1( 0 =. 1%:1< f. , an' the y y in & C. (:& , ha!e little bearing on
the 8uestion. )hey naturally refer to #cripture, but in a general sense which is also co""on in the 'iatribe an'
Philo. )he =abbis ha!e }Tc\Q or }T[c[ . Cf. ,pict.-iss. , I, &G, .: y m 0 III, &., //:
y 2m (cf. IA, 1, .1.
&< +or e7a"ples of =abbinic personification of the )orah, cf. #tr.KI. , III, %3G, with reference to the for"ula MT
M}[N MNc} : ?$ow, or on what groun's, 'oes the )orah co"e to say this or thate@ )Ib, ;, & (3%;0 the sa"e
of #cripture, #. D!. , &3, && (.1<a0 b.Ib ;/b: ?6hy has the )orah threatene' a "ore se!ere punish"ente@ Cf.
further #. D!. , %, 1;0 #. Eu. , 1%1 on &/:3%0 )anch. r\ , 3 . 1%1 0 gW[Q , ; , 3< .
13:1G 0 1/:&. , &G , 3( din fact the q yq mg or mg see"s to refer
"ore naturally to the fulfil"ent of all #cripture, inclu'ing its in'i!i'ual utterancesdthere can
har'ly be any 'oubt whate!er that in &:&& : g yg , an' 1<:3% :
q y (cf. ;:&3 of the : q g , an' also in 1;:1& :
q yq mg (with no particular citation an' &<:/ : m y
q y , we are to thin* of the unifie' totality of #cripture. #i"ilarly, it is i"possible
to ta*e 1 Pt. &:( : yg , or & Pt. 1:&< ,
&1
in any other way.
Cf. this use of y in the early Church, which also inclu'e' the E) Canon:
&&

Hrig.Co"". in 2oh. , F, &3, 131: y 0 Philostorg. $ist. ,ccl. , III,
G0 5elas. , II, 1;, 1(. Hrig. can say of the H) : q y , Cels. , AII, &.0
4etho'.#y"p. , III, 1, %&0 G, (/0 A, &, 11< (inclu'ing the apostolic writings as well as the H) 0
5elas. , II, 1/, 3 (of the 5ospel of 4t..
C. The 4uestion o# 2cripture.
1. )he 2u'aistic Aiew of #cripture.
1ccor'ing to the later 2ewish !iew, #cripture has sacre', authoritati!e an' nor"ati!e
significance. It is of per"anent an' unassailable !ali'ity. 1s the 'ictate of 5o', it is gi!en by
$is #pirit. )his !iew referre' originally to the Pentateuch but was then transferre' to the
Prophets an' 6ritings. )he i"plication of the 'octrine of inspiration is that the re!eale' truth
of 5o' characterises e!ery wor'. )he 1le7an'rian synagogue 'e!ote' particular attention to
the 8uestion of inspiration an' interprete' it along the lines of 5ree* ecstaticis". )he author
beco"es the organ of 5o'`s 'ictation in c .
&3
In c 4oses, the prophet
, interprets the will of 5o' in hu"an speech. is 'istinguishe'
fro" this inspiration, howe!er, an' "ay be e7perience' by the sage spea*ing in rapture.
&.

)he use of #cripture in the =abbinic synagogue is 'eter"ine' by the concern to re'isco!er
an' pro!e the which ha' establishe' itself alongsi'e #cripture. )his 'e"an's
literal attention to the wor'ing, as 'oes also the casuistical no"is" an' the onesi'e'ly legal
conception of #cripture. 1lrea'y in the Pir*e 1both 4oses is !iewe' as the first to pass on the
tra'ition of the )orah recei!e' at #inai ( 1b. , 1, 1. If the whole $alacha is to be spun out of
#cripture an' establishe' by it, there is naturally 'e"an'e' a "inute treat"ent of the te7t
which goes rather beyon' e7egesis. $illel`s ; rules ( N[k~OTU are only the beginning of a
syste" of sche"atic, syllogistic an' scholastic wresting of the te7t in which 3ustifiable
concerns are i""e'iately cho*e' by a ten'entious o!erK"inuteness which cannot possibly 'o
3ustice to the li!ing realities of the state"ents.
&%
)he 1le7an'rian treat"ent of the te7t, which
is rather freer in relation to the but surren'ers the "ore easily to a whole host of
$ellenistic "otifs, is particularly influential by reason of its allegorising. )he Palestinian
synagogue ha' alrea'y a'opte' this to so"e 'egree (the 4i'rash an' ol'er )argu"i". )his
"etho' is the una!oi'able conse8uence of forcing the te7t into a sche"a i"porte' fro"
without.
&. )he ,arly Christian Canon.
$an' in han' with the consoli'ation of the Pharisaic "o!e"ent, which is particularly
concerne' to erect a 'a" of law an' tra'ition against the $ellenistic floo', there goes the
for"ation of the Canon, which is shape' to a surprising 'egree by this antiK$ellenistic
&1 6ithout the art. n. ; .
&& +or the postKapost. fathers, Pr.KIauer , s.v. y .
&3 Philo#pec. Deg. , IA, ./ 0 =er. -i!. $er. , &(% .
&. PhiloAit. 4ss. , II0 1/1 0 4ut. Eo". , 1&( .
&% +or the later 13 rules, cf. 6eber, 1</ ff. Hn this whole section, cf. #tr.KI. , IA, .1%J.%1 (,7curs.: ?-er
Banon 'es 1) u.s. Inspiration@.
ten'ency.
&(
)he absolute nor"ati!ity of a bin'ing te7t 'e"an's a carefully 'ifferentiate' an'
integrate' nu"ber of boo*s.
)he E) helps us to un'erstan' this 'e!elop"ent at "any points. )hus we can see fro"
4t. &3:3% that Chronicles ( & Ch. &.:&<f. was then the last boo*.
&;
1gain, in D*. &.:.. we
ha!e the sa"e threefol' 'i!ision as in the Prologue to #ir. ( c. 13< I.C. .
&G
)he fact that the
prophecies of 2ere"iah are presuppose' in -a. /:& shows us that the prophetic writings were
alrea'y in use at this perio', an' the fact that the !orpus propheticum was then close' "a*es
it plain that -a. was not inclu'e' in it. )he Iible of 2esus "ust certainly ha!e inclu'e' the
gWX[N{ an' early Christian tra'ition recor's that 2esus 8uote' especially fro" -a., the
)wel!e, Is., Ps. an' -t.
&/
Paul 8uotes "ost hea!ily fro" Is. an' Ps., then the )orah
(especially 5n. an' -t..
3<
$e uses the DFF
31
in ol'er recensions or strata no longer e7tant.
3&

)here is little apocryphal citation in the E) , an' the sa"e sole"nity 'oes not attach to it
as to canonical citation.
33

)he fact that )est. E. &:1.,
)
est. #. %:. intro'uce the Ioo* of ,noch as (q) yq t6
'oes not i"ply "ore than that it is literature. In & 4acc. &:. there is a si"ilar reference to
apocryphal "aterial: g yg (cf. &:1: y , but no particular clai" is
in!ol!e'.
In the E) we ha!e to consi'er D*. 11:./ ( q l , a boo* of wis'o"e0
2n. ;:3G 0 1 C. &:/ 0
3.
/:1< ('oubtful0 ,ph. %:1. ( y 0
3%
2". .:% ( q yq y 0
3(
2'. 1. ff. ( t6 ym , a reference to ,th. ,n. 0 cf. the allusion to the 1ss. 4os. in !. /.
)he situation is basically the sa"e in the postKapost. fathers. In 1 Cl., &3, 3 there is an apocryphal
citation intro'uce' by q yq , y (,l'a' an' 4o'a', or 1ss. 4os. e, which
is also foun' in & Cl., 11, & as y . In Iarn. , 1(, % there is a saying fro" ,n.
G/:%(ff. intro'uce' by y y q y . 1pocryphal sayings are also 8uote' in ter"s of
yy in $er".!. , &, 3, .0 Iarn. , ., 3.
)he Pauline ,pistles are alrea'y calle' y in & Pt. 3:1( . 1 saying of the Dor' is calle'
y in & Cl., &, ..
3. )he Ielief of the ,arly Church as regar's #cripture.
&( 1cc. to 2os.1p. , 1, .< the && (or &. in . ,sr. 1.:.. boo*s of the Canon 'eri!e fro" the perio' fro" the
'eath of 4oses to 1rta7er7es. )hey recei!e their authority fro" 4oses an' the prophets who follow hi". Hn the
'ifference between the concept of #cripture an' that of the Canon in the #ynagogue, cf. #taer*, op. cit.
&; 1s against $fnel, /(.
&G D*. &.:.. : q mm 0 the last is pars pro toto for
gWX[N{ . ,lsewhere D*. li*es the e7pression l , D*. 1(:1( , &/ , 31 0 1c. 13:1% 0
&G:31 0 cf. &.:1. 0 &G:&3 . )he tripartite 'i!ision is foun' in PhiloAit. Cont. , &% : y
6 . Philo e7poun's the Pentateuch but occasionally 8uotes fro"
all three parts ( Ps. , Pr!., 2ob fro" the 3r'. Paul ( 1 C. 1.:&1 da saying fro" Is. as an' 2n. ( 1<:3. 0
1%:&% dof !erses fro" the Ps. follow 2ewish custo" in using for #cripture as a whole.
&/ Cf. $fnel, 3%J... $fnel lin*s his fin'ings fro" the 5ospels 'irectly with 2esus, though his !iews really apply
to the early Christian tra'ition inaugurate' by the influence of 2esus.
3< 4ichel, 11. Hf the gWX[N{ Pl. 8uotes Ps., Pr!., 2ob. +or his following of the threefol' 'i!ision, ;%G, n.
.3 . It is li*ely that he *new 6is., but the allusions are not 8uotations an' his basic orientation is 'ifferent.
31 Particularly stri*ing is his acceptance of the .3< years in 5l. 3:1; acc. to the DFF an' not the 4as. ( ,7.
1&:.< . Hn 2oseph. an' the DFF, #chl. )heol. '. 2u't. , 1%1 f.
3& Dt>". 5l. , 3&J3.0 1. =ahlfs, LE6 , &< (1/&1, 1G& ff.
33 )he 3u'g"ent of I. Poertner, 31 an' ,. BCnig, .3 is to be "o'ifie' in the light of 2". .:% .
)est. #. <estament of Simeon .
3. 1cc. to Hrig. on 4t. &;:/ (Do""at>sch, A, &/, 1"brosiast., ,uthalius, fro" an ,lias 1poc.0 2ero"e on Is.
(.:. regar's this !erse or (%:1( as the original of the 8uotation.
3% 1cc. to ,piph.$aer. , .&, 1&. 3 this q was to be foun' in an ,lias 1poc.
3( )he interpretation in Cr.KBC. , &(%, where !. %b is not regar'e' as a 8uotation, is force'.
a. Inspiration. In 2n. %:3/ : y , it is ac*nowle'ge' that 2u'ais"
ta*es great pains to in!estigate the #criptures with a !iew to attaining eternal life.
3;
,arly
Christianity 'i' not free itself fro" the 2ewish 'octrine of inspiration nor e!en fro" the
influence of its e7position at certain points. It is a "atter of farKreaching significance,
howe!er, that was no longer accepte' as an e8ually i"portant "agnitu'e. In
a''ition, the sayings of the Dor' ca"e to be gi!en the sa"e authority as the H) (cf. the
#er"on on the 4ount, also 1 C. ;:1< 0 /:1. 0 11:&3 , thus "o'ifying the original authority.
+or the ?I say unto you@ cause' great changes in the whole concept of authority, especially in
relation to the !ali'ity of #cripture ( ;(< . )he y were still the basic e7pression of
the will of 5o'. )his is establishe' by the fact that the 'i!ine #pirit was sai' to spea* in
#cripture, though this for"ulation is rare as co"pare' with all that is sai' concerning the nonK
capricious charis"atic utterances of the #pirit.
3G
)hus -a!i' in the Psal"s spea*s by the
#pirit ( 4t. &&:.3 0 4*. 1&:3( 0
3/
1c. 1:1( . 1gain, the prophets spea* by the #pirit ( 1c.
&G:&% 0 1 Pt. 1:11 , the #pirit of Christ0 & Pt. 1:&1 : y
m . $b. especially e"phasises the fact that the #pirit
spea*s in the sayings of the H) ( 3:; 0 /:G 0 1<:1% . )he true 'octrinal for"ulation of
inspiration is "ost co"prehensi!ely gi!en in & )". 3:1( : yq .
Iut ,ph. (:1& presupposes the sa"e con!iction, an' all e"phasis upon the fact that 5o'
spea*s in #cripture ( 4*. 1&:&( 0 par. 4t. &&:31 0 4t. 1%:. 0 1/:% , or that the spea*s
by the prophets ( 4t. 1:&& 0 &:1% 0 cf. y as an intro'uctory for"ula in Pl.: 1 C.
1.:&1 0 & C. (:1; 0 =. 1&:1/ 0 cf. also & C. (:& , 1( 0 =. /:1% , &% , where y presupposes
, testifies at root to e7actly the sa"e point as is at issue in the 'octrine of inspiration.
Eaturally, when we as* concerning the relation between #cripture an' #pirit, we again co"e
up against the new nor" of the wor's of 2esus, which acc. to 2n. (:(3 are spirit an' life0 an' in
2n. 1.:&( it is the Paraclete who will bring to the "in's of the 'isciples what was sai' to the"
by 2esus.
6e "ay perhaps conclu'e that there is a greater sense of the persons of the authors in
early Christianity than in 2u'ais",
.<
an' therefore a greater regar' for the natural an'
historical "e'iation of the 'i!ine utterance. _et this 'oes not in any way wea*en the basic
con!iction that it is 5o' who spea*s in #cripture. )he fact that Paul, for e7a"ple, so"eti"es
han'les his te7ts !ery freely shows us that his belief in inspiration 'oes not entail sla!ery to
the letter. Iut in co"parison with the liberties an' capricious alterations which are "a'e by
2osephus in spite of his insistence on the sanctity of the !ery letter of #cripture,
.1
Paul is by
far the "ore re!erent, especially in his high regar' for the fact of what is reporte' in the H) .
.&

=abbinic influence
.3
"ay still be seen in Paul`s allegorising ( a3llhgore!w, &(3 f. :
y , 5l. .:&. 0 cf. 5l. 3:1( ( , 0
..
5l.
3; Hn in 2oseph. the =abb. , Philo, cf. #chl. 2. , 1%G0 on Philo cf. Deg. 1ll. , III, G. 0 Congr. , .. .
3G =ather surprisingly, Paul ne!er lists true e7position of #cripture a"ong the gifts of the #pirit.
3/ )his 'oes not wea*en the 'octrine of inspiration ($fnel by suggesting that there are in the Ps. things which
-a!i' 'i' not spea* by inspiration.
.< )his is esp. stri*ing in 4t. ( &:% , 1; , &3 0 3:3 0 .:1. 0 G:. , 1; 0 1&:1; 0 13:1. , 3% 0 &&:&. 0 &.:1% 0 &;:/ . +or
a Pauline list, v. 4ichel, (/. )he 'ifference fro" $b. is palpable, cf. 4ichel, (G.
.1 #chl. )heol. '. 2u't. , (%.
.& Hn Paul`s han'ling of #cripture, v. 4ichel, ;. f. (list, ;( ff. $b. is "ore literal. Hn the license of 2oseph. an'
the influence of legen's on hi", cf. #chl. <heol. d. #udt. , (GJ;&. Hn Paul`s attitu'e to the historical ele"ent in
#cripture, cf. 5. #chren*, )eschichtsanschauung des $aulus , ;. f. ( ;.3 n..
.3 )hat Paul 'eri!es fro" the =abb. tra'ition "ay be seen for"ally fro" the fact that li*e the =abb. he co"bines
8uotations fro" all 3 groups (4ichel, G3, an' that he li*es to heap up *ey sayings an' to 'raw up catenae
(6in'fuhr. )his is =abb. , as is also the yy of 4t. .:; . Hn florilegia, which are not 'efinitely
foun' prior to Iarn. , cf. $atch0 Aoll"er0 $arris0 4ichel0 Dt>". 5l. , 330 for Iarn. , cf. 6n'. ( ;.3 n..
.. Philo4ut. Eo". , 1.% .
3:1/ ( y l yym 0
.%
.:&% ($agar, #inai0
.(
.:3< (Ish"ael0
.;
1 C. 1<:. (the
roc* which is Christd$agga'ic.
.G
_et if we co"pare Paul with Philo, it is instructi!e that
p , the literal sense, 'oes not ha!e for Philo
./
the sa"e !alue as for Paul when
co"pare' with the allegorical.
%<
)he allegories of Paul are relics of =abbinis". 1llegorising
is not his pre'o"inant "o'e of e7position.
%1

Hn the inspiration of #cripture in the 5*. fathers: Chrysost. -e Da>aro, IA, 3 ( 4P5 , .G,
1<1<: l y yy, y .
5reat use was "a'e of the ter" : Cl. 1l.#tro". , AII, 1(, 1<1, (0 Hrig.Co"".
in 2oh. , AI, .G, &.G0 on 2ohn. 1:1; (p. ./.0 Cels. , IA, 1;0 $o". in 1 #. &G:3J&% (p. &G(, & f.0
)h'rt. Interpret., & )". 3:1( ( 4P5 , G&, G./b.
b. )he )hought of +ulfil"ent as the $eart of the ,arly Christian :n'erstan'ing of
#cripture. 1ll the writings of the E) 'isplay a con!iction of the m or
m of #cripture in an' through 2esus Christ. In the 5ospels this is a "ain the"e
in Christian e'ification. y, y are particularly relate' to this thought in 4*.
1.:./ 0 1%:&G % lat sy P 0 4t. &(:%. , %( 0 D*. .:&1 0 1c. 1:1( 0 2n. 1;:1& 0 1/:&. , &G (
mg , 3( . It is also to be note' that this thought un'erlies the whole e"phasis on the
fact that there is 4essianic prophecy in the H) , an' that the life an' wor* of 2esus, $is
"ission as Christ, $is suffering an' resurrection, "ay be foun' in the Daw, Prophets an'
6ritings.
%&
)he great "essage of #cripture is confir"e' by its actualisation in Christ, e.g., in
$is passion. In D*. &.:&; , 3& , .% the risen Dor' $i"self shows this. Paul ta*es the sa"e line
in 1c. 1;:& 0 &G:&3 . 1pollos fin's proof fro" the #criptures in 1c. 1G:&G . In'ee', the sa"e
conception un'erlies the whole of the E) e!en when we 'o not ha!e the
y of 1 C. 1%:3 f.
)his thought of fulfil"ent 'oes not i"ply only that in'i!i'ual passages pro!i'e scriptural
proof for !arious concrete facts or features relating to what too* place in Christ. Paul
especially has a larger un'erstan'ing in !iew when he 'escribes the purpose of the H) for the
Christian co""unity in ter"s of y l q, y . $e is clai"ing no less
than that H) #cripture finally belongs to the Christian co""unity rather than the 2ewish.
%3

