Fundamentals - of - Radiation Detection PDF

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Fundamentals
1.0 Define:
Radioactivity - That property of certain materials
spontaneously emit penetrating ionizing radiation.
Radiation Interaction - Radiation loses kinetic en
undergoes a change in direction or is absorbed.
Radioactive Decay - The process whereby an ato
more stable by emitting particulate or electromagn
Particulate Radiation - Radiation that has mass.
Neutron, Beta, Alpha)
Mass - The quantity of matter in an object measur
resistance to a change in its motion.
Ionization - The process by which radiation impar
excitation energy to the electrons of atoms in the
substance to remove one or more electrons from
producing free electrons & ions.
Ion Pair - The positively charged atom and free el
resulting from an ionization event.
Ion - A positively charged atom (one from which a
electron has been removed).
Free Electron - An electron existing outside the o
atom.
Excitation - The process by which radiation impar
or all of its energy to the target atoms, causing the
to exist in some higher energy state.
Atomic Excitation - Raising of an atom to an exc
Nuclear Excitation - Raising of a nucleus to an ex
Target - An item or material upon which a radiatio
Direct Ionizing Radiation - A radiation that carrie
charge and exerts electrical forces upon the elect
substance.
Indirect Ionizing Radiation - A radiation that doe
electrical charge.
Kinetic Energy - Energy due to motion.
Negatron - Negatively charged beta particle.
Positron - Positively charged beta particle.
Electromagnetic Radiation - Traveling wave mot
from changing electric or magnetic fields.
Gamma - High energy, short wavelength, electrom
radiation emitted from the nucleus.
X-ray - Penetrating electromagnetic radiation havi
wavelength that is shorter than that of visible light,
an excited electron.
Prompt Neutron - A neutron emitted less than 1 E
after fission.
Delayed Neutron - A neutron emitted at least 1 E-
after fission.
Fission - The splitting of an atomic nucleus into tw
sometimes, more) lighter fragments, accompanied
release of a large amount of energy.
fission Fragments - The two (or more) lighter nuc
by the fission process. Generally unstable due to
neutron-to-proton ratio. Also called fission product
Fissile Material - Material in which fission can be
absorption of a thermal neutron. (U-235)
Mass Defect - A measure of the loss of mass in a
nucleus. The difference between the sum of the m
atomic components (W) and the measured mass o
(M). Mass Defect =W-M
Binding Energy - The energy released to assemb
The energy equivalent of the Mass Defect. B.E. =
(931 MeV/u)
Critical Energy - The energy required to induce fi
nucleus.
Standard Nuclide Notation - A =Neutrons
=Protons N =Neutrons
2.0 List the ionizing radiations of concern
nuclear power plant and for each radiatio
Page 1of 12 Fundamentals
3/18/2013 http://www.nukeworker.com/study/hp/fundamentals/fundamentals_of_radiation_physics.htm
3.0 Perform mass to energy and energy to
equivalent calculations.
E = mc
2
: E =total energy (joules) / m =mass (kilo
3.0 E+08 m/sec (speed of light)
Example: m
e
=9.1093897 x 10-31 kg&1 MeV =1.
1) Determine the mass equivalent to 1.02 MeV.
Convert from MeV to J oules: (1.02MeV)(1.60E-13J
13J
E =mc
2
(divide both sides by c
2
) m =E/c
2

m =(1.632E-13J ) / (3.0E8 m/sec)
m =1.81E-30 kg
4.0 Describe the " water drop" model of th
process, including incident and emitted ra
and the decay process that occur.
1) A neutron interacts with a fissile material.
2) A thermal neutron is absorbed by the nucleus.
3) The nucleus becomes distorted and begins to s
4) The fission fragments are separate, only residua
remains, yet due to nuclear forces they are deform
5) Nucleons will reshape themselves; Coulombic f
between the two. The nucleons are in a higher ene
will decay.
6) Prompt neutrons and g are released as the nuc
to a lower energy state.
7) They will begin to emit only gammas (prompt) to
more stable.
8) They will undergo |- decay. (And associated d
9) Followed with Delayed Neutrons. (And associat
decays)
10) They reach stability.
5.0 Define:
Curie - The unit of radioactivity. 1 Ci =3.7E10 dps
dpm
Disintegration - A radioactive decay event.
Isotopes - Same #of protons, different #of neutro
(Horizontal to element on chart)
Stable Nuclide - A nuclide which has not been ob
undergo spontaneous radioactive
decay or whose half-life is very long (~5 x 10
8
yea
by gray shading on the chart.
Decay Constant - A statistical expression of the #
unit time in a large sample.
=.693 / T is expressed in reverse time units

