Ann. occup. Hyg., Vol. 47, No. 3, pp.

219–226, 2003
© 2003 British Occupational Hygiene Society
Published by Oxford University Press
DOI: 10.1093/annhyg/meg024

Exposure Assessment to α- and β-Pinene, ∆3-Carene

and Wood Dust in Industrial Production of Wood
Pellets
K. EDMAN1*, H. LÖFSTEDT1, P. BERG1, K. ERIKSSON2, S. AXELSSON1,
I. BRYNGELSSON1 and C. FEDELI1,3

1Department of Occupational and Environmental Medicine, Örebro University Hospital, SE-701 85

Örebro, Sweden; 2Department of Occupational and Environmental Medicine, University Hospital of
Umeå, SE-901 85 Umeå, Sweden; 3Department of Business Administration, Computer Science,
Economics and Statistics, Örebro University, SE-701 82 Örebro, Sweden

Received 15 July 2002; in final form 7 October 2002

The main aim of the study was to measure the exposure to monoterpenes (α- and β-pinene and
∆3-carene) and wood dust during industrial production of wood pellets and briquettes.
Additional aims were to compare the results from wood dust sampled on a filter with real time
measurements using a direct reading instrument and to identify peak exposures to dust.
Twenty-four men working at six companies involved in industrial production of wood pellets
and briquettes participated in the study. Monoterpenes were measured by diffusive sampling
and wood dust was measured as total dust. A data logger (DataRAM) was used for continuous
monitoring of dust concentration for 18 of the participants. The sampling time was ∼8 h. The
personal exposure to monoterpenes ranged from 0.64 to 28 mg/m3 and a statistically significant
(Kruskal–Wallis test, P = 0.0002) difference in levels of monoterpenes for workers at different
companies was seen. In the companies the personal exposure to wood dust varied between 0.16
and 19 mg/m3 and for 10 participants the levels exceeded the present Swedish occupational
exposure limit (OEL) of 2 mg/m3. The levels of wood dust during the morning shift were signifi-
cantly (Mann–Whitney test, P = 0.04) higher compared with the afternoon shift. Continuous
registration of dust concentration showed peak values for several working operations,
especially cleaning of truck engines with compressed air. For 24 workers in six companies
involved in industrial production of wood pellets the personal exposure to monoterpenes was
low and to wood dust high compared with the present Swedish OEL and previous studies in
Swedish wood industries. Since the DataRAM can identify critical working tasks with high
wood dust exposure a reduction in exposure levels could probably be achieved by changes in
working routines and by the use of protective equipment.

Keywords: DataRAM; monoterpenes; total dust; wood dust; wood pellets

INTRODUCTION produced in 2000. Wood pellets and briquettes are

The environmental and energy policy in Sweden
aims at replacing fossil energy with renewable
sources such as biofuels, of which wood pellets and
wood briquettes are examples. The production of
wood pellets in Sweden has increased by 50% during
the last 5 years and around 700000 tons were
*Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
E-mail: katja.edman@orebroll.se
produced from compressed wood shavings and
sawdust from pine (Pinus sylvestris) and spruce
(Picea abies). Pine and spruce contain monoterpenes,
with α-pinene, β-pinene and ∆3-carene as the main
constituents (Fengel and Wegener, 1983). These
substances are released not only during mechanical
treatment of the wood but also during storage of
sawdust and shavings.
Monoterpenes are irritating to the skin, eyes and
mucous membranes and can cause both non-allergic
and allergic contact dermatitis (Eriksson and Levin,