1ll that is written ( =. 1%:. was written for the instruction of Christians an' the fostering of
their hope by the patience an' co"fort of the #criptures. $e applies this in all its brea'th.
)hus in =. 1(:&( he says that the yy for the nations was re!eale' by prophetic
.% #tr.KI. , III, %%. ff.
.( PhiloDeg. 1ll. , III, &.. 0 4ut. Eo". , ((, ;; .
.; #tr.KI. , III, %;%.
.G PhiloDeg. 1ll. , II, G( 0 -et. Pot. Ins. , 11%J11G .
./ Philo1br. , (G 0 131 0 &3( 0 Prae". Poen. , (% .
%< 5. #chren*, op. cit. , ;. ff.
%1 $ow a true 'isciple of Philo allegorises is shown by Hrig. Hn the alleg. an' liter. "eaning of #cripture, cf.
Princ. , IA, &, &0 IA, 3, .0 IA, 3, 11. +or the 5nostic !iew of the har"ony of the organic whole of #cripture, cf.
Co"". in 2oh. , F, 1G, 1<;.
%& Hn m , which correspon's to the =abb. gWWOjoU , ?to sustain,@ ?to pro!e !ali',@ cf. #tr.KI. , I, ;. an'
#chl. 4t. , &1. In any case, the final realisation or ?bringing to pass@ is in !iew (cf. the m of 2n., e!en in
4t. %:1; , where the opp. is , sai' in relation to the . 2oseph. 'oes not ha!e the concept of
the fulfil"ent of #cripture.
%3 +ro" the obser!ation that sole"n scriptural proof is a''uce' with re"ar*able oneKsi'e'ness only in 5l., =.,
an' 1 an' & C., but plays !ery little part in 1 an' & )h., Phil., Col. an' ,ph., $arnac* ( op. cit. has conclu'e'
that the H) was not use' for purposes of e'ification in the co""unity, an' that Paul turne' to it only in conflict
with 2u'ais". _et =. is surely written to a pre'o"inantly 5entile co""unity, an' the sa"e is probably true of
5l. an' 1 an' & C. as well. Paul presu"es a fair *nowle'ge of #cripture in his churches. )hat searching the
#criptures playe' a great part in the" is rightly note' in 1c. 1G:&. 0 1;:11 . Cf. further $b. .:1& 0 2n. 1/:; . It is
i"possible to concei!e either of the "issionary preaching of Paul or of the instruction of the co""unities
without the proof fro" #cripture. )his is atteste' by the saying in & )". 3:1( concerning the !alue of #cripture
dwhich is surely "ore than pious "oralising. , y, m,
g are wor's which 'escribe the total ser!ice of y to the co""unity.
#criptures. 1gain, in =. .:&3 he e"phasises that the y in the case of 1braha"
q y , or in 1 C. 1<:11 that the true ai" of e!ery H) story 'epicting the !isitation
of 'i!ine 3u'g"ent is to ser!e as an e7a"ple, or in 1 C. /:1< that the saying concerning the o7
which trea's out the corn, an' which is not to be "u>>le', l q y , 'isclosing the
"in' an' principle of the 'i!ine rule in the instruction of the ser!ants of the 5ospel
concerning their attitu'e to the 8uestion of support. ,!erywhere, then, the thought of
fulfil"ent is concei!e' in such a way that the profoun'est sense of #cripture is effecti!ely
realise' in the co""unity of Christ.
1long the sa"e lines 2n. argues that the y bear witness to Christ ( %:3/J.; , an'
that they 'o so in their totality. 1braha" is a prophet of Christ ( G:%( . 4oses wrote
concerning $i" ( %:.(f .. )he cross an' resurrection are prophesie' in #cripture ( 1/:3; 0
&<:/ , but so, too, is the free'o" of 2esus in relation to the #abbath ( ;:&& . In'ee', $is
#onship is pro!e' fro" #cripture ( 1<:3.ff ..
$b. gi!es us the "ost penetrating an' consistent 'etaile' e7egesis in ho"iletical for". In
it apologetic !alue in ascribe' to the wor' of #cripture. $ence it is not surprising that
e!erything is here brought un'er the conception of fulfil"ent0 the e!ents an' institutions of
the H) are applie' typologically as sha'ows of the higher future reality of the Christ
re!elation. ,!erything, then, is lit up by Christ. $is superiority to the angels, to 4oses, to
1aron an' to 4elchise'ec is establishe' by proofs fro" #cripture. )he "ain the"e, howe!er,
in this outwor*ing of the thought of fulfil"ent is that of $is superiority to the cultus. In $b.
11 , a "e'itation which has ob!ious lin*s with the ho"iletic tra'itions of the #ynagogue, the
witnesses of the H) generation of faith "ust again proclai" the content of Christian faith in
ter"s of hope.
In =e!. the H) pro!i'es an instructi!e treasury of i"ages for the portrayal of the final
'enoue"ent to which the co""unity loo*s forwar', e7cept that there is now an un'rea"e' of
heightening of what is therein narrate'. #cripture is thus an authority to the e7tent that it is
interprete' in the light of the e!ent of sal!ation acco"plishe' in Christ. It is a transparency in
which Christ "ay be seen, an' its office is to a'!ance Christianity. )here "ay be 'ifficulties
toK'ay as regar's so"e aspects of this un'erstan'ing, but basically the 'etaile' interpretation
is not the new thing but the rule that the fact of Christ is nor"ati!e an' regulati!e for the
whole use of #cripture. ,arly Christianity no longer has #cripture without Christ. It has
#cripture only to the e7tent that in it the Christ e!ent has been fulfille'. It is characteristic of
the E) conception of faith that there is no reference to belief in #cripture. )he phrase
g yg in 2n. &:&& , an' the 8uestion in 1c.
&(:&; , i"ply belie!ing #cripture, but not belief in it.
%.

c. )he )wofol' 1ttitu'e to #cripture in ,arly Christianity. )he thought of fulfil"ent
carries with it a negati!e conception in so far as it concei!es of #cripture in ter"s of
so"ething which is fulfille', which 'oes not therefore e7ist alone, which is nothing apart
fro" the fulfil"ent. _et the concept of authority re"ains unsha*en. )his is the real proble"
in the early Christian un'erstan'ing of #cripture. 2n. states the principle of authority in the
saying in 1<:3% : q y . #cripture is of uni"peachable
!ali'ity. )he sa"e point is e"phasise' in 4t. %:1G . Hn the other han', the Daw an' the
Prophets are only until 2ohn ( D*. 1(:1( , an' cm y is an integral part
of 4t. %:1G . )hus the thought of fulfil"ent both sustains an' "o'ifies that of authority.
1ccor'ing to the #ynoptic recor', e!en though 2esus sees the will of 5o' in the )orah, $e
opposes to it $is own 'ecisions in such "atters as "arriage, retribution, hatre', the law. of the
#abbath, the law of purification, the 4essianic i'eal of Israel, an' other 8uestions. $e 'oes
not "erely transcen' the ol'er state"ent0 $e can set it asi'e in !irtue of $is own
inco"parable authority, which is superior both to tra'ition an' to the written H) . 2esus`
%. 1cc. to 2n. &<:3< f. the goal of the +ourth 5ospel ( c yy, is not faith in
what is written but faith in the fact that 2esus is the Christ, the #on of 5o'. Cf. Hrig. $o". in 1 #. &G:3J&% (p.
&G;, 1 f.: yq g .
criticis" of the wor' of #cripture "ay be seen "ost clearly in $is 'istinction between the
original will of 5o' an' the concession of 4oses as regar's 'i!orce. $e "aintains that the
6or' of 5o' has been a''e' to by "en. If #cripture is an authoritati!e 'eclaration of the
'i!ine will, its authority is not !ali' apart fro" the ?I say unto you.@ In other wor's, the
concept of authority is change' by that of fulfil"ent.
In Paul we fin' the sa"e 'uality of the unbro*en an' the bro*en attitu'e, of bon'age an'
free'o". In 1 C. .:( the principle of q c yy
%%
is pole"ically
establishe'. Iut this can ne!er "ean #cripture apart fro" Christ, 3ust as l
in =. 3:31 can ne!er "ean Daw apart fro" the fulfil"ent of its final purpose in Christ. +or
Paul, the an' y are transcen'e' by Christ an' the #pirit, an' are thus gi!en
their true !ali'ity. 6e rea' this fro" the Daw or fro" #cripture itself. )he lasting
soteriological, ethical an' eschatological truths
%(
which Paul still ta*es fro" #cripture are of
great significance e!en though the sa"e #cripture tells hi" that the Daw which is its *ernel is
o!erco"e.
In the great 'iscussion of Christ an' the H) in $b., #cripture ser!es to pro!e that Christ is
inco"parably "ore than the H) . )he E) represents a higher stage. _et the H) das shown,
e.g., by the chain of witnessesdre!eals also the continuity of the whole re!elation0 the H)
'e"an's the E) as a lin* an' continuation.
)his 'uality in the early Christian !iew re!eals a truth which is first brought clearly to
light by Paul in his 'iscussion of the y . +or early Christianity #cripture is no longer
3ust what is written, nor is it 3ust tra'ition0 it is the 'yna"ic an' 'i!inely 'eter"ine'
'eclaration of 5o' which spea*s of $is whole rule an' therefore of $is 'estroying an' new
creating, an' which reaches its cli"a7 in the re!elation of Christ an' the re!elation of the
#pirit by the risen Dor'. Iecause #cripture ser!es an' attests Christ, it can contain the "ost
'i!erse ele"ents, inclu'ing so"e which 'isturb the ol' concept of authority or contra'ict the
new. If the historical rule of 5o' in creation an' re'e"ption is $is foresha'owing an'
fulfil"ent, $is prophesying an' realisation, then basically the full re!elation in Christ an' the
#pirit is "ore than what is written. )he latter has its true force only in this e!ent an' not in
co'ification.
.
*

A. in Gree. and 3ellenistic ,sage.
)he use of y is par. to that of y. y is properly what is ?inscribe'@ or
?engra!en@ an' then what is ?written@ in the wi'est sense.
1. )he pri"ary sense is "ost clearly seen in the prohibition of y ,
tattooing, ( Zos Z os NXP Nk {OR in D!. 1/:&G 0 cf. Philo#pec. Deg. , I, %G . )he wor' is thus often use'
for ?inscription@: $'t. , I, 1G;0 Plat.Phae'r. , &&/e0 Char". , 1(.'0 Fenoph.4e". , IA, &, &.0
Plut.
D
ucull. , 1<, . (I, ./Gb0 Polyb. , IA, 33, &. ,ngra!en sy"bols li*e those on the hea'ban' of
gol' in ,7. 3(:3/ ( 3/:3< : y m ( XNOh {RTU 0 ,p. 1r. , /G0 2os.1nt. , 3,
1;G 0 Iell. , %, &3% 0 or the na"es of the sons of 2acob inscribe' on the breastplate: 2os.1nt. , 3,
1(/ 0 Philo=er. -i!. $er. , 1;( are l or y or y . $ere the y
are sy"bols ( infra , but the i'ea of engra!ing is still preser!e'.
&. y can also "ean ?picture,@ li*e y ( Plat.=esp. , A, .;&'0 Crat. , .3<e, or
?geo"etrical figure.@
1

%% 6hether or not this is to be !iewe' as the slogan of a libertine theology in Corinth (D^tgert, /; ff.0 #chlatter,
0or. <heol. , ; ff.dan' it "ay be that too "uch is rea' into the sayingdthere can be no 'oubt that the nor" of
#cripture is e"phasise'.
%( Cf. Dt>". 5l. , 33 in an e7cellent su""ary.
9 y . +or bibl. ym , ;.& , n. )he 'ef. of $esych. : yy, ,
my. . y is instructi!e when co"pare'
with our fin'ings in the E) , an' esp. Paul, for it gi!es prior significance to what is written rather than to
.
Ducull. De :ucullo .
1 Cf. Di''ellK#cott , s.v.
3. y can also be ?sy"bols@ or ?letters@ without the i'ea of engra!ing. It is use' a.
of ?writing in characters,@ e.g., by the Phoenicians, $'t. , A, %G0 2os.1p. , 1, &G 0 or by the 2ews,
2os.1nt. , 1&, 1% 0 or by the 5*s. , 2os.1p. , 1, 11 . ,gyptian hieroglyphics are calle' l
y , -io'. #. , I, &;, 30 .%, &0 %%, ;0 PhiloAit. 4os. , I, &3 0 -itt. Hr. , %(, 3( (3r' cent.
I.C. 0 /<, %. (&n' cent. I.C. . It is also use' b. of the ?in'i!i'ual letter,@ as when y is
lin*e' with in Plat.Crat. , 3/<e0 Philo4ut. Eo". , (. . In this sense it "ay signify the
letters use' for the 8uarters of a city,
&
or for nu"bers: Iarn. , /, ; f. (cf. the $ellenistic "ysticis"
of letters.
3
It "ay also be use' c. for the ?letters of a boo*@: 2os.1nt. , 1&, G3 :
y on the rolls of the )orah0 ,pict.-iss. , II, &3, 1:
y yy . It is use' '. for ?han'written characters@: 2os.Iell. , 1, %&/ 0
4etho'.#y"p. , A, ., 11;.
D*. &3:3G * 1- it: y c () pm () c (cf.
2n. 1/:&< shoul' be co"pare' with $'t. , IA, G; on an inscription in two languages: 6
y c q A, c q t 0 ,p. 1r. , . on the Daw:
yy p t y 0 1;(:
y 0 P. Don'. , .3, 3 (&n' cent. I.C. . In 2oseph. it is use' of the inscriptions on the
te"ple barriers, Iell. , %, 1/. : l c t l c Pm y 0 (, 1&%:
y t q y () 0 $ipp.=ef. , IA, &G,
&: t y .
e. In such cases as that of translation y can also ha!e the sense of ?language@: ,p.
1r. , 3G0 2os.1nt. , 1&, .G 0 cf. 1., 31/0 1/;0 &<, &(3.
. It will be seen that y always connotes ?what is written.@ Dogically, then, it can be
use' in antithesis to the spo*en wor': PhiloPlant. , 131 an' 1;3 . It is no contra'iction that in
Plat.Phileb. , 1Gc0 Philo4ut. Eo". , (3 y m are "ute soun's. $ere, as in the
sense of "usical notes ( 1nth. Pal. , 11, ;G, Ducill., the reference is to the notation rather than the
phonetic aspect. Hften y is use' to e"phasise the literal soun', as in
1ristot.Polit. , III, 1., ., p. 1&G(a, 1&0 III, 1(, %, p. 1&G;a, 33 f.0 P. 5iess. , 3<, (, 1% (&n' cent.
1.-. : yy y of the wor'ing of the contract. In *eeping with this is
the ety"ological obser!ance of the y in 1ristot. ,th. 4., I, (, p. 11G%b, 3/.
%. ?6hat is written@ an' ?writing@ are basic ele"ents in e'ucation. ?5ra""ar,@
yq ( 2os.1nt. , &<, &(3 , or y , Philo#pec. Deg. , I, 33( 0 II, &3<
0 cf. ,pict.-iss. , I, 1&. _et y can also be use' for ?aca'e"ic 'isciplines@ an' all that
pertains to aca'e"ic e'ucation: Fenoph.Cyrop. , I, &, (0 Plat.1p. , &(': ym
0 -io'. #. , A. .<, &0 2os.1nt. , 1<, 1G; : 6 Xm y )his y can
be so use' in the Israelite sphere that the reference is to the Daw: )est. D. 13:&: c
6 y, cm g g mg 6,
y6 m . )he learning of y is
especially relate' to *nowle'ge of the Daw, cf.
)
est. =. .:1. In the first instance, howe!er,
y or etc. si"ply "eans ?learning to rea' an' write.@
-e"osth. , 1G, &(%. -a. 1:. DFF an' 0 y : 2os.1p. , &, &<. ,
: Plat.1lc. , I, 1<(e:
P
rot. , 3&%e0 P. +lor. , III, 3G&, ;/ (3r' cent. 1.-. :
m y =abbin. : ,7. r. , &<, 1% on 13:1;: mWXU Nh {R W\UXOR ~Tk YRWOUQPS ~Zs . )he
y or ym m is one who can rea' an' write: Is.
&/:11 f. ( }P j Z~sWh 0 2os.1nt. , 1&, &</ 0 P. 1"h. , G&, . (3v. cent. 1.-. , )he opp. is
y q or l : Plat.Deg. , III, (G/'0 -itt. #yll.
&
, G.., %0 I5: ,
3%1. $ence y for an ?unlettere' "an@ ( 1c. .:13 .
.

(. y, y are "ost co""only use' for !arious *in's of ?written pieces.@
,specially a. y "eans a ?letter,@ $'t. I, 1&.0 Polyb. , II, (, .0 1 4acc. %:1< 0 ,st.
G:% 0 ,p. 1r. , .30 2os.1nt. , ;, 13; : ,pict.-iss. , III, &., &(0 1le7. ,rot. +r. , 3<, % (5renfell, &n'
cent. I.C. 0 P. 1"h. , II, 1.3, 1< (.th cent. 1.-. . ?Detters of reco""en'ation@ are calle'
y in ,pict.-iss. , II, 3, 1. It also "eans b. a ?report@ or ?'ocu"ent,@ as
& Preisig*e 6Crt. , s.v.
3 +. Ioll, Sphaira (1/<3, .(/ ff.0 =eit>enstein Poi". , &(< ff.. &GG ff.
)est. =. <estament of Reuben .
Prot. $rotagoras .
. Cf. ,. 4a3erKDeonhar', Ay 0 Pr.KIauer 6Crt.
generally in 1ristoph.Eu. , ;;&: y . ?City recor's@ are calle'
y in 2os.Iell. , ;, (1 , also ?acts@ in 2os.1nt. , 1., &%% (though cf. 1p. , 1,
11( , or the ?archi!es@ in which they are 'eK posite' in 1nt. , 1., &.3 an' &%3 . In Ait. , 33;
y refers to falsifie' accounts of a treaty. In Philo#pec. Deg. , IA, 3< the
reference is to recor's of loans on interest. )he wor' is use' of a ?'ee' of gift@ in ,useb.Ait.
Const. , II, &1: m y 0
%
of a ?bill of in'ebte'ness@ in 2os.1nt. , 1G, 1%( (
sing. 0 P. )ebt. , II, 3/;, 1; (1/G 1.-. 0 of ?proofs@ in a lawKsuit in Philo-ec. , 1.< 0
(
of an
?accusation@ in 2os.1nt. , 1;, 1.% : y yq 0 of ?national rolls@ in 2os.1p. ,
1, 3% an' of ?guar' rosters@ in -itt. #yll.
&
, %(/, &1 (Cos, 3r' cent. I.C. . 1gain, it "eans c. an
?official report@ in 2os.1nt. , 1;, 133 0 1/, &/& . It "eans '. the ?'ecree@ or ?'ecision@ of the *ing
in ,st. .:3 , G 0 G:1< 0 /:1 0 2os.1nt. , 11, &&& an' &&. 0 1., &(% etc.0 Iell. , ;, .33 0 ,us.$ist. ,ccl.
, IF, 1, 10 /, 130 of the go!ernor in P. H7y. , 11<., / (.th cent. 1.-. . 2oseph. often uses
y for ?e'ict,@ e.g., in 1nt. , 1&, 1.% 0 Ait. , 3;< .
6orth noting is the use of l or y for ?royal letters an' 'ecrees,@ esp. in
the eastern worl': CI5 , &/.3, 1< (age of 1ugustus0 -itt. Hr. , %<&, 13 f. (age of $a'rian0 I5 ,
FII, %, Eo. 13&0 -itt. #yll.
3
, GG1 (both 3r' cent. 1.-. 0 y
P
. $er". (6essely,
1/<%, 11/ I, III, 1/ (3r' cent. 1.-. 0 -itt. #yll.
3
, GGG, /%.
;

;. ?Daws fi7e' in writing,@ Plat.Polit. , 3<&e: y y,
y 0 cf. ibid. , &/3a for the contrast between y an' ym
. y an' are synon. in 1ristot.Pol. , II, /, p. 1&;<b, 3< in
the sense of legal statutes. )he sa"e sense is foun' in Plat.,p. , ;, 3&%'. )he contrast between
written law an' unwritten national custo" "ay be seen in 1ristot.Pol. , III, 1(, p. 1&G;b, % f.: c
6 mm 6 y m l c
l . Philo uses y both for 1. co""an'"ent an' &. table of the Daw ( #pec. Deg. , III. G
, an' also for the power of nature as a 'i!ine law ( 4igr. 1br. , G% : y . +or
further "aterial 'etails on written an' unwritten law, ;(G . )he sing. can be use' in )huc. , A,
&/, 3 of the in'i!i'ual clause in a contract.
G. y, y as ?literature.@ 2oseph. uses y for his sources, the
recor's of ,gypt, Phoenicia, Chal'ea, )yre an' 5reece, in 1p. , 1, &1 f. 0 %/ 0 ;3 0 1<. f. etc.0 cf.
PhiloAit4os0, I, &3 : A y (though the reference here "ay be to sciences
rather than literature. It "ay thus be use' for ?boo*s@ or ?in'i!i'ual writings,@ Fenoph.4e". ,
IA, &, 10 Philo#acr. 1C. , ;/ 0 2os.1p. , 1, 1& 0 ,us.Ait. Const. , I, 1< of his biography of
Constantine.
/. 1s a )er" for the #acre' #criptures of the H) an' E) .
a. It is not 8uite accurate
G
that in the 2ewish sphere y is use' of $oly #cripture
only with the a''ition l etc. 2oseph. in 1nt. , %, (1 can say: 6
m l ym . $ere of course the epithet is har'ly necessary,
since it is sai' that #cripture is preser!e' in the sanctuary. Iut in relation to a specific boo* of the
Canon we fin' y alone in ,st. (:1 (of Chronicles0 in 2os.1nt. , 3, 3&& (of the
Pentateuch: mm y 0 cf. PhiloConf. Ding. , %< :
mm y , in intro'ucing 8uotations0 in 2os.1nt. , 1<, ;/ of the
prophecies of 2ere"iah: he left the" y .
,lsewhere y is "ore co""on with an epithet: ,p. 1r. , 1&1: 0
2os.1nt. , 1, % : t y or , q y 0 1p. , 1, .&
an' 1&G 0 cf. 1(<. )he "ost co""on for"ula is l y . )he #ynagogue furnishe'
the original with its recurrent QS ~PoO k Ms WXj NR {OU . 6e fin' it in 2os.1nt. , 1<, &1< 0 13, 1(; 0 1(, 1(G 0
&<, &(. : 1p. , 1, %. 0 1&; 0 &&G 0 PhiloPrae". Poen. , ;/ 0 #pec. Deg. , II, 1%/ 0 &3G 0 Ait. 4os. ,
% Cf. 2os.1nt. , 1;, 11% : y of the will set out in writing. 4uch a''itional
"aterial "ay be foun' fro" the pap. in Preisig*e 6Crt. , s.v.
( B. Datte in PaulyK6. , FIA (1/3<, &<3& ff. s.v. martyria .
P. $er". !orpus $apyrorum /ermopolitanarum , e'. C. 6essely, 1/<%.
; (. further -eiss"ann DH , 3&1 f.
G Cr.KBC. , &((.
II, &/< : 6 l6 ym ( -t. 3. of the Pentateuch0 II, &/& 0 Deg. 5a3. ,
1/% 0 Ait. Cont. , &G 0 cf. ;% an' ;G.
)he ter" l y passes into the usage of the early Church. Hrig. has
y in Cels. , IA, /, but "ore often l y , e.g., in Cels. , IA, &;0 II, .:
l mm 6 6 ym 0 AI, 1G: l 6 6
y 0 4etho'.#y"p. , A, 1, 1</ of the E) . +or Hrig. the H) an' E) are the
y in Princ. , III, 1, 1(: qy c l y . $e
often uses y , esp. for the Daw ( Cels. , II, 1, 3G(0 II, &, 3G;0 II, ., 3/<0 AII, 1G,
;<;0 Co"". in 2oh. , FFAIII, 1&, /%, but can also use it for the E) ( Co"". in 2oh. , FIII, G,
.;. 1long with y etc. in Cels. , II, ;(0 II, ( an'
y in Cels. , II, &G we also ha!e yy y in Cels. , I, ;< (or sing.
Co"". in 2oh. , FFAIII, &., &11 an' y Cels. , III, ;(, ./;. )ogether
with y in Cels. , III, .(, .;G we "ay "ention y in
Co"". in 2oh. , F, &/, 1;/ ( opp. . 4etho'. li*es ()
y =esurr., I, &G, .0 #y"p. , II, (, .% (of the E) .
b. Di*e y, y can also be use' with reference to ?what is written in a specific
place.@ ,st. (:& : in the Ioo* of Chronicles y y
( X[ON{Oh . Philo in 4igr. 1br. , 1/% 8uotes a saying fro" $o"er`s H'.:
y 0 an' in Deg. 5a3. , (/ he refers to the y6 as
y . Cf. Conf. Ding. , %< in a 8uotation fro" Eu. 1(:1% : mm y 0
also -eus I"". , ( ( Eu. &G:& 0 4igr. 1br. , 13/ ( Eu. 31:&G etc.0 =er. -i!. $er. , &%G :
y p of an e7press saying l .
B. in %T ,sage.
1. In D*. &3:3G c 9 1- it ( ;.. y are ?written characters,@ an' in 5l. (:11
they 'enote ?letters in the han'writing@ of Paul ( ;.3 .
/

