Michigan 7 Week Seniors 2009 AFF K TOOLBOX 09 !

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Aff K Toolbox

$%or&an& !o&e' The 09 Michigan 7 Week Seniors (isk Assess$en& Toolbox is a )er* +sef+l s+%%le$en& &o &his file ,i& has $an* $ore car-s -efen-ing e$%iricis$. %re-ic&ions. o&her &r+&h clai$s/ aff k toolbox 09 index...............................................................................................................................................................1 **agamben**...........................................................................................................................................................................10 at agamben: alternative fails....................................................................................................................................................11 at agamben: link over simplified.............................................................................................................................................12 at agamben: nazis unique........................................................................................................................................................13 at agamben: bare life ..............................................................................................................................................................14 at agamben: t e !amp..............................................................................................................................................................1" at agamben: muselmann..........................................................................................................................................................1# at agamben: impa!t turns.........................................................................................................................................................1$ at agamben: totalitarianism impa!ts........................................................................................................................................1% at agamben: too totalizing.......................................................................................................................................................19 at agamben: unverifiable.........................................................................................................................................................20 at agamben: alternative fails....................................................................................................................................................21 at agamben: alternative fails....................................................................................................................................................22 at agamben: no impa!t.............................................................................................................................................................23 at agamben: at refugee alternative...........................................................................................................................................24 at agamben: at & atever being alt...........................................................................................................................................2" at agamben: rig ts good for refugees......................................................................................................................................2# **badiou**..............................................................................................................................................................................2$ at badiou: et i!s good..............................................................................................................................................................2% at badiou: politi!s fail..............................................................................................................................................................29 at badiou: politi!s fail..............................................................................................................................................................30 at badiou: politi!s fail..............................................................................................................................................................31 at badiou: permutation.............................................................................................................................................................32 at badiou: alternative un&orkable and !ommunist..................................................................................................................33 **bataille**.............................................................................................................................................................................34 at bataille: t eor' of expenditure bad......................................................................................................................................3" at bataille: no link to modern !apitalism.................................................................................................................................3# at bataille: no alt solven!'.......................................................................................................................................................3$ at bataille: fas!ist.....................................................................................................................................................................3% at bataille: fas!ist.....................................................................................................................................................................39 at bataille: fas!ist.....................................................................................................................................................................40 at bataille: energ' is finite.......................................................................................................................................................41 at bataille: expenditurn &it out reserve extin!tion............................................................................................................42 **baudrillard**.......................................................................................................................................................................43 at baudrillard: baudrillard ni ilism.....................................................................................................................................44 at baudrillard: baudrillard terrorism...................................................................................................................................4" at baudrillard: !onformism turn...............................................................................................................................................4# at baudrillard: alternative fails.................................................................................................................................................4$ at baudrillard: ma!ro(politi!s good.........................................................................................................................................4% at baudrillard: 'per(realit' nonsense.....................................................................................................................................49 at baudrillard: 'per(realit' nonsense....................................................................................................................................."0 at baudrillard: aut oritarian....................................................................................................................................................."1 **book! in)bioregionalism**................................................................................................................................................."2 at book! in: alternative fails..................................................................................................................................................."3 at book! in: alternative fails..................................................................................................................................................."4 at book! in: alternative fails..................................................................................................................................................."" at book! in: alternative fails..................................................................................................................................................."# at book! in: alternative aut oritarian......................................................................................................................................"$ at book! in: transition &ars turn............................................................................................................................................."% at book! in: permutation........................................................................................................................................................."9

Michigan 7 Week Seniors 2009

Aff K Toolbox

at book! in: t esis in!orre!t....................................................................................................................................................#0 at book! in: t esis in!orre!t....................................................................................................................................................#1 **borders**.............................................................................................................................................................................#2 at borders: no impa!t...............................................................................................................................................................#3 at borders: alt doesn*t solve.....................................................................................................................................................#4 at borders: perm solves............................................................................................................................................................#" at borders: inevitable...............................................................................................................................................................## at borders: inevitable...............................................................................................................................................................#$ at borders: prevents &ar..........................................................................................................................................................#% at borders: prevents ra!ism......................................................................................................................................................#9 at borders: prevents terrorism..................................................................................................................................................$0 at borders: afri!a......................................................................................................................................................................$1 at borders: afri!a......................................................................................................................................................................$2 **butler**................................................................................................................................................................................$3 at butler: perm.........................................................................................................................................................................$4 **!apitalism**.........................................................................................................................................................................$" at !apitalism: !ede t e politi!al...............................................................................................................................................$# at !apitalism: !ede t e politi!al...............................................................................................................................................$$ at !apitalism: !ede t e politi!al+ trainer spe!ifi!.....................................................................................................................$% at !apitalism: permutation.......................................................................................................................................................$9 at !apitalism: !ap inevitable....................................................................................................................................................%0 at !apitalism: !ap inevitable....................................................................................................................................................%1 at !apitalism: !an be liberator'................................................................................................................................................%2 at !apitalism: no spe!ifi! alt , failure.....................................................................................................................................%3 at !apitalism: no spe!ifi! alt , failure.....................................................................................................................................%4 at !apitalism: !ap sustainable..................................................................................................................................................%" at !apitalism: !ap sustainable..................................................................................................................................................%# at !apitalism: te! saves us......................................................................................................................................................%$ at !apitalism: !ap , pea!e........................................................................................................................................................%% at !apitalism: !ap , pea!e........................................................................................................................................................%9 at !apitalism: solves povert'...................................................................................................................................................90 at !apitalism: solves povert'...................................................................................................................................................91 at !apitalism: solves povert'...................................................................................................................................................92 at !apitalism: !ap solves terrorism..........................................................................................................................................93 at !apitalism: !ap ke' to spa!e................................................................................................................................................94 at !apitalism: gibson(gra am...................................................................................................................................................9" at !apitalism: gibson(gra am...................................................................................................................................................9# at !apitalism: reforms effe!tive...............................................................................................................................................9$ at !apitalism: e!on de!line risks extin!tion.............................................................................................................................9% at !apitalism: e!on de!line risks extin!tion.............................................................................................................................99 at !apitalism: alt kills millions...............................................................................................................................................100 at !apitalism: &orst governments in sitor'..........................................................................................................................101 at !apitalism: !ap solves environment...................................................................................................................................102 at !apitalism: !ap solves environment...................................................................................................................................103 at !apitalism: !ap solves environment...................................................................................................................................104 at !apitalism: !ap solves environment...................................................................................................................................10" at !apitalism: globalization good...........................................................................................................................................10# *!ede t e politi!al*................................................................................................................................................................10$ !ede t e politi!al....................................................................................................................................................................10% !ede t e politi!al-impa!t &ar..............................................................................................................................................109 !ede t e politi!al-impa!t kills alt solven!'.........................................................................................................................110 !ede t e politi!al-impa!t kills alt solven!'.........................................................................................................................111 !ede t e politi!al-impa!t kills alt solven!'.........................................................................................................................112 !ede t e politi!al-impa!t kills alt solven!'.........................................................................................................................113 !ede t e politi!al-imap!t demo!ra!'..................................................................................................................................114 !ede t e politi!al-imap!t demo!ra!' .................................................................................................................................11" !ede t e politi!al-impa!t environmnet................................................................................................................................11#

Michigan 7 Week Seniors 2009

Aff K Toolbox

!ede t e politi!al uniqueness 2a!..........................................................................................................................................11$ !ede t e politi!al uniqueness.................................................................................................................................................11% !ede t e politi!al uniqueness.................................................................................................................................................119 !ede t e politi!al uniqueness . e!onom'..............................................................................................................................120 !ede t e politi!al uniqueness . progressives no&.................................................................................................................121 !ede t e politi!al uniqueness . trends...................................................................................................................................122 !ede t e politi!al uniqueness . trends...................................................................................................................................123 !ede t e politi!al: at ! ristian rig t.......................................................................................................................................124 !ede t e politi!al: at performan!e.........................................................................................................................................12" !ede t e politi!al: at reforms fail...........................................................................................................................................12# **!oer!ion**.........................................................................................................................................................................12$ at !oer!ion: free markets , e!o(destru!tion..........................................................................................................................12% at !oer!ion: free markets , e!o(destru!tion..........................................................................................................................129 at !oer!ion: oil !ompanies evil..............................................................................................................................................130 at !oer!ion: libertarianism ni ilist.........................................................................................................................................131 at !oer!ion: market in!entives solve t e impa!t....................................................................................................................132 at !oer!ion: non(unique.........................................................................................................................................................133 at !oer!ion: !oer!ion /ustified...............................................................................................................................................134 at !oer!ion: extin!tion o)&....................................................................................................................................................13" at !oer!ion: at no value to life...............................................................................................................................................13# at !oer!ion: free markets , povert' ......................................................................................................................................13$ **!uomo)positive pea!e**....................................................................................................................................................13% at !uomo: negative pea!e ke' to positive pea!e....................................................................................................................139 **derrida)de!onstru!tion**...................................................................................................................................................140 de!onstru!tion bad ( demo!ra!'............................................................................................................................................141 de!onstru!tion bad . ra!ism..................................................................................................................................................142 de!onstru!tion bad . nazism.................................................................................................................................................143 de!onstru!tion bad . !ede t e politi!al.................................................................................................................................144 de!onstru!tion bad ( !ede t e politi!al..................................................................................................................................14" de!onstru!tion bad . feminism..............................................................................................................................................14# de!onstru!tion bad ( dogmatism............................................................................................................................................14$ at derrida: de!onstru!tion fails..............................................................................................................................................14% at derrida: alternative fails ....................................................................................................................................................149 at derrida: alternative fails . utopian.....................................................................................................................................1"0 at derrida: alterantive fails . no so!ial ! ange......................................................................................................................1"1 at derrida: elitism...................................................................................................................................................................1"2 at derrida: moral imperatives good........................................................................................................................................1"3 **dillon**..............................................................................................................................................................................1"4 at: dillon: !al!ulations good..................................................................................................................................................1"" **deep e!olog'**..................................................................................................................................................................1"# at deep e!olog'-population fas!ism....................................................................................................................................1"$ at deep e!olog'-!ede t e politi!al.......................................................................................................................................1"% **deleuze and guattari**.......................................................................................................................................................1"9 at deleuze and guattari: aut oritarianism turn.......................................................................................................................1#0 at deleuze and guattari: aut oritarianism turn.......................................................................................................................1#1 at deleuze and guattari: alt doesn*t assume te! nolog'........................................................................................................1#2 at deleuze and guattari: nomad alternative fails....................................................................................................................1#3 **e!o(feminism**.................................................................................................................................................................1#4 at e!o(feminsim: eliminates !apitalism.................................................................................................................................1#" at e!o(feminism: alternative fails..........................................................................................................................................1## **edelman**.........................................................................................................................................................................1#$ at edelman: alt doesn*t solve patriar! '................................................................................................................................1#% at edelman: alt fails................................................................................................................................................................1#9 at edelman: ignores ! anges in reprodu!tion........................................................................................................................1$0 at edelman: omosexual negativit' bad................................................................................................................................1$1 at edelman: queer t eor' bad ...............................................................................................................................................1$2 **environment ks)ant ro good**..........................................................................................................................................1$3

Michigan 7 Week Seniors 2009

Aff K Toolbox

at environment ks: !ede t e politi!al.....................................................................................................................................1$4 at environment ks: destro' !paitalism...................................................................................................................................1$" at environment ks: environmental pragmatism.....................................................................................................................1$# at environment ks: environmental pragmatism.....................................................................................................................1$$ at environment ks: environmental pragmatism.....................................................................................................................1$% at environment ks: environmental pragmatism.....................................................................................................................1$9 at environment ks: environmental pragmatism.....................................................................................................................1%0 at environment ks: environmental pragmatism.....................................................................................................................1%1 at environment ks: environmental pragmatism.....................................................................................................................1%2 at environment ks: ba!klas da.............................................................................................................................................1%3 at environment ks: permutation ............................................................................................................................................1%4 at environment ks: permutation ............................................................................................................................................1%" at environment ks: permutation ............................................................................................................................................1%# at environment ks: permutation ............................................................................................................................................1%$ at environment ks: permutation ............................................................................................................................................1%% at environment ks: permutation ............................................................................................................................................1%9 at environment ks: permutation-dis!ourse..........................................................................................................................190 at environment ks: 0ba!k to t e eart 1 bad-environment...................................................................................................191 at environment ks: at: role of ballot is intelle!tual................................................................................................................192 at environment ks: ant ropo!entrism good-solves environment........................................................................................193 at environment ks: ant ropo!entrism good-solves environment........................................................................................194 at environment ks: ant ropo!entrism good-solves environment........................................................................................19" at environment ks: ant ropo!entrism good-solves environment........................................................................................19# at environment ks: ant ropo!entrism good-extin!tion.......................................................................................................19$ at environment ks: ant ropo!entrism good-extin!tion.......................................................................................................19% at environment ks: animals don*t deserve rig ts...................................................................................................................199 **externalization**...............................................................................................................................................................200 at externalization: bobertz !on!ludes aff...............................................................................................................................201 at externalization: guilt inevitable.........................................................................................................................................202 at externalization: 2lt doesn*t solve .....................................................................................................................................203 at externalization: alternative fails-guilt bad......................................................................................................................204 **fear ks**............................................................................................................................................................................20" at fear of deat : mobilizes people)!ompassion......................................................................................................................20# at fear of deat : fear ke' to value to life................................................................................................................................20$ at fear of deat : ke' to survival ............................................................................................................................................20% at fear of deat : deteren!e good............................................................................................................................................209 at fear of nukes: fear ke' to pea!e and survival....................................................................................................................210 at fear of nukes: pea!e and survival......................................................................................................................................211 at fear of nukes: ke' to prevent extin!tion............................................................................................................................212 at fear of nukes: realism inevitable........................................................................................................................................213 at fear of nukes: plan solves impa!t......................................................................................................................................214 **fou!ault**..........................................................................................................................................................................21" at fou!ault: no impa!t............................................................................................................................................................21# at fou!ault: no impa!t............................................................................................................................................................21$ at fou!ault: no impa!t............................................................................................................................................................21% at fou!ault: no impa!t 3massa!res4........................................................................................................................................219 at fou!ault: nazis unique........................................................................................................................................................220 at fou!ault: biopo&er good....................................................................................................................................................221 at fou!ault: resistan!e solves impa!t.....................................................................................................................................222 at fou!ault: resistan!e solves impa!t.....................................................................................................................................223 at fou!ault: aff pre(req to alt .................................................................................................................................................224 at fou!ault: !ede t e politi!al.................................................................................................................................................22" at fou!ault: geneaolog'.........................................................................................................................................................22# **gender 56**.......................................................................................................................................................................22$ at gender ir: no alt..................................................................................................................................................................22% at gender ir: no link...............................................................................................................................................................229 at gender ir: perm..................................................................................................................................................................230

Michigan 7 Week Seniors 2009

Aff K Toolbox

at gender ir: 3rd &orld feminism...........................................................................................................................................231 **global lo!al**....................................................................................................................................................................232 at global lo!al: perm..............................................................................................................................................................233 at global lo!al: perm to delu!a..............................................................................................................................................234 at global lo!al: empire turn....................................................................................................................................................23" at global lo!al: !apitalism turn..............................................................................................................................................23# at global lo!al: moralit' turn.................................................................................................................................................23$ at global lo!al: global good ..................................................................................................................................................23% at global lo!al: global good ..................................................................................................................................................239 at global lo!al: !edes t e politi!al ........................................................................................................................................240 at global lo!al: !edes t e politi!al ........................................................................................................................................241 at global lo!al: !edes t e politi!al ........................................................................................................................................242 ** ardt and negri)empire**...................................................................................................................................................243 at ardt)negri: alternative terrorism..................................................................................................................................244 at ardt)negri: alternative terrorism..................................................................................................................................24" at ardt)negri: alternative /ustifies olo!aust.........................................................................................................................24# at ardt)negri: globalization good..........................................................................................................................................24$ at ardt)negri: !apitalism good .............................................................................................................................................24% at ardt)negri: no qualified data.............................................................................................................................................249 at ardt)negri: multitude fails................................................................................................................................................2"0 at ardt)negri: nation(state strong..........................................................................................................................................2"1 at ardt)negri: nation(state strong..........................................................................................................................................2"2 at ardt)negri: at biopo&er impa!t.........................................................................................................................................2"3 at ardt)negri: alt fails............................................................................................................................................................2"4 at ardt)negri: urts movements............................................................................................................................................2"" ** eidegger**.......................................................................................................................................................................2"# at eidegger: nazi...................................................................................................................................................................2"$ at eidegger: nazi...................................................................................................................................................................2"% at eidegger: nazi...................................................................................................................................................................2"9 at eidegger: umanism ke' to stop nazism..........................................................................................................................2#0 at eidegger: et i!s too vague...............................................................................................................................................2#1 at eidegger: un!on!ealment bad..........................................................................................................................................2#2 at eidegger: paral'sis...........................................................................................................................................................2#3 at eidegger: aut oritarian.....................................................................................................................................................2#4 at eidegger: no value to life.................................................................................................................................................2#" at eidegger: no trut , nazism.............................................................................................................................................2## at eidegger: paral'sis...........................................................................................................................................................2#$ at eidegger: !al!ulations good.............................................................................................................................................2#% at eidegger: permutation......................................................................................................................................................2#9 at eidegger: being meaningless............................................................................................................................................2$0 **identit' politi!s**..............................................................................................................................................................2$1 identit' politi!s !edes t e politi!al........................................................................................................................................2$2 identit' politi!s !edes t e politi!al........................................................................................................................................2$3 identit' politi!s !edes t e politi!al........................................................................................................................................2$4 **imperialism)!olonialism**................................................................................................................................................2$" at imperialism: us not an empire...........................................................................................................................................2$# at imperialism: us not an empire...........................................................................................................................................2$$ at imperialism: terrorism must be !onfronted.......................................................................................................................2$% imperialism good...................................................................................................................................................................2$9 imperialism good...................................................................................................................................................................2%0 imperialism good...................................................................................................................................................................2%1 **la!an)zizek**.....................................................................................................................................................................2%2 at la!an)zizek: zizek aut oritarian.........................................................................................................................................2%3 at la!an)zizek: zizek aut oritarian.........................................................................................................................................2%4 at la!an)zizek: zizek , violen!e.............................................................................................................................................2%" at la!an)zizek: zizek , violen!e.............................................................................................................................................2%# at la!an)zizek: zizek , violen!e.............................................................................................................................................2%$