Alpha
Radiation
Beta
Radiation
Neutron
Radiation
Classify it as
particulate or
electromagnetic.
Particulate Particulate Particulate
Classify it as
directly or
indirectly
ionizing.
Directly
Ionizing
Directly
Ionizing
Indirectly
Ionizing
Identify its
relative mass.
4 times
mass of
proton
Equal in
mass to an
electron
Slightly >
than a proton
Identify its
charge.
+2 Charge
-1 Charge
(Negatron)
+1 Charge
(Positron)
Zero Charge
Identify its
origin.
Unstable
Nucleus
Unstable
Nucleus
Fissioning
Nucleus
and unstable
nucleus
Identify its
relative range in
tissue-equivalent
materials.
Lowest Low High
Classify it as an
internal or
external hazard.
Internal
Internal
External to
skin &
eyes
External
Identify typical
shielding
materials.
Paper
Other light
materials
Plastics,
cloth,
cardboard
(low-Z
materials)
Water,
Polyethylene,
borated poly,
concrete
h
-1
...)

Half-life - The amount of time required for a samp
of its original activity.
Parent Nuclide - The original nucleus which unde
process.
Decaying Nucleus - The original nucleus which u
decay process.
Decay Product - The nucleus which results from a
decay process.
Daughter Product - The nucleus which results fro
decay process.
Decay Daughter - The nucleus which results from
decay process.
Resulting Nucleus - The nucleus which results fro
decay process.
Isotones - Same #of neutrons, different mass num
columns to element on chart)
Isobars - Nuclides with same mass #, but differen
along 45
0
diagonal to element)

Isomers - 2 or more nuclides that have the same a
mass #, but whose nuclei are at different levels of
Metastable State - A state of nuclear excitation w
half-life.
6.0 List two characteristics that identify a
1) The #of protons in the nucleus and 2) the #of n
nucleus.
7.0 Discuss the " Curve of Stability" includ
significance of the curve and the range th
the neutron-to-proton ratios that the curv
encompasses.
Unstable radionuclides undergo decay processes
nucleus to get closer to the line of stability. Starts w
ratio and finishes with ~1.6 -to1 neutron to proton
8.0 Identify stable and unstable nuclides o
of the Nuclides.
Gray shading in the elements block denotes that is
colored shading indicates unstable.
9.0 Identify a nuclides half-life, including t
from the Chart of the Nuclides.
The half-life is stated directly under the elements s
on the Chart.
Time Units: ms - microseconds, ms - milliseconds,
m - minutes, h - hours, d - days, a - years.
10.0 Perform radioactive decay calculatio
including:
Decay constant, atoms remaining and activity rem
given amount of time.

Decay Constant - = .693/T
# of atoms - N=N
o
e-
11.0 Identify nuclides' ground states and
states.
On the Chart of Nuclides, metastable states are in
division of the nuclide block into 2 or more areas. G
always appear below and to the right of other isom
12.0 Identify and describe each type of ra
decay including the following:
1. net effect on the nucleus
2. radiations absorbed or emitted
3. whether emissions are discreet or spectral in na
4. factors affecting the probability of the decay pro
5. examples of nuclides that undergo the process

Beta minus decay (|-):
1. A neutron is changed into a proton, the Z increa
remains constant.
2. | radiations emit a continuous distribution of ene
E
max
w/ Eave being 1/3 of E
max
.
3. | decay emissions are spectral in nature.
4. Radionuclides with Z <82 decay by beta decay
5. Sr90 and Cs137