&. In 2n. ;:1% linguistic par. show that the 8uestion: 6 y (without
art. l q 6 si"ply "eans: 6hence hath this "an learning, seeing he has
ne!er recei!e' any instructione ( ;(& . In the conte7t, howe!er, the reference is to the
whole an' of 2esus. )he e7a"ples fro" )est. FII on ;(& , esp. )est.
D. 13:&, illustrate the ob!ious fact that schooling an' schooling in the Daw are !ery closely
relate' in 2u'ais", an' e!en i'entical. )hus we nee' not interrupt the train of thought on the
one si'e
1<
nor 'e!iate fro" the custo"ary "eaning of y l on the other.
Hn the contrary, we ha!e a parallel to )est. D. 13:&. )he unity of e'ucation an' instruction in
the Daw is in !iew, an' the 'isparage"ent of 2esus
11
as y i"plies that $e is not
fit to teach. 1 !ery 'ifferent esti"ate of learning is foun' in the saying of +estus to Paul in
1c. &(:&. : y l 0 the reference is to
"uch stu'ying or great learning, "ore specifically in #cripture.
3. 1c. &G:&1 : y . )he
reference here is to ?co""unications by letter@ ( ;(& . D*. 1(:( f. :
y m y . )his ob!iously refers to a
bill of in'ebte'ness ( ;(3 .
1&

.. 2n. %:.; : l c y , 6
p 0 here the y are the Ioo*s of 4oses or the Pentateuch (
;(3 . Presuppose' is the con!iction of the early Church, which un'erlies all the 5ospels (
y , ;%G , that the y , the authoritati!e #criptures establishe' a"ong the 2ews
/ Hn the 'ebate' 8uestion whether this refers to the whole letter ($of"., Ln., or si"ply to the conclusion,
gra!fw (;.3, n. 3 .
1< Iau20, ad loc. )here is only one learning, i.e., that of the )orah. In =abb. 2u'ais", there is only one 'iscipline
fro" the first beginnings of chil'ish learning, i.e., the stu'y of the )orah. )his e"braces all *nowle'ge.
11 In !iew of the e7aggerate' scorn, it is not unli*ely that the e'ucation of 2esus is 'eliberately ignore'.
1& )he co"pels us (against Ln., ad loc. to assu"e falsification.
an' accepte' as 4osaic, bear witness to Christ. If the 2ew 'oes not gi!e cre'ence to the
y he will certainly not belie!e the p of Christ. y , then, 'enotes a
palpable authority for the 2ew. If this authority, with its prophetic witness, is resiste', then the
li!ing 6or' of Christ will ob!iously be resiste'. (Hn the interrelationship of #cripture an'
6or', ;(& . & )". 3:1% : l y l refers to the H)
as a whole ( ;(3 . )he lac* of article "a*es no 'ifference in what is clearly a technical
ter".
13

%. y/ .
)here are i"portant passages in Paul in which we see a significant antithesis between
y an' . In =. &:&; y is the Daw as what is 'e"onstrably written, 3ust
as is a 'e"onstrable sign. Eeither can guarantee fulfil"ent of the Daw. 6ithout
this 'oing of the Daw, howe!er, the two gifts of the ol'er phase of re!elation confer no
a'!antage as co"pare' with the c . 6hen we are tol' in !. &; that the 2ew
y is a transgressor of the Daw, the cannot 3ust be
translate' ?in spite of@ as though to 'enote an acco"panying circu"stance0
1.
it "ust also be
gi!en an instru"ental significance. It is precisely through what is written an' through
circu"cision that the 2ew is a transgressor. $e is to see that his true position in!ol!es
possession of the y an' , but with no genuine fulfil"ent of the Daw, since
neither what is written nor circu"cision lea's hi" to action. )he wor' y 'oes not
"ean ?letter@ in this conte7t. It characterises the Daw in its 8uality of what is written or
prescribe'. )he true "eaning is ?prescription of the Daw@ ( ;(3 0 this goes far beyon' the
custo"ary ?letter@ of e7egetical tra'ition. )he choice of the ter" is partly influence' by the
si"ilarity of soun' which it has to , for an i"pressi!e antithesis is thus create'. In
&:&/ the q intro'uces a the"e which 'o"inates all the
y/ passages in Paul. )he fashioning of the afresh to obe'ience is the
antithesis not "erely to a false use of the Daw but to e!ery preKChristian use. )his renewal,
howe!er, is effecte' by the #pirit. In !. &Gf ., where it is e"phasise' that this wor*ing of the
#pirit on the "a*es the true 2ew, y an' , alrea'y lin*e' in !. &; ,
are brought "ore closely together by the use of the phrase q y for the
which is a purely legal happening, an' the opposing to it of q
. In both cases the is to be ta*en strictly instru"entally.
1%
1s the one ta*es
place only through the #pirit, the other 'oes so only through the y , there being
"erely an e7ecution of the prescription or written Daw. )he opposing of to
an' of to un'erlines the fact that the truly 'ecisi!e in!asion of
the personal life is oppose' to purely e7ternal prescription an' the "ere affecting of the
physical life in ter"s of the sign. )he antithesis is absolute in so far as the y can ne!er
acco"plish what is 'one by the . 6hat is "erely written 'oes not ha!e the power to
pro'uce obser!ance. It is not e!en re"otely suggeste' that the "ight use the
y to bring about this obser!ance. )he whole point of the argu"ent (cf. =. ; an' G is
that the #pirit alone "a*es possible the true circu"cision an' true obser!ance which the 2ew
cannot achie!e by his $oly #cripture. )he point of the passage is perhaps alien to us. It is
ha"pere' by the ecclesiastical un'erstan'ing of #cripture. Iut we can appreciate it once we
recognise that Paul is spea*ing of the ina'e8uacy of the , which is here use'
synony"ously with y . )he as here un'erstoo' is that which is "erely written
in contrast to the .
13 6ithout : c C
b
-95 33 Cle". ,piph. : 1C9 % is a correction. +or y or l y
without the art. , cf. ,st. (:1 0 2os.1nt. , 1(, 1(G 0 Hrig.Princ. , III, 1, 1( ( y 0 4etho'0 #y"p. ,
II, (, .%: y 0 Philo=er. -i!. $er. , &%G : l . Cf. also on
Philo, -ib. Past. , ad loc.
1. Dt>". =. , ad loc.
1% 6ith Ln. =. , ad loc.
=. ;:( "a*es it particularly plain that in its character as y , as a Daw which 'oes
not rule in the , the cannot acco"plish in relation to 5o'. $ere
again we ha!e confir"ation of the fact that when Paul spea*s of the Daw he always raises the
8uestion how there "ay be fulfil"ent of the will of 5o'. If the present passage teaches that
we are now 'ea' to the Daw, the continuation shows that this "eans our 'eath to the character
of the Daw as y , to its 8uality as what is "erely written. )his character belongs to
what is past ( 0 it is 'one away. Hnly in the being of the #pirit can the goal
of be attaine'. 6ithout Christ an' the #pirit what is written is absolutely
ineffecti!e. )he 8uestion again arises whether there is not a y sustaine' by the #pirit.
-o #cripture an' #pirit stan' in uncon'itional antithesise Paul`s !iew of y has to be
ta*en into account in this connection. $is e7positions, howe!er, are no less 'ifficult than all
that he says concerning the Daw to which we are 'ea' but which is still holy. )here can
certainly be no 'oubt that #cripture as what is "erely written has no power to gi!e new life.
Iehin' these 'eliberations concerning the ?past being of the Iible@
1(
(
stan's his e7perience of the futility of the religion of the #ynagogue, for all its
e"phasis on #cripture, in !irtue of its inability to press on to the ser!ice of 5o' (cf. 2n. %:3/J
.; , where this is e8uate' with its failure to press on to Christ.
)he "ost co"prehensi!e 'iscussion of this 8uestion is foun' in & C. 3:( f. , where
y is lin*e' with . )he state"ents concerning #cripture an'
2u'ais" in !!. 1&J1G , an' especially !!. 1.J1( , are particularly !aluable in our atte"pt to
see the relationship of the y/ antithesis to the total Pauline !iew of #cripture.
)he gen. of 8uality y an' in 3:( are closely relate' to q
. )he new co!enant is not characterise' by what is "erely written an' prescribe',
but by the #pirit. )he use of the ter" shows us that the whole antithesis y/ in
Paul 'eri!es fro" his un'erstan'ing of . : ( 31:33 . +or Paul, therefore, the nature
of the new co!enant lies in the fact that this 6m ( 4as. sing. l
q 6 6 ym is now fulfille'.
)here is no stronger argu"ent for the interrelating of an' y than the fact that
in . : what Paul in his e7position always calls y is the plur. , but the
new acti!ity of 5o' is 'escribe' as $is inscribing on the heart. If, then, the apostle goes on to
say that the y *ills, this is to be co"pare' with what he elsewhere says concerning the
. )hus in =. ;:/ f. he argues that in !irtue of its character as the
brings sin an' 'eath to fruition. )he "eaning in the present passage is e7actly the sa"e. )he
*illing is a conse8uence of the fact that this Daw is only what is written or prescribe' (VV
. Eeither here nor in =. ; can this *illing be attribute' only to a false use of the
Iible or the Daw. 1s always when Paul spea*s ra'ically of the negati!e operation of the Daw,
he is thin*ing in ter"s of the 'i!ine purpose. )he 'isposing of 5o' is with a !iew to the
e7ercise of 3u'g"ent by #cripture as Daw. 6hat is "erely written or prescribe' can only *ill.
)he #pirit alone can "a*e ali!e an' not #cripture. )he new co!enant, howe!er, is wholly
'eter"ine' by the #pirit.
In & C. 3:; : l c q y m
,
1;
the plur. y un'oubte'ly "eans inscribe' on stones in the for" of
letters ( ;(1 . )he reference is to the tables of the Daw. )he !erse 'oes not conflict,
howe!er, with our pre!ious fin'ings. If the ol' is 'escribe' in the sing. , it 'oes not i"ply that
only the ?letter@ is "eant. )he letters of the tables of the Daw bear elo8uent witness to the fact
that the is only what is written. )o translate ?letter@ is to "iss the 'eep seriousness of
what is sai'. )he sing. , strengthene' by the plur. , intro'uces an antithesis which e"braces
what is written as such. Paul is not "erely saying that 2u'ais" has a literal e7position of
#cripture, though this woul' be correct enough in fact.
1G
$e is clai"ing that the whole of the
1( #chl. ,rl., ad loc.
1; +ollowing ,7. 3(:3/ DFF: cy y m ( ;(& .
1G Cf. on this pt. 5elas. #y"p. , IF, 1, &3%.
ol'er phase of re!elation is not yet 'eter"ine' by Christ an' the #pirit. Ee!ertheless, there is
a glory e!en in this "inistry of 'eath engra!en in letters of stone.
)o translate y as ?letter@ is to foster an i'ealistic interpretation of Paul`s argu"ent.
1ny suggestion is to be re3ecte' which woul' ha!e it that the spirit of #cripture is here oppose' to
its letter, or its true or richer sense to the so"atic bo'y. )he 1le7an'rians rightly percei!e' that in
& C. 3 the reference is to the y .
1/
Iut their whole conception of #cripture
'epen'e' upon an opposition of the q to the lq q 6 m
ym .
&<

1 relate' conception, no less incongruent with Paul, 'o"inates the Platonic state"ents which
woul' ha!e it that what is written is an ina'e8uate "eans to e7press spiritual insights. $ere the
proble" is that of the interrelation of what is written to intellectual truth as the perception of the
soul.
&1

)hat the sole"n antithesis y/ 'oes not refer "erely to a false use of
#cripture "ay be seen particularly clearly fro" & C. 3:1.J1( . +or it is only here that
consi'eration is gi!en to the 2ewish use, which is characterise' by the fact that the twofol'
!eil, i.e., on #cripture an' on the heart, conceals the truth in Christ. )his is a conse8uence of
the present obstinacy of the 2ews ( !. 1. . It is not sai' that this use alone is characterise' by
y . )his is true of the ol'er re!elation of Daw in general.
(. y/y .
In su", it "ay be sai' that the antithesis is not 'irecte' absolutely against y as such.
6e ha!e seen that Paul affir"s the lasting significance of #cripture an' he 'oes not inten' in
any way to wea*en its authority. 1s for hi" the is y ( =. ;:1& , so, too, is
y . 6hate!er he "ay say concerning the inferiority of the Daw 'oes not affect its 'i!ine
nature. #i"ilarly, whate!er he "ay say about the supersession of the y 'oes not
'ispute its !alue as re!elation. It is plain that Paul 'oes not use y as a title for
#cripture in the sa"e way as he uses y . $e uses it rather to characterise the Daw.
y is not use' when he spea*s of the positi!e an' lasting significance of #cripture.
)his positi!e tas* is always state' in ter"s of y . 6hen the reference is to y ,
Paul is always thin*ing of the legal authority which has been replace'. )he relationship
between y an' y in Paul is thus to be state' as follows. y represents the
legal authority which has been superse'e', while y is lin*e' with the new for" of
authority 'eter"ine' by the fulfil"ent in Christ an' by $is #pirit, the 'eter"inati!e character
of the new no longer being what is written an' prescribe'. )he wor' which is near ( =. 1<:G
is not the y but #cripture, which is selfKattesting through the #pirit of Christ. )o this
e7tent we can say that Paul is conten'ing against a religion of the boo*.
&&
4ere concentration
on the boo* is set asi'e. )his 'oes not "ean, howe!er, that we ha!e a ?purely 4arcionite
antithesis.@
&3
)he diversitas instrumentorum is not "eant in such a way that the supersession
of the y in!ol!es that of the y . Hn the contrary, the latter beco"es an authority
regulate' by Christ an' $is #pirit. In particular, there 'oes not 'e!elop out of the diversitas
instrumentorum a diversitas deorum as in the case of 4arcion. 6hat we can say, howe!er, is
that these 'iscussions i"ply that the e7ternal writing is not to be 'escribe' as the 'istincti!e
"ar* of the re!elation of the new co!enant ( y , ;.% . )his 'oes not li!e only by
what is written. +or the Church`s use of #cripture there is the soli' nor" that all legal use
1/ Hrig.Cels. , AII, &<, ;<G f. )heophylact. ,7pos. in & C. .:( ( 4P5 , 1&., G&/a also spea*s at this pt. of the
wor*ing of the Daw.
&< Hrig.Cels. , AI, ;< (p. 1.<, 1( ff.0 cf. )h'rt. $ist. ,ccl. , IA, &/, . of -i'y"us: y
y, m . 6e often fin' in Hrig. the
antithesis y / : Co"". in 2oh. , FIII, 1<, (10 ./, 3&%0 FF, 3, 1<0 cf. F,
&(, 1(1: l y l pay attention to m .
&1 Plat.Phae'r. , &;(a0 ,p. , ;, 3.1, esp. '. )hat the antithesis wholly concerns un'erstan'ing, an' that it is a
8uestion of the 'istinction between y an' , is shown especially by ,p. , &, 31.bc.
&& $arnac*, D. A< , 1.10 6n'. & B. , 111.
&3 6n'. & B. , 11<.
*ills, e!en though it is use of the E) . It "ay be 8uestione', howe!er, whether Paul woul'
ha!e for"ulate' it in this way, since the q of his ti"e ha' not yet been
co""itte' to written recor's.
&.
$is basic position has reference finally to the Daw.
)he Pauline antithesis is in no sense parallel to the 5ree* 'istinction between written law an'
y .
&%
$ere it is a "atter of the relationship of written law to the law of nature
an' reason. 6hen #ophocles
&(
spea*s of y 6 , he has in !iew
the 'istinction between transgression of the written law an' protection by the unwritten law of the
go's. In Paul, howe!er, we ha!e so"ething unwritten, i.e., the #pirit, gi!ing power to fulfil the
inner"ost intentions of what is written. 1cc. to $ippias of ,lis,
&;
the y , which
represents what is uni!ersally !ali', e.g., worship of the go's, the honouring of parents,
upbringing of chil'ren etc., is in agree"ent with , while positi!e law is a
&G

co"pelling "en to 'o "any things which are against nature. In both Plato
&/
an' Philo
3<
the
antithesis is between natural law an' written political law. )he of Paul, howe!er, is a
"iraculous power which has nothing whate!er to 'o with these consi'erations of natural law.
# .
1. Hn D*. 1<:&< .
yy is not "erely use' a. of ?writing in a letter or petition@: )huc. , I, 1&G0 2os.1nt. ,
11, &;1 0 P. H7y. , &3;, %, 1. (&n' cent. 1.-. : q yy , the
?contents of a petition@, but also b. of sole"n ?entry in a 'ocu"ent.@ )hus in 2os.1nt. , 1;, &&(
1rchelaus is "entione' as *ing in his father`s will, yyy 0 in Iell. , 1,
(&% 1ntipater is na"e' as successor0 in Philo#pec. Deg. , III, ;& the wor' is use' of a "arriage
contract0 in Polyb. , III, &1, . cyy "eans written in a peace treaty0 Polyb. , III, &., (
l cyy 0 III, &%, 3 etc. cyy , always with the sense of
so"ething fir"ly lai' 'own in a written co"pact. )his use, which e"phasises the ele"ent of
'ocu"entation, lea's to the sense of ?to prosecute@ in penal law: 1ristoph.Pa7 , 11G<0 -e"osth. ,
3;, &.. 1lso 'eter"ine' by penal law is the i"age or "atter in 2er. 1;:13 c c.a.: y
yym (1I c al ( XNs {Oh niph0 cf. also Ps. 1./:/ : cyy 0 ,p. 1r. ,
11<. c. 1lso 'eser!ing of notice is the popular use of yy for ?to inscribe in a list, an
in!entory, or a public register@: P. $al. , 1, &.; (3r' cent. I.C. 0 Isaeus, ;, 10 -itt. #yll.
3
, /&1, /;:
yy y 0 -e"osth. , 1G, &(1: l 0 Ps.K
Plat.17. , 3((e: l 0 -itt. #yll.
3
, ;3(, 1(3: l .
=elate', though rather "ore generally, is 2os.1nt. , 1(, &&% : through circu"cision yy
6 m c 0 1 4acc. 13:.< : to be enrolle' in the bo'yguar'. Philo "a*es
e7traor'inarily hea!y use of the i"age of being inscribe' on the list of citi>ens (nonKfigur. in
H"n. Prob. Dib. , ;0 he "etaphorically applies the yy or g
q, , to the ci!ic list of !irtue: Conf. Ding. , 1</ 0 Hp. 4un'. , 1.3 0 5ig.
, (1 0 Deg. 1ll. , III, &.. 0 Ait. 4os. , I, 1%; , etc. )his type of e7pression is 8uite essential to an
un'erstan'ing of D*. 1<:&< . $ere, howe!er, the wellK*nown i"age fro" ci!ic life is co"bine'
with the biblical conception of inscription in a boo*, for '. in the DFF, 2os. , an' Philo
yy is use' 8uite si"ply for the ?inscribing of 'i!ine wor's in the Iible@: B.
22:46 0 & Ch. 3.:31 10 . 2:60 10 2os.1nt. , 1<, 3% 0 1&, G/ 0 Philo-et. Pot. Ins. , 13/ 0 in a
&. 6n'. & B. , ad loc.
&% =. $ir>el, y , op. cit. 0 6n'. & B. , 111 f.
&( #oph.1nt. , .%< ff., esp. .%..
&; Fenoph.4e". , IA, ., 1/0 Plato Prot. , 33;c.
&G +or tyrants as the originators of written laws: Plat.Deg. , ;&&e: y 0 #eneca ,p. , /<, 3
ff.0 cf. further 6n'. & B. , 111.
&/ Plat.5org. , .G.a.
3< Philo1br. , % : y m q 0 (< : 1braha" follows not
"erely 5o'`s !erbal an' written co""an's, but also 0 &;% : he obser!es the Daw, not "erely as taught
by #cripture, but yq g . Philo concei!es of laws as a''itions m
y : 2os. , 31 0 cf. #pec. Deg. , I, 31 .
free rationalisation, Deg. 1ll. , I, 1/ : the figures inscribe' in the boo* of 'i!ine reason. Hn the
other han', it is not this sacre' boo* which is in !iew in D*. 1<:&< , but e. the ?boo* of life@ (
, (1/ . -a. DFF, 1&, 1: yyy q ( XNs {Oh *al, cf. ,>. 13:/ ,
the boo* in which 5o' writes $is people.
1