Michigan 7 Week Seniors 2009

Aff K Toolbox

at la!an)zizek: does not appl' to aff......................................................................................................................................2%% at la!an)zizek: alternative fails..............................................................................................................................................2%9 at la!an)zizek: alternative fails..............................................................................................................................................290 at la!an)zizek: alternative fails..............................................................................................................................................291 at la!an)zizek: alternative fails..............................................................................................................................................292 at la!an)zizek: alternative fails..............................................................................................................................................293 at la!an)zizek: alternative fails..............................................................................................................................................294 at la!an)zizek: alternative fails..............................................................................................................................................29" at la!an)zizek: alternative fails..............................................................................................................................................29# at la!an)zizek: alternative fails..............................................................................................................................................29$ at la!an)zizek: alternative fails..............................................................................................................................................29% at la!an)zizek: revolution fails...............................................................................................................................................299 at la!an)zizek: revolution fails...............................................................................................................................................300 at la!an)zizek: revolution fails...............................................................................................................................................301 at la!an)zizek: non(falsifiable................................................................................................................................................302 at la!an)zizek: non(falsifiable................................................................................................................................................303 at la!an)zizek: !onservative politi!s......................................................................................................................................304 at la!an)zizek: !onservative politi!s......................................................................................................................................30" at la!an)zizek: !onservative politi!s......................................................................................................................................30# at la!an)zizek: essentialism turn............................................................................................................................................30$ at la!an)zizek: essentialism turn............................................................................................................................................30% at la!an)zizek: 9)11 arguments bad.......................................................................................................................................309 at la!an)zizek: no !onne!tion alt and ballot...........................................................................................................................310 at la!an)zizek: metap ori! !ondensation perm......................................................................................................................311 at la!an)zizek: letter of t e la& perm.....................................................................................................................................312 **language)representations k**............................................................................................................................................313 at langauge k: !ede t e polit!al.............................................................................................................................................314 at language k: generi!............................................................................................................................................................31" at language k: generi!............................................................................................................................................................31# at language k: generi!-perm................................................................................................................................................31$ at language k: alt violent.......................................................................................................................................................31% at language k: language not violent.......................................................................................................................................319 at language k: !ensors ip bad................................................................................................................................................320 at language k: !ensors ip bad................................................................................................................................................321 at language k: !ensors ip bad................................................................................................................................................322 at language k: !ensors ip bad................................................................................................................................................323 at language k: !ensors ip bad................................................................................................................................................324 **nietzs! e**........................................................................................................................................................................32" at nietzs! e: at: no value to life.............................................................................................................................................32# at nietzs! e: !ede t e politi!al links .....................................................................................................................................32$ at nietzs! e: geno!ide disad..................................................................................................................................................32% at nietzs! e: geno!ide disad..................................................................................................................................................329 at nietzs! e: geno!ide disad..................................................................................................................................................330 at nietzs! e: geno!ide disad..................................................................................................................................................331 at nietzs! e: at: &e don*t advo!ate t e fas!ist part of neitzs! e...........................................................................................332 at nietzs! e: at: &e don*t advo!ate t e fas!ist part of nietzs! e...........................................................................................333 at nietzs! e: at: &e don*t advo!ate t e fas!ist part of nietzs! e...........................................................................................334 at nietzs! e: anti(semeti!.......................................................................................................................................................33" at nietzs! e: at: affirming differen!e alternative...................................................................................................................33# at nietzs! e: nietzs! e , ra!ist..............................................................................................................................................33$ at nietzs! e: at: nietzs! e*s k of reason.................................................................................................................................33% at nietzs! e: at: nietzs! e*s k of reason.................................................................................................................................339 **normativit')789)s! lag**.................................................................................................................................................340 at !ls: permutation.................................................................................................................................................................341 at !ls: permutation.................................................................................................................................................................342 at !ls: permutation.................................................................................................................................................................343 at !ls: permutation.................................................................................................................................................................344

Michigan 7 Week Seniors 2009

Aff K Toolbox

at !ls: alternative fails............................................................................................................................................................34" at !ls: alternative fails............................................................................................................................................................34# at !ls: alternative fails............................................................................................................................................................34$ at !ls: alternative fails............................................................................................................................................................34% at !ls: alternative totalitarian.................................................................................................................................................349 at !ls: at unger alternative......................................................................................................................................................3"0 at !ls: at gable alternative......................................................................................................................................................3"1 at !ls: at gable alternative......................................................................................................................................................3"2 at !ls: indetermina!' good.....................................................................................................................................................3"3 at !ls: indetermina!' overstated............................................................................................................................................3"4 at !ls: indetermina!' overstated............................................................................................................................................3"" at !ls: indetermina!' overstated............................................................................................................................................3"# at !ls: solven!' still possible.................................................................................................................................................3"$ at !ls: at: logo!entrism bad....................................................................................................................................................3"% at !ls: at reifi!ation links ......................................................................................................................................................3"9 at !ls: state not all po&erful...................................................................................................................................................3#0 at !ls: spe!ifi! solven!' out&eig s.......................................................................................................................................3#1 at !ls: la& is real....................................................................................................................................................................3#2 at normativit': normative t oug t good................................................................................................................................3#3 at normativit': alternative fails..............................................................................................................................................3#4 at normativit': paranoia turn.................................................................................................................................................3#" at normativit': s! lag &rong.................................................................................................................................................3## at normativit': alt fails..........................................................................................................................................................3#$ at normativit': alt fails..........................................................................................................................................................3#% at normativit': t eor' too totalizing......................................................................................................................................3#9 at normativit': t eor' too totalizing......................................................................................................................................3$0 at normativit': la& supports freedom....................................................................................................................................3$1 at normativit': la& is an exer!ise in moral /udgment...........................................................................................................3$2 at normativit': la& is an exer!ise in moral /udgment...........................................................................................................3$3 at s! lag: protest fuels t e la&..............................................................................................................................................3$4 **povert' k**........................................................................................................................................................................3$" at povert': permutation.........................................................................................................................................................3$# at povert': no link( stati! meaning........................................................................................................................................3$$ at povert': permutation.........................................................................................................................................................3$% at povert': at so!ial ex!lusion alt..........................................................................................................................................3$9 at povert': at so!ial ex!lusion alt..........................................................................................................................................3%0 at povert': at so!ial ex!lusion alt..........................................................................................................................................3%1 at povert': alt bad 3'apa4.......................................................................................................................................................3%2 at povert': alt bad 3'apa4.......................................................................................................................................................3%3 at povert': povert' line)definition good................................................................................................................................3%4 at povert': t esis &rong........................................................................................................................................................3%" at povert': alt bad..................................................................................................................................................................3%# **rig ts good**.....................................................................................................................................................................3%$ rig ts good.............................................................................................................................................................................3%% rig ts good.............................................................................................................................................................................3%9 rig ts good.............................................................................................................................................................................391 rig ts good.............................................................................................................................................................................392 rig ts good: ke' to stop ra!ism..............................................................................................................................................393 rig ts good: ke' to t e alternative.........................................................................................................................................394 rig ts good: ke' to t e alternative.........................................................................................................................................39" rig ts good: enfor!eable........................................................................................................................................................39# rig ts good: not monolit i!...................................................................................................................................................39$ rig ts good: not &estern........................................................................................................................................................39% rig ts good: ! e!k on statism................................................................................................................................................399 **said**.................................................................................................................................................................................400 at said: no alternative.............................................................................................................................................................401 **s!ien!e**...........................................................................................................................................................................402

Michigan 7 Week Seniors 2009

Aff K Toolbox

at !ritiques of s!ien!e............................................................................................................................................................403 ***spanos***........................................................................................................................................................................404 at spanos: !ede t e politi!al...................................................................................................................................................40" at spanos: no alternative........................................................................................................................................................40# at spanos: no trut disempo&ering........................................................................................................................................40$ at spanos: umanism good....................................................................................................................................................40% at spanos: vietnam good........................................................................................................................................................409 at spanos: vietnam good........................................................................................................................................................410 **speaking for ot ers**........................................................................................................................................................411 at speaking for ot ers: speaking for ot ers good...................................................................................................................412 at speaking for ot ers: speaking for ot ers good...................................................................................................................413 ***spe!ifi! solven!' out&eig s***......................................................................................................................................414 spe!ifi! solven!' out&eig s t e k link..................................................................................................................................41" *state good*...........................................................................................................................................................................41# state good: ke' to movements...............................................................................................................................................41$ state good: ! e!ks !apitalism................................................................................................................................................41% state good: anara! ' , extin!tion..........................................................................................................................................419 **terror k**...........................................................................................................................................................................420 at terror k: terrorism is a real t reat.......................................................................................................................................421 at terror k: &ar on terror good...............................................................................................................................................422 at terror k: uniqueness . eg solving terrorism.....................................................................................................................423 at terror k: violen!e good . solves terrorism.........................................................................................................................424 at terror k: violen!e good . solves terrorism.........................................................................................................................42" at terror k: violen!e good . solves terrorism.........................................................................................................................42# at terror k: violen!e good . solves terrorism.........................................................................................................................42$ at terror k: language ke' to &in &ot......................................................................................................................................42% **t reat !on good**..............................................................................................................................................................429 t reat !onstru!tion: pea!e......................................................................................................................................................430 t reat !onstru!tion: prevents es!alation................................................................................................................................431 t reat !onstru!tion: t reats real.............................................................................................................................................432 t reat !onstru!tion: reps irrelevant........................................................................................................................................433 **violen!e k**......................................................................................................................................................................434 at violen!e k: violen!e is inevitable......................................................................................................................................43" at violen!e k: violen!e good . solves terrorism+ iran : nort korea.....................................................................................43# at violen!e k: violen!e good . solves iran.............................................................................................................................43$ at violen!e k: violen!e good . solves iran.............................................................................................................................43% at violen!e k: a2: deterren!e solves iran................................................................................................................................439 at violen!e k: a2: iran strikes retaliation...........................................................................................................................440 at violen!e k: violen!e good . solves &ar.............................................................................................................................441 at violen!e k: violen!e good . prevents greater &ars later....................................................................................................442 at violen!e k: violen!e good . saves t e most lives..............................................................................................................443 at violen!e k: violen!e good . solves uman rig ts..............................................................................................................444 at violen!e k: non(violen!e !ould not solve t e olo!aust....................................................................................................44" at violen!e k: violen!e ke' to pea!e......................................................................................................................................44# **zupan!i!**.........................................................................................................................................................................44$ at zupan!i!: et i!al a!tion impossible...................................................................................................................................44% at zupan!i!: alternative destro's et i!s.................................................................................................................................449 at zupan!i!: misreads nietzs! e and fails..............................................................................................................................4"0 at zupan!i!: nietzs! e turns appl'.........................................................................................................................................4"1

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Michigan 7 Week Seniors 2009 AT A7AMB#!' ALT#(!AT 8# FA LS

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Aga$ben9s :co$ing co$$+ni&*; is &oo <eak &o be s+s&ainable/ 7or-on 02 32ndre&+ 8ee and ;uliet <olger <und =rofessor of >istor' at >arvard ?niversit'+ 06evie& 9tud': 6et inking 2rea 9tudies+ @n!e Aore+1 ;ournal @f ;apanese 9tudies+ Bol. 30+ Co. 2+ 2004+ pg. 424(42"4 @kada dra&s on Diorgio 2gamben to argue for 0singularities to form a !ommunit' &it out affirming an identit'.1 9u! a !ommunit' &ould be premised on a belief 0t at umans !o(belong &it out an' representable !ondition of belonging1 3p. 2004. E is is an ambitious but doomed quest. E e sort of !ommunit' ere envisioned is devoid of t e emotional atta! ments t at reinfor!e strong !ommunities in real life. E e sad part-and ere 5 agree &it @kada entirel'- is t at t ese emotions so easil' rest on feelings of ex!lusion or essentialist notions of identit'F t e sadder part is t at 5 don*t see o& t e !ommunit' e seeks !ould generate lo'alties suffi!ient to allo& its survival.

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Aga$ben9s bio%o<er is o)er>si$%lifie- an- %re)en&s +s fro$ confron&ing s%ecific %oli&ical circ+$s&ances/ 8irno 02 3=aolo+ = G and 5talian p ilosop er+ 0Deneral intelle!t+ exodus+ multitude+1 2r! ipelago Co. "4+ ;une 2002+ ttp:))&&&.generation(online.org)p)fpvirno2. tm4 2gamben is a t inker of great value but also+ in m' opinion+ a t inker &it no politi!al vo!ation. E en+ & en 2gamben speaks of t e biopoliti!al e as t e tenden!' to transform it into an ontologi!al !ategor' &it value alread' sin!e t e ar! ai! 6oman rig t. 2nd+ in t is+ in m' opinion+ e is ver' &rong( eaded. E e problem is+ 5 believe+ t at t e biopoliti!al is onl' an effe!t derived from t e !on!ept of labor(po&er. H en t ere is a !ommodit' t at is !alled labor(po&er it is alread' impli!itl' government over life. 2gamben sa's+ on t e ot er and+ t at labor(po&er is onl' one of t e aspe!ts of t e biopoliti!alF 5 sa' t e !ontrar': over all be!ause labor po&er is a paradoxi!al !ommodit'+ be!ause it is not a real !ommodit' like a book or a bottle of &ater+ but rat er is simpl' t e potential to produ!e. 2s soon as t is potential is transformed into a !ommodit'+ t en+ it is ne!essar' to govern t e living bod' t at maintains t is potential+ t at !ontains t is potential. Eoni 3Cegri4 and Ai! ael 3>ardt4+ on t e ot er and+ use biopoliti!s in a istori!all' determined sense+ basing it on <ou!ault+ but <ou!ault spoke in fe& pages of t e biopoliti!al ( in relation to t e birt of liberalism ( t at <ou!ault is not a suffi!ient base for founding a dis!ourse over t e biopoliti!al and m' appre ension+ m' fear+ is t at t e biopoliti!al !an be transformed into a &ord t at ides+ !overs problems instead of being an instrument for !onfronting t em. 2 fetis &ord+ an Iopen doorsI &ord+ a &ord &it an ex!lamation point+ a &ord t at !arries t e risk of blo!king !riti!al t oug t instead of elping it. E en+ m' fear is of fetis &ords in politi!s be!ause it seems like t e !ries of a ! ild t at is afraid of t e dark...+ t e ! ild t at sa's Imama+ mamaJI+ Ibiopoliti!s+ biopoliti!sJI. 5 donKt negate t at t ere !an be a serious !ontent in t e term+ o&ever 5 see t at t e use of t e term biopoliti!s sometimes is a !onsolator' use+ like t e !r' of a ! ild+ & en & at serves us are+ in all !ases+ instruments of &ork and not propaganda &ords.

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!o& all %oli&ics &+rn &o !aBis$,$o-ern %o<er s&r+c&+res are incre-ibl* -i)erse/ (abino< C (ose 01 3=aul+ =rofessor of 2nt ropolog' at ?7 Lerkele'+ Cikolas+ =rofessor of 9o!iolog' M t e 8ondon 9! ool of N!onomi!s+ 0E oug ts @n E e 7on!ept of Liopo&er Eoda'+1 Ge!ember 10+ 2003+ ttp:))&&&.lse.a!.uk)!olle!tions)so!iolog') pdf)6abino&and6ose(Liopo&erEoda'03.pdf+ a!!essed ;ul' 0$+ pg. %(94 E e interpretation of !ontemporar' biopoliti!s as t e politi!s of a state modeled on t e figure of t e sovereign suits t e t&entiet !entur' absolutisms of t e Cazis and 9talin. Lut &e need a more nuan!ed a!!ount of sovereign po&er to anal'ze !ontemporar' rationalities or te! nologies of politi!s. 9in!e t ese aut ors take t eir !on!ept and point of referen!e from <ou!ault+ it is &ort !ontrasting t eir postulate of a origin and benefi!iar' of biopo&er to <ou!aultOs remarks on sovereignt' as a form of po&er & ose diagram+ but not prin!iple+ is t e figure of t e sovereign ruler. 5ts ! ara!teristi! is indeed ultimatel' a mode of po&er & i! relies on t e rig t to take life. >o&ever+ &it t e ex!eption of !ertain Pparox'smal* moments+ t is is a mode of po&er & ose a!tivation !an onl' be sporadi! and non(!ontinuous. E e totalization of sovereign po&er as a mode of ordering dail' life &ould be too !ostl'+ and indeed t e ver' ex!esses of t e exer!ise of t is po&er seek to !ompensate for its sporadi! nature. 9overeignt'+ in t is sense+ is pre!isel' a diagram of a form of po&er not a des!ription of its implementation. 7ertainl' some forms of !olonial po&er soug t to operationalize it+ but in t e fa!e of its e!onomi! and governmental !osts+ !olonial state!raft &as largel' to take a different form. E e t&o megalomania! 9tate forms of t e t&entiet !entur' also soug t to a!tualize it+ as ave some ot ers in t eir &ake: 2lbania under >ox a+ Cort Qorea. Lut no istorian of pre(modern forms of !ontrol !ould fail to noti!e t e dependen!e of sovereign rule in its non(parox'smal form on a fine &eb of !ustomar' !onventions+ re!ipro!al obligations+ and t e like+ in a &ord+ a moral e!onom' & ose !omplexit' and s!ope far ex!eeds t e extravagan!e displa's of t e sovereign. 9overeign po&er is at one and t e same time an element in t is moral e!onom' and an attempt to master it. !o& all bio%oli&ics bring abo+& genoci-e,i& &ri)ialiBes !aBis$ &o sa* &ha& all enac&$en&s of &he s&a&e of exce%&ion are eD+i)alen&/ (abino< C (ose 01 3=aul+ =rofessor of 2nt ropolog' at ?7 Lerkele'+ Cikolas+ =rofessor of 9o!iolog' M t e 8ondon 9! ool of N!onomi!s+ 0E oug ts @n E e 7on!ept of Liopo&er Eoda'+1 Ge!ember 10+ 2003+ ttp:))&&&.lse.a!.uk)!olle!tions)so!iolog') pdf)6abino&and6ose(Liopo&erEoda'03.pdf+ pg. %(94 2gamben takes seriousl' 2dorno*s ! allenge 0 o& is it possible to t ink after 2us! &itzR1 Lut for t at ver' reason+ it is to trivialize 2us! &itz to appl' 9! mitt*s !on!ept of t e state of ex!eption and <ou!ault*s anal'sis of biopo&er to ever' instan!e & ere living beings enter t e s!ope of regulation+ !ontrol and government. E e po&er to !ommand under t reat of deat is exer!ised b' 9tates and t eir surrogates in multiple instan!es+ in mi!ro forms and in geopoliti!al relations. Lut t is is not to sa' t at t is form of po&er !ommands ba!ked up b' t e ultimate t reat of deat is t e guarantee or underpinning prin!iple of all forms of biopo&er in !ontemporar' liberal so!ieties. ?nlike 2gamben+ &e do not t ink t at : t e /urist t e do!tor+ t e s!ientist+ t e expert+ t e priest depend for t eir po&er over life upon an allian!e &it t e 9tate 3199%: 1224. Cor is it useful to use t is single diagram to anal'ze ever' !ontemporar' instan!e of t anato(politi!s from 6&anda to t e epidemi! of 25G9 deat s a!ross 2fri!a. 9urel' t e essen!e of !riti!al t oug t must be its !apa!it' to make distin!tions t at !an fa!ilitate /udgment and a!tion.