Beta plus decay (|+):
1. A proton is changed into a neutron; Z decreases
remains constant.
2. | radiations emit a continuous distribution of ene
E
max
w/ Eave being 1/3 of E
max
.
3. | decay emissions are spectral in nature.
4. Radionuclides with Z <82 decay by beta decay
5. O14 and Na22

Alpha decay (o):
1. Z decreases by 2, A decreases by 4 (n decreas
2. The a particle is highly ionizing w/ a short range
between 4-8 MeV)
3. Alpha decay is a discrete emission.
4. Radionuclides with Z >82 decay by alpha. (It is
predominant mode)
5. Rn222 and Pu240

Gamma Emission ():
1. Atomic Number and Mass Number remain cons
2. rays emitted from nucleus
3. rays are discrete
4. Independent of Z
5. Co60 and Cs137

Isomeric Transition (IT):
1. Atomic Number and Mass Number remain cons
2. rays emitted from nucleus
3. IT rays are discrete
5. Co60m and Tc99m

Electron Capture (e):
1. An orbital electron is changed into a neutron, Z
one, A remains constant.
5. La133 and Ba133

Internal Conversion (e-)
1. Nuclear excitation is transferred directly to an or
which is ejected from the atom.
Excitation energy in excess needed to eject the ele
as kinetic energy to the electron.
5. Xe131 and Cs123
13.0 Define the term " Attenuation" as it ap
radiation physics.
The processes by which energy is transferred from
target as the radiation passes through the target.
14.0 Define the term " Cerenkov Radiation
explain why this type of radiation is or is
concern to the Radiation Safety technicia
Electromagnetic radiation emitted as a charged pa
through a medium at a velocity greater than the sp
the same medium.
15.0 Discuss charged particle interactions
the mechanism by which charged particle
cause excitation, ionization and bremsstr
atoms of the absorber, the factors affectin
their probability of occurrence and the typ
secondary radiations which may be emitt
these interactions. State the difference be
bremsstrahlung and internal bremsstrahl
Excitation: A beta particle passes close to an atom
orbital electron to raise to a higher energy level du
Coulombic forces.
Ionization: A beta particle collides with an orbital e
kicking it out of its orbit, creating an ion pair (the -p
charged atom and the free electron)
Bremsstrahlung: A beta particle passes close to
due to Coulombic forces it changes direction, the |
energy which is conserved with an x-ray.
Factors affecting probability: Z number and |en
Secondary radiations: and x-rays.
Difference between bremsstrahlung and intern
bremsstrahlung: Internal is caused with an orbita
versus a beta particle ( free electron) is associated
bremsstrahlung.
16.0 Define:
Ionization Potential - The amount of energy requ
the least tightly bound electron in an atom of that e
Electron Binding Energy - The difference betwee
expended in the ionizing collision and the total ene
ionizing particle in the collision.
Average Energy Expended per Ion Pair (W valu
Energy +Ionization Potential.
Stopping Power - Energy Lost (eV) / Path length
Specific Ionization - Stopping Power (eV/cm) / W
pair)
Linear Energy Transfer (LET) - Average energy d
absorber (keV/micron)
Range - The average depth of penetration of a cha
into an absorber before it loses all its kinetic energ
Path length - The total distance traveled by the ra