6hen, therefore, the Dor' says to the returning ;< 'isciples in D*. 1<:&< : c
6 yyy
&
, we ha!e a particularly
sole"n i"age which carries with it the thought of the ancient custo" of inscribing in a list of
citi>ens, but which is also lin*e' with the i'ea of the boo* of life. )he "eaning is that by
, i.e., as persons of in'i!i'ual worth, those who belong to 2esus are 5o'`s inalienable
possession an' citi>ens of the hea!enly . )he opposite is state' in . 17:1 as
follows: l m,
y ym .
3

&. 6hen Paul in & C. 3:& f. 'escribes the Corinthians as a letter inscribe' on his heart:
, yyy q6, yyy
6,

, the wor' yym is use' in the sense of ?engra!e,@ which is the original
"eaning of ym, y, y .
)hus yy can often be use' for ?inscribing on a tablet@: #oph.)rach. , 1%;0 2os.1nt. ,
3, 1<1 (cf. G, 1<. 0 ,pict.-iss. , III, 1(, /. $ence Dys. , 3<, &: yy , ?to co'ify.@
Hr of ?inscribing on pillars@: $'t. , II, 1<&0 -itt. #yll.
3
, /((, 3G0 Philo#pec. Deg. , III, 3( 0
2os.1nt. , 1, ;< . $ence yy as the public ?posting up of an e'ict@: ibid. , 1/, &/1. Cf.
also inscription on the altar in 2os.1nt. , ., 3<G 0 on the crown in 11, 331 0 on the breastplate in ,7.
3(:&1 ( 3/:1. I0 2os.1nt. , 3, 1(( .
)he Pauline e7pression ?to inscribe on the heart@ etc. is wi'esprea' in the ancient worl'. Cf.
alrea'y 1esch.Pro". , ;G/: q yy 6 0 Fenoph.Cyr. ,
III, 3, %&: yy 6 . )he m
yyy 6 K in )est. 2u'. &<:. 1#
1
has basically the sa"e "eaning (cf.
2os.1nt. , ., &13 : on the forehea' an' ar"0 2os.1nt. , ., &1< : yy ,
of i"pressing laws on the soul. 1ccor'ing to Philo#pec. Deg. , 1<( the soul of a wo"an who has
ha' se7ual intercourse with a "an is no longer a'apte' li*e wa7 to recei!e 6
yym ym . )he si"ple y is use' for ?to inscribe in the heart or
soul@ in #oph.Phil. , 13&%0 Philo=er. -i!. $er. , &/. (in the soul of the newKborn chil', which is
li*e wa70 Hp. 4un'. , ;G (the i"pressions of the hea!enly "usic of the spheres in the soul.
In & C. 3:& f. , howe!er, Paul is buil'ing on the e7pression in . : :
ym an' Pr!. 3:3 1: y ( ;:3 : y c
, e7cept that in the DFF we 'o not fin' yy either in these or any of the
passages which e7erte' a for"al an' "aterial influence on & C. 3:& f. : ,7. &.:1& : 31:1G 0 3.:1
(the y on the tables of stone an' ,>. 11:1/ 0 3(:&( (the influencing of the heart.
#
1. ,ph. 3:3 : 6 y , ?as I ha!e written abo!e, in the sa"e writing.@ )his
usage for so"ething alrea'y "entione' is !ery co""on. $ence y can be use' for the
hea'ing of a wor* inti"ating an' prece'ing the contents: Polyb. , FI, 1 ff.0
1
in -a. DFF 3:3 , G;
#yr. the l yy are ?the persons alrea'y "entione',@ as in P. 1"h. , .&, 1< (&n'
cent. I.C. sing. )he wor' is often use' in this sense in the pap. an' inscr.: I5: , 1131, %% (1st
cent. I.C. 0 P. Petr. , III, 1<., 11 (3r' cent. I.C. 0 yy : P. H7y. , 1, ;/, 1;
(&n' cent. 1.-. 0 P. Dips. , &(, 13, 1. (.th cent. 1.-. . yy is often use'
1 Cf. $er".!. , 1, 3, &. ,lsewhere $er". has yy l 0 v. Pr.KIauer
& yyy is foun' in c IDF0 y , 1%;0 y (Ilass is secon'ary0 cf. Ln. D*.
3 Cr.KBC. 'raws attention at this pt. to y l m or : Plat.Phae'r. , &;(c0 Duc.)yr. , &1 (

.
1 Preisig*e 6Crt. 0 1P+ , II, %<.0 4itteisK6ilc*en , I, &, %.<.
to intro'uce 8uotations: P. Petr. , III, 1;/ (3r' cent. I.C. 0 I5: , 11<;, 3< (1st cent. I.C. .
#o"eti"es we ha!e yy : P. )ebt. , 1<., 3G (1st cent. I.C. 0 I5: , 1G/ (;
1.-. .
&

&. =. 1%:. : y y, l q q y 0 here
the reference is to ?things pre!iously written,@ i.e., in ti"es past.
Cf. P. H7y. , &/1, ; (1st cent. 1.-. : y , ?I ha!e written you once before@0 P.
$al. , ;, 3 (3r' cent. I.C. : yy , ?of which I wrote
before.@
3. 5l. 3:1 : l X y . )here are here
two possibilities, a. 6e can ta*e y as ?public pro"ulgation.@
3
It is often use'
for publishe' placar's an' notices.
1ristoph.1!. , .%<: . Plut.-e"etr. , .( (I, /1&b, where a sol'ier writes
the beginning of He'. Col. on the tent of -e"etr. Plut.Pyth. Hrac. , &/ (II, .<Ge0 ,pict.-iss. , III,
1, &G f.0 &., G<, of the posting of an a'!ertise"ent referring to an ob3ect of interest. +or the
publication of a notice, cf. I5: , 1<.(, II, 1; (&n' cent. 1.-. 0 I5 , F, ., &.0 for su""oning by
such: Plut. Ca"ill., 11 (I, 13.f.0 P. 1"h. , 13%, 1& (&n' cent. 1.-. 0 for following up with a
warrant: P. )ebt. , II, .11, G (&n' cent. 1.-. . Cf. the use of y for ?e'ict,` 'ecree,@
?official notice,@ ?procla"ation@ or ?go!ern"ental or'er@: 2os.1nt. , 1<, &%. 0 1&, 1.% 0 Ait. , 3;<
.
.

b. )he secon' possibility is the usually a'opte' ren'ering ?to 'epict before your eyes,@ in
the sense of "a*ing the i"age of the Crucifie' as !i!i'ly as possible (
the ob3ect of this procla"ation. Dinguistically this is possible, but the fact re"ains that the
wor' is ne!er atteste' in this sense, though y ( ;.3 is often use' for ?to 'raw@ or
?to paint.@ +urther"ore, there is nothing in Paul to suggest that in his procla"ation of the
cross he ga!e centrality to a heartKren'ing 'epiction in the sense of later ho"iletical an'
lyrical un'erstan'ing an' practice. Is it li*ely, then, that his "issionary preaching woul'
'iffer fro" the y of the wor' of the cross in the epistles, which is certainly i"portant
an' central, which un'oubte'ly e7tols the sa!ing act of 5o', but which ne!er e!en atte"pts to
i"press by physical 'epictione
,!aluation of the "eaning of y thus brings into focus the 'istinction between
the Pauline procla"ation of the act of sal!ation an' the later ecclesiastical un'erstan'ing of
'epiction after the influential "anner of the salve caput cruentatum of 1rnulf !on DCwen.
)he linguistic fin'ings the"sel!es co"pel us to a'opt the surest translation: ?Iefore whose
eyes 2esus Christ has been set as the Crucifie' li*e a poste' procla"ation.@ In this sense the
saying helps us to un'erstan' the "issionary preaching of Paul as sole"n announce"ent by
'i!ine co""ission, which is co"parable to an e'ict.
.. 2'. . : l yy l .
)his correspon's to a usage foun' in Polyb. , 3&, %, 1&0 cf. (, 1, where y has the
sense of the publication of lists of influential people who are proscribe'. )he yy
of (, 1 are proscripti or outlaws, cf. Duc.)i". , %1: y yq , ?I was
put on the list.@ )o fill out the picture we shoul' also note the sense of ?to enlist,@ e.g., in the ar"y
of the *ing: 1 4acc. 1<:3( , or ?to appoint@: q yy q , ?the appointe' 'ay,@
2os.1nt. , 11, &G3 0 yy , ?the appointe' ranso",@ 1nt. , 1&, 3<
(cf. 1&, 33.
& Cf. further 4oult.K4ill. 0 for the postKapost. fathers, v. Pr.KIauer
3 Dightfoot 5l., ad loc. 0 +. +iel', otes on the <ranslation of the e; <estament (1G//, 1G/0 4oult.K4ill. on
y .
. Cf. further Preisig*e 6Crt. , 4oult.K4ill.
It is thus in'isputable that the reference in 2'. . is to the 'i!ine appoint"ent of false
teachers to 3u'g"ent, though with no suggestion of eternal reprobation.
%
)hey are ?long
since@ appointe' l , an' are thus entere' as proscribe' offen'ers
(
in
the 3u'g"ent boo* of 5o' ( , (&< . 6hen this entry too* place, howe!er, is not
state'.
$
*
&$#' .
y is !ery rare. )hus it is not foun' in Polyb. , -io'. #. , 2oseph. , Philo, ,pict. or
the pap. Is it atteste' only in ?biblical an' postKChristian 5ree*@e
1
)he earliest *nown instance is
certainly in & 4acc. &:&G , where the epito"ist says that he will lea!e the "inuter 'etail to the
author an' si"ply gi!e an abri'g"ent of the boo*s of 2ason. )his abri'g"ent, howe!er, will
'eser!e the na"e of y :

y
. )here is little 'oubt that what is in "in' is a "o'el or e7a"ple, as
"ore clearly in Cl. 1l.#tro". , A, G, ./, 1, where for the purposes of instruction a wor' is
propose' (se!eral e7a"ples are gi!en which contains all the letters of the alphabet in a for" in
which chil'ren can re"e"ber the", so that a "o'el is gi!en which is calle' y
.
a. )o this there correspon's the use of y as an aca'e"ic e7pression. In Plat.Prot. ,
3&(': y y g y , is use' for the 'rawing of lines by the
ele"entary teacher in or'er to gui'e chil'ren who are learning to write. 1long the sa"e lines is
the figur, use by Hrigen when in Hrat. , 1G, 1 he says of the Dor'`s Prayer: q y
. It is the "o'el prayer, the e7a"ple of instruction in prayer.
&

)hus y co"es to "ean rather "ore generally ?to gi!e an e7a"ple.@ 1cc. to Plat.Deg.
, IA, ;11b the tyrant shoul' win influence o!er the citi>ens in this way: 6
y .
b. +ro" the original pe'agogic sense we can trace the co""on use of the ter" in -io'. #. ,
Polyb. an' Philo for ?to show,@
3
? to 'escribe,@ ?to represent,@ ?to 'epict,@ ?to 'enote,@ ?to
signify,@ ?to set in !iew,@ ?to ascribe.@ In Philo#pec. Deg. , I, (% y is use' of 4oses,
who ?in'icates@ in his 'escription0 in Polyb. , 11, 1., 3 it is use' of 'escribing the 'istincti!e
features of the lan'0 in Polyb. , III, .;, /0 PhiloDeg. 1ll. , I, &1 an' %( 0 II, ( 0 Hp. 4un'. , (; of
'epicting or representing. $ence y for ?'escription@ in Polyb. , A, &1, ;. )he sense of
?to 'enote@ is foun' in Philo-eus I"". , /% 0 of ?to signify@ in 2os. , /& 0 Conf. Ding. , (; 0 of ?to
set in !iew@ in Conf. Ding. , 1(( 0 of ?to ascribe so"ething to so"eone@ in 5ig. , (( 0 cf. -eus
I"". , ;< . c. It can also ta*e on the sense of ?to 'e"an',@ as in 1 4acc. G:&% , &; 0 3 4acc. (:.1 .
1gain, '. it can ha!e the sense of ?'a>>ling,@ cf. -io'. #. , FIF, .(, 30 Polyb. , A, (&, 10 2os.1nt. ,
13, 3// 0 Iell. , (, &G; , usually in respect of 'isappointe' hopes. =elate' is its use in PhiloAit.
4os. , I, (/ for ?counting on so"ething.@ e. y can also be use' for painting e.g., un'er
the eyes in the case of wo"en trying to a'orn the"sel!es: 2os.Iell. , ., %(1 0 PhiloDeg. 1ll. , III,
(& , where there is a close appro7i"ation to the first sense, f. It can e!en be use' for literary
reference an' official protocol, i.e., ?that which follows or is written below@ in Polyb. , III, &&, 30
1 ,st. &:% , &% 0 & 4acc. /:1G 0 3 4acc. (:.1 0 2os.1nt. , 1&, %; an' &%G 0 an' therefore 8uite often
for ?subscribing,@
.
as in P. H7y. , 13(, 1< ((th cent. 1.-. , though this is a so"ewhat re"ote
'e!elop"ent.
% Cal!in, ad loc. : aeternum Dei consilium .
( I eee : qui olim praescripti sunt in hoc iudicium . It "ight e8ually well ha!e been ren'ere' proscripti .
9 y . -efin. Ps.K1""on 1'fin. Aocab. -iff. , 13. (Aalc*enaer: y
y . $esych. : VV , . #chol. in 1ristoph.=a. , G;., where it is use' synon. with
y .
1 Cr.KBC. , &(G.
& Cf. ,us.$ist. ,ccl. , AIII, 1<, & where with y (?e7a"ples@ we ha!e y (?"o'els@
an' ym , (?"ar*s@. )hey are lai' 'own in $oly #cripture.
3 Cf. #ui'. y : . $e 8uotes -io'. #. , FIF, .(, 3.
. Preisig*e 6Crt. +achw. , 1;% f. Hn y as the co"pletion of a 'ocu"ent by subscription, cf. 4itteisK
6ilc*en, II, 1, %(.
In 1 Pt. &:&1 : m y
, the reference is to Christian sla!es. )hey are tol' that Christ in $is
suffering has left footprints which we "ust ta*e as "o'els or e7a"ples in the way that the
scholar follows the gui'ing lines of his teacher. )his 'oes not "ean that there is to be a
copying or imitatio of Christ. )he point is that we "ust accept the !ocation of suffering lai'
'own for the co""unity by the passion of its true an' legiti"ate Dor'. )he y
'oes, howe!er, e7press co""it"ent to the lines (steps trace' out by $i".
)he further 'e!elop"ent of y in the early Church is closely lin*e' with this
passage. )hus Pol. Phil. , G, &0 1 Cl., 1(, 1;0 33, G "a*e a si"ilar state"ent about Christ an' 1
Cl.,%, ; about Paul. Cl. 1l.Pae'. , 1, /, G., & e7plains ,>. 3. in ter"s of the thought that 5o' as
the true ymy has gi!en the a "o'el in $is sa!ing concern for the
sheep. 1long the lines of Christ as e7a"ple we "ay also "ention 4ac. $o"., 1/, & ( 4P5 , 3.,
(.b0 Custo'ia Cor'is, ibid. , G3;a0 2oh. -a"asc. $o". in #abb. #anct., &. ( 4P5 , /(, (&.a0
+i'. Hrtho'., III, 1 ( 4P5 , /., /G.c. )he wor' is lin*e' with -ion.
1
reop. in 4ich. #yncellus,
Aita -ion. 1reopag. ( 4P5 , ., (3&'.
6orth noting is the constant interrelating of y an' .
%
In ,us.
-
e".
,!. , IA, 1(, %% the ter" see"s to be synon. for the typological significance of the H) cultus. Ps.
K1than $o". in #. Patr. et Proph., G ( 4P5 , &G, 1<;&a, in accor'ance with his sy"bolical
conception of the Dor'`s #upper, concei!es of the ,ucharist as an action l y . 2oh.
-a"asc. +i'. Hrtho'., III, 1G ( 4P5 , /., 1<;( says of the #on that $e is an'
y . )he sa"e wor's are use' in =het. 5raeci (e'. C. 6al>, I (1G3&, (.3, &;. )here
is a si"ilar use of y with y n ,ustathius -e oboe'ientia "agistratui
christ. 'ebita, 1G, I an' &. ( 4P5 , 13(, 313, 31;. )here is thus no 'oubt as to the sense of
?e7a"ple@ or ?"o'el.@
Schrenk
ym .
, , ,
.
1tteste' since $o".0 co""on in the DFF: 5n. 3:; 0 2ob 1:&1 etc.0 a fa!ourite wor' of Philo.
1. ?Ea*e'@ in the strict sense, a. ?:nclothe',@ 1nth. Pal. , F, %G (Palla'es: y
y, y

y | 6, y 6
. In the E): 4*. 1.:%1 , %& . b. ?Ia'ly clothe'@: I5: , G.(, / (&n' cent. 1.-. : (the lost
son to his "other y y l . 1:1; 0 .:1( 0 2ob &&:( 0 Is. %G:; . In the
E) : 4t. &%:3( , 3G , .3 , .. 0 2". &:1% . c. ?:nclothe' or strippe' by force@:
P
. +ay. , 1&, &< ( c.
1<3 I.C. : y & Ch. &G:1% . In the E) : 1c. 1/:1( 0 =e!. 1;:1( . '. ?6ithout an
upper gar"ent,@ ?not fully clothe'@: 1ristoph.Eu. , ./G0 P. 4ag'. , (, ; (3r' cent. I.C. 0 Is. &<:& .
In the E) : 2n. &1:; ( n.
(
.
Ea*e' in the +igurati!e #ense.
a. ?:nconceale',@ ?'isclose',@ ?"anifest@: -io'. #. , I, ;(: y6 6 ym
mm 0 Philo4igr. 1br. , 1/& : y . In the E) : $b.
.:13 : y .
1reop. Areopagiticus .
% Cf. $esych. ( ;;&, n. .
-e". ,!. Demonstratio "vangelica .
P. +ay. 'ayDm <o;ns and their $apyri , e'. I. 5renfell, 1. $unt an' -. $ogarth, 1/<<.
( 6n'. & B. recalls the cultic horror of na*e'ness, e.g., in ,7. &<:&( 0 2n. &1:; 0 =e!. 3:1G 0 1(:1% 0 2os.Iell. , &,
1.G 0 ). Ier., II, 1. an' 1% ( Angelos . 3 p1/3<q, 1%/f.0 cf. also the or'inances for the flamen dialis in 5ell., F,
1%, &<0 Plut. 1et. =o"., .< (II, &;.a ff.. 2. $ec*enbach, ? De nuditate sacra ,@ =AA , /, 3 (1/11, 1 ff., %% f.
b. ?6ithout bo'ily for"@: $a'rian at 'eath a''resse' his animula nudula :
1
q q
yq 6 , Plat.Crat. , .<3b0 y 6 (to sal!ation,
PhiloDeg. 1ll. , II, %/ 0 Porphyr.1bst. , I, 31: the soul "ust fight na*e' li*e the bo7er. In the
E) , 1 C. 1%:3; ff. : )he contrast between the y an' the plant which it
recei!es as a bo'y on 'ying illustrates the glory of the resurrection bo'y in co"parison with
the earthly. )he 'etaile' e7position of the i"age is 'ifficult, not "erely because of our
'ifferent scientific un'erstan'ing, but because the na*e' see' represents both the bo'y which
is burie' an' also the bearer of in'i!i'uality, i.e. the soul in the current an' not the Pauline
sense. Ee!ertheless, the co"parison is both "eaningful an' illu"inating. In & C. %:3 we
shoul' accept the rea'ing: y
&