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The conce%& of bare life o)er>-e&er$ines &he %o<er of &he s&a&e,&heories &ha& e$%hasiBe resis&ance are $ore %o<erf+l/ Eesarino C !egri 02 37esare+ asso!iate professor of !ultural studies+ 2ntonio+ professor emeritus M t e 7ollSge 5nternational de = ilosop ie+ 05t*s a =o&erful 8ife: 2 7onversation on 7ontemporar' = ilosop '+1 7ultural 7ritique+ Bol. "$+ 9pring 2004+ pg. 1$2(1$34 5 believe Diorgio is &riting a sequel to Homo Sacer+ and 5 feel t at t is ne& &ork &ill be resolutive for is t oug t-in t e sense t at e &ill be for!ed in it to resolve and find a &a' out of t e ambiguit' t at as qualified is understanding of naked life so far. >e alread' attempted somet ing of t e sort in is re!ent book on 9aint =aul+ but 5 t ink t is attempt largel' failed: as usual+ t is book is extremel' learned and elegantF it remains+ o&ever+ some& at trapped &it in =auline exegesis+ rat er t an !onstituting a full(fledged attempt to re!onstru!t naked life as a potentialit' for exodus+ to ret ink naked life fundamentall' in terms of exodus. 5 believe t at t e !on!ept of naked life is not an impossible+ unfeasible one. 5 believe it is possible to pus t e image of po&er to t e point at & i! a defenseless uman being Tun povero CristoU is !rus ed+ to !on!eive of t at extreme point at & i! po&er tries to eliminate t at ultimate resistan!e t at is t e s eer attempt to keep oneself alive. <rom a logi!al standpoint+ it is possible to t ink all t is: t e naked bodies of t e people in t e !amps+ for example+ !an lead one pre!isel' in t is dire!tion. Lut t is is also t e point at & i! t is !on!ept turns into ideolog': to !on!eive of t e relation bet&een po&er and life in su! a &a' a!tuall' ends up bolstering and reinfor!ing ideolog'. 2gamben+ in effe!t+ is sa'ing t at su! is t e nature of po&er: in t e final instan!e+ po&er redu!es ea! and ever' uman being to su! a state of po&erlessness. Lut t is is absolutel' not trueJ @n t e !ontrar': t e istori!al pro!ess takes pla!e and is produ!ed t anks to a !ontinuous !onstitution and !onstru!tion+ & i! undoubtedl' !onfronts t e limit over and over again-but t is is an extraordinaril' ri! limit+ in & i! desires expand+ and in & i! life be!omes in!reasingl' fuller. @f !ourse it is possible to !on!eive of t e limit as absolute po&(erlessness+ espe!iall' & en it as been a!tuall' ena!ted and enfor!ed in su! a &a' so man' times. 2nd 'et+ isnKt su! a !on!eption of t e limit pre!isel' & at t e limit looks like from t e standpoint of !onstituted po&er as &ell as from t e standpoint of t ose & o ave alread' been totall' anni ilated b' su! a po&er-& i! is+ of !ourse+ one and t e same standpointR 5snKt t is t e stor' about po&er t at po&er itself &ould like us to believe in and reiterateR 5snKt it far more politi!all' useful to !on!eive of t is limit from t e standpoint of t ose & o are not 'et or not !ompletel' !rus ed b' po&er+ from t e standpoint of t ose still struggling to over!ome su! a limit+ from t e standpoint of t e pro!ess of !onstitution+ from t e standpoint of po&er TpotenzaUR

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S+gges&ing &ha& &he ca$% is e)er*<here is sill*,go)ern$en& %o<er $a* be ex%ansi)e b+& i& -oes no& al<a*s %ro-+ce cor%ses,!aBis$ <as +niD+e/ Le)i C (o&hberg 01 3Ceil+ =rofessor of Nnglis M Gre& ?niversit'+ Ai! ael+ =rofessor of Nnglis M t e ?niversit' of 9'dne'+ 02us! &itz and t e 6emnants of E eor': Eo&ards an Nt i!s of t e Lorderlands+1 311: 1)24+ 2003+ pg.30(314 2t t e same time+ 2gambenKs formulations strike us as problemati! and inadequate in several respe!ts. <irst+ b' restru!turing t e Izone of t e umanI to !onform to t e !ondition of t e Auselmann+ 2gamben removes t e figure of t e Auselmann from t e !ontext(t e !amps(in & i! e or s e is Iprodu!ed .I E e Auselmann be!omes an isolated figure floating+ like a Dia!ometti s!ulpture+ in an ot er&ise apparentl' empt' abstra!t spa!e t at 2gamben !alls I umanit'.I E e Auselmann is meant to bear a !ertain trut about t e nature of et i!s Iafter 2us! &itz+I but is it not important & en tr'ing to arti!ulate su! an et i!s to refle!t on & at 2us! &itz &asR4 9urel' su! an a!!ount s ould attend to t e istori!al+ legal+ and politi!al !onditions t at led to t e development of t e !amp s'stem+ in!luding t e kinds of features t at V'gmunt Lauman fo!uses on in Aodernit' and t e >olo!aust ( su! as a massive+ morall' indifferent bureau!rati! apparatus t at de umanized its Iob/e!tsI and distan!ed its agents from a sense of responsibilit' for t eir a!tions+ as &ell as t e obsessive atred of t e ;e&s t at 9aul <riedlWnder as re!entl' dubbed Iredemptive antisemitism.I" 5f t e Auselmann &ould not ave existed &it out t ese fa!tors+ s ouldnKt an et i!s fo!used upon t is figure also take a!!ount of t emR 5nterestingl' enoug + in >omo 9a!er 2gamben imself argues t at It e !ampI is t e InomosI 3definitive politi!al element4 of t e modern. 5n remarking t at IT&U at appened in t e !amps so ex!eeds t e /uridi!al !on!ept of !rime t at t e spe!ifi! /uridi!o(politi!al stru!ture in & i! t ose events took pla!e is often simpl' omitted from !onsiderationI 3199%+ 1##4+ 2gamben !ould be preparing a !ritique of & at is omitted from 6emnants of 2us! &itz. >omo 9a!er argues t at t e !amp is t e spa!e & ere t e state of ex!eption be!omes normal and & ere I& et er or not atro!ities are !ommitted depends not on la& but on t e !ivilit' and et i!al sense of t e poli!e & o temporaril' a!t as sovereignI 3199%+ 1$44. E is line of argument produ!es an antinom' in t e 2gamben oeuvre: for t e 2gamben of >omo 9a!er a !amp is a !amp if an't ing is possible &it in it+ no matter & et er or not it a!tuall' produ!es AuselmWnner and !orpses+ & ile for t e 2gamben of 6emnants of 2us! &itz t e important fa!t about t e Auselmann is simpl' t at su! a figure appened+ not & ere and o& e be!ame possible. H at links t e positions of is t&o &orks is a level of abstra!tion t at deliberatel' bra!kets features of ea! paradigm ordinaril' understood as essential: for t e !amp+ figures su! as t e AuselmannF for t e Auselmann+ t e !onditions of t e !amp. Lot moves permit 2gamben to dismantle t e boundar' bet&een t e Cazi !amps and t e modern &orld. He ave alread' seen t is in relation to t e Auselmann+ in t e &ake of & ose existen!e all previousl' existing moral !on!epts must be revised. 5t !an be seen also in t e examples of modern !amps 2gamben offers+ in!luding+ ITtU e so!!er stadium in Lari into & i! t e 5talian poli!e in 1991 provisionall' erded all illegal 2lbanian immigrants+I t e zones dKattentes in <ren! international airports & ere foreigners requesting refugee status are eld+ and even+ e suggests in an earlier version of t e essa'+ gated !ommunities in t e ?92 3199%+ 1$44.# 2t su! moments 2gamben seems to be suggesting t at 2us! &itz is potentiall' ever'& ere+ a suggestion t at ends up eliding t e spe!ifi! ! allenges posed bot b' t e Auselmann and t e !amp s'stem.

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Aga$ben9s clai$ &ha& &he M+sel$ann is &he Gco$%le&e <i&ness9 +n-er$ines &he his&orical i$%or&ance of o&her %osi&ions <i&hin A+sch<i&B/ This $+s& be reHec&e-/ Le)i C (o&hberg 01 3Ceil+ =rofessor of Nnglis M Gre& ?niversit'+ Ai! ael+ =rofessor of Nnglis M t e ?niversit' of 9'dne'+ 02us! &itz and t e 6emnants of E eor': Eo&ards an Nt i!s of t e Lorderlands+1 311: 1)24+ 2003+ pg.31(324 He &ould also identif' a se!ond problem &it 2gambenKs approa! : t e grounds for 2gambenKs sele!tion of t e Auselmann as t e I!omplete &itnessI are not !lear. Nt i!s after 2us! &itz must take a!!ount of t e Auselmann+ but t at does not /ustif' transforming im into a fetis + t e sole site of t e trut of t e !amps. 5f 8eviKs o&n testimon' is on is o&n a!!ount unrepresentative+ t at surel' does not mean t at it as no trut !ontent. E e fa!t t at 8evi imself distrusts t e testimon' of+ sa'+ former members of t e 9onderkommando 3t e !amp inmates & o &ere for!ed+ under t reat of deat + to operate t e !rematoria4 is no reason to disqualif' su! testimon' out of and. E e po&er of 7laude 8anzmannKs astonis ing film 9 oa derives in no small part from t e testimon' of a former I!rematorium ravenI 3=. 8evi #04. Gespite is attempt to develop a !omplex t eor' of testimon' premised on t e relations ip bet&een t e Auselmann and t e surviving &itness+ 2gamben ultimatel' omogenizes t e site of &itness b' polarizing t ose positions. H ile t ere is &arrant for su! a reading in 8eviKs texts 3e.g.+ 8eviKs notion of It e dro&ned and t e savedI4+ t ose texts also in!lude t e 'pot esis of It e gra' zone+I a zone of et i!al un!ertaint' in & i! figures su! as t e 9onderkommando are paradigmati!. 5n fa!t+ testimon' from t e gra' zone ma' prove as illuminating about t e et i!al ! allenges of t e Cazi geno!ide as t at derived from an understanding of 8eviKs paradox. Gespite t e serious reservations expressed b' 8evi about t e testimonies of figures & o &ere for!ed into t e most terrible !ompli!it' &it t e Cazis+ su! testimonies ave been s o&n to be of great value in understanding t e Cazi geno!ide+ and+ indeed+ in making !lear t e need for t eoreti!al innovation in order to do so.$ 5n & at remains one of t e most profound attempts to It inkI t e Cazi geno!ide+ istorian and so!ial t eorist Gan Giner proposes t at Cazi a!tion !an be most effe!tivel' illuminated from t e perspe!tive of t e gra' zone+ and parti!ularl' t at of t e ;udenrWte ( t e ;e&is !oun!ils & o ran t e g ettos and &ere ! arged to make de!isions about & o &ould be allo&ed to &ork and & o &ould be sent to t e !amps 3130(13$4. E e !oun!ils negotiated on t e assumption t at t e Cazis &ere rational ( spe!ifi!all'+ t at t e' &ould not &ant to exterminate a produ!tive labor sour!e & ile at &ar. E e Cazis utilized t is assumption to fa!ilitate t e killing pro!ess+ &it & i! t e !oun!ils found t emselves unsuspe!tingl' !ooperating. 5t is t e ;e&is !oun!ilsK experien!e of parti!ipating in t eir o&n destru!tion & ile a!ting a!!ording to t e logi! of self( preservation t at Giner terms t e !ounterrational. 2nd it is in refle!ting on t e ;e&is experien!e of Cazi !ounterrationalit' t at Giner sa's &e en!ounter t e limits of istori!al understanding. @nl' at t is limit point+ a!!ording to Giner+ !an &e begin to It ink t e CazisI via & at e !alls negative istori!al !ognition. H ile &e &ouldnKt &ant to generalize t e standpoint of t e ;udenrWte as t e essen!e of t e >olo!aust an' more t an &e &ould t at of t e Auselmann+ & en read alongside ea! ot er t e arguments of 2gamben and Giner strongl' suggest t e importan!e of multipl'ing t e epistemologi!al standpoints from & i! &e approa! t e Cazi geno!ide.

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T+rn' liberal -e$ocra&ic %ro&ec&ions %re)en& $ili&ar* ac&ion an- &he sli-e &o &o&ali&arianis$,Aga$ben ignores &he ac&+al %rac&ice of h+$ani&arianis$/ Feins. 03 3Bolker+ visiting professor of politi!al s!ien!e at 7on!ordia ?niversit' and 9enior <ello& at t e 5nstitute for 9o!ial 6esear! in <rankfurt+ # Derman 8a& ;ournal Co. "+ Aa'+ ttp:))&&&.germanla&/ournal.!om)arti!le.p pRid,"9%4 2!!ording to t is basi! =rin!iple of Gistin!tion+ modern umanitarian a!tion is dire!ted to&ards t ose & o are !aug t up in violent !onfli!ts &it out possessing an' strategi! value for t e respe!tive &arring parties. Goes t is impl' t at !lassi! umanitarianism and its legal expressions redu!e t e lives of non!ombatants to t e Ibare lifeI of nameless individuals be'ond t e prote!tion of an' legal orderR 5 &ould rat er argue t at umanitarianism is itself an order(making a!tivit'. 5ts goal is not t e preservation of life redu!ed to a bare natural fa!t+ but !onversel' t e prote!tion of !ivilians and t ereb' t e prote!tion of elementar' standards of !ivilization & i! prevent t e ex!lusion of individuals from an' legal and moral order. E e same olds true for uman rig ts+ of !ourse. 2gamben fails to appre!iate t e fa!t t at uman rig ts la&s are not about some !adaveri! Ibare lifeI+ but about t e prote!tion of moral agen!'.T33U >is s&eeping !ritique also la!ks an' sense for essential distin!tions. 5t ma' be legitimate to see Ibare lifeI as a /uridi!al fi!tion nurtured b' t e modern state+ & i! !laims t e rig t to derogate from ot er&ise binding norms in times of &ar and emergen!'+ and to kill individuals+ if ne!essar'+ outside t e la& in a mode of Ieffe!tive fa!tualit'.IT34U 2gamben asserts t at sovereignt' understood in t is manner !ontinues to fun!tion in t e same &a' sin!e t e seventeent !entur' and regardless of t e demo!rati! or di!tatorial stru!ture of t e state in question. E is !laim remains unilluminated b' &he <eal&h of e)i-ence t at s o&s o& t e umanitarian motive not onl' s apes t e mandate of a ost state and nonstate agen!ies+ but also ser)es &o res&ric& &he o%era&ional free-o$ of $ili&ar* co$$an-ers in -e$ocracies+ & o !annot a!t &it impunit' and & o do not &age &ar in a la&less state of nature. <urt ermore+ 2gamben ignores t e !risis of umanitarianism t at emerged as a result of t e totalitarian degeneration of modern states in t e t&entiet !entur'. 9tates !annot al&a's be assumed to follo& a rational self(interest & i! informs t em t at t ere is no point in killing ot ers indis!riminatel'. E e Cazi episode in Nuropean istor' as s o&n t at sometimes leaders do not spare t e &eak and t e si!k+ but take extra !are not to let t em es!ape+ even if t e' are andi!apped+ ver' old or ver' 'oung. 7lassi! umanitarianism depends on t e existen!e of an international so!iet' & ose members feel bound b' a basi! set of rules regarding t e use of violen!e-rules & i! t e 5767 itself elped to institutionalize. 7onversel'+ !lassi! umanitarianism be!omes d'sfun!tional & en states pla!e no value at all on t eir international reputation and see arming t e lives of defenseless individuals not as useless and !ruel+ but as part of t eir ver' mission.T3#U E e founders of t e 5767 defined &ar as an ant ropologi!al !onstant t at produ!ed a !ontinuous stream of ne& vi!tims &it t e predi!table regularit' and unavoidabilit' of floods or vol!ani! eruptions. Ce&er organizations+ b' !ontrast+ ave framed !onditions of massive so!ial suffering as a !onsequen!e of largel' avoidable politi!al mistakes. E e umanitarian movement be!omes politi!al+ to parap rase 7arl 9! mitt+T3$U in so far as it orients itself to umanitarian states of emergen!'+ t e !auses of & i! are lo!ated no longer in nature+ but in so!iet' and politi!s. 7onsequentl'+ t e founding generation of t e ne& umanitarian organizations ave freed t emselves from t e ideals of apoliti!al p ilant rop' and ! osen as t eir ne& models istori!al figures like t e 9&edis diplomat 6aoul Hallenberg+ & o saved t ousands of ;e&s during t e 9e!ond Horld Har. 5n a different fas ion t an 2gamben imagines+ t e primar' !on!ern in t e field of umanitarian intervention and uman rig ts politi!s toda' is not t e prote!tion of bare life+ but rat er t e re abilitation of t e lived life of !itizens & o suffer+ for instan!e+ from !onditions su! as post(traumati! stress disorder. 2t t e same time+ t ere is a field of a!tivit' emerging beneat t e t res old of t e bare life. 5n t e ?nited 9tates+ in parti!ular+ pat ologists &orking in !on/un!tion &it uman rig ts organizations ave dis!overed t e importan!e of !orpses and !orporal remains no& t at it is possible to identif' reliable eviden!e for &ar !rimes from ex umed bodies.T39U