219
220 K. Edman et al.
1990; Falk-Filipsson, 1995). Monoterpenes can also
easily penetrate the different barriers of the body and
uptake of pinenes can occur through the lungs, the
gastrointestinal tract and intact skin (Cavender,
1994). The occupational exposure limit (OEL) in
Sweden is 150 mg/m3 for either individual mono-
terpenes or their sum (Arberskyddsstyrelsen, 2000).
Air levels between 10 and 550 mg/m3 have been
measured in previous studies in sawmills and joinery
shops in Sweden (Hedenstierna et al., 1983; Eriksson
and Levin, 1990; Eriksson et al., 1996, 1997). In a
study previously done in sawmills in Finland a
geometric mean (GM) between 2.0 and 138 mg/m3
was reported (Rosenberg et al., 2002). In Canada
Demers et al. (2000) have shown a GM for mono-
terpenes of 0.5 mg/m3 within a large lumber mill
handling pine, spruce and fir.
In addition to monoterpenes, the employees are
exposed to wood dust. Wood dust from pine and
spruce has been reported to cause irritation in the
eyes and upper airways at air levels between 0.1 and
6.3 mg/m3. There are also indications that wood dust
levels around 1 mg/m3 may cause reduced lung func-
tion (Eriksson and Liljelind, 2000). Moreover, expo-
sure to wood dust from these species can cause
eczema (Färm, 1997). Air levels between 0.1 and 7.3
mg/m3 have been measured in the Swedish wood-
work industry (Hedenstierna et al., 1983; Eriksson et
al., 1996, 1997; Eriksson and Liljelind, 2000). Many
measurements of wood dust from soft woods (pine
and spruce) have been performed in sawmills in
Finland, Germany, Denmark and Canada and in
carpentries in Finland, Denmark, Germany, the UK,
USA and Canada. The mean air levels in sawmills
were between 0.1 and 7.8 mg/m3 and in the carpen-
tries between 0.8 and 18 mg/m3 (IARC, 1995).
The present Swedish OEL for wood dust measured
as total dust is 2 mg/m3, but the Swedish Labour
Protectorate recommends an exposure <1 mg/m3
when new enterprises are established or old fac-
tories are rebuilt (Arberskyddsstyrelsen, 2000). The
American Conference of Governmental Industrial
Hygienists (ACGIH) recommended OEL for soft-
woods is 5 mg/m3 measured as inhalable dust, but
with a notice of intended change to 2 mg/m3 for ‘non-
allergenic and noncarcinogenic’ wood dusts and to
1 mg/m3 for ‘other respiratory allergic wood dusts’
(ACGIH, 2002). Inhalable dust is defined as the total
Fig. 1. Schematic of the production process for wood pellets.
amount of airborne particles that can be inhaled
through the mouth and nose (Eriksson and Liljelind,
2000; ACGIH, 2002). Total dust is defined as dust
measured on a filter in an open-faced cassette with a
diameter of 37 or 25 mm.
In general, exposure to wood dust is expressed as
the average air level during the sampling time. This
sampling technique gives limited information about
the variations of exposure over time. Instruments that
provide real time data are therefore useful to identify
emission sources and work tasks which may cause
high short-term exposures. As the production of
wood pellets and briquettes is increasing, it is import-
ant to study the occupational exposure in order to
prevent health effects in the future.
The main aim of this study was to measure the
exposure to monoterpenes (α- and β-pinene and ∆3-
carene) and wood dust during industrial production
of wood pellets and briquettes. Additional aims were
to compare the results from wood dust sampled on a
filter with real time measurements using a direct
reading instrument and to identify peak exposures to
dust.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Company data
Six companies located in central Sweden partici-
pated in the study. The companies were located near
our research group and were chosen on the basis of
location. They all produced wood pellets and two
of the companies also manufactured briquettes. The
production of wood pellets at each company ranged
from 12000 to 40000 tons/yr. In the production
process of wood pellets, sawdust is always dried
before grinding, while shavings can be ground at
once. After grinding, the material is pressed in the
presses at 100°C (Fig. 1). The wood pellets are then
transported through a cooling tower to bagging or
storage or for transportation via trucks. The produc-
tion of briquettes uses a simpler technique, where
sawdust and shavings are mechanically forced
together. The participants worked morning, afternoon
or day shifts on the day of measurement. However,
not all companies used a day shift (Table 1). All com-
panies had general ventilation and some companies
had local exhaust ventilation situated at specific
 Production of wood pellets
Table 1. Number of employees, participants and working shifts for personal measurements and test sites for the static
measurements at each company
Company Employees (n) Personal measurement
Participants (n) Working shifts (n)
Morning
1 9 7 2
2 4 2 1
3 2 2 1
4 5 5 2
5 13 6 2
6 6 2 1
Total 39 24 9 9
worksites, for example at bagging and briquette pro-
duction.
Study population
Thirty-nine workers were employed in the indus-
trial production of wood pellets in the six companies.
The 24 men who were present at work on the day of
measurement were asked to participate and all
accepted. Working operations for morning and after-
noon workers are, among others: loading of raw
material, monitoring from the control room, main-
tenance work, repairs, sweeping and cleaning of
truck engines with compressed air. Day shift workers
mainly drove trucks and worked on bagging. The
protective equipment was hearing protectors and
respirators. The respirators were seldom used during
the measurements.
Sampling strategy
In all companies measurements were made during
an afternoon shift (14.00–22.00) and during the
following morning shift (6.00–14.00). In three of the
six companies measurements were also carried out
during the day shift (7.00–16.00) on the same day as
the measurements for the morning shift. The
sampling time was ∼8 h.
Monoterpenes
Air sampling of monoterpenes was done by diffu-
sive sampling using a Perkin Elmer tube with Chro-
mosorb 106 (Markes International) as adsorbent
(Sunesson et al., 1999). The sampler was attached to
the lapel of the workers overalls, i.e. in the breathing
zone. Static samples were taken at three to five
different positions in each company (Table 1). The
samplers were positioned at strategic points where
high wood dust and/or monoterpene exposure was
expected and the participants worked, such as the