3
y . It
is arguable whether what Paul wishes to a!oi' is the te"porary loss of the bo'y by belie!ers
prior to the parousia
.
or the final 'estiny of unbelie!ers for who" there will be no hea!enly
bo'y.
%
It is har'ly concei!able that Paul shoul' ha!e thought of the inter!ening state as one
of 'rea'ful na*e'ness, cf. Phil. 1:&3 ( X l .
(
Hn the other han', the
'a"ne' were often thought of as na*e'. )hus in the #a"aritan liturgy for the e!e of the -ay
of 1tone"ent the goyim will be raise' na*e', whereas the righteous will rise again with the
clothes (e in which they were burie' ( W}U Xh oR TU [OWMh m[kX~R gNh [kYXR U XR [OT[OoWh .
;
It thus see"s
that there is little place in & C. %:3 f or any thought of the inter!ening state. )he secon'
e7planation is right.
G

c. ?6ithout the prepare'ness of the inner "an.@ Philo *nows a na*e'ness of the soul
which is to per'ition as well as one which is to sal!ation ( Deg. 1ll. , II, (< : y
0 cf. Deg. 1ll. :, III, %% . In the E) : =e!. 3:1; 0 1(:1% .
.
=are in secular 5*. In the goo' sense, 4. 1nt. , 11, &; syn.: , , c
y 0 PhiloDeg. 1ll. , II, %/ : y 0 on the other han'
cf.
P
s.K-ion. $al.1rt. =het. , F, ( (II, p. 3(3, / f., :sener: y 6 m VV the
po!erty of assertions. Eot foun' in 2oseph. , an' in the DFF only -t. &G:.G 1.
In the E) : ?na*e'ness,@ ?e"ptiness,@ ?po!erty@ ( =. G:3% 0 & C. 11:&; 0 figur, in =e!.
3:1G : q l y ( y , supra .
.
1 -eiss"ann DH , &./, 1.
& I-5: .
3 -95 it 4cion, Chrys.: , in correction of the apparent tautology.
. +or current e7position, cf. the E) theologies of $. 2. $olt>"ann an' P. +eine0 cf. also ,. B^ihl, Eber ? 0.
F>GHGI (1/<.0 $. ,. 6eber, J"schatologieC und JMystikC (1/3<, GG. m , %%/ .
% 6n'. & B. 0 on rather 'ifferent but better groun's, 6. 4un'le, #8licherfestchrift (1/&;, /3J1</, esp. 1<1.
, , m .
; 1. 4er7, Der Messias oder <a%eb der Samaritaner (1/</, 1%, 13. ,star puts off an article of clothing at each
gate of hell an' appears na*e' before the 8ueen of hell. Hn her ascent she resu"es the gar"ent. )here woul' he
a fine illustration of the shrin*ing of the apostle on a 5nostic fresco in =o"e (the cataco"b on the Aiale
4an>oni if only we coul' be sure that the three na*e' figures before the wea!er`s loo" were a"ong the
'a"ne'. 6ilpert, howe!er, thin*s of those who are na*e' in the sense of 4t. &%:3( , while Ien'inelli is
re"in'e' of a scene in the H'yssey. Cf. 2. 6ilpert, Atti della pontificia academia Romana di archeologia (#er.
III, 1, & p1/&.q, &(J3<, Plate 1(, the best repro'uction0 5. Ien'inelli, oti&ie degli scavi , 1; (1/&<, 13%0 H.
4arucchi, uovo bullettino di archeologia christiana , &; (1/&1, ..J.;0 2. #auer, eues :icht auf dem )ebiet
der christlichen Arch.ologie (1/&%, 31 ff. Hn the i'ea of the clothing of souls in general, cf. the source "aterial
an' bibl. in +. Cu"ont, 9rient. Relig .
3
(1/31, &/< f. Cf. also Dt>". & B., ad loc.
G D. Irun has restate' the argu"ent of 4un'le in LE6 , &G (1/&/, &<; ff., but he 'oes not re3ect the 'o"inant
opinion (&</.
Ps.K-ion. $al. $seudo1Dionysius /alicarnassensis .
?)o e7ercise na*e'.@ Ps. K Isoc.
-
e"on. , &1: y c 0
2os.1nt. , (, 1G% : -a!i' yy 0 cf. 1(, .<<0 Iell. , 3, ;3 0 & 4acc. 1<:1% :
y (*ept the" occupie'0 figur. -itt. #yll.
3
, %;G, &/
(&n' cent. I.C. : m c 6 ym l 0
5ern. ,pict.-iss. , 1, &(, 3: 6 m y q l
0 II, 1G, &;: q
ym c 0 III, 1&, ; etc. PhiloAirt. , 1G : y
0 si"ilarly Ait. 4os. , I, .G 0 2os.1nt. , 3, 1% of 5o': l q
q 6 y .
In the E) it occurs only figur. an' in writings un'er $ell. influence. 1 )". .:; : y
, 'e"an's concentration on what is inwar' instea' of
e7ternally 'ualistic asceticis" ( y . Cf. "aterially 1 C. /:&.J&; 0 Phil. &:1& 0
3:1& ff. In $b., too, there is a faint echo of 5ree* perfectionis": %:1. : m 6
q c l yy m
y 0 1&:11 : () l l
yy m 0 & Pt. &:1. :
yy ( !l. , "ight be "eant sarcastically, though
it reflects a later an' wea*er usage.
Cf. P. 4asp. , &<, 1( ((th cent. 1.-. : y , ?to 'e!ote
oneself to one`s calling.@ Hn the constr. with the gen., cf Philostr.$eroic. , &, 1%0 3:10 1<, 1:
yy , m, .
.
+ro" the ti"e of Plato an' 1ristotle ( Pol. , IA, 13, p. 1&/;a, 1;: law concerning the
palaestra0 "ilitarily, Polyb. , IA, ;, (0 2os.Iell. , &, (./ . +igur. ?e7ercise@ in political concerns,
Polyb. , I, 10 ?philosophical 'isputation,@ Plat.)heaet. , 1(/c etc.0 ?"artyr'o",@ . 4acc. 11:&<
(only here in the DFF.
1 )". .:G : q mq y y 6 . )he
antithetical q allows the linguistically "ost ob!ious ren'ering ?physical
e7ercise.@ )he conte7t, howe!er, "a*es it clear that there is no attac* on $ellenic
'e!elop"ent of the bo'y, as le7ical association "ight see" to 'e"an' (cf. !. ;, but rather a
re3ection of narrow encratitic stri!ings (cf. .:3 0 %:&3 0 )t. 1:1% .
4ore co""on in this technical sense is : Philo#pec. Deg. , IA, // :
y 0 #trab., FA, 1, (10 FAII, 1, &/0 2os.Iell. , &, 1%< . y 'oes not see"
to occur elsewhere.
9epke
!
*

-e"on. Demonax .
9 y . =55
&
, II, &%ff., ;1G ff.0 =,
3
, IA, (1( ff.0 A, 1G. ff., ;3G ff.0 $. 6einel, t.liche <heol.
.
(1/&G, 3<.
f., ./< f., In'e7 s.v. ?,he@0 $. 2acoby, t.liche "thik (1G//, 1&3ff.0 &3< ff., 3.G ff., 3(/ ff.0 ,. 5ri"", "thik
#esu
&
(1/1;, &<; ff.0 1. 2unc*er, "thik des Apostels $ls. , II (1/1/, 1(;ff., 1G1 ff. $. Preis*er, !hristentum und
"he in den ersten drei #ahrhunderten (1/&;0 2. Deipol't, #esus and die 'rauen (1/&1 0 5. -elling, $ls.%
Stellung &u 'rau u. "he (1/31. In these boo*s a goo' 'eal of ol'er theological an' historical "aterial is liste'.
Cf. also +. D^b*er, Reallexikon d. Mass. Altertums (1/1., 31G ff.0 PaulyK6. , A (1/<%, &<11 if., .1G0 1&.1 ff.0
FIA (1/3<, &&%/ ff.0 $. Il^"ner, Die r3mischen $rivataltert8mer (1/11, 3.1 ff.0 D. +rie'lfn'er,
Darstellungen aus der Sittengesch. Roms
1<
, II (1/&&, &(; ff.0 B. $er"annK$. Il^"ner, )riech.
$rivatsaltert8mer
3
(1GG&, (.f.0 ). Iirt, 'rauen der Antike (1/3&0 D. =a'er"acher, ? -ie #tellung 'er +rau
innerhalb 'er griech. Bultur ,@ Mittlgen. d. 'reunde d. humanist. )ymnas. -ien , &; (1/&/, (ff.0 ,. $ru>a,
In general 5*. fro" the ti"e of $o"er, as also in the DFF an' the E) , y 'enotes a. the
?fe"ale@ as 'istinct fro" the "ale: y , 1c. %:1. 0 G:3 etc.0 y
, 1 C. ;:1 0 q yq g , In. 1(:&10 y6 , 4t. 11:11 , cf.
5l. .:. 0 4*. %:&% par. 0 D*. 1%:G etc.0 b. the ?wife@: y , Fen.1n. , III, &,
&%0 Hpp. : c , Isaeus 3:130 -t. 13:( 0 4al. &:1. etc.0 D*. 1:% 0 1 C. ;:& 0 ,ph. %:&& ff. 0 Col.
3:1G f. 0 1 Pt. 3:1 . #o also 4t. %:&G : ?the wife of another,@ an' 1 C. /:% : q y
y , ?to ta*e a fellowsKChristian aroun' with one as wife.@
1
#i"ilarly in 1 C. ;:&; the
reference is to a wife rather than one who is spiritually affiance 1 C. %:1 : yq ,
?stepK"other@ (cf. D!. 1G:G , 11 . Iy #e"itic "arriage law the bri'e is alrea'y calle' y , 5n.
&/:&1 0 -r. &&:&.0 =e!. &1:/ 0 cf. 1/:; 0 4t. 1:&< , &. . In D*. &:% , howe!er, g
g y
&
is a later conflation. Hn y for ?wi'ow@ in
B. 17: 0 D*. .:&( , cf. I5: , %&&, ; (&n' cent. 1.-. : y .
)he a''ress (6) y in 4t. 1%:&G 0 D*. 13:1& 0 &&:%; 0 2n. &:. 0 .:&1 ( G:1< !l. 0
1/:&( 0 &<:13 , 1% 0 1 C. ;:1( is in no way 'isrespectful or 'erogatory. 6hen 2esus a''resses
$is "other in this way in 2n. ( &:. 0 1/:&( , howe!er, it e7clu'es the filial relationship.
Cf. ,ur.4e'. , &/<0 4enan'. +r. , 3(3, 1 ( C1+ , III, 1<%0 -io C. DI, 1&, % (Hcta!ian to
Cleopatra0 2't. 11:1 0 2os.1nt. , 1, &%& : 1braha"`s ser!ant to =ebe*ah`s "other0 $o".H'. , ;,
3.;: y with . -ere*h ,re, (: a beggar to the wife of $illel, MQhOS cU . 3
A. Wo"an in the Conte"porary %T World.
Characteristic of the tra'itional position an' esti"ation of wo"an is a saying current in
'ifferent for"s a"ong the Persians, 5ree*s an' 2ews in which "an gi!es than*s that he is not
an unbelie!er or unci!ilise', that he is not a wo"an an' that he is not a sla!e.
.
)he 5ree*
!ersions are in the fiel' of anec'otes. )he pro!erb is un'oubte'ly of oriental origin. Correctly
to un'erstan' it, we "ust ta*e into account the low le!el of wo"an in the oriental worl'. )he
general rule in this "atter is that the further west we go the greater is the free'o" of wo"an.
In 'etail, howe!er, there are the wi'est possible !ariations.
1. )he 5ree* 6orl' an' $ellenis".
1thenian wo"an is of inferior status. #he is guar'e' by 'ogs in a separate cha"ber (
1ristoph.)hes. , .1. ff.0 ;/< ff.: 6ith so"e e7ceptions, 1ttic trage'y treats her as an inferior
*eitr.ge &. )esch. des griech. 'amilienrechts , I (1G/&0 #. 5. $uwar'as, *eitr.ge &. griech, u. gr.oko.gypt.
"herecht der $tolem.er1 und fr8hen 0aiser&eit (1/31. $. $ol>inger, ? 'rau und "he im vordeuteronomischen
,srael ,@ in -ellhaasen1'estschrift (1/1., &&; ff.0 1. Iertholet, 0ulturgesch. ,sraels (1/&<0 I. Ien>inger, /ebr.
Arch.ologie
3
, (1/&;, 11&ff.0 5. Ieer, Die so&iale und relig. Stellung der 'rau im israel. Altertum (1/1/0 :.
)^rc*, ? -ie #tellung 'er +rau in ,lephantine ,@ L16 , .1 (1/&G, 1((ff.0 #. Brauss, <almud. Arch.ologie , II
(1/11, 1ff.0 $. Eor'en, Die eheliche "thik der laden &. +t. #esu (1/110 =. $. Charles, <he <eaching of the <
on Divorce (1/&10 1. Htt, ? -ie 1uslegung 'er nt.lichen )e7te fiber 'ie ,heschei'ung ,@ t.liche Abhdlgen , III
(1/11. D. Lscharnac*, Der Dienst der 'raa in den ersten #dten. d. christ. 0irche KGLI?M 0 ,. 5olt>, Der Dienst
der 'rau in der christl. 0irche
&
(1/1.0 1. Balsbach, Die altkirchl. "inrichtung der Diakonissen bis &u ihrem
"rl3schen (1/&(, with full bibl.
1 =o"an Catholic e7e8esis usually interprets q y in ter"s of the !ery 'ifferent
of 1c. 1%:; as a single concept 'enoting either matrona serviens (2er., 1ug. , 1. 4ater p1G%;q, ad
loc . or spiritual "arriage for the support of wo"en`s wor* ( Cl. 1l.#tro". , III, (0 Aulg.. +. 5ut3ahr (1/<;, ad
loc. tries to co"bine the two. )he real "eaning see"s ob!ious enough. Cf. #ic*b. B., ad loc. , also 1. Iisping
(1G%%, ad loc. , though cf. B. Pieper, $aulus (1/&(, 13;.
& "in lat as against y it sy
s
, g c I-D6 "in )at.
. 1"ong the =abb. it is trace' bac* to =. 2ehu'a b. ,la3 ( c. 1%< 1.-. ). Ier., ;, 1G0 3Ier., 13b, %; ff.0 b.4en. ,
.3b0 a"ong the 5*s. to )hales, #ocrates, Plato ( -iog. D. , I, 330 Dact.Inst. , 1/, 1;0 cf. Plut.4ar. , .( (I, .33a.
-. Bauf"ann, 4562 , 3; (1G/3, 1. ff. It is still foun' in the "o'ern 2ewish prayerKboo* (e'. ,. Cohn, with
the consoling a''ition for wo"en: ?Praise' be )hou, ,ternal Hne, Dor' of the worl', who hast "a'e "e
accor'ing to )hy will.@
being. y q yq ( #oph.
1
i. , &/3. y6 y l m
ym ( #oph. +r. , ;.&. Co"e'y, which 'raws its spectators "ostly fro" "en, is fre8uently
insulting an' spiteful. 6o"an is fic*le ( | m

c c y y ,
4enan'. +r. , ;.( p C1+ , III, &1<q, contentious ( +r. , ;%., ibid. , p. &1&, nature`s greatest "isfit
( 6 y m | m y
y p +r. .GG, ibid. , p. 1.1q0 y l, p +r. G<., ibid. , p.
&&<q, with no clai" to culture. )o instruct a wo"an is si"ply to increase the poison of a
'angerous serpent ( +r. , ;<&, ibid. , p. &<1. Hnly the heraera is culti!ate'. 1 house in which
wo"an has the final say will ine!itably perish ( +r. .G., ibid. , p. 1.<. 1ristophanes satirises a
co""unistic regi"e of wo"en in "cclesia&usai . )his presupposes that there were wo"en who
coul' assert the"sel!es. Iut this was unusual. )he nor"al fate of wo"an was to be 'espise' an'
oppresse', especially if she 'i' not en3oy "ale protection (cf. P. +lor. , %G, 1. p3r' cent. 1.-. q:
|| y |||| . )he principle of the co"e'y of
Posei'ipp: l g | y

, g
( C1+ , III, 33G, was followe' e!en at the beginning of the present era ( P. H7y. , IA,
;.., / f.. 6o"en occupie' a position of "ore free'o" an' influence in the -oric worl'. 6e are
gi!en a !i!i' i"pression of the prou' an' heroic nature of the wo"en of #parta in Plutarch`s
collection Dacaenaru" 1pophtheg"ata (II, &.<c ff..
In spite of all this, the 5ree* i'eal of wo"an is a lofty one. 5ree* poetry offers a wealth
of i"pressi!e an' i"perishable types of wo"anhoo' both in the physical an' the spiritual
sense: Eiobe, $elena, Eausicaa, Penelope, 1n'ro"ache, 1ntigone, Cassan'ra, Clytae"estra,
Iphigenia etc., an' not forgetting the careful ,urycleia. )here are nobler strains e!en in the
"oc*er 4enan'er: q 6m y ( +r. , 11</ p C1+ , III,
&(/q. Plato in the =epublic "a*es the 'e"an', re!olutionary in the 1ttic worl' though
co""on in the -oric, that there shoul' be an e8uality of wo"en, e!en in respect of e7ercise
in ar"s. In fact the capable wo"an, especially in $ellenistic 1sia 4inor but also in 5reece,
coul' occupy a surprisingly in'epen'ent an' influential role e!en in public life.
%
Plutarch
wrote: y ( #tob.,cl. , III, %&<, 1<G ff.0 IA, G/, / ff.. $is wor*
consolatio ad uxorem is a notable testi"ony to his own close personal relationship to his wife
)i"o7ena.
4arriage is the rule e7cept in so far as freer for"s of se7ual intercourse replace it. 1 !i!i'
light is thrown on the !arious relationships by the speech of Ps.K-e"osth. against Eeaira (%/,
1&&: ?6e ha!e harlots for our pleasure, concubines ( for 'aily physical use,
wi!es to bring up legiti"ate chil'ren an' to be faithful stewar's in househol' "atters.@ In
$o"eric 'ays there was concubinage with sla!es, or with prisoners of war who were
so"eti"es of royal bloo', but this was no longer a recognise' practice in the classical perio'.
)here are cases of biga"y to a late perio', though !ery rarely a"ong citi>ens.
(
Eo legal
restrictions e7iste'. In practice, howe!er, 5ree* "arriage was strictly "onoga"ous in the
later perio'. 1 "an "ight freely resort to a harlot, but if he "arrie' her he "ust lea!e his first
wife. )o the 5ree*s, ,gyptian concubinage was !ery la7. In 5raecoK,gyptian "arriage
contracts we often fin' clauses li*e the following: q m c y
y c
y .
;

1ccor'ing to the pap. the "utual relations of "arrie' couples were often affectionate,
especially in "i''le class circles. )hus the wife of an officer who for reasons of ser!ice is left
alone at nights assures hi" that she has no "ore pleasure in foo' or 'rin*.
G
In such letters
1i. Aiax .
% Cf. the "aterial in -elling, op. cit. , G ff.
( -ionysius the ,l'er "arrie' two wi!es on the sa"e 'ay ( -io'. #. , FIA, ... $ru>a, op. cit. , II, 31. Hn
polyga"y, loc. cit. 0 on concubinage, p. /3.
; P. ,leph. , &<, Eo. 1, ; ff.
G P. 5iess. , I, 1/ (early in the &n' cent. 1.-. .
there is often e!i'ence of gentle "anners. )he "ore blatant, howe!er, are the "any bitter
co"plaints. -i!orces were not unco""on. )hey occurre' by co""on consent, or by the
unilateral action of the husban' ( or the wife (
after the sen'ing of an official notice, or by si"ple 'eclaration before a 3u'ge, or e!en through
thir' parties. )here were looser for"s of "arriage, e.g., synchoresis an' ho"ology in ,gypt,
or the y y which appeare' un'er =o"an influence an' which was a "arriage
with no official status yet not always without a written contract. +ull "arriage was often the
goal. $ow far these looser for"s contribute' to the inci'ence of 'i!orce is har' to say. )he
nee' to 'i!i'e possessions was always a restraining factor. )he forfeite' at 'i!orce
was a *in' of con!entional punish"ent.
/