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Aga$ben ignores &he ac&+al -ifferences be&<een -e$ocrac* an- &o&ali&arianis$,his fail+re &o engage in cos&> benefi& assess$en& $eans he9s a fana&ic <ho onl* &hinks in absol+&es/ Feins. 03 3Bolker+ visiting professor of politi!al s!ien!e at 7on!ordia ?niversit' and 9enior <ello& at t e 5nstitute for 9o!ial 6esear! in <rankfurt+ # Derman 8a& ;ournal Co. "+ Aa'+ ttp:))&&&.germanla&/ournal.!om)arti!le.p pRid,"9%4 2gamben is not interested in su! &eig ing of !osts and benefits be!ause e assumes from t e outset t at taking !are of t e survival needs of people in distress is simpl' t e reverse side of t e modern in!lination to ignore pre!isel' t ose needs and turn life itself into a tool and ob/e!t of po&er politi!s. L' &a' of !on!lusion+ 5 &ill indi!ate briefl' o& is vie& differs from t&o ot er+ often no less s attering !ritiques of modern umanitarianism. Aartti Qoskenniemi &arned t at umanitarian demands and uman rig ts are in danger of degenerating into Imere talk.IT4$U E e re!ent !risis in Garfur+ 9udan+ !an be !ited as an example for a situation in & i! t e repeated invo!ation of uman rig ts standards and /us !ogens norms+ like t ose arti!ulated in t e Deno!ide 7onvention+ mig t ultimatel' damage t ose norms t emselves if states are un&illing to a!t on t em.T4%U E is !riti!ism implies t at uman rig ts s ould be taken seriousl' and applied in a reasonable manner. Lot Gavid Qenned' and @ona >at a&a' ave gone one step furt er b' taking issue even &it t ose & o proved to be serious b' /oining treaties or engaging in advo!a!'. 5n a !ontroversial quantitative stud'+ >at a&a' !ontended t at t e ratifi!ation of uman rig ts treaties b' sets of given !ountries not onl' did not improve uman rig ts !onditions on t e ground+ but a!tuall' !orrelated &it in!reasing violations.T49U 5n a similar vein+ Gavid Qenned' radi!alized QoskenniemiKs point b' arguing t at uman rig ts regimes and umanitarian la& are rat er part of t e problem t an part of solution+ be!ause t e' I/ustif'I and Iex!useI too mu! .T"0U Eo some extent+ t is is an effe!t of t e logi! of legal reasoning: marking a line bet&een non!ombatants and !ombatants in!reases t e legitima!' of atta!king t e latter+ granting privileges to la&ful !ombatants delegitimizes unla&ful belligerents and dramati!all' &orsens t eir status. @n t e & ole+ Qenned' is more !on!erned about t e dangers of leaving uman rig ts to international legal elites and a professional !ulture & i! is blind for t e mismat! bet&een loft' ideals and textual arti!ulations on t e one side+ and real people and problems on t e ot er side.T"1U H ereas t ese aut ors reveal t e Idark sidesI of overl' rel'ing on uman rig ts talk and treaties+ t e moral fervor of a!tivists or t e routines of t e legal profession+ 2gamben !laims t at somet ing is &rong &it uman rig ts as su! + and t at re!ent istor' as demonstrated a deep affinit' bet&een t e prote!tion and t e infringement of t ese rig ts. 7onsidered in t is lig t+ t e effort of t e Lritis aid organization 9ave t e 7 ildren+ for instan!e+ to elp ! ildren in need bot in Lritain and abroad after Horld Har 5 -fait ful to Deorge Lernard 9 a&Ks sa'ing+ I5 ave no enemies under sevenI-is onl' t e flip side of a trend to de!lare total &ar on ot ers regardless of t eir age and situation. E is assertion !learl' goes far be'ond t e voi!es of ot er pessimists. 2gambenKs &ork is understandable onl' against t e ba!kdrop of an entirel' familiar mistrust of liberal demo!ra!' and its abilit' to !ultivate nonpartisan moral and legal perspe!tives. 2!!ording to 2gamben+ demo!ra!' does not t reaten to turn into totalitarianism+ but rat er bot regimes smoot l' !ross over into one anot er sin!e t e' ultimatel' rest on t e same foundation of a politi!al interpretation of life itself. T"2U 8ike 7arl 9! mitt+ 2gamben sees t e invo!ation of uman rig ts b' demo!rati! governments as &ell as t e I umanitarian !on!ept of umanit'IT"3U as de!eptive manouvers or+ at least+ as a!ts of self(de!eption on t e part of t e liberal bourgeois sub/e!t. E e differen!e bet&een 2gamben and 9! mitt lies in t e fa!t t at 9! mitt foug t liberal demo!ra!' in t e name of t e aut oritarian state+ & ile 2gamben sees demo!ra!' and di!tators ip as t&o equall' unappealing t&ins. Ber' mu! unlike 9! mitt+ t e 5talian p ilosop er !onfronts us &it a mode of t inking in vaguel' felt resemblan!es in lieu of distin!tl' per!eived differen!es. ?ltimatel'+ e offers a version of 9! mittKs t eor' of sovereignt' t at ! anges its politi!al valen!e and do&npla's t e differen!e bet&een liberal demo!ra!' and totalitarian di!tators ip-a differen!e about & i! 2dorno on!e said t at it Iis a total differen!e. 2nd 5 &ould sa'+I e added+ It at it &ould be abstra!t and in a problemati! &a' fanati!al if one &ere to ignore t is differen!e.IT"4U

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Aga$ben9s cri&iD+e is &oo &o&aliBing,acce%&ing a%%eals &o so$e so)ereign %o<er -oes no& ca+se &he nega&i)e i$%ac&s of so)ereign&* in e)er* ins&ance/ The %lan is a H+s&ifie- +se of so)ereign %o<er &o %re)en& a ca&as&ro%he/ F+ssain. 2000 3Gepartment of >istor' at Lerkele' Casser+ 34 8a& : 9o!K' 6ev. 49"+ lexis4. >ere on!e again &e are for!ed to question 2gambenKs teleologi!al mode of t oug t. 5s t is sovereign po&er represented in t e !on!entration !amps reall' a !onstitutive feature of sovereignt' tout !ourtR Nven limiting ouselves to t e remarks above+ &e !an imagine a liberal !ritique of t is position t at asks from & ere !ome t e limitations t at 2gamben !on!edes previous Heimar governments ad observed. 9urel'+ one does not ave to a!!ept in its entiret' a normative liberal !on!eption of sovereign po&er in order to appre!iate t at t e demand for a fa!tual a!!ounting for t e de!ision on t e ex!eption+ and institutional ! e!ks upon t e totalization of t e spa!e of ex!eption+ !an nonet eless ( at least in !ertain instan!es ( be effe!tive. 5ndeed+ one !ould go furt er and suggest t at a liberal t eor' of sovereign po&er understands full &ell t e paradoxi!al relation bet&een la& and fa!t+ norm and ex!eptionF and+ pre!isel' in lig t of su! an understanding !onstru!ts an institutional s'stem t at !annot resolve t e paradox but nonet eless attempts to prevent it from rea! ing an intensified and !atastrop i! !on!lusion. Diven t at 2gamben is a nuan!ed and fair(minded t inker+ one must &onder about & ' e largel' ignores su! a s'stem. He t ink t at one possible ans&er is t at+ /ust as for 2gamben t e sour!e of t e problem is not t e institutional operation of sovereign po&er+ but its ob/e!t ( bare life ( so too t e solution is not a proliferation of institutional safeguards but a ret inking of t at mode of being. 5n t is regard+ &e find is !on!luding musings on >eidigger to be suggestive.

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Aga$ben9s $e&ho-olog* is fla<e-,his arg+$en& is a gian& asser&ion <i&h no %roof/ Le<is. 99 39tep en+ 0>omo 9a!er: 9overeign =o&er and Lare 8ife 36evie&41+ Modernism/Modernity #.3+ p. 1#"+ =ro/e!t A?9N+ >umanities =rofessor at 7 i!ago+4 E ere are a number of ob/e!tions one !ould raise to spe!ifi! aspe!ts of t e book+ parti!ularl' its premise t at !on!epts su! as Isovereign po&erI and Ibare lifeI des!ribe realities t at remain more or less !onstant over t&ent'(four !enturies of istor'. 5 &ill fo!us ere+ o&ever+ on & at 5 t ink is t e most fundamentall' ob/e!tionable aspe!t of t e book: its met odolog'+ or t e set of assumptions about & at !onstitutes a good argument t at governs its I istori!o(p ilosop i!alI approa! to its sub/e!t matter. E e best &a' to demonstrate t ese assumptions is b' !onsidering 2gambenKs adoption of t e term Ibiopoliti!s.I >e takes up t e term from Ai! el <ou!ault &it t e intent of moving be'ond <ou!aultKs t inking of t e Idouble bindI exerted upon t e politi!al sub/e!t b'+ on t e one and+ Isub/e!tive te! nologiesI and+ on t e ot er+ Ipoliti!al te! nologiesI 3"(#4. 2gambenKs !laim is t at is approa! to biopoliti!s !larifies t e pre!ise nature of t is Ipoint at & i! t e voluntar' servitude of individuals !omes into !onta!t &it ob/e!tive po&erI be!ause e grounds it in an anal'sis of t e /uridi!o(institutional stru!ture of sovereign po&er+ a realm of politi!al realit' t at <ou!ault refused to take seriousl' 31194. 2gambenKs r etori! & en explaining & ' <ou!ault did not see t e stru!tural nature of modern po&er in t e more !omplete and illuminating &a' t at 2gamben does is interesting. <or 2gamben+ an' failings in <ou!aultKs t inking arise not from a problem &it <ou!aultKs met ods of resear! or from defi!its in is !ommand of eviden!e+ but+ rat er+ from t e assumption t at <ou!ault !ould not ave t oug t ot er&ise t an as e did be!ause e &as t inking at t e ver' limits t en of Hestern t oug t. E e Iblind spotI in t e Idouble bindI <ou!ault lo!ates !onstitutes+ sa's 2gamben+ Isomet ing like a vanis ing point t at t e different perspe!tival lines of <ou!aultKs inquir' 3and+ more generall'+ of t e entire Hestern refle!tion on po&er4 !onverge to&ard &it out rea! ingI 3#4. ?nfortunatel'+ 'et per aps unsurprisingl'+ 2gamben intimates t at e+ too+ is t inking at t e ver' limits of !urrent t oug t 3presumabl' e finds imself able to t ink be'ond <ou!aultKs orizon be!ause e is alive and t inking no&+ after <ou!ault4. 2gambenKs use of & at E omas =avel as !alled t e Ir etori! of t e endI !alls attention to t e problems t at o!!ur & en a book is stru!tured b' apo!al'pti! !laims about t e end 3and t us t e ina!!essibilit'4 of !ertain modes of being or of t oug t rat er t an b' empiri!all' or istoriograp i!all' grounded argument. 2 E ere is not ing in erentl' ob/e!tionable about !laiming t at t e end of a !ertain era as o!!urredF t e point is simpl' t at+ to m' mind+ t e reader oug t to be able to de!ide from eviden!e(based argumentation & et er t e !laim is reasonable. 3 2gamben sa's t at is intent in des!ribing t e idden !onne!tion bet&een totalitarianism and demo!ra!' on an I istori!o(p ilosop i!alI plane rat er t an t roug detailed istoriograp i!al inquir' is not to ITlevelU t e enormous differen!es t at ! ara!terize Tt eU istor' and T. . .U rivalr'I of demo!ra!' and totalitarianism 3104. 5nstead+ is intent is to make t e stru!ture of t is idden !onne!tion kno&n so t at it !an one da' be surpassed t roug a ne& form of politi!s. E e problem+ o&ever+ is t at t e r etori! of t e end e emplo's in lieu of istoriograp i!al argument prevents im from sa'ing pre!isel' & at t is ne& form of politi!s !ould be and t us makes its attainment seem m'steriousl' diffi!ult. 5ndeed 2gamben tends to fall ba!k on impossible(to(prove !ategori!al assertions rat er t an reasonable explanations & en e tells & '+ for instan!e+ t e !ategories of !lassi!al politi!s+ or+ alternativel'+ religion(based et i!al s'stems+ !annot be Ireturned toI in an' sense. <un!tioning and(in( and &it su! !ategori!al assertions about t e ina!!essibilit' of t e past are equall' unsupported gestures to&ards a future politi!s arti!ulated in & at reads at times like a language of se!ularized apop atism+ & i! in t e present book 2gamben tends to emplo' in !on/un!tion &it dis!ussions of Len/aminKs messianism.

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Aga$ben9s al&erna&i)e is +&o%ian an- i$%ossible/ E$iel. 94 3Qennet + 0E e <ate of t e Cation and t e Hit ering of t e 9tate1+ American Literary History+ 9pring+ p. 19#+ ;9E@6+ =rofessor of 7ultural >istor' at 5o&a4 5f !ommunit' !annot be a !losed t ing+ if it is forever open to t e potentiall' ne&+ t en t e dream of a national !ommunit' is simpl' impossible. 5n 2gambenKs !ommunit'+ t e idea of some( t ing being Iun(2meri!anKK makes no sense+ for t ere is no defining essen!e in a I& atever singularit'.KK Xet 2gamben is also a&are t at !apitalism and t e state &ill !ontinue. 5ndeed+ e re!ognizes t at after t e fall of 7ommunism t e' are s&eeping t e globe. =oliti!s+ in t e future+ 2gamben argues+ &ill not be !ommunit' building but t e perpetual pro/e!t of !ommunities against t e state Ia struggle bet&een t e 9tate and t e non(state 3 umanit'4+ an insurmountable dis/un!tion bet&een & atever singularit' and t e 9tate organizationKK 3%44. 5 doubt 2gambenKs ne& !ommunit' is a!tuall' !oming. 5t remains far from !lear t at !ommunities &it out identities are emerging an'& ere ex!ept in t e febrile imaginations of a fe& p ilosop ers. 5t is not t at 5 dislike t e dream. 5t is for me t e most attra!tive dream t ere is. 5t is t at 5 am skepti!al t at su! I& atever singularitiesKK are possible on more t an t e level of personal be avior. =oliti!s is too !lunk' for su! subtlet'. Nven t e ne& so!ial movements seem far more do&n(to(eart and prone to defining t emselves t an 2gambenKs t eorizing. =oliti!s+ alas+ demands more leaden language. 9till+ t e image of t e state fig ting !ommunities is one &ort pondering. 5ts distan!e from earlier &elfare state t inking !ould not be more dramati!. 5nstead of t e state embod'ing t e &ill of t e nation &e ave a pi!ture of numerous !ommunities at &ar &it t e state. 5t is+ and 5 sa' t is &it no relis + a far more plausible pi!ture of our emerging politi!s t an HalzerKs app' pluralism. ;ust t ink of insuran!e !ompanies+ =erotistas+ and ga' and lesbian a!tivists(all !ommunities distrustful of t e states all !ommitted to struggling &it t e state. 2gamben does not ask & at t is perpetual &arfare &ill do to government. 8ike Halzer+ e assumes t at t e state &ill trudge on as before. Xet if t is &arfare bet&een umanit' and t e state is !onstant+ is it not plausible to surmise t at ostilit' to t e state &ill be!ome permanentR

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Aga$ben9s cri&icis$ -oes no&hing,i& is &o&aliBing. e$%iricall* false,<e $+s& $ake refor$s &o sol)e/ "al*. 02 3<ran!es+ 2ustralian Cational ?niversit'+ 0E e Con(!itizen and t e 7on!ept of >uman 6ig ts1+ borderlands+ 6esear! <ello& in = ilosop '+ ttp:))&&&.borderlandse/ournal.adelaide.edu.au)vol3no1Y2004)dal'Ynon!itizen. tm4 5t is al&a's possible to suppose t at a self(fas ioned potentialit' is simpl' available to us+ and in some senses it is+ but not be!ause a t'pe of t eor' merel' posits t e so!ial and t e istori!al as !ompletel' open to our manipulation or KperforationK. 8ike&ise+ &e !annot merel' assume t at ! anging Kforms of lifeK ne!essaril' amount to t'pes of refusal. 9u! a !laim &ould onl' make sense if it &ere put for&ard on t e basis of an appre!iation of an impulse to freedom from parti!ular t'pes of !onstraint and oppression. 5t &ould also require a sense of o& t is impulse takes pla!e &it in a variet' of !onditions+ some of & i! mig t be easil' altered and some of & i! mig t not. 5n t e absen!e of an engaged sense of & at t is impulse means+ and of t e !ontext in & i! elements of freedom and unfreedom do battle+ it is impossible to spe!ulate on t e nature of t e sub/e!tivit' or potentialit' & i! mig t be emerging or & i! mig t be in stages of de!omposition. 2gamben merel' presumes t at a strateg' b' & i! &e all identif' as refugees &ill rene& a politi!s and t ereb' end t e !urrent plig t of t e refugee+ as if no ot er realit' impinges on t is identifi!ation. E is is also assumed on t e basis t at t e 9tate . in 2gambenKs t eorizing+ t e abstra!tion of an all(en!ompassing+ leviat an 9tate . is equall'+ readil' and easil' liable to perforation. E is !ontradi!tion is indi!ative of a &ider problem & ere & at &e en!ounter is a form of !ritique t at is oddl' inappropriate to t e t'pe of issue it addresses. 29. Au! !an be said in !riti!ism of t e do!trine of rig t+ of t e limited nature of t e understanding of freedom and rig ts in do!uments on rig ts+ of t e assumption of t e pla!e of !itizen rig ts as t e lo!us of t e fundamental rig ts of t e uman+ and most signifi!antl'+ t e absen!e of an' sense of t e undetermined nature of & at being mig t mean. Lut & at must be stated+ 5 feel+ is t at it &ould be a serious impoveris ment of t e et i!al problem t at &e !urrentl' fa!e to den' an' potential value of rig ts in !arr'ing fort tra!es of an impetus to&ards uman dignit'+ of t e ideals of freedom and equalit'+ and to t us redu!e rig ts to & at mig t be termed an absolute politi!s. 6ig ts !annot be redu!ed to !itizens ip rig ts as if t e ideas of rig ts and !itizens ip are !oterminus. H at most !riti!all' needs to be understood is+ firstl'+ & ' values of freedom and equalit' ave su! a limited and fragile pla!e &it in !onditions of su! inordinate legalism+ and+ se!ondl'+ & at t e absen!e of freedom+ & i! t e !ause of uman rig ts inevitabl' suggests+ means for t e installation of an' su! rig ts. Hit out su! an understanding &e are left &it a gestural politi!s t at !ontains a posture of radi!alism but one & i! fails to !onne!t t e aspirations of t ose & o are struggling to a! ieve elementar' rig ts &it a vision of a &orld t at !ould a!!ord t em a degree of dignit'. Eo a!kno&ledge t is is not to be sedu!ed b' !on!epts of rig t or la&+ but is rat er to refuse t e denial of a radi!al questioning of t e possibilities &it & i! a dis!ourse presents us. Len/aminKs understanding of a genuinel' messiani! idea is somet ing t at is Inot t e final end of istori!al progress+ but rat er its often failed and finall' a!!omplis ed interruptionI 3Len/amin+ 19$4: 12314. He find t is in values t at resist exploitation and assaults upon uman dignit'. 2nd it is t is realm t at !urrentl' requires urgent+ emp ati! and signifi!ant rene&al.

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Bio%oli&ics is an e$%&* &er$ &ha& is -e%lo*e- in &he %lace of ac&+al anal*sis of $a&erial con-i&ions,&heir i$%ac& re%resen&a&ions block +sef+l cri&icis$/ 8irno. 02 3=aolo+ ?niversit' of 7osenza+ KDeneral intelle!t+ exodus+ multitude. 5ntervie& &it =aolo BirnoK+ Archiplago number "4+ publis ed in Nnglis at ttp:))&&&.generation(online.org)p)fpvirno2. tmI professor of linguisti! p ilosop ' 2gamben is a problem. 2gamben is a t inker of great value but also+ in m' opinion+ a t inker &it no politi!al vo!ation. E us+ & en 2gamben speaks of t e biopolit!al e as t e tenden!' to transform it into an ontologi!al !ategor' &it value alread' sin!e t e ar! ai! 6oman rig t. 2nd+ in t is+ in m' opinion+ e is ver' &rong( eaded. E e problem is+ 5 believe+ t at t e biopoliti!al is onl' an effe!t derived from t e !on!ept of labor(po&er. H en t ere is a !ommodit' t at is !alled labor( po&er it is alread' impli!itl' t e government over life. 2gamben sa's+ on t e ot er and+ t at labor(po&er is onl' one of t e aspe!ts of t e biopoliti!alF 5 sa' t e !ontrar': over all be!ause labor po&er is a paradoxi!al !ommodit' be!ause it is not a real !ommodit' like a book or a bottle of &ater+ but rat er is simpl' t e potential to produ!e. 2s soon as it is transformed into a !ommodit' t e potential+ t en+ it is ne!essar' to govern t e living bod' t at mantains t is potential+ t at !ontains t is potential. Eoni 3Cegri4 and Ai! ael 3>ardt4+ on t e ot er and+ use biopoliti!s in a istori!all' determined sense+ basing it on <ou!ault+ but <ou!ault spoke in fe& pages of t e biopoliti!al ( in relation to t e birt of liberalism ( but t at <ou!ault is not a suffi!ient base for founding a dis!ourse over t e biopoliti!al and m' appre ension+ m' fear+ is t at t e biopoliti!al !an be transformed into a &ord t at ides+ !overs problems instead of being an instrument for !onfronting t em. 2 fetis &ord+ an Iopen doorsI &ord+ a &ord &it t e ex!lamation point+ a &ord t at !arried t e risk of blo!king !riti!al t oug t instead of elping it. E en+ m' fear is of fetis &ords in politi!s be!ause it seems like t e !ries of a ! ild t at as fear of t e dark...+ t e ! ild t at sa's Imama+ mamaJI+ Ibiopoliti!s+ biopoliti!sJI. 5 donKt negate t at t ere !an be a serious !ontent in t e term+ o&ever 5 see t at t e use of t e term biopoliti!s some times is a !onsolator' use+ like t e !r' of a ! ild+ & en & at serves us are+ in all !ases+ instruments of &ork and not propaganda &ords.