through all interactions.
17.0 Discuss the photon interactions. Dis
three major types of interactions, which m
Include the mechanism of interaction for
process, the factors affecting the probabi
occurrence and the secondary radiations
be emitted.
Photoelectric Effect: A photon collides with an or
expending all its energy in freeing the electron.
Compton Effect: A photon collides with an orbital
part of its energy to free the electron, and proceed
reduced energy.
Pair Production: A photon passes close to an ato
converts its energy into mass. Requires a photon w
of at least 1.022 MeV for production. The photon c
positron and electron of 0.511 MeV, which will coll
anti-particle and create an annihilation photon of 1
18.0 Define the term " Mean Free Path" as
neutron and photon radiation.
The average distance a non-charged particle trave
interactions in a specific target material.
19.0 Define:
Total Linear Attenuation coefficient (): The sum
probabilities for Photoelectric effect, Compton effe
production interactions to occur.
Mass Attenuation coefficient (/density): The #
which interact per unit of mass.
Total Linear Energy absorption coefficient (
en
of energy removed from the radiation beam (there
deposited in the absorber) per unit of distance)
Mass absorption coefficient (
en
) / p): The fracti
removed from a photon beam (and therefore depo
density of absorber.
20.0 Define:
Cross-section: The probability that a neutron will
specific interaction.
21.0 Define:
Fast Neutron: Neutrons having a kinetic energy o
MeV
Slow Neutron: Neutrons having a kinetic energy o
MeV
Thermal Neutron: Neutrons having a kinetic ener
eV (average of 0.025 eV)
22.0 Define:
Moderation: The reduction of fast neutron energie
thermal energy values.
Inelastic Scattering: The collision process in whic
the kinetic energy of the incident neutron and targe
not conserved.
Elastic Scattering: The collision process in which
kinetic energy of the incident neutron and target nu
conserved.
23.0 Discuss neutron interactions. Discus
types of neutron interactions that can occ
three different neutron energies. Include t
mechanisms which can cause each intera
factors affecting the probability of each in
taking place and the types of radiations w
emitted immediately or some time later fo
these process.
Inelastic Scattering: A fast neutron is absorbed b
nucleus, but having too much energy a neutron of
energy will be ejected from the compound nucleus
emission to reduce excitation levels.
Elastic Scattering: A fast neutron will collide with
same relative mass, and will break the atoms ionic
creating a cation and an anion.
Radiative Capture: A slow neutron will be absorb
nucleus, the nucleus will emit a prompt "Capture G
reduce excitation, and some time later it will emit a
gammas for further Reduction in excitation energy
fission (Resonance Absorption): A thermal neut
absorbed by a heavy fissile nucleus, which will und
in the "water drop model" emitting neutrons, proton
radioactive fission fragments and rays.
24.0 Identify the major neutron interaction
production of radionuclides in the reactor
Include target nuclide in the identification
The major neutron interaction for the production of
in the core is the fission of U235.
235
U (q,f)
235
U +
1
q
236
U
-
X +Y +(X)
1
q