sawdust and shaving store, or where the workers
spent a lot of time, for example the control room.
221
Static
measurement
Test sites (n)
Afternoon Day
2 3 3
1 0 4
1 0 5
2 1 3
2 2 5
1 0 5
6 25
Analysis of monoterpenes
Desorption of monoterpenes was performed with
an automatic thermal desorber (Perkin Elmer 400)
connected to a gas chromatograph (GC) (Hewlett
Packard 6890) with a mass selective detector
(Hewlett Packard 5972). The samples were desorbed
at 200°C for 5 min at a desorption flow of 70 ml/min
helium (He) without an inlet split and collected on a
Tenax TA filled trap at –30°C. The analytes were
desorbed from the trap at 200°C for 10 min with an
outlet split flow of 50 ml/min. The column used was
a 50 m × 0.32 mm capillary with a film thickness of
1.05 µm of crosslinked methylsiloxane (HP-1). The
temperature of the GC was programmed as follows:
initial 50°C hold for 1 min, 5°C/min to 120°C,
35°C/min to 290°C and hold for 10 min. For identifi-
cation of the monoterpenes the mass selective
detector was run in the full scan mode (29–550
a.m.u.) after a solvent delay of 8 min. The monoter-
penes were identified against a NIST/EPA/NIH mass
spectral database (HP G1033A revision C.00.00
1992). The total ion chromatogram signal of the
monoterpenes was used for quantification. The
monoterpenes were quantified against calibration
graphs ranging from 50 ng to 2 µg/sample. The
calibration points were prepared by injection of 3 µl
of a standard solution of monoterpenes in methanol
onto a Tenax TA tube under a flow of 100 ml/min He
over 1 min and analysed in the same way as the field
samples. The limit of detection (LOD) was estimated
to be 7 ng and was calculated as 3 SD of the signal at
the lowest calibrated concentration. The coefficient
of variation was 5% at the 50 ng/sample level (n =
12). The highest concentration on the calibration
curve was 2 µg/sample for the different mono-
terpenes, but previous experience suggests that the
curve is linear at higher concentrations, therefore
extrapolation was done for higher concentrations
(K. Eriksson, University Hospital of Umeå).
222 K. Edman et al.
Wood dust
Pumped sampling of wood dust was done using
a 25 mm cellulose acetate filter placed in an open-
faced, antistatic cassette with an air flow of 2 l/min.
The filter cassette was placed in the breathing zone
by attaching it to the collar of the workers shirt or
overalls. The filters were conditioned for 48 h at 20 ±
1°C and at a relative humidity of 50 ± 3% before and
after the sampling. The filters were gravimetrically
determined using a scale with a lowest detection level
of 0.001 mg. Static sampling was performed at the
same sample sites as for the monoterpenes.
Real time data for wood dust
Continuous monitoring of dust concentration was
done using a personal data logging, real time aerosol
monitor (DataRAM; MIE, Bedford USA) in parallel
with collecting wood dust on a filter for 18 of the
participants. The DataRAM is a photometric monitor
and measures particles with a diameter between 0.1
and 10 µm in the range 0.001–400 mg/m3. The
DataRAM relies on the diffusion of ambient air into a
sensing chamber and the optimal sensitivity is,
according to the manufacturer, for the respirable frac-
tion of dust (<5 µm). The DataRAM was calibrated
against SAE Fine (ISO Fine; Powder Technology), a
test dust, by the manufacturer. The DataRAM was
placed on the belt of the worker and the intake of air
was from below. Registration of the dust concentra-
tions was done every 20 s and stored in a data logger
in the instrument and then transferred to a PC. A peak
was defined as successive registrations over a
threshold value of 0.4 mg/m3. During the DataRAM
measurements the participants were asked to keep a
work diary and to register time as well as duration of
different working tasks.
Statistical analysis
The descriptive measures calculated for concentra-
tions of wood dust and monoterpenes are the GM and
arithmetic mean (AM), along with the range. For
analysis of correlations between wood dust and
Table 2. The personal exposure to monoterpenes (sum of α- pinene, β-pinene and ∆3-carene) and wood dust at the six companies
Company Participants (n) Total monoterpenes (mg/m3)
GM AM Range
1 7 1.8 1.6
2 2 9.4 9.4
3 2a 17 17 15–19
4 5 14 19
5 6 5.0 5.2
6 2 2.4 2.7
Total 24 5.0 8.2
AM, arithmetic mean; GM, geometric mean.
aOne wood dust measurement was excluded.
monoterpenes, as well as between wood dust on
filters and wood dust analysed with a DataRAM, the
Spearman correlation was used. Differences in
personal exposure between companies were tested
with the Kruskal–Wallis non-parametric test with a
Monte Carlo estimate of the exact P-value, since the
number of observations was low and the distribution
of the variable was skewed. For the same reason, the
differences in exposure between morning and after-
noon shifts were analysed with the Mann–Whitney
test with an exact P-value. Measurements under the
LOD were recorded as LOD/√2 (Hornung and Reed,
1990). If at least half of the values in one group were
under the detection limit there was no calculation
done for GM and AM.
RESULTS
Air concentration of monoterpenes
In total, 24 exposure measurements of mono-
terpenes were performed and the GM of the personal
exposure to monoterpenes for each of the six com-
panies varied from 1.8 to 17 mg/m3 (Table 2). All the
full-shift measurements ranged from 0.64 to 28 mg/m3.
High levels of monoterpenes were noticed at com-
pany number 4 compared with the other companies
and a statistically significant (P = 0.0002) difference
in monoterpene levels for workers at different com-
panies was seen. No significant (P = 0.99) difference
in levels of monoterpenes was seen between workers
on the morning shift compared with the afternoon
shift. The air levels obtained by static sampling
ranged from <0.84 to 74 mg/m3 (Table 3). Low levels
of monoterpenes were measured at the grinder (GM
1.2 mg/m3) and high levels in the sawdust and
shaving store (GM 12 mg/m3).
Wood dust on filter
For all companies the personal exposure to wood
dust varied between 0.16 and 19 mg/m3, with a GM
for each company between 0.63 and 19 mg/m3 (Table
2). One of the measurements (3.7 mg/m3) was under-
Wood dust (mg/m3)
GM AM Range
0.64–2.9 0.63 0.92 0.16–3.2
8.8–10 2.0 3.7 0.41–6.8
19 19
1.7–28 2.7 3.6 1.0–7.4
2.6–6.6 1.4 3.5 0.20–9.8
1.2–3.8 4.2 4.3 3.7–4.8
0.64–28 1.7 3.5 0.16–19
 Production of wood pellets 223