Michigan 7 Week Seniors 2009 AT A7AMB#!' AT (#F@7## ALT#(!AT 8#

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(ef+gees are ex%loi&e- an- %ersec+&e- no& e$%o<ere-,&heir )arie- circ+$s&ances -en* &heir +sef+lness as a %ara-ig$ for &he al&erna&i)e/ "al*. 02 3 ttp:))&&&.borderlandse/ournal.adelaide.edu.au)vol3no1Y2004)dal'Ynon!itizen. tm+ E e non(!itizen and t e !on!ept of K uman rig tsK+ <ran!es Gal'+2ustralian Cational ?niversit' 20044. 2gambenKs use of t e paradigm of t e refugee is+ as is &ell kno&n+ derived from >anna 2rendtKs belief t at a banis ed Nuropean ;e&is people represented It e avant(garde of t eir peopleI be!ause t e' did not parti!ularl' &ant to be assimilated to a ne& identit' 32rendt in <eldman+ 19$%: #$4. 7ertainl'+ a t eoreti!al understanding of t e mass p enomenon of refugees is important be!ause+ despite t e s ifting and 'et !onstant presen!e of t e mass refugee for t e last undred 'ears+ issues of perse!ution and exploitation+ of displa!ement+ loss and suffering+ !ontinue to mark t e lived experien!e of t e refugee. 2nd 'et t ere is somet ing problemati! &it t is parti!ular ! ara!terization of refugees+ for t ere is no ne!essar' equation bet&een t e experien!e of exile . for eit er t e P&andering ;e&* or refugees toda' . and empo&erment. 2nd given t e s ifting !ir!umstan!es of present(da' refugees+ it is also diffi!ult to argue t at t e !ondition of exile !an be taken as a &ider signifi!ation of a t'pe of enabling permanent unfulfilment t at is t en assumed to be t e basis of an effe!tive &itnessing. Gra&ing out t e radi!al !onsequen!es of p enomena su! as KexodusK and t e existen!e of t e refugee is !ru!ial+ but t e !ontext of t is !annot be ignored. E is is onl' all t e more t e !ase if t e s ift t at 2gamben &ould ave us t ink possible is to take pla!e . to a generalized a!kno&ledgement t at &e are all refugees 32gamben+ 199"F 1194.

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Wha&e)er being is i$%ossible &o realiBe,<e can onl* e$%&* o+& &he conce%& of righ&s if &here is a concre&e al&erna&i)e/ "al*. 02 3 ttp:))&&&.borderlandse/ournal.adelaide.edu.au)vol3no1Y2004)dal'Ynon!itizen. tm+ E e non(!itizen and t e !on!ept of K uman rig tsK+ <ran!es Gal'+2ustralian Cational ?niversit' 20044. H at it is t at &e mig t &ant a uman potentialit' to mean is+ of !ourse+ a !omplex+ diffi!ult and open(ended issue. Lut it is important for us to ask & et er a uman potentialit' must start from emptiness. 2gamben repeatedl' refers to t e need to begin from a pla!e of Kamorp ousnessK and Kina!tualit'K+ assuming t at t ere is somet ing t at &ill ne!essaril' follo& from t e simple fa!t of uman existen!e . but & ' s ould &e assume t isR H at mig t !onstitute or form t is potentialit' is surel' !on!erned &it & at is latent but as 'et unrealized. <or 2gamben+ t ere is not ing latent t at is not alread' tainted b' a sense of a task t at must be done 32gamben+ 1993: 434. E ere is no abilit' to a! ieve an' displa!ement &it & at is present &it in values of !ommunit' and /usti!e+ t ere is onl' an immobilizing not ingness t at assumes a false essen!e+ vo!ation or destin'. 5f t e K& ateverK being t at e !ontends is indeed emerging+ and it possesses+ as e argues+ Ian original relation to desireI+ it is &ort & ile asking & at t is desire is for 32gamben+ 1993: 104. 5f it is simpl' life itself+ t en it is not !lear & ' t is s ould be devoid of an' !ontent. 2n' pro!ess of empt'ing out+ of erasing and abolis ing+ su! as t at & i! 2gamben attempts+ is done for a reason ( it involves !ritique and re/e!tion+ on t e basis+ ne!essaril'+ t at somet ing else is preferable. Lut 2gamben provides us &it ver' little of & at is needed to understand o& &e mig t engage &it t is option.

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AT A7AMB#!' ( 7FTS 7OO" FO( (#F@7##S The real ans<er &o &he -enial of righ&s &o ref+gees is &o gran& &he$ righ&s,no& &o aban-on &he conce%&/ Aga$ben is &oo -is$issi)e of &he %oli&ical reali&ies face- b* ref+gees/ "al*. 02 3 ttp:))&&&.borderlandse/ournal.adelaide.edu.au)vol3no1Y2004)dal'Ynon!itizen. tm+ E e non(!itizen and t e !on!ept of K uman rig tsK+ <ran!es Gal'+2ustralian Cational ?niversit' 20044. 2gambenKs se!ond argument is t at t e existen!e of rig ts stands in !ontradi!tion to t e denial of t ese rig ts to refugees+ and t at t is is t e result of t e 9tateKs most fundamental !ontradi!tion . t e promotion of t e idea of inalienable uman rig ts ( and t e failure to prote!t t is idea & en it is no longer possible to !on!eive of uman rig ts as rig ts of a !itizen 32gamben+ 2000: 204. E is !ontradi!tion is not+ for im+ somet ing in erent &it in t e 9tate itself+ but is t e out!ome of t e existen!e of rig ts in a &orld in & i! t e' are not granted equall' 32gamben+ 2000: 214. H at &e are not t en given is an examination of & at it is about t is &orld t at gives rise to t ese inequalities. Leing told t at !ontemporar' existen!e is !ompletel' spe!ta!ularized does not provide us &it suffi!ient insig t to kno& & ' some refugees are denied rig ts+ or & ' pro!lamations on rig ts do not al&a's lead to t eir ena!tment. 2gambenKs anal'sis of rig ts is too !ursor' and dismissive for us to be able to dra& an' relation bet&een is !ritique of alienation and is understanding of t e pla!e of t e refugee. 2s a result+ an' basis for seeing &it in rig ts !on!erns for & at it mig t mean to be uman or for & at !ommunit' mig t entail+ is dis!arded. <or example+ 2gamben dis!erns an ambiguit' &it in t e 1$%9 Ge!laration on t e 6ig ts of Aan and of t e 7itizen be!ause it is not possible to kno& & et er t e different rig ts mentioned . t ose of KmanK and t ose of Kt e !itizenK ( refer to t&o distin!t realities or are some o& subsumed &it in ea! ot er 32gamben+ 199": 11#4. Lut &it t is e bot dis!erns an ambiguit' and t en neutralizes t e tension underpinning its signifi!an!e+ b' inferring from it t at umans are redu!ed to Kbare lifeK in t e 9tate t roug t e ver' existen!e of prin!iples of freedom and equal respe!t. He are t en led b' im to !on!lude t at t is ambiguit' is in fa!t t e o!!lusion of uman potentialit' from rig ts. 2 number of problems !ould be raised &it t is dismissal of ambiguit'. H '+ for example+ s ould &e not vie& t is problem as t e real as'mmetr' t at ambiguit' entails+ an ambiguit' & i! mig t+ under different !ir!umstan!es+ animate rat er t an anni ilate a sense of being umanR 5t is surel' up to us to !laim a !omplex sense of umanit' or being uman &it in rig ts+ and t ere &ould seem to be some basis for t is via t e unresolved tensions and in!ompletions t at t e affirmations of equalit' and libert' signif'. Aig t &e not !onsider+ t en+ t at rat er t an t e problem being t at rig ts !ontinue to fail our expe!tations or attempted realizations+ it is per aps us & o ave not 'et arrived at a pla!e & ere &e mig t ans&er t e appeal set do&n b' t e Klibert'+ equalit'+ fraternit'K impulse of natural rig tsR

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Ba-io+9s conce%& of e&hics fails beca+se i& is i$%ossible &o $ake D+ali&a&i)e -is&inc&ions be&<een -ifferen& sor&s of e)il,lea-ing &o abs+r- res+l&s/ Bro<n. 02 3Ci! olas+ ?niversit' of 5llinois at 7 i!ago+ @r+ 2lain Ladiou and 9lavo/ Zi[ek+ Haiting for 9omet ing to >appen+ 76: E e Ce& 7entennial 6evie& 4.3 320044 2%9(3194. E is apparatus is a po&erful lens+ and t ere !an be no doubt t at Ladiou is des!ribing somet ing importantF per aps it is even an aspe!t of evil. Lut is it reall' Nvil 3Aal4 itselfR LadiouKs evil+ like is trut + is indifferent to !ontent+ a merel' formal label. 5n its formalism+ its insisten!e on fidelit' to an' Nvent & atever-on Iet i!al !onsisten!'I itself as a valueLadiouKs good is almost an aest eti! rat er t an an et i!al !ategor'. 32t one point+ in an e! o of QantKs purposeless purpose+ et i!al !onsisten!' is even des!ribed as Idisinterested interest.I4 H ile t ere is somet ing undeniabl' attra!tive in et i!al !onsisten!' 3and somet ing ugl' in its la!k4+ t e most important t ing for a modern et i!s ma' be to pus t ese sentimental !onsiderations aside. E e value of et i!al !onsisten!' is aut orized b' 8a!anKs &ell(kno&n di!tum not to give up on oneKs desire Tne pas !\der sur son d\sirU. Lut &e s ould not forget t at t is maxim derives from t e reading of 2ntigone in 9\minaire B55. Xes+ 9op o!lesK 2ntigone+ in er a&ful et i!al !onsisten!'+ is a !aptivating figure. Lre! tKs Dalileo+ on t e ot er and+ in is opportunism and &avering in!onsisten!'+ is a bit distasteful. Lut 2ntigone is a rea!tionar'+ and Dalileo invents p 'si!s. <urt er+ Ladiou as no &a' of sorting out different evils be'ond is tripartite division. Nt i!s tells us & at Cazism and s!ientifi! obs!urantism ave in !ommon. Lut an et i!s &ould ave to be able to tell t em apart. E e distin!tion bet&een+ sa'+ t e abandonment of a so!ial movement b' its leader and t e abandonment of a poem b' its aut or !annot be made &it out some kind of qualitative supplement. 9in!e+ as &e s all see+ LadiouKs p ilosop ' is predi!ated pre!isel' on t e subtra!tion from !onsideration of all qualitative predi!ates+ t is supplement !an onl' be vulgar+ non(p ilosop i!al. =er aps t e supplement it requires is t e language of uman rig ts+ & i! + & atever its faults+ !an tell t e differen!e bet&een a !on!entration !amp and a !reationist textbook.

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Ba-io+ is no& %oli&icall* +sef+l beca+se his al&erna&i)e is &oo )ag+e,he sa*s &ha& &he e)en& si-e s&e%s &he s&a&e b+& an* al&erna&i)e %oli&ics $+s& be able &o refor$ &he s&a&e &o s+ccee-/ Bro<n. 02 3Ci! olas+ ?niversit' of 5llinois at 7 i!ago+ @r+ 2lain Ladiou and 9lavo/ Zi[ek+ Haiting for 9omet ing to >appen+ 76: E e Ce& 7entennial 6evie& 4.3 320044 2%9(3194. LadiouKs ontolog' !annot usefull' displa!e t e diale!ti!. Le!ause t e Nvent must des!end like a gra!e+ LadiouKs ontolog' !an onl' des!ribe situations and never >istor'. 9in!e t e event emerges from outside of t e state of t e situation+ it is rigorousl' unt eorizable: as &e sa& above+ it is t eorized as unt eorizable. Gespite ever' protestation to t e !ontrar'+ LadiouKs s'stem !annot address t e question IH at is to be doneRI be!ause t e onl' t ing to do is to &ait for t e Nvent. H at appens & en t e pre!ipitation of t e Nvent is pre!isel' & at needs to be doneR Xes+ &e !an be fait ful to a previous event+ as Ladiou sa's 8enin &as to t e =aris 7ommune. Lut surel' t is solution mitigates t e po&er of t e Nvent as t e irruption of t e void into t is situation. E e diale!ti!+ on t e ot er and+ !on!eives t e void as immanent !ontradi!tion. H ile bot !ontradi!tion and void are immanent to t e situation+ !ontradi!tion as t e tremendous advantage of aving movement built in+ as it &ere: t e Nvent does not appear out of an immanent no& ere+ but is alread' full' present in itself in t e situation+ & i! it explodes in t e movement to for(itself. Aean& ile+ t e question of t e diale!ti! leads us ba!k to t e t&ofold meaning of IstateI: bot t e la& and order t at govern kno&ledge+ and la& and order in t e ever'da' sense. E is identifi!ation aut orizes LadiouKs antistatism+ for!efull' refle!ted in is o&n politi!al !ommitment+ t e @rganisation =olitique 3& ose members do not vote4+ & i! as made limited TNnd =age 30#U but effe!tive interventions into t e status of immigrant &orkers. 5n LadiouKs s'stem+ not ing !an appen &it in t e state of a situationF innovation !an onl' emerge from an evental site+ !onstitutivel' ex!luded from t e state. Lut !an a prin!ipled indifferen!e to t e state ground a politi!sR E e state surel' as t e fun!tion of suppressing t e anar! i! possibilities in erent in t e 3national4 situation. Lut it !an also suppress t e possibilities exploited b' an anar! i! !apitalism. 5t is &ell kno&n t at t e !urrent rig tist Ismall(governmentI movement is an assault on t e !lass !ompromise represented b' t e Qe'nesian state. Eo be sure+ one s ould be suspi!ious of t at !ompromise and & at it ex!luded. Lut it also prote!ted &orkers against some of !apitalismKs more baleful effe!ts. 2s &it Nt i!s+ Ladiou is !ertainl' des!ribing somet ing: t e utopian moment of a total break &it t e state ma' be a part of an' genuine politi!al transformation. Lut+ unless &e are talking about t e sad old interpla' of transgression and limit& i! posited t e state as basi!all' permanent+ &it transgression as its permanent suspension-t is anar! i! moment sa's not ing about t e ne& state of affairs t at &ill ultimatel' be imposed on t e generi! set it !onstru!ts. 9urel' t e !onfiguration of t at state &ill be paramount-in & i! !ase state po&er as to be foug t for+ not merel' evaded.

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Ba-io+9s s*s&e$ fails,he has no <a* &o o)erco$e &he enor$o+s %o<er he a&&rib+&es &o ca%i&alis$/ Bro<n. 02 3Ci! olas+ ?niversit' of 5llinois at 7 i!ago+ @r+ 2lain Ladiou and 9lavo/ Zi[ek+ Haiting for 9omet ing to >appen+ 76: E e Ce& 7entennial 6evie& 4.3 320044 2%9(3194. Lut & at is strange is t e ve emen!e &it & i! Ladiou maintains is distan!e from t e e!onomi!-from & at !lassi!al Aarxism !alled t e Ibase+I t e elements of a situation t at pertain to its o&n reprodu!tion. 5t is perfe!tl' ort odox to sa' t at t ere !an be no purel' e!onomi! intervention in t e e!onom': even &it t e best intentions+ t e Horld Lank !ould not solve t e problem of E ird Horld povert'. >o&ever+ in LadiouKs s'stem t e e!onom' is not merel' redu!ed to one aspe!t among man'+ but a!tivel' dismissed from !onsideration. Aaterial reprodu!tion is redu!ed to t e sneering 8a!anian !ontempt for Ile servi!e des biens+I t e servi!ing of goods & i! pertains to t e uman animal beneat good and evil. H ' s ould Ladiou full' endorse AarxKs anal'sis of t e &orld e!onom' 3It ere is no need for a revision of Aarxism itself+I TNt i!s+ 9$U4 & ile keeping AarxKs entire problemati! at armKs lengt R 5n fa!t+ !apitalism is t e point of impasse in LadiouKs o&n s'stem+ t e problem & i! !annot be a!tivel' t oug t &it out grave danger to t e s'stem as a & ole. 7apitalKs great po&er+ t e tremendous ease &it & i! it !olonizes 3geograp i!+ !ultural+ ps'! i!4 territor'+ is pre!isel' t at it seizes situations at t eir evental site. 5n t eir parap rase of a brilliant but mu! (maligned passage in AarxKs Drundrisse+ Geleuze and Duattari insist t at I!apitalism as aunted all forms of so!iet'+ but it aunts t em as t eir terrif'ing nig tmare+ it is t e dread t e' feel of a flo& t at &ould elude t eir !odes.I2 5s t is flo& t at eludes ever' so!iet'Ks !odes not identi!al &it generi! multipli!it'+ t e void & i! + eluding ever' representation+ nonet eless aunts ever' situationR Goes not !apitalism make its entr' at a so!iet'Ks point of impasse-so!ial relations alread' aunted b' variousl' dissimulated exploitation-and revolutionize t em into t e !apital(labor relationR 2 safel' non(@rientalist version of t is &ould be t e eruption from modernist artKs evental site-t e art market+ & i! belonged to t e situation of modernism & ile being ex!luded from its represented state-of & at &e mig t !all t e IHar ol(event+I & i! inaugurates t e transition from t e formal to t e real subsumption of 3artisti!4 labor under 7apital. 5t makes perfe!t sense to sa' t at t is transition is t e trut of t e TNnd =age 30%U Har ol(event. 2s &e sa& earlier+ t e real subsumption of labor under 7apital+ t e !onversion of ever' relation into a monetar' relation+ is t e origin of formal equalit': t at is+ t e foundation of universalism. 2nd far from pertaining to mere animal life beneat t e level of t e trut (pro!edure+ !apitalism itself fits perfe!tl' t e form of t e revolutionar' Nvent. 5t &ould t en appear t at !apitalism is+ like religion+ eliminated from t e art(politi!s(s!ien!e(love series onl' b' fiat. 2nd & ' is t isR Le!ause t e e!onomi!+ t e Iservi!ing of goods+I !annot enter LadiouKs s'stem &it out immediatel' assuming t e status of a !ause. Nx!luded from dire!t !onsideration+ !apitalism as a !ondition of set t eor' is perfe!tl' inno!uousF its pre!onditional status belongs to a different order t an & at it !onditions. 5t opens up a mode of presentation+ but & at is presented existed all along: look at =aul+ for example. Lut in!luded as t e produ!t of a trut (pro!edure+ !apitalism immediatel' appears as t e basis for all t e ot ers: it is+ in fa!t+ t e revolutionar' irruption of 7apital 3in & atever so!iet'4 t at !onditions an' modern pro!ess of s!ien!e+ art+ love+ or politi!s. 5f LadiouKs s'stem &ere to !onsider !apitalism dire!tl'+ some elements+ t ose pertaining to t e Ibase+I &ould appear to ave more &eig t t an ot ers-t e Isuperstru!ture.I E e effe!ts of su! an in!lusion of !apitalism in LadiouKs s'stem-an in!lusion & i! not ing prevents-&ould be !atastrop i!. 6adi!al universalit' 3as opposed to t e istori!all' !onditioned universalit' imposed b' t e emergen!e of !apitalism4 &ould be!ome unt inkable. E e Ieternit'I of trut &ould 'ield to istori!ism.