25.0 List the three principle chemical grou
fission products and the major radionucli
concern in each group (include the half-li
radionuclide.
1) Halogens - major nuclide: Iodine-131 T =8 d
2) Noble Gases - major nuclide: Krypton-85 T =
3) Mixed Metals - major nuclide: Cesium-137 T
26.0 State the effects of fuel burn-up on th
of short-lived and long-lived fission
product radionuclides in the reactor coola
Short-lived fission products will reach equilibrium a
Long-lived fission products will continually increase
production.
27.0 List the three fission product radionu
the longest half-lives that are commonly p
the reactor coolant (include the half-life o
radionuclide).
1) Cesium-137 30.17 years
2) Strontium-90 29.1 years
3) Krypton-85 10.73 years
28.0 Identify the mode of production and
the activation product radionuclides typic
in the reactor coolant.
Activated Corrosion Products (CRUD): 50Cr (q,) 5
p) 58Co/59Co (q, ) 60Co
Activated Waterborne Products (Additives): 10B (q
(qf, a) 3H
Activated Waterborne Products (Impurities): 40Ar
41Ar/23Na (q, ) 24Na
Activated Waterborne Products (Water Componen
16N/2H (q, ) 3H
29.0 Identify the major long-lived radionu
commonly present in the reactor coolant
corrosion product (include the half-life of
radionuclide).
Cobalt-60, 1.332 and 1.173 MeV 's, 5.27 years T
30.0 List the two general areas within the
coolant system where corrosion products
accumulate.
1) Low flow areas - dead legs, pipe bend, etc.
2) Crevice areas - valves, pumps, tube sheets, etc
31.0 Discuss the production of Nitrogen-1
target element, half-life, decay radiation, e
resultant radionuclide, residence during o
shutdown).
Nitrogen-16 production:16O +1q 16N +1p
Nitrogen-16 decay: 16N 16O +|- +6.14 MeV
Target element: Oxygen-16/Half-Life: 7.13 second
Only present in containment, Letdown Hx Room.
32.0 Discuss the production of tritium (inc
element, half-life, decay radiation, energy
radionuclide, residence during operation
shutdown).
10B (q
f
, 2o) 3H/6Li (q
f
, o) 3H/Ternary fission -fissi
resulting in 3 fission fragments.
Half-life: 12.3 years/Decays by emitting a 18.6 keV
Long-lived radionuclide will continue to increase ov
33.0 Identify the main barrier containing t
products within the fuel elements.
Fuel Cladding
34.0 State the three ways that fission prod
the reactor coolant.
Diffusion - The gradual mixing of the molecules d
motion and the diffusion of the noble
gases & 3H.
Cladding Failures/Defects - Assumed that 1% of
have minor defects.
" Tramp" uranium - Uranium impurities in the fuel
reach the reactor coolant following fission.
35.0 Define 'crud burst' and state when it
Crud burst - A resuspension and redistribution of a
corrosion products within the RCS.
They are caused by plant transients - Heat-ups, re
controlled bursts and chemistry changes.
36.0 Identify the most significant group of
originating in the RCS in terms of limiting
the environmental exposure.
The Iodine Isotopes
37.0 Identify the intended collection and
holding/storage points for radioactive liqu
gases after release from the reactor but p
release from the plant.
Liquid - (RCDT, RCW R&M Tanks, MW M&R Tank
(Degasifier, Surge & Decay Tanks)
38.0 Describe how high activity fission an
product gases are removed from the wast
to release to the environment. (Include me
to reduce activity to acceptable levels).
They are decayed for ~60 days in the Waste Gas
39.0 Describe the methods used to remov
and activation products from liquid waste
release to the environment. (Include meth
reduce activity to acceptable levels).
Natural decay of short-lived isotopes, ion exchang
evaporation.
40.0 Discuss the dominant radionuclides
radioactive waste system. (Include the di f
measure radionuclides)
Dominant:
Cs-137 makes up ~41%
Cs-134 makes up 32%
Co-58 makes up 10%
Co-60 makes up 2%