Table 3. Levels of monoterpenes (sum of α- and β-pinene and ∆3-carene) and of wood dust at static measurements at the nine test
sites
Test site Measurements Company no. Total monoterpenes (mg/m3) Wood dust (mg/m3)
(n)
GM AM Range GM AM Range
Control room 12 1–6 1.5 2.1 <0.85–4.4 a a <0.10–0.18
Shaving/sawdust storage 8 4–6 12 15 4.9–36 7.3 13 1.6–34
Dryer 2 5 5.9 5.9 5.1–6.7 1.2 1.4 0.72–2.1
Grinder 2 6 1.2 1.5 0.60–2.4 0.71 0.72 0.64–0.78
Press 12 1–6 7.5 21 <0.84–74 0.32 0.65 <0.10–2.2
Wood pellets storage 10b 2c, 3, 5, 6 2.5 7.6 <0.84–34 1.4 2.2 0.46–9.9
Briquette machine 1 3 42 42 0.49 0.49
Bagging 2 1 1.9 1.9 1.4–3.9 a a <0.12–0.64
Total 49 4.0 11 <0.84–74 0.56 2.9 <0.10–34

AM, arithmetic mean; GM, geometric mean.

aHalfor more of the measurements were under the detection limit.
bNine monoterpene measurements were done.
cMeasurements were done at two static sites.