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@nfor&+na&el* for Ba-io+. his grea& ene$* of ca%i&alis$ fi&s %erfec&l* <i&hin <ha& he consi-ers a &r+&h e)en&,&he al&erna&i)e $erel* re>crea&es &he s&a&+s D+o/ Bro<n. 02 3Ci! olas+ ?niversit' of 5llinois at 7 i!ago+ @r+ 2lain Ladiou and 9lavo/ Zi[ek+ Haiting for 9omet ing to >appen+ 76: E e Ce& 7entennial 6evie& 4.3 320044 2%9(3194. Ladiou !annot t ink 7apital pre!isel' be!ause 7apital as alread' t oug t Ladiou. 2nd letKs fa!e it: despite LadiouKs inspiring presentation+ not ing is more native to !apitalism t an is basi! narrative matrix. E e violent seizure of t e sub/e!t b' an idea+ fidelit' to it in t e absen!e of an' guarantee+ and ultimate transformation of t e state of t e situation: t ese are t e elements of t e narrative of entrepreneurial risk+ Irevolutionar' innovation+I t e Itransformation of t e industr'+I and so on. 5n pus ing a&a' material reprodu!tion+ Ladiou merel' adapts t is narrative to t e needs of intelle!tuals+ & o+ in LadiouKs !on!eption+ ave a monopol' over mu! of t e field of trut . Fail+re &o co%e <i&h &he %o<er of ca%i&alis$ -oo$s an* e&hical s*s&e$ &o fail+re/ Bro<n. 02 3Ci! olas+ ?niversit' of 5llinois at 7 i!ago+ @r+ 2lain Ladiou and 9lavo/ Zi[ek+ Haiting for 9omet ing to >appen+ 76: E e Ce& 7entennial 6evie& 4.3 320044 2%9(3194. E e problem &it t is et i!s-as Lre! t s o&ed us+ &it et i!s in general-is t at+ under !apitalism+ t e onl' full' !onsistent et i!al position is rut less self(interest. E ere is no et i!al position t at is bot minimall' !ompassionate and full' et i!all' !onsistent. Aauler in 9aint ;oan is doomed to make mone' from all of is generous impulsesF t e good &oman of 9ze! &an !an onl' elp er neig bors b' taking advantage of t em. 5n fa!t+ t is split !onstitutes part of !apitalismKs d'namism. E e ideologi!al for!e of !apitalism is t at so man' people are given a sub/e!tive interest in maintaining t e stabilit' of !apitalism+ even if t is interest involves !ompeting &it neig bors & o s are an Iob/e!tiveI interest in ending it. 2n' Iopting outI is at present simpl' quixoti!+ and onl' possible on t e basis of substantial privilege. =lainl'+ professors &ant tenured positions+ for t e same reason t e unemplo'ed &ant /obs: be!ause t e' exist. 32s for pla'ing t e sto!k market+ t is !riti!ism bu's neoliberal r etori! ook+ line+ and sinker: most a!ademi!s & o Ipla' t e sto!k marketI do so be!ause universities+ like man' ot er ?.9. emplo'ers+ ave s ifted t e burden of risk from t eir o&n retirement s'stems onto t e individual emplo'ees.4

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The s&a&e an- &he re)ol+&ionar* %oli&ical s+bHec& can coo%era&e in Ba-io+9s conce%&ion of &he al&erna&i)e/ Fall<ar-. 01 3Badiou: a sub ect to truth+ =eter >all&ard+ ?niversit' of Ainnesota =ress Ainneapolis ) 8ondon 2003+ =rofessor of Aodern Nuropean = ilosop '+ 7entre for 6esear! in Aodern Nuropean = ilosop '+ Aiddlesex ?niverist'4. He kno& t at LadiouKs earl' and unequivo!all' ostile attitude to t e state as !onsiderabl' evolved. ;ust o& far it as evolved remains a little un!lear. >is !on!eption of politi!s remains resolutel' anti!onsensual+ anti.0re(presentative+ 1 and t us antidemo!rati! 3in t e ordinar' sense of t e &ord4. Gemo!ra!' as be!ome t e !entral ideologi!al !ategor' of t e neo( liberal status quo+ and an' genuine 0p ilosop ' toda' is above all somet ing t at enables people to ave done &it t e Kdemo!rati!K submission to t e &orld as it is.1 ## Lut e seems more &illing+ no&+ to engage &it t is submission on its o&n terms. 8a Gistan!e politique again offers t e most pre!ise points de repSre. @n t e one and+ t e @= remains suspi!ious of an' politi!al !ampaign-for instan!e+ an ele!toral !ontest or petition movement-t at operates as a 0prisoner of t e parliamentar' spa!e.1 #$ 5t remains 0an absolute ne!essit' Tof politi!sU not to ave t e state as norm. E e separation of politi!s and state is foundational of politi!s.1 @n t e ot er and+ o&ever+ it is no& equall' !lear t at 0t eir separation need not lead to t e banis ment of t e state from t e field of politi!al t oug t.1 #% E e @= no& !on!eives itself in a tense+ nondiale!ti!al 0vis(](vis1 &it t e state+ a stan!e t at re/e!ts an intimate !ooperation 3in t e interests of !apital4 as mu! as it refuses 0an' antagonisti! !on!eption of t eir operation-a !on!eption t at sma!ks of !lassism.1 E ere is no more ! oi!e to be made bet&een t e state and revolutionF t e 0vis(](vis demands t e presen!e of t e t&o terms and not t e anni ilation of one of t e t&o.1 #9

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AT BA" O@' ALT#(!AT 8# @!WO(KABL# A!" EOMM@! ST Ba-io+9s al&erna&i)e of ra-ical egali&arianis$ is +n<orkable an- is base- on a faile- $o-el of co$$+nis$/ Fall<ar-. 01 3Badiou: a sub ect to truth+ =eter >all&ard+ ?niversit' of Ainnesota =ress Ainneapolis ) 8ondon 2003+ =rofessor of Aodern Nuropean = ilosop '+ 7entre for 6esear! in Aodern Nuropean = ilosop '+ Aiddlesex ?niverist'4. LadiouKs politi!s ave al&a's been about 0!olle!tive eman!ipation+ or t e problem of t e reign of libert' in infinite situations1 3G@+ "4F !f. E7+ #04. >is politi!al goals ave remained !onsistent over t e 'ears+ sin!e 0ever' istori!al event is !ommunist+ to t e degree t at K!ommunistK designates t e transtemporal sub/e!tivit' of eman!ipation+ t e egalitarian passion+ t e 5dea of /usti!e+ t e &ill to break &it t e !ompromises of t e servi!e des biens+ t e deposition of egoism+ an intoleran!e of oppression+ t e &is to impose a &it ering a&a' of t e state. E e absolute preeminen!e of multiple presentation over representation.1 %4 H at as ! anged is !ommunismKs mode of existen!e. 5n LadiouKs earlier &ork+ t e pra!ti!al 3if ultimatel' unattainable4 goal &as al&a's to effe!t t e a!tual+ istori!al a! ievement of stateless !ommunit'. Eoda'+ in order to preserve politi!sK 0intrinsi! relation to trut 1 3G@+ 4%4+ Ladiou as ad to let go of almost an' sort of politi!al engagement &it t e e!onomi! and t e so!ial. >e !ontinues to de!lare a & oll' egalitarian politi!s+ but as reserved for a stri!tl' sub/e!tive plane. E e unqualified /usti!e of a generi! !ommunism+ first proposed in AarxKs 1%44 Aanus!ripts and !on!eived in LadiouKs o&n terms as t e advent of 0pure presentation+ 1 as t e 0undivided aut orit' of t e infinite+ or t e advent of t e !olle!tive as su! 1 32A+ 914+ remains t e onl' valid sub/e!tive norm for LadiouKs politi!al t oug t. E is sub/e!tive norm as be!ome ever more distant+ o&ever+ from t e da'(to(da' business of 0ob/e!tive1 politi!s: t e programmati! pursuit of t e generi! ideal is itself no& dismissed as a 06omanti!1 dream leading to 0fraternit' terror1 32A+ 1014.

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AT BATA LL#' TF#O(J OF #X=#!" T@(# BA" Ba&aille9s &heor* of ex%en-i&+re -oesn9& a%%l* &o %os&$o-ern cons+$er ca%i&alis$. <hich is base- on $assi)e a$o+n&s of cons+$%&ion an- <as&e K exac&l* <ha& Ba&aille a-)oca&es/ Jang 2000 LAa'fair Aei( ui+ =rofessor of 2nt ropolog' at t e ?niversit' of 7alifornia 9anta Larbara+ as eld fello&s ips at t e 7enter for 7 inese 9tudies of t e ?niversit' of Ai! igan+ t e 7 i!ago >umanities 5nstitute+ ?niversit' of 7 i!ago+ and t e 5nstitute for 2dvan!ed 9tud'+ =rin!eton+ 0=utting Dlobal 7apitalism in 5ts =la!e: N!onomi! >'bridit'+ Lataille+ and 6itual Nxpenditure+1 7urrent 2nt ropolog'+ ?niversit' of 7 i!ago ;ournals4 9! olars su! as ;ean;osep Doux 3199%4 ave pointed to a troubling overlap bet&een Lataille*s vie&s on luxur' and sa!rifi!ial expenditure and postmodern !onsumer !apitalism. 7onsumer !apitalism is also predi!ated on massive !onsumption and &aste rat er t an on t e t rift+ as!eti!ism+ and a!!umulation against & i! Lataille dire!ted is t eor' of expenditure. 5t ex ibits potlat! features in t e tenden!' for businesses to give goods a&a' in t e ope t at 0suppl' !reates its o&n demand1F it !ollapses t e distin!tion bet&een luxur' and useful goods and bet&een need and desire 3Doux 199%4. ?nlike modernist !apitalism+ postmodern !onsumer !apitalism is driven b' !onsumption rat er t an produ!tion. E us+ Lataille*s vision of t e ritual destru!tion of &ealt as def'ing t e prin!iples of a!!umulative and produ!tive !apitalism does not address t is different p ase of !onsumer !apitalism+ & ose !ontours ave onl' be!ome !lear sin!e is deat in 19#2. 5t seems to me t at despite t eir overt similarities+ t e prin!iples of ritual !onsumption and t ose of !onsumer !apitalism are basi!all' in!ompatible. 5f Lataille ad addressed our !onsumer so!iet' toda'+ e &ould ave said t at t is sort of !onsumption is still in t e servi!e of produ!tion and produ!tive a!!umulation+ sin!e ever' a!t of !onsumption in t e &orld of leisure+ entertainment+ media+ fas ion+ and ome d\!or merel' feeds ba!k into t e gro&t of t e e!onom' rat er t an leading to t e finalit' and loss of trul' nonprodu!tive expenditure. Nven mu! of modern &arfare is no longer trul' destru!tive but tied into t e furt ering of militar'industrial produ!tion. Cor+ despite its e!onomi! ex!esses+ does our !onsumer !ulture toda' ! allenge t e basi! e!onomi! logi! of rational private a!!umulation as a self depleting ar! ai! sa!rifi!ial e!onom' does.1" <urt ermore+ !apitalist !onsumption is ver' mu! an individual !onsumption rat er t an one involving t e & ole !ommunit' or so!ial order.

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AT BATA LL#' !O L !K TO MO"#(! EA= TAL SM Ba&aille -oesn9& a%%l* &o $o-ern ca%i&alis$. <hich is alrea-* base- on excessi)e cons+$%&ion an- -esire/ 7o+x e& al 90 3;ean(;osep + t e 8a&ren!e <avrot professor of <ren! and ! air of <ren! studies at 6i!e ?niversit'+ Qat r'n 2s! eim+ = G and editor of !ature Biotech+ 6 onda Dareli!k+ taug t at Xale+ ?niversit' of 7olorado at Loulder+ and 7olumbia+ !riti! of literature and politi!s+ = G in !omparative literature+ 0Deneral N!onomi!s and =ostmodern 7apitalism+1 Xale <ren! 9tudies Co. $% @n Lataille+ pp. 20#(2244 H ere do &e situate Lataille*s !laimR H at appens to t e demand of t e sa!red in !apitalist so!iet'R >o& do &e re!on!ile t e affirmation t at !apitalism represents an unpre!edented break &it all ar! ai! Tpre!apitalistU forms of expenditure and t e postulate of t e ne!essar' universalit' of spending as pure lossR E is is t e diffi!ult' Lataille &ants to maintain as a general ant ropologi!al prin!iple t e ne!essit' of unprodu!tive expenditure & ile simultaneousl' up olding t e istori! singularit' of !apitalism &it regard to t is expenditure. Lourgeois so!iet' !orresponds to a 0general atrop ' of former sumptuar' pro!esses1 3414. 2n anomal' & ereb' loss is not absent 3& i! &ould !ontradi!t t e general prin!iple4 but virtuall' unreadable: 0Eoda'+ t e great and free so!ial forms of unprodu!tive expenditure ave disappeared. Cevert eless+ &e s ould not !on!lude from t is t at t e ver' prin!iple of expenditure is no longer situated at t e end of e!onomi! a!tivit'1 33$4. 9o & at appens to ostentatious expenditure in !apitalismR 2nd !an &e reall' believe+ furt ermore+ t at t e even more radi!al desa!ralization effe!ted b' !ommunism !ould be!ome a libertarian affirmation of sovereignt' . t e feast of self(!ons!iousness+ &it out divinities and m't sR Nver't ing suggests t at Lataille &as unable to arti!ulate t e m'sti!al tension to&ard sovereign self(!ons!iousness 0&it out form and mode+1 0pure expenditure1 32244 &it a utopia of so!ial life t at &ould make it possible+ nor to explain in a developed !apitalist so!iet' t e !onsumption of t e surplus be'ond its reinvestment in produ!tion. Co& it is quite !lear t at toda'*s !apitalism as !ome a long &a' from t e 7alvinist et i! t at presided at its beginning. E e values of t rift+ sobriet'+ and as!eti!ism no longer ave t e pla!e t at t e' eld & en Lalza! !ould !ari!ature t e dominant bourgeois mentalit' &it t e ! ara!ters of p\re Drandet or t e usurer Dobse!k. 5t is doubtful t at t e spirit of !apitalism+ & i! a!!ording to Heber is expressed &it an almost !lassi!al purit' in Len/amin <ranklin*s prin!iples T0 e & o kills a five s illing !oin assassinates all t at it !ould ave produ!ed: entire sta!ks of sterling pounds1U T!ited b' Lataille+ 1#3U+ !ould toda' be !onsidered t e spirit of t e times. ?ndoubtedl'+ t e pa!e at & i! all residual sa!red elements in erited from feudalism are eliminated as qui!kened. but asn*t !ontemporar' so!iet' undergone a transformation of t e et i! of !onsumption+ desire+ and pleasure t at renders t e !lassi!al THeberianU anal'ses of t e spirit of !apitalism Tto & i! Lataille subs!ribesU inadequateR 5f t e great opposition bet&een t e sa!red and t e profane no longer stru!tures so!ial life+ if !ommunal+ sa!rifi!ial+ and glorious expenditure as been repla!ed b' private expenditure+ it is no less true t at advan!ed !apitalism seems to ex!eed t e prin!iple of restri!ted e!onom' and utilit' t at presided at its beginning. Co so!iet' as 0&asted1 as mu! as !ontemporar' !apitalism. H at is t e form of t is &aste+ of t is ex!essR

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Ba&aille belie)es h+$an sacrifice is &he +l&i$a&e for$ &ransgression> &his %ro)es his al& is a<f+l/ =a)lo)ski 2003 38inda+ editor for t e database Nnotes and of multiple a!ademi! !olle!tions+ 0Lataille+ Deorges: 5ntrodu!tion+1 E&entiet (7entur' 8iterar' 7riti!ism+ ttp:))&&&.enotes.!om)t&entiet (!entur'(!riti!ism)bataille(georges4 Lataille soug t 0sovereignt'1 t roug loss of self+ & i! is a! ieved t roug transgression and ex!ess+ notabl' t roug laug ter+ religious e!stas'+ sa!rifi!e+ eroti!ism+ deat + and poetr'. 7onsidering uman sa!rifi!e t e ultimate transgression+ Lataille &as fas!inated b' religious feast da's t at in!luded rites of sa!rifi!e. E is fas!ination led Lataille to t e &ork of t e ant ropologist Aar!el Aauss and to a parti!ular interest in t e !ultures of t e 2zte!s and Cort 2meri!an 5ndians. 5n t eir use of uman sa!rifi!e and potlat! + respe!tivel'+ Lataille sa& an ex!essive+ generous spirit & i! e admired. 2s a dire!t result of t is+ Lataille &rote an un!onventional t eor' of e!onomi!s t at promoted &aste and ex!ess+ rat er t an a!quisition. Lelieving t at transgression existed be'ond mere &ords+ Lataille !onstantl' battled &it t e problem of &riting t e inexpressible. Ba&aille9s reasoning H+s&ifies a&roci&ies an- -ea&h/ Bol-&> rons. 2000 38eslie 2nne+ 2sso!iate =rofessor of <ren! at Broc" #niversity$ %Military discipline and revolutionary e&altation: the dismantling o' %l(illusion lyri)ue* in Malrau&(s L(+spoir and Bataille(s Le Bleu du Ciel$* ,omantic ,evie-$ vol. /0 issue 1$ p. 1203 5n 1933+ Lataille !ontributed a revie& of 2ndr\ Aalraux*s novel La Condition humaine to t e ultra left(&ing /ournal La Criti)ue sociale.1 5n t is arti!le+ Lataille questions t e pla!e t at revolution o!!upies in t e larger and more general !ontext of 0 uman agitation.1 >e asks+ for example+ & et er t e !onvulsive movements of revolt+ so!ial up eaval+ and revolution s ould be situated outside of+ or above+ & at is normall' experien!ed as life in its quotidian expressions of tenderness+ ent usiasm or even ate. 5n t e name of & at aut orit'+ for example+ mig t one be /ustified in pla!ing t e fas!ination &it pleasure+ torture and possible deat outside t e limits of a!!eptable so!ial pra!ti!e . extreme states often linked to revolutionar' up eaval outside t e limits of a!!eptable so!ial pra!ti!eR 2not er &a' of situating t e !onvulsion of revolutionar' movements . an approa! !learl' endorsed b' Lataille . is to pla!e it squarel' &it in t e frame&ork of any a!tivit' marked b' agitation. <rom t is perspe!tive+ t e a!ts of torture and murder &ould arise from an ex!itabilit' or arousal similar in nature to t at intensif'ing t e fur' of t e revolutionar' impulse. E is impulse+ &rites Lataille+ is a means b' & i! t e proletariat . & o ad for a long time been deprived of t e possibilit' of attributing an' value to suffering and to life . is able to gain a!!ess to value itself+ a value linked to states of ex!itation unsubordinated to an' simple politi!al means or end. E is value+ and t e state of agitation to & i! it is linked+ gives t e proletariat bot life and ope+ for & i! even deat in all its atro!it' mig t be t e pa'ment required.