In #parta chil'lessness was a groun' for 'i!orce (or for ta*ing a secon' wife. $'t. , A, 3/ f.,
though it is not clear whether the cowar'ice of the husban' "ight also be consi'ere' such, as
a"ong the Parthians ( 2os.1nt. , 1G, 3(< f. .
=epeate' 'i!orce "ight lea' to a for" of polyga"y. )hough there is satirical
e7aggeration, there are also grains of truth in the picture of 4enan'er +r. , %.;vG ( C1+ , III,
1((, that ele!en an' e!en twel!e wi!es were not unco""on an' those who ha' only ha'
four or fi!e were regar'e' as q y , un"arrie' an' 'eser!ing of pity. )he
epithet , often foun' on the gra!estones of faithful wi!es, is generally 'esigne'
as a protest against this looser practice, an' ob!iously so when the wi'ower "a*es the
inscription. 6e shoul' not assu"e any opposition to secon' "arriage when the first was
bro*en by 'eath,
1<
In such a case to re"ain un"arrie' was regar'e' as the sign of special
continence an' so"eti"es e!en ha' cultic significance, as in the cult of 5e in 1egira: yq
c q q lm y c , q
c q c y ( Paus. , AII,
&%, 13, though it "ay be that the opposition is here to re"arriage after 'i!orce,
11
)hat there
is no counterpart in the case of the "ale is characteristic of the pre!ailing 'ouble stan'ar' of
"orality.
)here were always !arying esti"ates of "arriage. #tobaeus collecte' a nu"ber of state"ents
un'er the 'ouble hea'ing: y an' : y y (
,cl. , IA, ./., & an' IA, %13, &. It is cynicis" rather than asceticis" which infor"s the suspicion
of "arriage in 4enan'. +r. , (%< ( C1+ , III, 1/1:
qm, | cm ym m y . )he ol'er #toicis" 'isplays a
high sense of the !alue of "arriage. 1ntipater of )arsus ('. 1%1v1%< I.C. , +r. in !. 1rni" , III,
&%. ff. 'escribes it as , the full union of "an an' wo"an. 1lrea'y in ,pictetus, howe!er,
it is regar'e' as better not to "arry, at least for the Cynic in his e7ercise of super!ision o!er all
"en ( -iss. , III, &&, ;;. EeoKPlatonis" a'opte' a fully ascetic !iew. )he "arriage of Porphyry
with the sic*ly wi'ow 4arcella was co"pletely nonKse7ual. ,!en in early 5ree* thin*ing a certain
antithesis was foun' between se7ual intercourse an' cultic approach to the go'hea'. Continence
was 'e"an'e' of the ,leusinian hierophants before an' 'uring the fasts, an' of so"e other priests
"ore generally. )he growing influence of the 4ysteries strengthene' this ten'ency. In a
si"ultaneous protest against wi'esprea' e7cesses both in an' outsi'e "arriage, the i'eal of
absolute continence sprea' in wi'e circles.
1&
#piritual "arriage was a'opte' in paganis" e!en
earlier than in Christianity.
13
In face of the ol'er eroticists, $elio'orus of ,"esa (3r' cent. 1.-.
/ $uwar'as, op. cit. , .; f. It is al"ost a tragiKco"e'y when in the 'issolution of the gamos agraphos the wife
recei!es a few earrings an' a little "oney.
1< )he only instance is in 2. I. +rey, ? Da signification 'es ter"es OPO2 etunivira,C Recherches de
Science Religieuse , &< (1/31, .G ff.
11 Cf. on this pt. an' on what follows ,. +ehrle, ? -ie *ultische Beuschheit i" 1ltertu" ,@ =AA , ( (1/1<.
1& +or further 'etails on the religious an' philosophical basis of the "o!e"ent of se7ual abstinence an' on its
effects, cf. Preis*er, op. cit. , 3& ff., .% ff.0 -elling, op. cit. , 1/ f., &(, ;& an' /<.
13 =. =eit>enstein, /ellenistische -underer&.hlungen (1/<(, 1.( ff., /istoria monachorum (1/1(, %%0 1.
$arnac*, Mission und Ausbreitung
.
(1/&., 1, &3& ff. (where a reference to 5alen`s testi"ony concerning the
continence of Christians, preser!e' by the 1rabs, finely illustrates the parallelis" of !iews.
gi!es e!i'ence of the change' !iew in his ,thiopian ro"ance when he conclu'es the wor* with a
"arriage of the lo!ers fro" which all se7ual ele"ents are strictly e7clu'e'.
&. =o"e.
1"ong the =o"ans, as a"ong pri"iti!e peasant peoples, the position of the housewife
was relati!ely high. )he husban' ha' only a "il' superiority ( manus which constantly
'i"inishe'. Corporal chastise"ent was so"eti"es reco""en'e' but rarely practise'. In
co"e'y the wife, too, coul' so"eti"es bo7 the ears. )he respectful domina was use' e!en by
the husban'. In the con'uct of the househol' the matrona ha' e8uality. )here was no special
cha"ber for wo"en. )hey coul' "o!e about freely (
C
orn. Eep.Ait.
p
rooe" , (f.. ,!en
a"ong the =o"an #toics there were e7ertions on behalf of e8ual e'ucation. Ioth "ale an'
fe"ale horses an' houn's were traine' for racing an' the chase. 6hy, then, shoul' not
'aughters be e'ucate' as well as sons (4us. =uf. in #tob.,cl. , II, &3%, &. ff.e 2u!enal can
alrea'y satirise the bluestoc*ing (
#
at. , (, .3. ff., as also 4artial, II, /<, /: sit non doctissima
coniuxA (cf. FI, 1/.
=o"an history is rich in noble wo"en as well as reprobate. Cornelia, the "other of the
5racchi, an' Di!ia, the wife of 1ugustus, are goo' e7a"ples.
P
rop. celebrate' another
Cornelia in the ?8ueen@ of his elegies (IA, 11. In the =o"an #toic 4usonius, a conte"porary
of Paul, the anti8ue esti"ation of wo"an an' "arriage reaches its cli"a7. 1ll se7ual
intercourse either outsi'e or prior to "arriage is frowne' upon. In "arriage the physical union
is for the purpose of pro'ucing goo' citi>ens. It is to be sustaine', howe!er, by the spiritual
co""union of the partners, who are fully e8ual.
1.

=o"an "arriage ha' always been "onoga"ous. )his 'i' not e7clu'e intercourse with
sla!es or harlots. In general this was not regar'e' as reprehensible.
1%
Iut =o"an law coul'
a'"it only one mater familias . 1 characteristic of the legal 'e!elop"ent is its progressi!e
softening.
In the ol'er perio' manus "arriage was contracte' either without for" an' by usus , or by
cere"onial purchase ( coNmptio , or by a religious cere"ony of confarreatio . )his "eant that the
wife 3oine' the fa"ily circle of her husban'. Increasingly, howe!er, this was replace' by "arriage
without manus contracte' so"eti"es by mutuus consensus without any prece'ing betrothal,
festi!ities, or written agree"ent. In such cases the wife re"aine' in the househol' of her father
an' 'i' not beco"e mater familias but uxor . In a''ition, there were looser for"s such as the
concubinage which was practise' in the ar"y an' which Christianity refuse' to countenance, or
the contubernium which was not accepte' as "arriage, i.e., the "ore lasting union between sla!es,
often at the wish of their "aster. )hese coul' be conclu'e' an' 'issol!e' 8uite freely. -i!orce
was also possible in other cases by "utual repu'iation. In the i"perial perio' "arriage by
confarreatio , which ha' pre!iously been in'issoluble, beca"e 'issoluble by diffarreatio . )he
only e7ception was the "arriage of the flamen dialis . 5roun's of 'i!orce were the rise of the
husban' to a higher social class, chil'lessness, the use of false *eys, poisoning of the chil'ren, or
si quid perverse taetreque factum est a muliere , often "erely the 'esire for another "arriage.
In the increase of 'i!orces we ha!e an e7pression of the "oral corruption of the later
perio'. )he "oralists stro!e against the", but in !ain. 6i!es counte' the years by their
husban's rather than by the consuls ( #en.
I
en. , III, 1(, & an' 3. ,ight "arriages coul' be
Corn. Eep. Cornelius Eepos, of :pper Italy (c. //J&; I.C. , frien' of Cicero, anti8uary an' author of historical
biographies with a strongly "oralising an' panegyrical fla!our, e'. B. $al", 1G;1.
prooe" prooemium .
#at. Saturnalia .
Prop. #e7tus Propertius, =o"an poet of the 1ugustan era, e'. C. $osius, 1/3&.
1. +or further 'etails, cf. -elling, op. cit. , &. f.
1% Di!. , FFFIF, /, % f. calls $ispala a scortum nobile an' intercourse with her minime adulescentis aut rei aut
famae damnosa .
Ien. De *eneficiis .
contracte' in the course of fi!e autu"ns ( 2u!. #at., (, &&/ f.. H!i' spea*s cynically of his
three wi!es ()rist., IA, 1<, (/ ff.. In contrast to this 'egeneracy burial inscriptions sing the
praises of the univira .
1(
Characteristically, there is nothing correspon'ing in the case of the
husban'. Prop. (IA, 11, /1 f. regar's it as the i'eal for the wi'ower not to re"arry, but is not
so sure of its feasibility.
3. 6o"an in the H)
In spite of certain rather 'oubtful relics of "atriarchate, wo"an was legally "ore a chattel
than a person in Israel. In "arriage she passe' fro" the 'o"inion of her father to that of the
husban' to who" he ga!e her in "arriage ( 1 #. 1G:1; , 1/ , &; etc.. In the process such
"atters as the 'owry playe' a part. If her husban' 'ie' or she was put away, she ca"e un'er
the protection of her grownKup son or of her own fa"ily. De!irate "arriage coul' be re3ecte'
by the "an concerne', but not by the wo"an ( -t. &%:% ff. . =est was "a'e a 'uty for all on
the #abbath, but not for the wo"an ( ,7. &<:G ff. 0 -t. %:1& ff. 0 though she 'i' in fact rest, &
B. .:&& f. . In e!ery respect the husban' was her lor' ( 5n. 3:1( . $e 'eter"ine' her portion
at the sacrificial "eal ( 1 #. 1:% . +i'elity was 'e"an'e' of her alone, though the husban'
ha' to a!oi' a'ultery. Ietrothal was e8ui!alent to "arriage ( Eu. %:11 ff. 0 ,7. &&:1% f. 0 -t.
&&:&3 ff. 0 5n. 3G:1% ff. . Polyga"y was a hea!y bur'en on the wife. 1bo!e all, if she 'i' not
en3oy the blessing of chil'ren an' especially sons, she occupie' an unen!iable position in
relation to "ore fortunate wi!es or concubines. #he was particularly luc*y if she 'i' not
forfeit the affection of her husban' in conse8uence ( 1 #. 1:% ff. 0 5n. 1(:. ff. .
)here were, howe!er, "ore fa!ourable aspects. 6i!es an' girls coul' appear publicly in
e!ery'ay life, at festi!als an' on sacral occasions ( 5n. &.:13 ff. 0 ,7. &:1( 0 -t. 1&:1& 0 2u.
&1:&1 0 & #. ( . 6here there were no sons, the 'aughters ha' rights of inheritance ( Eu.
&;:G . In these an' e!en in other cases ( Eu. 3(:( the inclination an' will of the girl coul'
also be consulte' in "arriage ( 5n. &.:3/ , %G . )he wo"an ha' al"ost incalculable
influence, especially when she ha' sons an' when she coul' act a'roitly. +igures li*e #arah,
=ebe*ah, 4ichal, 1bigail an' especially the e!il 2e>ebel, offer con!incing proof. In'ee', a
wo"an li*e -eborah can e!en attain to an e7traor'inary position in public life. )he basic
biblical tra'ition, which e"phasises the secon'ary position of wo"an by creation an' her
greater susceptibility to te"ptation ( 5n. &:&& 0 3:( ff. , also shows a fine an' profoun'
appreciation of her position as the help"eet of "an, of her 'i!ine li*eness e!en if only by
'eri!ation, an' of the close relationship of the one "an an' the one wo"an.
.. 6o"an in 2u'ais".
2u'ais", howe!er, in!ol!es "ore reaction than progress. 6o"an is openly 'espise'.
?$appy is he whose chil'ren are "ales, an' woe to hi" whose chil'ren are fe"ales@ ( b.bi'. ,
G&b. )he honourable title of ?'aughter of 1braha"@ is rare in =abbinic literature as
co"pare' with the correspon'ing ?son of 1braha".@
1;
6o"en are gree'y, in8uisiti!e, la>y,
!ain ( 5n. r. , .% on 1(:% an' fri!olous ( b.#hab. , 33b. ?)en 8ab of e"ptyKhea'e'ness ha!e
co"e upon the worl', nine ha!ing been recei!e' by wo"en an' one by the rest of the worl'@
( b.bi'. , ./b. ?4any wo"en, "uch witchcraft@ ($illel, c. &< I.C. , &, ;. )he custo" of
wo"en prece'ing corpses in "any places fin's aetiological e7planation in their assu"e'
responsibility for 'eath (#la!. ,n. 3<:1;0 Ait. 1'. , 1, 3 etc.0 3 #anh. , &<b, ...
1G

Con!ersation shoul' not be hel' with a wo"an (cf. 2n. .:/ , &; , e!en though she be one`s
own ( b.,rub , %3b0 1b. , 1, %. ?4ay the wor's of the )orah be burne', they shoul' not be
han'e' o!er to wo"en@ (3#ota, 1<a, G. ?)he "an who teaches his 'aughter the )orah teaches
her e7tra!agance@ (#ofa, 3, .0 cf. b. #ota, &1b. )he wife shoul' neither bear witness, instruct
1( Il^"ner, $rivataltert8mer , 3%< an' 3(.0 +rey, op. cit.
1; #tr.KI. , II, &<<.
1G ,bid. , IA, %G1.
chil'ren, nor pray at table0 she is not e!en boun' to *eep the whole )orah.
1/
In the
synagogues wo"en are assigne' special places behin' a screen. #pecial cha"bers are
pro!i'e' for the" not only in Palestine but e!en in 1le7an'ria ( Philo+lacc. , G/ . $ellenistic
2u'ais" generally shows little enlighten"ent on this 8uestion. Philo says ( Hp. 4un'. , 1(% :
?In us the attitu'e of "an is infor"e' by reason ( , of wo"an by sensuality (
.@ 1n' 2osephus, if the passage be genuine, says 8uite succinctly: yq m
l ( 1p. , &, &<1 .
Ee!ertheless, other notes are also soun'e' in 2u'ais". )hus the 6is'o" literature, while
it spea*s bluntly of the "align influence of a"bitious, tal*ati!e an' un'iscipline' wi!es ( Pr!.
(:&. 0 ;:% 0 /:13 0 11:&& 0 1/:13 0 &1:/ 0 &%:&. 0 &;:1% 0 #ir. &%:1( ff. 0 1/:& 0 /:3 ff. , can also
sing enthusiastically the praises of a !irtuous wo"an ( Pr!. 1&:. 0 1G:&& 0 1/:1. 0 31:1<J31 0
#ir. 3(:&; ff. 0 &(:13 ff. : ?1s the sun rises on the hea!enly hill of the Dor', so 'oes the beauty
of a righteous wo"an in the wellKor'ere' househol' of her husban'@. ,!en in =abbinic
writings we occasionally hear si"ilar notes. ?$er husban' is a'orne' by her, but she is not
a'orne' by her husban'@ ( 5n. r. , .; on 1;:1%.
&<
Iefore 5o' wi!es ha!e e8ual if not greater
pro"ise than their husban's ( ,7. r. , &1 on 1.:1%0 )anna 'ebe ,liahu =abba, /0 =abgest., &.;
1.-. 0 b. Ier., 1;a. Particular "ention "ay be "a'e of Ieruria (Aeluriae Aaleriae, the
'aughter of =. Chanina ben )era'ion, an' wife of =. 4er ( c. 1%< 1.-. as an outstan'ing
an' 8uic*Kwitte' wo"an, or of =ahel, the wife of 1*iba ( (./ , as an e7a"ple of one who
"anifeste' an e7traor'inary piety an' rea'iness for sacrifice in the 2ewish sense.
4arriage was a 'uty for loyal 2ews an' therefore a presupposition of or'ination as rabbi.
&1

Eot to further propagation of the species was tanta"ount to she''ing bloo' or 'espising the i"age
of 5o'.
&&
If there were no chil'ren after ten years, another "arriage ha' to be contracte', an' the
husban' ha' liberty whether or not to 'i!orce the first wife.
&3

Polyga"y re"ains legiti"ate. In relation to the practice of $ero', 2oseph. e7plains that it is a
patriarchal custo" in an atte"pt to neutralise the alienation of 5ree* an' =o"an rea'ers ( 1nt. ,
1;, 1. . Hf two highKpriestly fa"ilies in 2erusale" it was *nown that they 'escen'e' fro" 'ouble
"arriages ( b. 2eb, 1%b. In a fa"ine (accor'ing to ).Bet. , %, 1 a pro"inent rabbi, =. )arfon,
"arrie' 3<< wi!es in or'er to care for the" (as a wealthy priest, though the "arriages were only
te"porary an' for"al. )he 8uestion of the treat"ent of the chil'ren of ri!al wi!es for"e' a
sub3ect of 'ispute between the schools of #ha""ai an' $illel. )he co""unity of the new
co!enant at -a"ascus (lst cent. I.C. e attac*e' polyga"y on the basis of 5n. 1:&; .
&.
=. 1"i
also cha"pione' "onoga"y in principle. Iut the first for"al prohibition of polyga"y was issue'
only by =. 5ersho" ben 2ehu'a in 4ain> c. 1<<< 1.-. , an' it applie' only to the 6est. In
practice, of course, the e7pense an' the proble"s entaile' constitute' a strong barrier, especially
in the lower "i''le classes.
&%
)he E) thus see"s to assu"e that "onoga"y is the general rule.
)he real e!il in the 2ewish an' the $ellenistic worl', together with 'i!orce an' prostitution, was
successi!e polyga"y ( ;;/ 0 ;G< 0 ;G3 .
4arital intercourse was 'e"an'e' by the =abbis, though not to e7cess.
&(
It was e"phasise'
that it shoul' not be for reasons of carnal 'esire, especially where there was $ellenistic influence (
)ob. G:; 0 Philo#pec. Deg. , I, 11& 0 Airt. , &<; etc.0 2os.1p. , &, 1// . )he s"aller "arrie' sect of
,ssenes refraine' fro" intercourse 'uring pregnancy ( 2os.Iell. , &, 1(1 . #trict 2u'ais" oppose'
not only a'ultery an'unnatural licence, but also e7tra"arital intercourse, with an energy
ine7plicable to paganis", though these e!ils were ne!er co"pletely o!erco"e. In relation to the",
the "ain o'iu" fell on the wo"an ( 4t. &1:31 f. 0 D*. ;:3/ . 1scetic i'eas were for the "ost part
alien to 2u'ais",
&;
though they "a'e occasional inroa's un'er $ellenistic influence. )he 'i'actic
poe" of Ps.KPho*yli'es co"bines insistence on the 'uty of "arriage with a certain restraint in the
1/ ,bid. , 1&&(, In'e7.
&< ,bid. , III, (1< f.
&1 +or "aterial, cf. LE6 , &% (1/&(, 31< ff.0 &G (1/&/, 3&1 ff.
&& b. 2eb, (3b.
&3 2eb. , (, (. -i!orce see"s to ha!e been the rule ( b.2eb. , (.a0 ).2eb. , G, . &./0 cf. #tr.KI. , 1, 31;
&. #. #chechter, Documents of #e;ish Sectaries , I (1/1<, IA, &1.
&% Cf. #. Brauss, <almudische Arch.ologie , II (1/11, &( ff.0 =55
&
, III, .G1.
&( Cf. the "aterial in #tr.KI. , III, 3;1.
sense of popular $ellenistic philosophy ( 1;% f. 0 1/3 f. . )here are also ascetic tren's in the
)esta"ents of the )wel!e Patriarchs ( )est. =. (0
I
ss. &0 2os. / f.. Philo ob!iously sy"pathises
with the asceticis" of the )herapeutae,
&G
but he hi"self was "arrie' an' ha' "any things to say
in praise of "arriage.
)hough the "ain e"phasis in 2u'ais" is on the physical si'e of "arriage, there is not
lac*ing a "ore spiritual an' personal relationship between the partners an' an appreciation of
this factor. ,!en after ten years of chil'lessness Philo cannot concei!e of the uncon'itional
'issolution of a "arriage because the bon' of lo!e is too strong ( #pec. Deg. , III, 3%. $e
'epicts a restraine' courtship un'er the i"pulse of affection in ter"s which are al"ost
"o'ern ( #pec. Deg. , III, (;. ,!en the )al"u' clai"s in relation to the betrothal of chil'ren
that a grownKup 'aughter alone can say that ?she will ha!e the one propose'.@
&/