Hard-to-Measure:
Ni-63 makes up 8% --Beta
Fe-55 makes up 2.5% --Beta
Pu-241 makes up 02% -- Alpha
Pu-238 makes up 0006% --Alpha
Cm-244 makes up .0006% -- Alpha
41.0 Define:
Absolute Efficiency (4 pi) assumes that all radi
from the source in ALL directions interacts in the d
produces a pulse. The #of pulses observed (coun
by the true #of radiation particle emitted.
Geometry Refers to the position of the detector
the source of radiation as well as distance from the
the source.
Instrument Saturation Condition that occurs wh
ionizations produced in the detector by incident ra
interactions prevents detector voltage from buildin
level required to produce another pulse.
Detector Saturation Is a desirable condition tha
all of the ion pairs are being collected at the detect
Energy Window The Upper and Lower (bands)
detection Use of discriminator.
Gas amplification/multiplication One single ioniza
produce secondary ions within the detector depe
applied voltage
Rate meter Pulses are counted per unit of time.
Scaler Accumulates total counts (NMC, Mini Sca
Scintillation Material that converts the kinetic en
deposited by incident radiation into detectable ligh
Semiconductor A material having electrical res
between that of a conductor and an insulator.
Fluorescence Prompt emission of light from a sc
material that occurs within 1E-8 seconds following
Phosphorescence Emission of long wavelength
scintillator material that occurs in greater than 1E-8
following excitation.
Gamma Spectroscopy The process of collectin
analyzing specific energies to determine the identi
radionuclide.
Scintillation Efficiency The fraction of all depos
radiation energy that is converted into detectable l
pulses counted divided by the true #of pulses)
42.0 Draw and label a simple schematic
representation of a gas-filled ionization d
Include anode, cathode, power supply, re
and counting circuitry.
43.0 Identify the function of the major com
a gas-filled ionization detector: Include an
cathode, power supply, resistance and co
circuitry.
Anode - Positively charged electrode that collects
Cathode - Negatively charged electrode that colle
ions.
Power Supply - provides the motive force to pull i
electrodes.
Resistor - Provides Load resistance between the
supply and the anode across which the signal volta
developed.
Counting Circuitry - Receives current or pulse sig
by radiation interactions within the detector and pr
readout in units of detection per unit time (rate me
counted (Scaler)
44.0 List 2 processes that compete for ion
within the sensitive volume of a gas-filled
- Recombination and Collection.
45.0 Draw and Label a simple representat
ionization current/pulse height versus det
voltage curve (the six-region curve) for an
detector the axes, each curve region, satu
threshold and voltage, and the Geiger-Mu
threshold.
A) Recombination
B) Ionization
C) Proportional
D) Limited Proportional
E) Geiger-Mueller
F) Continuous Discharge
G) Saturation Threshold
H) Saturation Voltage
I) Geiger-Mueller Threshold
46.0 Identify which
regions of the 6-region curve are useful fo
operation and those which are not.
Useful: Ionization Region, Proportional Region an
Mueller Region.
Not Useful: Recombination, Limited Proportional,
Continuous Discharge Region.
47.0 Define sensitivity as it is used in d
of radiation counting systems. Discussio
include three factors that affect the sensi t
radiation counting systems.
Sensitivity: The indicated exposure rate divided b
exposure rate.
Factors which effect sensitivity are:
1) Discriminator Setting
2) Detector Volume
3) Detector Voltage
4) System Time Constant
5) Background Radiation
6) Window Thickness
48.0 Discuss current mode of operation
Pulse mode of operation ; include the di
between pulse and current modes of oper
Current Mode: The detector is designed to record
current produced from multiply ionization events.
Pulse Mode: The detector is designed to count ea
event occurring in the detector. Pulse mode detect
greater sensitivity and provides more information a
interactions.
49.0 Describe the principle of operation o
discriminator circuit.
A discriminator is a portion of the circuitry used to
above a minimum energy level or with a certain en
(energy window).
50.0 Define and discuss dead time, recov
resolving time; include when resolving tim
are of greatest concern (in terms of count
the affect of discriminator setting on reso
Dead Time - the time period starting at ionization a
the time at which another pulse starts to be develo
Recovery Time - measured from the point at whic
is starting to the point at which detector voltage ha
restored to its original value.
Resolving Time - the time period starting at ioniza
lasting until detector voltage has built to a level at
pulse can be counted. (Resolving Time =Dead Tim
Time) When resolving time losses are of greatest
When counting high activity/count rates. The effec
discriminator: A low discriminator set point reduces
time.
51.0 Define and discuss pulse pile-up, inc
situation (in terms of count rate) where pi
greatest concern.
A condition that occurs when the time between pu
the same as or less than the resolving time of the
system. Greatest concern when counting high acti
52.0 Describe the mechanism by which in
operating in the Geiger Mueller region cre
pulses than would be created in an ioniza