Fig. 2. Air levels of wood dust at the six companies for the morning, afternoon and day shifts (n = 23).

estimated since the filter was overloaded and there-
fore it was excluded from all statistical analyses,
tables and figures. For 10 of the participants the wood
dust exposure exceeded the present Swedish OEL of
2 mg/m3 (Fig. 2). No statistically significant (P =
0.11) difference in levels of wood dust was seen
between the different companies. However, higher
levels were often measured during the morning shift
compared with the afternoon shift and this difference
was statistically significant (P = 0.04). The correl-
ation between exposure to wood dust and mono-
terpenes was moderate (r = 0.44). For static
sampling of wood dust the air levels ranged from
<0.10 to 34 mg/m3 (Table 3). Low levels were meas-
ured in the control room (<0.10–0.18 mg/m3) and
high levels in the sawdust and shaving store (GM
7.3 mg/m3).
Measurements with the DataRAM
Measurements of dust with a DataRAM showed
large variations in peak exposures between workers,
within as well as between companies. The number of
peaks (>0.4 mg/m3) recorded for each worker varied
between 4 and 49 over an 8 h working day. Peak
224 K. Edman et al.

Fig. 3. Measurements with the DataRAM. The line marks the OEL of 2 mg/m3.

values were observed at several working operations,

for example management of machines, bagging of
product, loading of raw material, sweeping and
cleaning of truck engines with compressed air (Fig.
3).
A high correlation (r = 0.89) was seen between the
parallel measurements of wood dust on a filter and
dust with a DataRAM. Levels measured with the
DataRAM were systematically lower than the levels
measured on the filter. At high levels of wood dust on
the filter (> 2 mg/m3) the DataRAM measurements
were in general 1/10 of the measurements of wood
dust on the filter (Fig. 4). However, at lower levels of
wood dust (<2 mg/m3) the levels measured with the
DataRAM varied from 0.008 to 0.8 of the levels of
wood dust on the filter.
Fig. 4. The ratio of the levels of wood dust measured with the
DataRAM and on a filter versus levels of wood dust measured
DISCUSSION on a filter (n = 17).