)he 2ews staunchly "aintaine' their singular law of 'i!orce. 1t botto", this ga!e the
initiati!e only to the husban'. )he 'istincti!e feature was that he coul' gi!e a bill of 'i!orce"ent
conferring free'o" to "arry again.
3<
1part fro" chil'lessness, the "ain groun' was ?so"ething
scan'alous@ ( }Xh ~Oh N[s}R ZP , -t. &.:1 . )he school of #ha""ai too* this to "ean only
licentiousness, but the school of $illel inclu'e' a !ariety of lesser "atters fro" salting foo' to the
"ere fin'ing of so"eone else "ore beautiful.
31
)he fact that #alo"e herself 'issol!e' her
"arriage accor'ing to 5*. custo" is 'escribe' as repugnant to 2ewish law in 2os.1nt. , 1%, &%/ .
)o be sure, there were ti"es when the 2ewish wife coul' an' shoul' as* for 'i!orce, e.g., when
her husban' force' her into a "orally 'oubtful !ow.
3&
Iut this, too, coul' be "a'e into a
stratage" by "en see*ing 'i!orce. $ence e!en 'i!orces on tri!ial groun's were har'ly less
co""on a"ong the 2ews than a"ong pagans. 2oseph. spea*s 8uite 'ispassionately an'
co"placently of his "any "arriages in Ait. , .1. f. 0 .&( f.
In 2u'ais", too, the real e!il was successi!e polyga"y. 6hat was originally 'esigne' to
protect the wife an' to pre!ent cruelty beca"e an ai' to in3ustice an' oppression. In'i!i'ual
rabbis proteste' against 'i!orce, but the e!il was not tac*le' at the root.
Co""enting on 4al. &:13 f. =. ,lea>ar sai': ?If a "an 'i!orces his first wife, e!en the altar
she's tears o!er hi".@ It is e7pressly state', howe!er, that this applies only to the first wife.
33

B. Wo"an in Christianity.
)he foun'ations of the Christian !iew are to be foun' in the two factors, 1. that it is an
or'er of creation that "an an' wo"an shoul' beco"e one in in!iolable "onoga"ous
"arriage, an' &. that the lor'ship of 5o' ra'ically re"o!es all the 'ifferences which separate
the". Hn the other han', pri"iti!e Christianity 'i' not 'e'uce fro" these two factors an
absolutely new an' pre'o"inantly spiritual i'eal of wo"an an' "arriage, nor 'i' it cha"pion
any such !iew with re!olutionary !igour. In practice it showe' itself to be conser!ati!e an'
e!en perhaps reactionary fro" the stan'point of $ellenistic culture. )o this 'egree, it offere'
&; In b. 2eb, (.ab se7lessness is clai"e' for 1braha" an' #arah. If this is suppose' to illustrate the power of
5o' an' the effecti!eness of prayer, then it "ay be that there are un'erlying ascetic ten'encies (of $ellenistic
origin e.
Iss. <estament of ,ssachar .
&G )he wor* De vita contemplativa is now acepte' as authentic in spite of #ch^rer, III, (G; ff. Cf. $. Deisegang,
=55
&
, IA, 11/;.
&/ b.bi'. , .1a0 #tr.KI. , II, 3G1.
3< N[ ONW}U {OR }P j , 5*. . )he wor' first ta*es on this special significance in 2ewish 5*. . In the
pap. the phrase yy "eans a 'ocu"ent of renunciation in financial "atters. +or the for"
of a 2ewish bill of 'i!orce"ent, cf. #tr.KI. , I, 311 f.. )he best "aterial on 'i!orce is to be foun' in the tractate
5ittin.
31 +or e7a"ples, cf. #tr.KI. , I, 31& ff.0 also #ch^rer, II, ./..
3& #tr.KI. , I, 31G f.
33 b.5it. , /<b0 #tr.KI. , I, 3&<, where other e7a"ples are gi!en.
a correcti!e to the 'esire of anti8uity for co"plete e"ancipation. Hn the other han', for all its
reser!e Christianity showe' itself to be "ost a'aptable an' capable of transfor"ing inwar'ly
both the ol' which it ha' inherite' an' the new which it a''e' to it.
1. 2esus.
3.

1t this point, too, 2esus is not the ra'ical refor"er who proclai"s laws an' see*s to
enforce a transfor"ation of relationships. $e is the #ayfour who gi!es $i"self especially to
the lowly an' oppresse' an' calls all without 'istinction to the free'o" of the *ing'o" of
5o'. Characteristic is the s"all trait that in $is parables 2esus turns fre8uently an' with such
ten'erness to the e!ery'ay life of the wo"an with its an7ieties an' 3oys ( 4t. 13:33 0 &%:1 ff. 0
D*. 1%:G ff. 0 1G:1 ff. . )he =abbinic parables are "uch poorer in such references. 6here
necessary, 2esus see"s to obser!e the 2ewish proprieties. )hus he 'oes not approach the be'
of 2airus` 'aughter without witnesses ( 4*. %:.< . Hn the other han', to fulfil $is calling in
relation to wo"en $e can brea* rigi' 2ewish custo" with "atterKofKfact bol'ness. )hus $e
'oes not hesitate to spea* with a wo"an ( 2n. .:&; etc., to teach a wo"an ( D*. 1<:3/ or to
call a wo"an the 'aughter of 1braha" ( D*. 13:1( . $e spea*s on behalf of wo"en ( 4*.
1&:.< an' par. , .1ff . an' par. 0 1.:( an' par. an' helps the nee'y a"ong the" "ore than
any =abbinic thau"aturge ha' e!er 'one ( 4*. 1:&/ ff. an' par. 0 %:&1J.3 an' par. 0 ;:&.J3<
an' par. 0 D*. 13:1<J1; 0 G:& 0 ;:11J1; 0 2n. 11:1J.. . Hn behalf of a sic* wo"an, $e brea*s
the #abbath ( D*. 13:1< ff. an' $e 'oes not shun contact with unclean wo"en ( 4*. 1:31
an' par. 0 %:&;ff . an' par. , .1 an' par. 0 D*. ;:3G ff. . 6hate!er our !iew of the historical
'etails, 2ohn paints a si"ilar picture when he shows 2esus wrestling for the soul of the
#a"aritan wo"an ( 2n. .:; ff. . 2esus is surroun'e' by a ban' of wo"en ( D*. G:& f. who are
with $i" in $is suffering ( 4*. 1%:.< f. an' par. , .; an' par. an' glorification ( 4*. 1(:1
ff. an' par. 0 2n. &<:1 , 11 ff. . ,!en on wo"en who stan' at a greater 'istance $e e7ercises
an e7traor'inary influence which $e can also 'eepen ( D*. 11:&; f. 0 &3:&; ff. 0 cf. 4t.
&;:1/ . 6e ne!er hear fro" the lips of 2esus a 'erogatory wor' concerning wo"an as such.
In hol'ing out the prospect of se7less being li*e that of the angels in the consu""ate'
*ing'o" of 5o' ( 4*. 1&:&% an' par. 0 on the !ery 'ifferent 2ewish !iews ym , $e
in'irectly lifts fro" wo"an the curse of her se7 an' sets her at the si'e of "an as e8ually a
chil' of 5o'.
&. )he Co""unity.
In the early co""unity there was no 'oubt as to the full "e"bership of wo"en ( 1c. 1:1.
0 1&:1& . 1fter the 2ewish pattern, but without succu"bing to the fe"inis" of 2ewish an'
5nostic propagan'a ( 1c. 13:%< 0 1;:. , 1& 0 & )". 3:( 0 1ct Pl. et )hecl., .1, the Christian
"ission wins wo"en fro" the !ery outset ( 1c. 1(:13 f. 0 1;:. , 1& , 3. 0 1G:1G . 1s "en are
calle' brothers, so wo"en are calle' sisters ( =. 1(:1 0 1 C. /:% etc. .
a. In Paul there is perhaps a stronger tension than one "ight ha!e e7pecte' between a
progressi!e an' a 2ewish reactionary ten'ency. )he sa"e Paul who can write 5l. 3:&G can
also e"phasise that it was ,!e who was se'uce' ( & C. 11:3 an' that by creation wo"an was
a stage further re"o!e' fro" 5o' than "an ( 1 C. 11:3 , ; . )he tension is not to be resol!e'
by referring so"e state"ents to wo"an as a se7ual being by nature an' others to wo"an as
se7ually neutralise' in Christ.
3%
It is re"o!e' by un'erstan'ing an' therefore transcen'ing
the 'ifferences in the light of 5o' an' the new aeon. 1lthough this is of i""e'iate an'
ra'ical significance, howe!er, it 'oes not lea' to practical conse8uences of a re!olutionary
*in'. )hus wo"an is still sub3ect to "an in spite of her e8uality in 'i!ine sonship ( 1 Cor,
3. Hn the attitu'e of 2esus to "arriage, "onoga"y an' 'i!orce, (.G ff.
3% -elling, op. cit. , 1&< on 5l. 3:&G : ?In the co""unity of Christ, se7ual 'ifferences cease only when "en
the"sel!es no longer e7ercise the", when wo"an no longer te"pts "an either 'irectly or in'irectly.@ Paul,
howe!er, warns against ascetic e7peri"ents in "arriage ( 1 C. ;:3 , % , an' he 'oes not forbi' Christians to
"arry ( 1 C. ;:&G , 3( , 3/ . )he e7position in 1 C. 11:3 ff. is with reference to Christians.
11:1< 0 Col. 3:1G 0 ,ph. %:&1 f. . It is the 'uty of "an, howe!er, to e7ercise his
lea'ership, not selfishly, but with lo!e an' consi'eration. )he full re"o!al of se7ual
'istinction "ust await the co"ing aeon ( 1 C. (:13 .
3(

b. )he later apostolic an' postKapostolic perio's "anifest the sa"e ten'ency as is seen in
Paul. )he fall of ,!e is e"phasise' in al"ost 2ewish fashion in 1 )". &:13 f. Hn the other
han', 1 Pt. 3:; 'e"an's full recognition of wo"an as a 3oint heir of life. )he i'eal of wo"an,
howe!er, 'iffers in practice fro" the thought of e"ancipation an' re"ains conser!ati!e. )his
'oes not e7clu'e $ellenistic influences in the houseKtables, as alrea'y in Paul.
3;
)he positi!e
ten'ency e"erges especially in the Pastorals ( (%& 0 1 )". &:1% . Iy contrast, the
apocryphal 1cts, which essentially follow the tra'itions of later $ellenistic =o"e,
3G
e7tol the
ascetic i'eal an' especially that of spiritual "arriage (1ct. Ptr., 33f.0 1ct. 2n., (30 1ct. Pl. et
)hecl., /ff., 1ct. 1n'., .ff.0 1ct. )ho"., 1&ff.0 GG ff.0 11; etc.. )here is e!i'ence of nonK
se7ual coKhabitation in $er"as ( s. , /, 11 an' perhaps in the -i'ache (11, 11, an' later this
beca"e increasingly co""on until the syno's began to ta*e action against it. ,
also (%& .
C. 2acral and 2ocial 1unctions o# Wo"an.
1. EonKChristian 1nti8uity. )hroughout anti8uity the participation of wo"an is custo"ary not
"erely in the fa"ily cultus
3/
but also in the public cultus
.<
an' the celebration of the 4ysteries.
.1
)here are so"e festi!als which are only for wo"en,
.&
whether for all, or for the bla"eless
wi!es of citi>ens, who are to prepare by a nine 'ay perio' of abstinence, e.g., the )hes"ophoria,
#cirophoria, Irauronia an' 1'onia
.3
in 1ttica an' a se!en 'ay festi!al of -e"eter 4ysia in
Pellene.
..
Hn the other han', wo"en are e7clu'e' fro" so"e sacre' rites, such as that of
1phro'ite 1craia on the 5ypriot Hly"pus.
.%
In the -ionysus cult wo"en play a !ery pro"inent
part as "aena's an' the thya's.
.(
Priestesses are !ery co""on both in public cults ( ;;/ , the
Aestals etc. an' in those of the 4ysteries (the hierophants in ,leusis, the priestesses of Isis etc..
)heir "inistry is not in the least restricte' to wo"en,
.;
Hutstan'ing ecstatic en'ow"ent assures
wo"en of prophetic ran* as sybils.
.G
)he best *nown specific instance is the Pythia in -elphi.
./

&. )he H) . In characteristic 'istinction fro" pagan anti8uity there are no priestesses of
_ahweh in Israel. In the strict sense sacral "inistry is reser!e' for "en. )his 'oes not "ean
the e7clusion of wo"en fro" the religious co""unity or fro" the cultus. 6o"en ta*e part in
3( Hn !irginity, "arriage an' 'i!orce 0 (%1 .
3; Hn these passages, cf. B. 6ei'inger, Die /austafeln (1/&G.
3G +. Pfister in $ennec*e, 1(3 ff.
3/ Cf. the 1esculapius an' $ygieia fa"ily sacrifices, Paris (Dou!re, Photo. 1linari, &&, ;(;.
.< P. #tengel, Die griechischen 0ultusaltert8mer , (1/&<, &3% f. etc. 6o"en appear, e.g., in the Panathenean
processions (,astern Parthenon frie>e, Photo. 5iran'on, 1<1G.
.1 +or wo"en in the ,leusis 4ysteries on the Eiinnionpina7, $aas, Eo. /v11, Deipol't (1/&(, (. D. -eubner,
Attische 'este (1/3&, %, 1. )he 1n'ania inscr. prescribes the 'ress for wo"en who are to be or are alrea'y
consecrate' ( l ( -itt. #yll.
3
, ;3(, 1% ff.. 4ithra e7clu'es wo"en fro" its "ysteries, but in its
"issionary wor* associates with Cybele. Hn wo"en in the Isis cult, 1pul.4et. , FI, /.
.& #tengel, op. cit. , &31, &3%, &.;, &%< f.
.3 +or pictures of the 1'onis rites on !ases, cf. $aas, /v110 Deipol't, 1<% ff.0 -eubner, op. cit. , &%.
.. #tengel, &%;.
.% #trab., FIA, (, 3.
.( Part. i"pressi!e is the 'epiction in ,ur.Ia. , 1<%< ff. -epictions of "aena's are so co""on that enu"eration
is unnecessary. Hn the other han', reference "ay be "a'e to the Iacchic frie>e of the Ailla Ite" at Po"peii,
Photo. 1n'erson, &( 3G<J&( 3G;, cf. 4. Iieber, #bch. d. Deutsch. Arch. ,nst. , .3 p1/&Gq, &/G ff.0 2. Deipol't,
Dionysos p1/31q, &G ff.0 the best coloure' repro'uction with the te7t is in 1. 4ai!ri, :a villa dei Misteri p1/31q.
It probably represents the consecration of bri'es in the -ionysiac "ysteries.
.; )his was certainly true of the ,leusinian $aloa (D. -eubner, Attische 'este p1/3&q, (3. Hn the other han', cf.
the Choa festi!al, at which the sacre' "arriage of -ionysus is co""only celebrate' with the *asilinna , who"
the Archon *asileus "ust ha!e "arrie' as a !irgin ( ibid. , 1<<.
.G ,. =oh'e, $syche
/J1<
(1/&%, (3 ff.
./ $. Deisegang, $neuma /agion (1/&&, 3& f.
national festi!als ( & #. (:1/ 0 -t. 1&:1& 0 cultic rTQw . )hey are also acti!e in cultic 'ancing (
2u. &1:&1 an' in the sacrificial "eal ( 1 #. 1:.f ., especially the passo!er. Eot "erely the
"en, but the whole co""unity, inclu'ing wo"en an' chil'ren an' aliens, is brought into
co!enant with _ahweh ( -t. &/:1< f. . 6o"en are e!en a'"itte' to lower offices at the
entrance to the tent of re!elation ( ,7. 3G:G . 1 religious significance al"ost e8ui!alent to
that of "en is achie!e' by prophetically gifte' wo"en li*e 4iria", $ul'ah an' Eoa'iah.
3. 2u'ais". 2u'ais" not only conferre' no new rights on wo"en but curtaile' the earlier
rights. )he ol'er piety, orientate' to the natural si'e of life, retreate' "ore an' "ore into the
bac*groun'. )he 'estruction of the te"ple "a'e it i"possible to carry out "ost of the earlier
practices, inclu'ing the passo!er. )he no"istic piety of the =abbis was wholly a "atter for
"en.
In $ero'`s te"ple wo"en were li"ite' to the eastern part of the inner court, the ?court of
wo"en@ ( 2os.1p. , &, 1<. . In the synagogue they sat in special places, often a gallery, behin'
screens as "ere spectators. )hey were co""itte' to only partial obser!ance of the )orah an' ha'
no right to stu'y it ( ;G1 f. . )here were e7ceptions, li*e Aaleria or the "other of =abina.
%<

Di*e sla!es an' chil'ren, they 'i' not ha!e to recite the sch
e
ma% nor carry phylacteries, though
they ha' the obligation of 'aily prayer, the me&u&a an' saying grace (Ier., 3, 3. Hn the other
han', they were not to say grace publicly. ?Curse' is the "an whose wife an' chil'ren say grace
for hi"@ ( b. Ier, &<b. In principle there see"s to ha!e been the possibility of wo"en being
su""one' to rea' the )orah in the synagogue. Iut custo" 'e"an'e' that they shoul' refuse.
%1

6e are re"in'e' of the "inistry of wo"en in the Christian church when we rea' of the niece of
=. ,lie>er the el'er ( c. /< 1.-. offering to wash the feet of his 'isciples.
%&
)he true practice of
charity, howe!er, was in the han's of "en.
%3

.. )he E) .
a. 2esus ha' wo"en followers who "inistere' to $i" of their substance an' by their
labour ( D*. G:& f. . Eo wo"en, howe!er, were a'"itte' to the circle of the twel!e (
6 .
b. In the early Christian an' Pauline churches wo"en were not "erely the ob3ects ( 1c.
(:1 0 /:3/ but also the sub3ects of charitable practice ( 1c. /:3( ff. . Ioth in Palestine an'
the 5entile Christian worl' this practice see"s, howe!er, to ha!e ha' a !oluntary an' purely
charis"atic character. In a''ition to Dy'ia ( 1c. 1(:1% , we "ay "ention the wo"en who are
particularly note' in =. 1(:( , 1& f. for their >eal in the Dor'd4ary, )ryphena, )ryphosa,
Persis an' the "other of =ufus. )he 'escription of Phebe as the of the church at
Cenchrea in'icates the point where the original charis"a is beco"ing an office ( =. 1(:1 .
%.