instrument located in the same radiation f
The high voltage potential applied across a G-M d
cause a Townsend avalanche which would cause
avalanches until the entire anode is sheathed in el
causing one large pulse as opposed to a one ioniz
one electron pair collected ratio in the ionization re
53.0 Identify the regions of operation on t
height vs. voltage curve for each gas-fille
survey instrument used at Nuclear Plants
Ionization Region:RO-2, RO-2A, RO-20, RO-4, a
Proportional Region: NMC, PM-6, PCM-1B, Matp
Trash/Laundry Monitor, Rem Ball (Ludlum-12)
Geiger-Mueller Region: E-520, RM-14, And the T
(6112B & D)
54.0 Explain the need to generate a secon
particle in neutron detection; include neu
interactions and target materials.
Neutrons are uncharged; therefore, direct ionizatio
possible. Neutrons must undergo scatter or absorp
interactions with nuclei, these interactions will emit
particle, which will under go an interaction freeing
electron that can be detected (It produces a pulse)
interaction is in the Bonner Sphere (BF-3) A fast n
slowed or thermalized, by a hydrogenous material
absorbed by a Boron-10 atom within the sphere, w
a particle to reach stability,
leaving a Lithium-7 atom. The a will undergo ioniza
interactions, which can be detected.
55.0 Identify the purpose of a moderator a
in neutron detection.
A fast neutron is slowed or thermalized (through e
scattering), by a hydrogenous material surrounding
Sphere, to allow detection.
56.0 Identify the advantage given by the s
geometry of a Bonner Sphere.
The spherical shape provides a non-directional (or
directional) dose rate reading that is free of angle-
effects.
57.0 Describe the function of each of the f
components of a typical detection circuit
Detector: Converts energy deposited by radiation
Preamplifier: Magnifies the pulse (proportionately
pulse height).
Amplifier: Magnifies the pulse (proportionately inc
height).
Discriminator: Sorts the pulse according to energ
Pulse Height Analyzer: Separates and accumula
according to energy level.
Scaler: Provides a readout in total counts.
Rate meter: Provides a readout in counts per unit
58.0 Identify 1 disadvantage associated w
selection of a rate meter time constant th
short or long.
Too Short: The detector circuitry may loose the a
separate individual pulses and therefore may not c
pulses.
Too Long: More than one pulse may be counted b
circuitry as a single pulse and/or the meter may sh
response.
59.0 Describe the purpose of pulse height
analysis/gamma spectroscopy.
Used to determine the total number of pulses who
falls within selected energy band throughout a give
to identify the pulses within the energy bands for ra
identification.
60.0 Describe the conditions under which
background radiation has the largest effe
counting results.
The greatest effect is when the sample has low ac
background count rate is high. Also the greatest st
is introduced when the background count time is <
count time.
61.0 Identify three means of reducing bac
effects on counting system results.
1) Use shielding2) Increase background and samp
times3) Count sample closer to detector.
62.0 Identify and describe the functions o
the following components of a scintillatio
Light Reflector - Reflects
light back into the scintillator
and toward the
photocathode.
Optical coupler - Collects
and channels light from
reflector into the
photocathode.
Photocathode - Absorbs
light and emits
photoelectrons into photomultiplier tube.
Photomultiplier Tube - Increases the size of the
multiplying the amount of electrons from the photo
Scintillator - Converts energy deposited by incide
into detectable light.
63.0 List four desirable characteristics of
scintillator for radiation detection.
- The scintillator should convert incident radiation i
light with a good efficiency.
- The light yield should be proportional to the radia
deposited over a wide energy range.
- The scintillator should not self-absorb the light pr
- The emission time should be short so that fast sig
can be generated.
- The scintillator should be good optical quality and
manufacture.
- The optical characteristics should be near that of
permit efficient transmission of the scintillation ligh
photomultiplier tube.
- Only a small portion of the energy deposited is co
light. The amount not converted is dissipated as m
vibration and heat.
64.0 Identify at least one instrument avail
Nuclear Plants representing each of the fo
detector types:
Scintillation Detector: AC-3 (o contamination probe
SAC-4, m-R meter, SAM-9, & the WBC.
Semiconductor: Chemistry's lithium-drifted german
(GeLi).
65.0 Identify a major advantage of the sci
detector over a gas-filled detector. Descri
reasons.
1) Low resolving times - consequently higher activ
can be counted without dead time loss.
2) Efficiency for scintillation much higher due to Hi
density of the Fluorescence material.
66.0 Describe the principle of operation o
semiconductor detector.
a) Incident radiation causes ionization within the d
region.
b) When the electron is removed from orbit by ioni
leaves a "hole"
c) The electron-hole pairs are collected by the sem
applying a strong electrical potential across the p-
semiconductors, usually 1000 volts.
d) The collected charge passes through the circuit
and produces a voltage pulse according to ohm's l

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