The personal exposures to monoterpenes were rela-

tively low while the levels of wood dust were high
compared with the present OEL and previous studies
in the Swedish woodwork industry (Hedenstierna et
al., 1983; Eriksson and Levin, 1990; Eriksson et al.,
1996, 1997; Eriksson and Liljelind, 2000). The
differences in levels of monoterpenes compared with
sawmills and joinery shops can probably be
explained by differences in the production processes.
In sawmills and joinery shops wood is split, which
leads to breaking of cells and a higher release of
monoterpenes. No splitting is done in the production
of pellets and the mechanical impact on the wood is
less. Compared with the other test sites, high levels
of monoterpenes were measured at the briquette
machine (42 mg/m3) in one of the companies. The
production of wood briquettes is a more mechanical
process and the impact on the wood is higher. The
higher levels of wood dust might be due to the
handling of shavings and sawdust in the production
of wood pellets, which does not occur to the same
extent in other woodwork industries.
Since the upper respiratory system is the target site
for wood dust, measurements of inhalable dust would
 Production of wood pellets
have been preferable. This was not done since the
OEL for wood dust in Sweden refers to total dust. In
comparisons between total dust and inhalable dust it
has been shown that the level of inhalable dust is on
average 2–4 times higher than total dust (Davies et
al., 1999; Lidén et al., 2000).
The difference in monoterpene concentrations
between the companies could be due to the fact that
the release of monoterpenes depends on how dry and
new the raw material is (Eriksson et al., 1997). This
can probably explain the higher exposure to mono-
terpenes that was noticed at company number 4. In
this company the raw material was transported via
on-line pipes from a nearby planing mill into the
production area. This difference could also depend on
differences in proportions of pine and spruce in the
raw material, since pine releases more monoterpenes
than spruce, which, for example, has been seen during
sawing of pine and spruce (Welling et al., 2001;
Rosenberg et al., 2002). However, the companies did
not report any differences in the proportions of pine
and spruce in their production and the supplier did
not have exact information of the composition.
Different species of pine and spruce in the raw
material could probably also explain the low levels
that were measured in a Canadian study compared
with Swedish studies (Demers et al., 2000).
The personal wood dust measurements showed
considerable variation within and between workers.
This could probably be explained by differences in
working tasks and/or differences in working routines,
which might also explain the higher level of wood
dust that was noticed during the morning shift
compared with the afternoon shift. From the working
diary no systematic differences were seen between
working tasks for the morning and afternoon shifts.
No association between working tasks and levels of
wood dust exposure could be noticed either. Differ-
ences in working tasks for morning and afternoon
workers in different companies were noticed: at
companies numbers 1 and 4 monitoring from the
control room dominated (34–71% of the working
day), while in the other companies maintenance work
and repairs (39–60%) and driving of trucks (44–76%)
were the most common working tasks.
A high correlation between the levels of dust meas-
ured with a DataRAM and wood dust measured on a
filter was seen, but the levels measured with the
DataRAM were systematically lower than measure-
ments on the filter. Wood dust on the filter is a total
dust measurement while the DataRAM mainly meas-
ures the respirable fraction, which could explain the
difference between the two methods. In a study
comparing levels measured with a DataRAM with
respirable dust on the filter, a regression slope of ~1
was seen (Thorpe and Walsh, 2002). Since measure-
ments of dust with the DataRAM showed lower
225
levels than wood dust on a filter, the DataRAM
values cannot be compared with the OEL.
However, the DataRAM is a good instrument for
showing changes in exposure over time and can
therefore identify critical working tasks. Cleaning of
truck engines with compressed air is a very critical
working task with respect to wood dust exposure.
Since high exposure to wood dust can be linked to
specific working operations, a reduction in exposure
levels could probably be achieved by changes in
working routines and by use of protective equipment.
Other exposures in the production of wood pellets
could be oxidized monoterpenes. Monoterpenes are
easily oxidized by oxygen and ozone (Calogirou et
al., 1999; Falk-Filipsson, 1995), with the main oxida-
tion products being pinon aldehyde, pina ketone and
3-caron aldehyde, from α-pinene, β-pinene and ∆3-
carene, respectively. Pinon aldehyde and 3-caron
aldehyde are both more reactive than the original
monoterpene, while pina ketone is more stable
(Calogirou et al., 1999). The health effects are
supposed to be similar to the effects of the original
monoterpenes.
A known problem in storage of sawdust is allergic
alveolitis, which is due to mould in damp sawdust.
No problems with mould have been reported by the
companies. Since the turnover is very rapid and the
sawdust used is quite dry, mould should not be a
problem. Another potential exposure is engine exhaust
from the trucks used. In studies on storage of wood
pellets, hexanal, acetone, carbon monoxide and meth-
anol have been identified. The level of hexanal was
28 mg/m3 and measurements of hexanal are of
interest since aldehydes in general are irritating to the
eyes, skin and airways (Svedberg and Galle, 2001).
Hydroperoxides of monoterpenes, especially ∆3-
carene, are known to be allergic agents. However, no
report on the occurrence of monoterpene hydro-
peroxides in the air in wood industries has, to our
knowledge, been published. The resin in pine and
spruce contains other derivatives of terpenes, namely
resin acids. The major components are abietic and
dehydroabietic acid, which are readily oxidized by
air. The acids and especially the oxidized forms are
suspected to cause contact allergy, occupational
asthma and urticaria (Färm, 1997). Abietic acid, at a
level between <0.05 and 370 µg/m3, has been identi-
fied in sawmills and lumber mills handling pine and
spruce (Demers et al., 2000; Teschke et al., 1999).
Future studies within this kind of industry should
focus on these substances.
CONCLUSION
For 24 workers involved in the industrial production
of wood pellets, personal exposure to monoterpenes
was low and to wood dust high, compared with the
present Swedish OEL and previous studies in
226 K. Edman et al.
Swedish woodwork industries. Since the DataRAM
can identify critical working tasks with high wood
dust exposures, a reduction in exposure levels could
probably be achieved by changes in working routines
and by the use of protective equipment.
Acknowledgments—Financial grants from the Department of
Occupational and Environmental Medicine, Örebro University
Hospital, Örebro, Sweden, and the Swedish Energy Agency,
Eskilstuna, Sweden, are gratefully acknowledged. We would
also like to thank Lennart Andersson, Krister Berg, Britt-Marie
Isaksson, Birgitta Linder and Håkan Westberg for their help in
the field, laboratory and with the article. Last, but not least, we
would like to thank all the companies for participating in the
study.
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