)he general usage of the E) ( , howe!er, is a re"in'er that, in spite of
in !. & , we are not to thin* e7clusi!ely or e!en pre'o"inantly of wor*s of
charity in this connection, but of all *in's of ser!ice ren'ere' to the co""unity. 6o"en li*e
Prisca ( 1c. 1G:&( 0 =. 1(:3 0 1 C. 1(:1/ , ,uo'ia an' #yntyche ( Phil. .:& f. gi!e suitable
support to Paul in his e!angelistic wor*. )hey can e!en "inister to "en, e.g., 1pollos. In 1 C.
11:3 ff. Paul confers on prophetically gifte' wo"en the unfettere' right to spea* an' pray
(before the asse"ble' co""unitye, so long as they 'o so in an appropriate "anner. )here is
a certain tension between this an' the fa"ous mulier taceat in ecclesia ( 1 C. 1.:3. f. . )his
sayingis not beyon' suspicion on te7tual groun's.
%%
Hn the other han', there is no necessary
contra'iction. )he apostle is si"ply pre!enting wo"en fro" ta*ing the initiati!e in spea*ing,
but allows e7ceptions where there is genuine pneu"atic en'ow"ent.
%< Deipol't, op. cit. , 13.
%1 #tr.KI. , III, .(;0 IA, 1%; f.
%& 1b. =. Eat. , 1( ((a, #tr.KI. , III, (%3.
%3 Cf. Der talmudische <raktat $ea 8berset&t 4 nebst einer Abhdlg. von (ersorgung der Armen bei den #uden .
2. 2. =abe (1;G10 #tr.KI. , IA, %3( ff., ,7c. &&.
%. ,sp. if ( c I.C. 9 against -95 it is genuine.
%% -5 GG it 1"bst put !. 3.f. after !. .<. Perhaps we ha!e here a later or'inance 'eri!ing fro" 1 )". &:1& .
c. In the later apostolic an' postKapostolic perio's the charis"atic ele"ent fa'es
increasingly into the bac*groun'. 1s regar's the wor* of wo"en, this has three conse8uences.
In so"e cases it 'ies away. In others it ta*es a heretical for" ( =e!. &:&< , so that the sober
sense of the Church is against it ( 1 )". &:11 ff. , an' perhaps also 1 )". %:13 , infra . In
others again it is integrate' into the regulate' life of the co""unity. )he loosest for" of
organisation is the 'i!ision of the co""unity into the groups apparently reco""en'e' in )t.
&:& ff. In these the el'er wo"en ha!e the 'uty of e7horting the younger to fa"ily life as
Christians. In 1 )". 3:11 : y m .,
%(
there is reference to
official 'eaconesses with "uch the sa"e 'uties as their "ale counterparts. )heir wor* is
'esigne' to support that of the bishops or presbyters. It is certainly not li"ite' to charitable
en'ea!our, but consists rather in organisational or e!en pastoral wor* a"ong wo"en. Eothing
is sai' concerning their fa"ily relationships. )his suggests that they are single an' el'erly
la'ies who 'e!ote all their energies to the co""unity. )heir relationship to the wi'ows in 1
)". %:3 ff. creates proble"s. )here can be little 'oubt that in the first instance the latter
recei!e support ( !. . , 1( . It is generally assu"e' that in return they ren'ere' charitable an'
pastoral ser!ices, but this cannot be 'e'uce' with certainty fro" the te7t. +or !. 1< 'oes not
spea* of the future tas*s of wi'ows put on the roll, but of their worthiness, which is also
'eter"ine' by the free e7ercise of "ercy. 1gain, the reference in !. 13 is not to pastoral
!isitation but "ore generally to the wanton an' gossipy curiosity an' busybo'ying of younger
wi'ows who 'esire to re"arry an' for whose support the co""unity shoul' no longer accept
responsibility. )he position of wi'ows on the list, howe!er, is an honourable one. If they were
too ol' for physical wor*, e.g., nursing the sic* ( !. / , they "ight well be use' for the tas*s
outline' in )t. &:3 ff. )he further 'e!elop"ent of the institution of wi'ows certainly points in
a se"iKclerical 'irection ( infra 0 .
1"ong the re8uire"ents for such wi'ows we rea' in 1 )". %:/ : c y . )he
usual !iew is that this is ai"e' against secon' "arriage after the 'eath of the first husban'
%;
but
there are se!eral argu"ents against this.
%G
+irst, there is the "eaning of an' univira
in co""on usage ( ;;/ 0 ;G< . 1gain, the right of secon' "arriage in such a case is ta*en for
grante' in the E) . Hnly rarely 'o we get hints that it is better to refrain fro" it ( =. ;:3 0 1 C. ;:3/
f. , G f. 0 cf. D*. &:3( f. .
%/
1gain, the Pastorals fa!our "arriage ( ;G% , e!erywhere assu"ing
a "arrie' clergy ( 1 )". 3:& , 1& an' reco""en'ing the younger wi'ows to "arry again ( 1 )".
%:1. . )he ob3ection in !. 11 is against subse8uent relapse fro" wi'owhoo'. In !. 1& the 6
has nothing to 'o with fi'elity to their first husban' but refers to the loyalty to Christ of a
life wholly 'e!ote' to $i" in wi'owhoo'. 6e "ay thus conclu'e that the phrase c
y , in a''ition to e7clu'ing co""on licentiousness, is ai"e' specifically against successi!e
polyan'ry, i.e., against those who are 'i!orce', or e!en repeate'ly 'i!orce'.
%. +urther -e!elop"ent in the Church.
)he wor* of wo"en teachers is for the "ost part foun' only in sectarian circles, e.g.,
)hecla,
(<
or Priscilla, 4a7i"illa an' buintilla a"ong the 4ontanists, or wo"en in
5nosticis".
(1
In so"e places the Church too* o!er fro" the sects the practice of ha!ing
wo"en`s choirs in 'i!ine ser!ice, though this was "uch oppose'.
(&
4ore wi'ely 'e!elope'
was the participation of wo"en in wor*s of charity an' in pastoral !isitation, especially
%( #o also 6. Iran't, Dienst u. Dienen im < (1/31, 1;;. )he argu"ents against a reference to the wi!es of
'eacons are con!incingly asse"ble' by 5. :hlhorn, Die christliche :iebest.tigkeit , I (1GG&, 3/( f. -ib. Past. ,
ad loc. 'oes not co"e to any clear 'ecision but inclines to the re3ecte' !iew.
%; #o finally Preis*er, 1.G0 +rey, op. cit. 0 -elling, 13( ff.
%G -ib. Past. , ad loc. an' on 3:& rightly contests the reasons for the other !iew but har'ly gi!es sufficient
consi'eration to successi!e polyga"y.
%/ )he !l. q sy
s
,phr. probably 'eri!es fro" )atian`s -iatessaron.
(< )he 1ct. Pl. lie insi'e the Church, but their antiK5nostic purpose 'oes not "ean that they are not un'er
5nostic influence.
(1 +or "ore 'etails, cf. Lscharnac*, op. cit. , 1%( ff.
(& 2. buasten, Musik und )esang in den 0ulten der heidnischen Antike und christlichen 'r8h&eit (1/3<, 11. ff.
a"ong wo"en. )he younger Pliny "entions Christian ancillae calle' ministrae (
in ,p. , /(. In =o"e 5rapte, herself a wi'ow, is to e7hort wi'ows an' orphans with the
!isions of $er"as ( !. &, ., 3. Aery early young un"arrie' wo"en co"e to be enrolle' on
the official lists ( Ign.#"yrn. , 13, 1: , y , so"eti"es
being un'er twenty years ol' ( )ert.
A
irg. Ael. , /. )hese ?wi'ows@ are rec*one' a"ong the
officers of the co""unity in the 6est an' ,gypt, but stan' un'er the bishops, presbyters an'
'eacons an' are not or'aine' by laying on of han's. In the ,ast there is fuller 'e!elop"ent of
'eaconesses. 1ccor'ing to the #yrian -i'ascalia (1. an' 1% the institution of wi'ows
co"prises all the wi'ows of the co""unity abo!e the age of fifty. Iut these ha!e only
"o'est functions an' are "ore strictly the poor of the co""unity. 6o"en who bear office
are calle' 'eaconesses. It is 'ebatable whether this is only a 'ifference in ter"inology or
whether a new or'er ha' been for"e' consisting of ascetic !irgins. 6ith the passage of ti"e
these wo"en clergy were "ore an' "ore restricte' to acti!ity in 'i!ine ser!ice, assistance at
the baptis" of wo"en, !isitation of wo"en, the bringing of the ele"ents for the Dor'`s
#upper etc. )he true sacral functions ar'ently 'esire' by so"e were not grante' to the".
(3

,!en the right of baptising in e"ergency cannot be pro!e' in the early Church.
(.
)ertullian
e7pressly forba'e it ( Iapt. , 1;. In both ,ast an' 6est the 'ecisions against wo"en
e7ercising priestly functions beca"e increasingly stricter. )he history of the "inistry of
wo"en finally en'e' for the ti"e being in the con!ent0 the title of 'eaconess was borne by the
abbess in the early 4i''le 1ges ( , , .
9epke
() * +
*

In the E) this occurs only at =e!. &<:GJ/ as a "ythical na"e for the heathen host which,
after the 4essianic perio' of the "illennial reign, will wage final conflict against the people
of 5o' an' will be 'estroye' by 5o' with fire. Ioth the na"e an' the whole i'ea are ta*en by
the 'i!ine fro" the prophecy of ,>e*iel ( ,>. 3GJ3/ .
1
,
&
)he or'er especially is ta*en fro"
,>e*iel. In ,>e*iel we ha!e the 4essianic reign in 3; , 5og an' 4agog an' their 'estruction
in 3GJ3/ , an' the new 2erusale" in .<ff .0 in =e!. the "illennial *ing'o" in &<:.J( , 5og
an' 4agog in &<:;J1< , the resurrection of the 'ea' an' the last 3u'g"ent in &<:11J1% ,
3
an'
the new hea!en, the new earth an' the new 2erusale" in &1:1ff .
)he sa"e sche"a, i.e., 5og after the 4essianic age, is foun' elsewhere, e.g., "ost of the
rele!ant passages, an' all the earliest, in the =abbinic literature ( esp. #. Eu. , ;( on 1<:/0 4. ,7.
1(:3<
.
an' Pesi*t. , 1G1bJ1G&a.
%
Cf. also #ib. , 3, (%&J;<1, where, although the na"es 5og
an' 4agog 'o not occur, we ha!e the se8uence: 4essianic *ing'o", attac* of the nations on it,
Airg. Ael. De (irginibus (elandis .
(3 )he 1rabic tra'ition of the canones of the apostles "entions wo"en rea'ers (buasten, op. cit. , 1&<.
(. Lscharnac*, /3. 1ppeal to the seKbaptis" of )hecla allowe' by Paul (1ct. Pl. et )hecl., .< f. was a wea*
argu"ent.
9 6y y6y . Co"". on =e!. &<:G f. 0 also 1. #chlatter, Das A< in der 7oh. Apk. (1/1&, /3ff.0 IoussetK
5ress". , &<% ff.
1 )he 'estruction by fire is ta*en fro" ,>. 3G:&& 0 3/:( .
& Hur present concern is si"ply with the literary 'epen'ence of the 'i!ine on the prophetic #cripture. $ence we
are not pursuing the !arious 8uestions which arise in relation to ,>. (the origin of the na"es, their reference to
specific princes or peoples etc., nor the later, postK2ohannine 'e!elop"ent of the saga, which 'isplaye' a certain
in'epen'ence of =e!. &< . Hn the first point, cf. the art. of $. 5un*el in =55
&
, II, 13<3 an' the bibl. there
gi!en0 on the secon', cf. the art. of +. Pfister in the /and;3rt. d. dtsch. Aberglaubens , III, /1< ff. with
references to liter.0 also 4. 2. 'e 5oe3e, De muur van )og en Magog (1GGG0 1. =. 1n'erson, Alexander%s )ate,
)og and Magog, and the inclosed ations (VV Monographs of the Medieval Academy of America , FII p1/3&q,
with full bibl. 0 cf. also ,. Ditt"ann in -DL , %. (1/33, 1&;( ff.
3 )he intro'uction of resurrection an' 3u'g"ent at this point co"es fro" another sche"a which the 'i!ine has
here co"bine' with that of ,>. an' which is gi!en in a pure for" in #yr. Iar an' . ,sr.: 4essianic *ing'o",
resurrection, last 3u'g"ent, new creation.
their 'estruction by 5o'. Hn the other han' there coul' ob!iously be no place for the ,>. tra'ition
where the 4essianic perio' was regar'e' as the perio' of the absolute consu""ation of sal!ation,
as in )est. FII an' ,noch.
(
+or the sa"e reason it is not foun' in the 1pc. Iar. or . ,sr., though
these 'istinguish between the 4essianic perio' an' the future worl'
;
an' thus allow space for the
interposition of the war of 5og an' 4agog. Hn the other han', if the 4essianic perio' was seen in
this light, in spite of the ,>. tra'ition the 5og an' 4agog episo'e "ight well be put before the
ti"e of the 4essiah, as in so"e =abbinic writings.
G
Cf. ,noch %(:.JG, where there is reference to
an attac* of the Parthians an' 4e'es prior to the 4essianic *ing'o", though 5og an' 4agog are
not "entione'.
/

It is stri*ing that in the apocalyptic an' pseu'epigraphical literature, apart fro" the fruitless
references in #ib. , 3, 31/ ff. an' 3, %1& ff., there is no "ention whatsoe!er of 5og an' 4agog.
1<

#e!eral in'i!i'ual the"es are ta*en fro" ,>e*iel 3G f.
11
(as in #ib. , 3, (%& ff. an' ,noch
%(:.ff., but the prophecy of ,>e*iel as such, which is so closely lin*e' with the na"es of 5og
an' 4agog, is not incorporate' into the sche"a. Hn the other han', a"ong the =abbis the war of
5og an' 4agog, on the basis of ,>. 3G f. , is a constituent part of apocalyptic thin*ing.
1&
In this
respect, therefore, the 2ohannine 1pocalypse, which rests on the prophetic sayings of the H) ,
stan's "uch closer to the "ore scriptural apocalyptic of the =abbis than to the apocryphal an'
pseu'epigraphical writings.
13

)here is one characteristic 'ifference between =e!. &<:G f. an' ,>. 3G f. +or all the
fantastic 'epiction, ,>. is offering real prophecy. $e is referring to future historical e!ents. In
=e!. &<:G f. , howe!er, the whole conception is "ythical. Prophecy has beco"e apocalyptic.
)hus ,>e*iel gi!es precise na"es to the princes, peoples an' *ing'o"s which "a*e this
attac* on the people of 5o'0 he "a*es a "ore or less clear geographical an' political
i'entification. ,!en when he 'escribes the 'estruction of the in!a'ers in the lan' of Israel he
"entions the place an' gi!es a 'etaile' account. In =e!. &<:G f. , howe!er, the ar"ies co"e
fro" the four corners of the earth y ( infra
$an' in han' with this there is an altere' un'erstan'ing of the na"es. In ,>e*iel 5og is
the prince who lea's the in!a'ers an' 4agog the territorial na"e. ,lsewhere in the H) 5og is
a personal na"e ( 1 Ch. %:.
1.
an' 4agog that of the people or of the lan' in which he
'wells ( 5n. 1<:& 0 1 Ch. 1:% . In =e!. &<:G f. , howe!er, the two !ery si"ilar
1%
na"es are
brought together as a "ythical 'ouble na"e for the hostile host, an' this na"e still has a
sinister ring for the recepti!e rea'er.
. $ere we ha!e the correct se8uence of the three 3u'g"ents: woes of the 4essianic perio', the 'ay of 5og an'
4agog, the great 'ay of 3u'g"ent. In the par. 4. ,7. 1(:&% the se8uence is wrong.
% Cf. 1. #chlatter, Das A< in der Apk. , /3 f.0 further refs. in #tr.KI. , III, G33 f. un'er '. In soKcalle' 3 ,noch,
which belongs to the =abbinic literature, we ha!e in ] .%, % (e'. H'eberg, the se8uence: 4essiah ben 2osef,
4essiah ben -a!i', 5og an' 4agog (with the rather inconsistent a''ition ?in the 'ays of the 4essiah@, their
'estruction by 5o' (not by the 4essiah, whose 'ay is alrea'y past.
( Cf. #tr.KI. , IA, G<& ff.
; ,bid. , G<G ff.
G ,bld. , III, G3& f. un'er a. an' b.
/ Cf. Iss. 1p*. , ..<, n. 1.
1< )he passages 2ub. ;:1/0 G:&%0 /:G are not rele!ant, since they ha!e nothing to 'o with ,>. 3G f. 0 they are
base' on 5n. 1<:& .
11 )hese are "ostly lin*e' with the !ery 'ifferent "otif, which 'eri!es fro" other sources, of the war of the
4essiah against the nations an' $is !ictory o!er the".
1& Cf. also the =abbinic 3 ,noch ( n. % .
13 Cf. #chlatter, op. cit. ( n. % .
1. In the te7tual !ariants in Eu. &.:; (DFF, #a"arit. etc. i[kiOTU instea' of 4as. iisc Tj it is har' to say whether
5og is a personal or territorial na"e. In any case, this passage (?the *ing'o" of the 4essiah will be higher than
5og@ is the ol'est instance of the incorporation of the prophecy of ,>. into the sche"a of later 2ewish
eschatology.
1% )here are "any instances of the for"ation of li*eKsoun'ing wor's of no particular significance by the
a''ition of the prefi7 "aK0 cf. the ?hocus, pocus, "alocus@ of chil'ren. pI owe this to $. 1. 6in*ler.q
)he 'i!ine 'i' not create this for" of the na"e. It was co""on to the whole of later 2u'ais".
)he =abbis ha!e it in this for",
1(
an' cf. also #ib. , 3, 31/ an' 3, %1&. #ince the na"e in this
for" reflects the "ythicising of the whole conception, the latter, too, is a feature which the
1pocalypse has in co""on with all later 2u'ais".
0uhn
, ,, #-
.
?Corner@ ( 4t. (:% 0 1c. &(:&( , hence of the four corners of the earth ( =e!. ;:1 0 &<:G .
)he two passages fro" =e!. throw light on the cos"ology of the author. In oriental an' H)
cos"ology
1
the earth
&
is thought to ha!e four corners. )o these correspon' the four win's
( =e!. ;:1 ,
3
which are here controlle' by four angels ( ;:1 . +ro" the four corners blow the
win's of 'estruction o!er the go'less worl' ( ;:1 . +ro" the" co"e also the antiKChristian
nations ( =e!. &<:G to attac* the holy city, which stan's on a "ountain in the centre of the
earth ( &<:/ .
.

,
*
( q ym .
)he ?final stone@ in a buil'ing, probably set o!er the gate. In the E) the wor' is foun'
only in 1 Pt. &:( (VV Is. &G:1( an' ,ph. &:&< , in both cases with reference to Christ.
)he "eaning "ay be gathere' fro" )est. #ol. &&:; (4cCown, ((9:
. q ym y, l
q ym 6m (VV l y
, &&:G VV l q q ym g q
, &3:&0 &3:3 ((/9 f. l ( sic m m (
sic c l q l .
1
)hese sentences 'epict
the conclusion of the buil'ing of #olo"on`s te"ple. Confir"ation is foun' in 4 B. 25:17 ,
where ym is use' for N}P NP {Ok (the hea' of a pillar. 1gain, the $esi ta 'escribes the
stone of Is. &G:1( as the ?hea' of the wall@ an' Aphraha (I, (f., p. 1;, Parisot calls it the final
stone. )he DFF of Is. &G:1( : y6 m l 26
c ym c l i'entifies
ym with the foun'ation stone, but this usage is not foun' e7cept in DFF Is. &G:1(
an' 8uotations fro" it.
,ph. &:&< , li*e 1 Pt. & :l, 'escribes the co""unity as a spiritual te"ple. )he apostles an'
prophets are the foun'ation, an' Christ is the cornerKstone who bin's the whole buil'ing
together
&
an' co"pletes it ( ,ph. &:&< f. . :n'erlying the i"age is the lofty 'eclaration of
2esus that $e is the final stone in the hea!enly sanctuary ( q ym .
1( $ere, howe!er, 5og is "ore co""on alone, though as a national rather than a personal na"e, cf. #tr.KI. , III,
G3&.
1 1. 2ere"ias, /andbuch der altorientalischen )eisteskultur
&
(1/&/, 1.& ff.
& )he four en's of the earth: 2er. ./:3( (VV DFF &%:1(0 P. Don'. , 1&&, G: ||

ym
. )he four parts of the un'erworl': ,th. ,n. &&0 spurious 2oh. 1pc. &%:&:
.
3 2er. ./:3( 0 ,>. 3;:/ 0 Lech. (:% 0 -a. ;:& 0 4*. 13:&; an' par.
. 2oach. 2ere"ias, )olgotha (1/&(, .3 ff.0 %1 ff.
9 ym . 2oach. 2ere"ias, ? -er ,c*stein ,@ Angelos , 1 (1/&%, (%ff.0 )olgotha (1/&(, ;;ff.: ?
q ym d ym ,@ LE6 , &/ (1/3<, &(. ff.
1 $s. ,. ;:( (1139: l q 6 .
& )he ter" y ( ,ph. &:&1 occurs elsewhere in the E) only at ,ph. .:1( , where it is use'
of Christ as the $ea' by which the whole bo'y is integrate' (cf. Col. &:1/ . ,ph. .:1( confir"s the fact that the
integration is fro" abo!e, so that the ym of &:&< is to be sought high up in the buil'ing.
#-
*
( ym .
)he $ebrais" q ym is pro'uce' by a literal ren'ering of M\OhOU QS c}k ( Ps. 11G:&&
. )he phrase occurs only in DFF 117:22 : l
l, y l q ym , an' the 'eri!e' literature. )he
sense of ?final stone in the buil'ing@ "ay be "ost clearly 'e'uce' fro" )est. #ol. &&:; ff. (
ym an' $esOtta Ps. 11G:&& (?hea' of the buil'ing@.
In the E) q ym ( 4*. 1&:1< an' par. 0 1c. .:11 0 1 Pt. &:; 0 all 8uoting DFF
117:22 is consistently use' of Christ. 1ccor'ing to 4*. 1&:1< an' par. 2esus 'escribe'
$i"self as the stone, re3ecte' by the buil'ers, which has been chosen by 5o' as the chief
cornerKstone in the hea!enly sanctuary. )he saying is one of the lofty 'eclarations of 2esus in
which $e relates $i"self to the hea!enly sanctuary.
1
$e is not "erely the final stone, i.e.,
the Consu""ator, but also the Iuil'er of the new te"ple ( 4*. 1.:%G an' par. 0 cf. 4t.
1(:1G . $ence $e can say of $i"self that $e stan's abo!e the earthly te"ple ( 4t. 1&:( .
&

6ith this 'escription we are to lin* !ery closely the lofty pre'icates which 'escribe 2esus as
the cos"ic roc* 'ispensing the water of life
3
( .
)he early co""unity foun' in Ps. 11G:&& scriptural e!i'ence for the 'eath an'
resurrection of 2esus. )he Crucifie' is the re3ecte' stone which in the resurrection is "a'e by
5o' the chief cornerKstone in the hea!enly sanctuary ( 1c. .:11 , to be "anifeste' as such in
the parousia .
1 Pt. &:; interprets Ps. 11G:&& in ter"s of the which 2esus is for unbelie!ers. In
other wor's, the q ym is not so "uch the final stone but a sharp stone at the corner
of the buil'ing against which "en stu"ble an' fall. )his interpretation is suggeste' by the
8uotation fro" Is. G:1. which i""e'iately follows ( 1 Pt. &:G .
#oachim #eremias
9 qym . +or bibl. ym .
1 2. 2ere"ias, #esus als -eltvollender (1/3<, ;/ ff.
& It is also significant that 2esus refers Ps.0 11< to $i"self ( 4*. 1&:3( an' par. , for here the Dor' of -a!i' is
calle' a ?priest after the or'er of 4elchi>e'e*.@
3 2. 2ere"ias, )olgotha (1/&(, G<JG%.