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Ba&aille celebra&es an- glorifies <ar for <ar9s sake,his i-eas are &he fo+n-a&ion of fascis$/ Wolin. 2004 36i! ard+ Gistinguis ed =rofessor of >istor' at t e 7it' ?niversit' of Ce& Xork Draduate 7enter+ 08eft <as!ism: Deorges Lataille and t e Derman 5deolog'17onstellations vol. 2 issue 3+ pp. 39$(42%4 5n t e &orldvie& of bot Lataille and t at of Derman 'oung !onservatives+ &ar pla's an essential+ positive role. 5t serves as a means of dissolving t e principium individuationis: t e prin!iple of a bourgeois sub/e!tivit'+ on & i! t e omogenous order of so!iet' ( a &orld of loneliness and fragmentation . depends. <or+ a!!ording to Lataille+ 0t e general movement of life is... a!!omplis ed be'ond t e demands of individuals.132 5t is in pre!isel' t is spirit t at e !elebrates t e non(utilitarian nature of 0!ombat1 or 0&ar1 as a t'pe of aest eti!ist end in itself: 04lory...expresses a movement of senseless frenz'+ of measureless expenditure of energ'+ & i! t e fervor of !ombat presupposes. 7ombat it glorious in t at it is al&a's be'ond !al!ulation at some moment.133 <or t e same reasons+ Lataille eulogizes t ose premodern 0&arrier so!ieties in & i! pure+ un!al!ulated violen!e and ostentatious forms of !ombat eld s&a'.134 <or under su! !onditions+ &ar &as not made subservient to t e vulgar ends of enterprise and a!!umulation+ as is t e !ase for modern(da' imperialism+ but served as a glorious end in itself. Xet in t e earl' 1930s+ it &as pre!isel' t is aest eti!ist !elebration of 0violen!e for violen!e*s sake+1 or 0&ar for &ar*s sake+1 t at Len/amin vie&ed as t e essen!e of modern fas!ism. 2s e remarks in a &ell kno&n passage: 05iat ars 6 pereat mundus+1 sa's fas!ism+ and+ as Aarinetti admits+ expe!ts &ar to suppl' t e artisti! gratifi!ation of a sense pereption t at as been ! anged b' te! nolog'...Aankind+ & i! in >omer*s time &as an ob/e!t of !ontemplation for t e @l'mpian gods+ no& is one for itself. 5ts self(alienation as rea! ed su! a degree t at it !an experien!e its o&n destru!tion as an aest eti! pleasure of t e first order. E is is t e situation of politi!s & i! fas!ism is rendering aest eti!. 3" 5n Lataille*s t oug t &ar serves as t e arbinger of a !ultural transfiguration in & i! t e prima!' of self(subsistent sub/e!tivit' &ould be repla!ed b' t e values of an 0unavo&able1 or 0e!stati! !ommunit'1: t at is+ a !ommunit' t at &ould no longer be governed b' t e goals of a 0visual !ulture1 . transparen!'+ self(identit'+ et!. . but instead+ t ose of self(la!eration+ differen!e+ and finitude. 5n fa!t t is Lataille(inspired program of an e!stati! !ommunit' as been quite expli!itl' !arried fort and explored in t e politi!al &ritings of Aauri!e Llan! ot 3La Communaute inavouable7 19%34 and ;ean(8u! Can!' 3La Communaute desoeuvree7 19%"4. Ba&aille9s %hiloso%h* e$%hasiBes &he -es&r+c&ion of <ar an- conflic& Wolin. 2004 36i! ard+ Gistinguis ed =rofessor of >istor' at t e 7it' ?niversit' of Ce& Xork Draduate 7enter+ 08eft <as!ism: Deorges Lataille and t e Derman 5deolog'17onstellations vol. 2 issue 3+ pp. 39$(42%4 Aoreover+ t e !ultural attitudes of bot 9pe^ngler and Lataille are linked b' an aest eti!s of violen!e t at is ig l' ! ara!teristi! of t e 0front generation.1 5n a ke' passage in 8he 9ecline o' the :est+ 9pemgler+ depi!ting t e 0life(&orld1 of blood and instin!t t at ad been repressed b' t e <austian spirit of modernit'+ observes: 0Har is t e primar' politi!s of everything t at lives and so mu! so t at in t e dept s battle and life are one+ and being &ill(to(battle expire toget er.12% 9imilarl'+ for ;unger+ 0Har is an intoxi!ation be'ond all bonds. 5t is a frenz' &it out !autions and limits !omparable onl' to t e for!es of nature.129 Lataille 3t e meaning of is name in <ren! s ould be re!alled4+ too+ is !onvin!ed t at 0!onfli!t is life. Aan*s value depends on is aggressive strengt . 2 living man regards deat as t e fulfillment of lifeF e does not see it as misfortune. ...5 AX9N8< 2A H26.130 2s ;a' observes in t is !onne!tion: 0on a deeper level+ t e &ar THorld Har 5U seems to ave exer!ised a !ertain positive fas!ination Ton LatailleU. <or it is striking t at man' of Lataille*s obsessive t emes &ould betra' an affinit' for t e experien!es of degradation+ pollution+ violen!e+ and !ommunal bonding t at &ere ! ara!teristi! of life in t e tren! es.1

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Ba&aille <as an a-$irer of fascis$ an- belie)e- i& <as &he nobles& for$ of %oli&ical r+le/ Wolin. 04 36i! ard+ Gistinguis ed =rofessor of >istor' at t e 7it' ?niversit' of Ce& Xork Draduate 7enter+ 08eft <as!ism: Deorges Lataille and t e Derman 5deolog'17onstellations vol. 2 issue 3+ pp. 39$(42%4
>ere+ t e anal'sis must begin &it an examination of Lataille*s essa'+ 0E e =s'! ologi!al 9tru!ture of <as!ism+1 often rig tl' ailed as a t eoreti!al breakt roug in our understanding of t e mass ps'! ologi!al appeal of modern aut oritarian rule. Xet+ t e essa' also !ontains a barel' veiled admiration for t e vitalit' and energ' of t e existing fas!ist states+ espe!iall' & en !ontrasted &it t e de!aden!e and inertia of t e !ontemporar' Nuropean demo!ra!ies. Lataille purve's a !ritique of parliamentarianism t at is as zealous as an't ing one finds in t e &ork of 7arl 9! mitt. =arliamentar' de!ision(making+ e !laims+ partakes & oll' of t e order of t e omogenous. 5t aims solel' at !o(optation+ t e elimination of differen!e. 2s su! + it is purel' instrumental and serves primaril' to suppress t e breakt roug of eterogeneous elements t at t reaten to explode t e normative bases of t e given e!onomi! and politi!al order. 2s Lataille observes+ in a striking anti!ipation of ;ean(<ran!ois 8'otard*s asso!iation of 0!onsensus1 and 0terror1: 0E e redu!tion of differen!es in parliamentar' pra!ti!e indi!ates all t e possible !omplexit' of t e internal a!tivit' of adaptation required b' homogeneity.#0

Lataille !an per!eive no fundamental differen!es bet&een t e !ondu!t of politi!al and e!onomi! life in modern demo!rati! so!ieties+ insofar as bot are examples par e&cellence of omogeneit' . t is despite t e fa!t t at dis!ussion aims at mutual understanding+ & ereas e!onomi! a!tivit' is goal(oriented and utilitarian. Diven t is !urt dismissal of t e institutional bases of demo!ra!'+ it !omes as little surprise t at Lataille glorifies t e role pla'ed b' fas!ism in modern politi!al life as a t'pe of breakt roug of t e eterogeneous. <or Lataille+ 0t e fas!ist leaders are in!ontestabl' part of eterogeneous existen!e. @pposed to demo!rati! politi!ians+ & o represent in different !ountries t e platitude in erent to homogeneous so!iet'+ Aussolini and >itler immediatel' stand out as somet ing other.1#2 H at e admires about t ese men and t e movement t e' represent is t at t e' embod' 0a for!e t at situates t em above ot er men+1 & i! a!!ounts for t eir 0sovereignt'.1 Xet+ e also esteems greatl' t eir t oroug going antagonism to la&: 0t e fa!t t at la&s are broken is onl' t e most obvious sign of t e trans!endent+ heterogeneous nature of fas!ist a!tion.1#3 >ere+ t e parallels &it 9! mitt*s !ritique of bourgeois legal positivism are of !ourse profound.
Lot 9! mitt and Lataille vie& t e institution of la& as t e !onsummate embodiment of t e spirit of bourgeois rationalism. 5t s'mbolizes ever't ing t e' detest about t e reigning so!ial order: its prosai! longing for se!urit'+ its unrevolutionar' nature+ its ab orren!e of 0trans!enden!e+1 its anat ematization of t e vitalit' and intensit' one finds in t e 0ex!eption1 39! mitt4 or 0transgression1 3Lataille4. Aoreover+ for Lataille t e s'stem of la& merits espe!iall' ars treatment insofar as it signifies a t'pe !onse!ration of t e profane order of t ings+ as su! + it stands as an impediment to !onta!t &it t e eterogeneous or t e sa!red. Lataille !on!ludes is endorsement of fas!ist politi!s &it t e follo&ing en!omium: 0 Heterogeneous fas!ist a!tion belongs to t e entire set of ig er forms. 5t makes an appeal to sentiments traditionall' defined as e&alted and noble and tends to !onstitute aut orit' as an un!onditional prin!iple situated above an' utilitarian /udgment. 1 2s opposed to t e bourgeois order of life+ & i! + &it its utilitarianism and its legalism+ merel' san!tifies 0t e prose of t e &orld+1 fas!ism offers a ne& politi!al aest eti!+ t e return+ as it &ere+ of an aesthetic politics: a t'pe of politi!s t at reintrodu!es t e long lost elements of ! arismati! leaders ip 3in Lataille*s terms+ 0sovereignt'14+ violen!e+ and martial glor'. 5t is+ moreover+ a politi!s t at fa!ilitates a great emotional !at exis bet&een leaders and masses+ a point & i! Lataille emp asizes repeatedl'. <or one of fas!ism*s great attributes is t at it 0!learl' demonstrates & at !an be expe!ted from a timel' re!ourse to rea&akened affe!tive for!es1 . for!es !apable of guaranteeing a measure of collective solidarity+ & i! ave been banis ed from a so!iet' in & i! t e division of labor and rationalization reign supreme. 5n sum+ fas!ism serves to reintrodu!e a t'pe of ecstatic politics into t e forlorn and disen! anted lands!ape of politi!al modernit'+ a politi!s t at aims at t e !reation of a quasi(Cietzs! ean ecstatic community.

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The sacrificial %rac&ices Ba&aille celebra&es s+s&ain exis&ing %o<er rela&ions/ Wolin. 2004 36i! ard+ Gistinguis ed =rofessor of >istor' at t e 7it' ?niversit' of Ce& Xork Draduate 7enter+ 08eft <as!ism: Deorges Lataille and t e Derman 5deolog'17onstellations vol. 2 issue 3+ pp. 39$(42%4 Xet+ in is !elebrator' dis!ussions of sa!rifi!e+ potla! + and so fort + Lataille fundamentall' mis!onstrues t e istori!al and !ontextual parameters of su! ritual pra!ti!es. @ne !ould even go so far as to sa' t at+ in a !ertain measure+ Lataille*s understanding of t ese p enomena su!!umbs to a t'pe of 0primitivism1: e de!ontextualizes t e !ultural pra!ti!es e anal'zes in order t e better to in!orporate t em &it in is o&n t eoreti!al agenda of is o&n !ritique of modernit'. >ere+ Lataille seeks not ing less t an 0an ant ropolog' t at &ill itself provide a living . and orgiasti! . m't to overturn+ t roug its experien!e on a !olle!tive level+ Pmodern* sterile bourgeois so!iet'.1 "1 Lataille ! ooses to vie& sa!rifi!e and gift(giving in t e first instan!e as gratuitous+ non(utilitarian+ or+ as e puts it+ 0 aving no ends be'ond t emselves1 . but t is is far from t e !ase. H ile e is !orre!t in ! ara!terizing su! pra!ti!es as related to t e produ!tion of &ealt + t e' are ver' mu! oriented to&ard the reproduction o' e&isting relations o' po-er. E e a!t of uman sa!rifi!e as pra!ti!ed among t e 2zte!s redounds to t e !redit of t e sa!rifi!er3s4: it reinfor!es existing relations of aut orit'+ viz.+ t e aut orit' of t ose & o are empo&ered to !ommission a sa!rifi!e 3in t is !ase+ t e priests and aristo!ra!'4. 5t provides t ose in aut orit' &it a quasi( divine po&er to preside over life and deat . 5n t is sense+ it is misleading to !laim t at sa!rifi!e as no end be'ond itself.

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Ba&aille is <rong > &he <orl-9s s+%%l* of energ* an- reso+rces is fini&e an- is being cons+$e- ra%i-l* no<. risking ex&inc&ion/ T)erberg. 07 3Dail N.+ fello& of t e 7asualt' 2!tuarial 9o!iet' and a Aember of t e 2meri!an 2!adem' of 2!tuaries+ &rites for 7ontingen!' magazine and E e@ilGrum.!om+ 0@ur &orld is finite: 5s t is a problemR1 Nnerg' Lulletin)@ur <inite Horld+ ttp:))&&&.energ'bulletin.net)node)2911$4 He all kno& t e &orld is finite. E e number of atoms is finite+ and t ese atoms !ombine to form a finite number of mole!ules. E e mix of mole!ules ma' ! ange over time+ but in total+ t e number of mole!ules is also finite. He also kno& t at gro&t is !entral to our &a' of life. Lusinesses are expe!ted to gro&. Nver' da' ne& businesses are formed and ne& produ!ts are developed. E e &orld population is also gro&ing+ so all t is adds up to a uge utilization of resour!es. 2t some point+ gro&t in resour!e utilization must !ollide &it t e fa!t t at t e &orld is finite. He ave gro&n up t inking t at t e &orld is so large t at limits &ill never be an issue. Lut no&+ &e are starting to bump up against limits. H ere are &e rea! ing eart *s limitsR 1. @il @il is a finite resour!e+ sin!e it is no longer being formed. @il produ!tion in a given area tends to in!rease for a time+ t en begins to de!line+ as t e available oil is pumped out. @il produ!tion in t e ?nited 9tates as follo&ed t is pattern 3<igure 14+ as as oil produ!tion in t e Cort 9ea 3<igure 24. E is de!line as taken pla!e in spite of te! nolog' improvements. E ere is no& serious !on!ern t at &orld oil produ!tion &ill begin to de!line
31peak14+ /ust as it as in t e ?nited 9tates and t e Cort 9ea. 5 dis!ussed t is earlier in @il _uiz ( Eest Xour Qno&ledge . 2 !ongressional !ommittee &as also !on!erned about t is issue+ and asked t e ?9 Dovernment 2!!ountabilit' @ffi!e to stud' it. E e D2@*s report+ titled 76?GN @58: ?n!ertaint' about <uture 9uppl' Aakes 5t 5mportant to Gevelop a 9trateg' for 2ddressing a =eak and Ge!line in @il =rodu!tion !onfirmed t at t is is an important issue. Nxa!tl' o& soon t is de!line &ill begin is not !ertain+ but man' predi!t t at t e de!line ma' begin &it in t e next fe& 'ears. 2. Catural Das Catural gas in Cort 2meri!a is also rea! ing its limits. ?nited 9tates natural gas produ!tion rea! ed its peak in 19$3. Na! 'ear+ more and more &ells are drilled+ but t e average amount of gas produ!ed per &ell de!lines. E is o!!urs be!ause t e best sites &ere developed first+ and t e later sites are more marginal. E e ?nited 9tates as been importing more and more natural gas from 7anada+ but t is is also

. <res Hater <res &ater is needed for drinking and irrigation+ but ere too &e are rea! ing limits. Hater from melting i!e !aps is de!lining in quantit' be!ause of global &arming. Hater is being pumped from aquifers mu! faster t an it is being repla!ed+ and &ater tables are dropping b' one to t ree
rea! ing its limits. Le!ause of t ese issues+ t e total amount of natural gas available to t e ?nited 9tates is likel' to de!line in t e next fe& 'ears ( quite possibl' leading to s ortages. 3 meters a 'ear in man' areas. 9ome rivers+ espe!iall' in 7 ina and 2ustralia+ are !lose to dr' be!ause of diversion for agri!ulture and a &arming !limate. 5n t e ?nited 9tates+ &ater limitations are espe!iall'

E e topsoil &e depend on for agri!ulture is !reated ver' slo&l' ( about one in! in 300 to "00 'ears+ depending on t e lo!ation. E e extensive tilling of t e eart *s soil t at is no& being done results in man' stresses on t is topsoil+ in!luding erosion+ loss of organi! matter+ and ! emi!al degradation. <requent irrigation often results in salination+ as &ell. 2s so!iet' tries to feed more and more people+ and produ!e biofuel as &ell+ t ere is pressure to pus soil to its limits.use land in areas sub/e!t to erosionF use more and more fertilizer+ erbi!ides+ and pesti!idesF and remove t e organi! material needed to build up t e soil. 2re t ere indire!t impa!ts as &ellR Lesides depleting oil+ natural gas+ fres &ater+ and top soil+ t e intensive use of t e eart *s resour!es is resulting in pollution of air and &ater+ and appears to be !ontributing to global &arming as &ell. 7an te! nolog' over!ome t ese finite &orld issuesR H ile &e ave been tr'ing to develop solutions+ su!!ess as been limited to date. H en &e ave tried to find substitutes+ &e ave mostl' managed to trade one problem for anot er:
important in t e 9out &est and in t e more arid part of t e =lains 9tates. 4. Eop soil

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AT BATA LL#' #X=#!" T@(! W TFO@T (#S#(8# #XT !ET O! #xcessi)e cons+$%&ion <ill ca+se ex&inc&ion K i&9s alrea-* a& an +ns+s&ainable le)el/ Trainer. 07 3Eed Erainer+ 9enior 8e!turer in t e 9! ool of 9o!ial Hork at t e ?niversit' of Ce& 9out Hales. 06ene&able Nnerg' 7annot 9ustain a 7onsumer 9o!iet'1 p. 12%(294 5t is of t e utmost importan!e to re!ognize t at & et er or not rene&able energ' !an sustain !onsumer(!apitalist so!iet' is not a matter of & et er it !an meet present energ' demand. E e essential question is & et er it !an enable !onstant in!rease int e volume of goods and servi!es being !onsumed and t e asso!iated in!rease in energ' demand. Nnerg' demand is rising signifi!antl'+ alt oug estimates of future demand var'. 2L26N*s +nergy ;utloo" <===s o&s t at t e average annual rate of gro&t in energ' use in 2ustralia over
t e de!ade of t e 1990s &as around 2."` p. a. E e Australian >earboo" s o&s t at bet&een 19%2 and 199% 2ustralian energ' use in!reased "0`+ an arit meti!al average gro&t rate of 3.13` p.a.+ and t e rate as been faster in more re!ent 'ears. 3Drap ".12.4 >o&ever 2L26N estimates t at 2ustralian energ' demand &ill slo&+ rea! ing about 1.9` p.a. b' 2040+ meaning more t an a doubling in annual use b' t en. 5n ;ul' 2003 2ustralian ele!tri!it' aut orities &arned t at bla!kouts are likel' in !oming 'ears due to t e rapid rate of in!rease in demand+ estimated at almost 3` pa for t e next five 'ears. 32L7 Ce&s+ 31 ;ul'.4 6obbins 320034 reports CNAA7@ predi!ting ele!tri!it' gro&t over t e next 10 'ears in C9H+ _ueensland and Bi!toria as 3.1`+ 3."` and 2.#` p.a. respe!tivel'. =old' 3200"4 s o&s t at over t e past 100 'ears 2ustralian energ' !onsumption as follo&ed DG= gro&t !losel'+ and e estimates t at in re!ent 'ears it as approximated a gro&t rate of 3.#` p.a. 5n 2004 &orld

E us t e !ommitment to gro&t greatl' exa!erbates t e problem+ and in turn all of t e ot er resour!e suppl' problems+ be!ause all involve an energ' !omponent. <or instan!e if t e !ost of fuel in!reases signifi!antl'+ t en so &ill t e !ost of food and minerals+ and even universit' !ourses+ be!ause fuel is needed to produ!e t em. 5t as been argued above t at rene&ables are not likel' to be !apable of meeting present ele!tri!it' and liquid fuel demand+ but given t e inertia built into gro&t trends+ t e demand to be met &ill probabl' be t ree or four times as big as it is no& b' mid !entur'...and doubling ever' approximatel' 3" 'ears t ereafter. Eo summarise regarding <ault 1+ !onsumer(!apitalist so!iet' is obviousl' grossl' unsustainable. He ave far overs ot levels of produ!tion+ !onsumption+ resour!e use and affluen!e t at are sustainable for ourselves over a long period of time+ let alone extended to all t e &orld*s people. Xet our top priorit' is to in!rease t em !ontinuousl'+ &it out limit. E is is t e basi! !ause of t e man' alarming sustainabilit' problems no& t reatening our survival.
energ' use /umped+ gro&ing at 4.3` p.a. 37atan+ 200".4

Michigan 7 Week Seniors 2009 66BA@"( LLA("66

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AT BA@"( LLA("' BA@"( LLA(" ! F L SM Ba+-rillar- is &oo nihilis&ic &o a%%l* &o %oli&ics/ B+&&erfiel- 02 3Lradle'+ 2ssistant =rofessor of Nnglis at ?niversit' of His!onsin at 8a 7rosse+ IE e Laudrillardian 9'mboli!+ 9)11+ and t e Har of Dood and NvilI =ostmodern 7ulture+ volume 13+ 9eptember+ =ro/e!t A?9N4 <rom =rin!ess Giana to 9)11+ ;ean Laudrillard as been t e prop et of t e postmodern media spe!ta!le+ t e 'perreal event. 5n t e 19$0s and %0s+ our !olle!tive fas!ination &it t ings like !ar !ras es+ dead !elebrities+ terrorists and ostages &as a ma/or t eme in LaudrillardKs &ork on t e s'mboli! and s'mboli! ex! ange+ and in is post(9)11 I8KNsprit du Eerrorisme+I e as taken it upon imself to de!ip er terrorismKs s'mboli! message. >e does so in t e &ake of su! s!at ing !ritiques as Gouglas QellnerKs ;ean Laudrillard: <rom Aarxism to =ostmodernism and Le'ond 319%94+ & i! atta!ked LaudrillardKs t eor' as Ian imaginar' !onstru!t & i! tries to sedu!e t e &orld to be!ome as t eor' &ants it to be+ to follo& t e s!enario s!ripted in t e t eor'I 31$%4. Gid Laudrillard sedu!e 9)11 into being((is e terrorismKs t eoreti!al guruR((or did e merel' anti!ipate and des!ribe in advan!e t e eventKs profound sedu!tivenessR Eo Qellner and ot er !riti!s+ LaudrillardKs t eor' of postmodernit' is a politi!al as &ell as an intelle!tual failure: 8osing !riti!al energ' and gro&ing apat eti! imself+ e as!ribes apat ' and inertia to t e universe. 5mploding into entrop'+ Laudrillard attributes implosion and entrop' to t e experien!e of 3post4 modernit'. 31%04 Eo be sure+ LaudrillardKs s!ripts and s!enarios ave al&a's been !on!erned &it t e implosion of t e global !apitalist s'stem. Lut & ile LaudrillardKs tone at t e end of I8KNsprit du EerrorismeI !an !ertainl' be !alled apat eti!((It ere is no solution to t is extreme situation((!ertainl' not &arI(( e does not suggest t at t ere are no for!es in t e universe !apable of mounting at least a ! allenge to t e s'stem and its sponsors 31%4. (elega&ing h+$an s+ffering &o &he real$ of si$+la&ion is H+s& nihilis$. cr+shing %oli&ics/ Kellner. 59 = il. 7 air M ?782+ 19%9+ ;ean Laudrillard+ p. 10$(%+ Gouglas Xet does t e sort of s'mboli! ex! ange & i! Laudrillard advo!ates reall' provide a solution to t e question of deat R Laudrillard*s notion of s'mboli! ex! ange bet&een life and deat and is ultimate embra!e of ni ilism 3see 4.44 is probabl' is most un(Cietzs! ean moment+ t e instant in & i! is t oug t radi!all' devalues life and fo!uses &it a fas!inated gaze on t at & i! is most terrible - deat . 5n a popular <ren! reading of Cietzs! e+ is Ptransvaluation of values* demanded negation of all repressive and life( negating values in favor of affirmation of life+ /o' and appiness. E is Pp ilosop ' of value* valorized life over deat and derived its values from p enomena & i! en an!ed+ refined and nurtured uman life. 5n Laudrillard+ b' !ontrast+ life does not exist as an autonomous sour!e of value+ and t e bod' exists onl' as Pt e !aarnalit' of signs+* as a mode of displa' of signifi!ation. >is sign fetis ism erases all material/t' from t e bod' and so!ial life+ and makes possible a fas!inated aest eti!ized fetis ism of signs as t e primar' ontologi!al realit'. E is &a' of seeing erases suffering+ disease+ pain and t e orror of deat from t e bod' and so!ial life and repla!es it &it t e pla' of signs - Laudrillard*s alternative. =oliti!s too is redu!ed to a pla' of signs+ and t e &a's in & i! different politi!s alleviate or intensif' uman suffering disappears from t e Laudrillardian universe. 7onsequentl' Laudrillard*s t eor' spirals into a fas!ination &it signs & i! leads im to embra!e !ertain privileged forms of sign !ulture and to re/e!t ot ers 3t at is+ t e t eoreti!al signs of modernit' su! as meaning+ trut + t e so!ial+ po&er and so on4 and to pa' less and less attention to materialit' 3t at is+ to needs+ desire+ suffering and so on4 a tra/e!tor' &ill ultimatel' lead im to embra!e ni ilism 3see 4.44.

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AT BA@"( LLA("' BA@"( LLA(" T#((O( SM Ba+-rillar-9s %hiloso%h* H+s&ifies &erroris$/ B+&&erfiel- 02 3Lradle'+ 2ssistant =rofessor of Nnglis at ?niversit' of His!onsin at 8a 7rosse+ IE e Laudrillardian 9'mboli!+ 9)11+ and t e Har of Dood and NvilI =ostmodern 7ulture+ volume 13+ 9eptember+ =ro/e!t A?9N4 5n 9imula!ra and 9imulations 319%14+ Laudrillard &rote t at s'stemi! ni ilism and t e mass media are to blame for t e postmodern uman !ondition+ & i! e des!ribes as a !ombination of Ifas!ination+I Imelan! ol'+I and Iindifferen!e.I 2gainst t e s'stem and its passive ni ilism+ Laudrillard proffers is o&n brand of & at mig t be termed a!tive ni ilism+ a praxis t at in!ludes t eoreti!al and aest eti! Iterrorism+I but not+ in t e end+ t e blood' a!ts of a!tual violen!e is t eor' a!!ounts for. E e terrorist a!ts of 9)11+ as is t eor' predi!ted+ &ere destined to be absorbed b' t e s'stemKs o&n narrative+ neutralized b' t e ver' mass media t e' soug t to exploit. 5n I8KNsprit+I Laudrillard nevert eless attempts to explain again t e logi!+ t e spirit+ of terrorism and to a!!ount for its po&er. E&o of t e t ree letters &ritten to >arperKs Aagazine after its <ebruar' 2002 printing of I8KNspritI &ould+ predi!tabl'+ take Laudrillard to be an apologist for t e terroristsK means and ends. Nd&ard L. 9! lesinger and 9ara 2. Hersan of 9anta Larbara+ 7alifornia+ &rite: Nmbedded in ;ean LaudrillardKs almost in!ompre ensible prose is t e s o!king assertion t at terrorism is /ustifiable+ t at t e t reat of globalization+ as visualized b' Laudrillard+ /ustified t e Horld Erade 7enter atta!k. 3Qell' et al. 44 Ba+-rillar- H+s&ifies &he +se of )iolence an- &erroris$/ B+&&erfiel- 02 3Lradle'+ 2ssistant =rofessor of Nnglis at ?niversit' of His!onsin at 8a 7rosse+ IE e Laudrillardian 9'mboli!+ 9)11+ and t e Har of Dood and NvilI =ostmodern 7ulture+ volume 13+ 9eptember+ =ro/e!t A?9N4 LaudrillardKs postmodern(primitive s'mboli!+ on t e ot er and+ aimed to obliterate t e differen!e in value bet&een t e imaginar' and t e real+ t e signifier and t e signified+ and to expose t e metap 'si!al pre/udi!e at t e eart of all su! valuations. >is &ager &as t at t is &ould be done t roug aest eti! violen!e and not real violen!e+ but aving erased t e differen!e bet&een t e t&o+ t ere &as never an' guarantee t at ot ers &ouldnKt take su! t eoreti!al Iviolen!eI to its literal ends. Draffiti art+ s!arifi!ation and tattooing are /ust t e benign !ounterparts of true terrorism+ & i! takes ritual sa!rifi!e and initiation to t eir extremes. 8iteralists and extremists+ fundamentalists of all sorts+ find t eir logi! foretold in LaudrillardKs referen!es to t e primitives. H at t e terrorists ena!ted on 9)11 &as & at Laudrillard &ould !all a s'mboli! event of t e first order+ and t e' &ere undeniabl' primitive in t eir belief t at Dod+ t e dead+ and t e living &ould some o& onor and benefit t em in t e afterlife. ?nable to defeat t e ?.9. in e!onomi! or militar' terms+ t e' emplo' t e rule of prestation in s'mboli! ex! ange &it t e gift of t eir o&n deat s. Lut 2meri!ans are not IprimitivesI((&e do not value deat s'mboli!all'+ but rat er onl' as a subtra!tion from life. 7apitalismKs impli!it promise+ in ever' ad !ampaign and marketing strateg'+ is t at to !onsume is to live. He s!ore up life against deat as gain against loss+ as if t roug a!!umulation &e a! ieve master' over t e qualitative presen!e of deat t at aunts life. @ur offi!ial olida's onoring t e dead serve no ot er fun!tion t an to en!ourage !onsumption.

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Ba+-rillar-9s %oli&ics are -ee%l* confor$is&/ =la*ing <i&h &he %ieces of h*%er>reali&* sh+&s -o<n real al&erna&i)es/ "onah+e. L"e%ar&$en& of #nglish. 7onBaga @ni)ersi&*I. 00 3Lrian+ 0Aarxism+ =ostmodernism+ Zi[ek+1 =ostmodern 7ulture+12.2+ =ro/e!t Ause4. 2!!ording to Zi[ek+ t eorists of postmodern so!iet' & o make mu! of t e usurpation of t e 6eal b' t e simula!rum eit er long nostalgi!all' for t e lost distin!tion bet&een t em or announ!e t e final over!oming of t e Imetap 'si!al obsession &it aut enti! Leing+I or bot 3 e mentions =aul Birilio and Dianni Battimo+ and &e mig t add Laudrillard to t e list4. 5n eit er !ase t e' Imiss t e distin!tion bet&een simula!rum and appearan!eI: H at gets lost in toda'Ks plague of simulations is not t e firm+ true+ nonsimulated 6eal+ but appearance itsel'. Eo put it in 8a!anian terms: t e simula!rum is imaginar' 3illusion4+
& ile appearan!e is s'mboli! 3fi!tion4F & en t e spe!ifi! dimension of s'mboli! appearan!e starts to disintegrate+ imaginar' and real be!ome more and more indistinguis able.... 2nd+ in so!iopoliti!al terms+ t is domain of appearan!e 3t at is+ s'mboli! fi!tion4 is none ot er t an t at of politi!s.... E e old !onservative motto of keeping up appearan!es t us toda' obtains a ne& t&ist:... TitU stands for t e effort to

t e standard reading of Ioutbursts of KirrationalK violen!eI in t e postmodern Iso!iet' of t e spe!ta!leI is t at Iour per!eption of realit' is mediated b' aest eti!ized media manipulations to su! an extent t at it is no longer possible for us to distinguis realit' from its media imageI 3Metastases $"4. Biolent outbursts in t is !ontext are t us seen as Idesperate attempts to dra& a distin!tion bet&een fi!tion and realit'... TandU to dispel t e !ob&eb of t e aest eti!ized pseudo( realit'I 3$"4. 2gain &it referen!e to t e 8a!anian triad of 5maginar'(9'mboli!(6eal+ Zi[ek argues t at t is anal'sis is I right 'or the -rong reasonsI: H at is missing from it is t e !ru!ial distin!tion bet&een imaginar' order and s'mboli! fi!tion. E e problem of !ontemporar' media resides not in t eir enti!ing us to !onfound fi!tion &it realit' but+ rat er+ in t eir I 'perrealistI ! ara!ter b' means of & i! t e' saturate the void that "eeps open the space 'or symbolic 'iction. 2 so!iet' of proliferating+ promis!uous images is t us not overl' fi!tionalized but is+ on t e !ontrar'+ not Ifi!tionalizedI enoug in t e sense t at t e basis for making valid statements+ t e stru!ture guaranteeing intersub/e!tive !ommuni!ation+ t e order permitting s ared narratives and+ to use ;amesonKs term+ I!ognitive mappingI11((in s ort+ t e realm of t e 9'mboli!((is s ort(!ir!uited b' an in!essant flo& of images+ & i! soli!it not anal'sis and t e po&ers of t oug t but rat er not ing more t an blank+ unrefle!tive en/o'ment. E e kind of sub/e!tivit' t at !orresponds to t is 'perreal+ spe!ta!ularized so!iet' &it out a stable 9'mboli! order is & at Zi[ek !alls in Loo"ing A-ry t e Ipat ologi!al nar!issistI
save t e properl' politi!al spa!e. 3I8eftistI 99"(9#4 Aaking t e same argument about a slig tl' different version of t is problem+ Zi[ek &rites t at 31024. E at is+ follo&ing t e predominan!e of t e IKautonomousK individual of t e =rotestant et i!I and t e I eteronomous Korganization manKI & o finds satisfa!tion t roug It e feeling of lo'alt' to t e groupI((t e t&o models of sub/e!tivit' !orresponding to previous stages of !apitalist so!iet'((toda'Ks media(spe!ta!le(!onsumer so!iet' is marked b' t e rise of t e Ipat ologi!al nar!issist+I a sub/e!tive stru!ture t at breaks &it t e Iunderl'ing frame of t e ego(ideal !ommon to t e first t&o formsI 31024. E e first t&o forms involved inverted versions of ea! ot er: one eit er strove to remain true to oneself 3t at is+ to a Ipaternal ego(idealI4 or looked at oneself It roug t e e'es of t e group+I & i! fun!tioned as an IexternalizedI ego(ideal+ and soug t Ito merit its love and esteemI 31024. Hit t e stage of t e Ipat ologi!al nar!issist+I o&ever+ t e ego(ideal itself is dissolved: 5nstead of t e integration of a s'mboli! la-+ &e ave a multitude of rules to follo&((rules of a!!ommodation telling us I o& to su!!eed.I

E e nar!issisti! sub/e!t kno&s onl' t e Irules of t e 3so!ial4 gameI enabling im to manipulate ot ersF so!ial relations !onstitute for im a pla'ing field in & i! e assumes Iroles+I not proper s'mboli! mandatesF e sta's !lear of an' kind of binding !ommitment t at &ould impl' a proper s'mboli! identifi!ation. Fe is a ra-ical conformist <ho %ara-oxicall* ex%eriences hi$self as an outlaw. 31024 The i$%ac& is ex&inc&ion. &he ref+sal &o engage in &ra-i&ional %oli&ics is an ab-ica&ion of social res%onsibili&* &ha& $akes all social crises ine)i&able Boggs. 97 37arl+ Cational ?niversit'+ 8os 2ngeles+ E eor' and 9o!iet'+ 0E e great retreat: Ge!line of t e publi! sp ere in latet&entiet (!entur' 2meri!a1+ Ge!ember+ Bolume 2#+ Cumber #+ ttp:))&&&.springerlink.!om.prox'.librar'.emor'.edu)!ontent)m$2"4$#%m#3 1#r0)fulltext.pdf4 E e de!line of t e publi! sp ere in late t&entiet (!entur' 2meri!a poses a series of great dilemmas and ! allenges. Aan' ideologi!al !urrents s!rutinized ere . lo!alism+ metap 'si!s+ spontaneism+ post(modernism+ Geep N!olog' . interse!t &it and reinfor!e ea! ot er. H ile t ese !urrents ave deep origins in popular movements of t e 19#0s and 19$0s+ t e' remain ver' mu! alive in t e 1990s. Gespite t eir different outlooks and tra/e!tories+ t e' all s are one t ing in !ommon: a depoliti!ized expression of struggles to !ombat and over!ome alienation. E e false sense of empo&erment t at !omes &it su! mesmerizing impulses is a!!ompanied b' a loss of publi! engagement+ an erosion of !itizens ip and a depleted !apa!it' of individuals in large groups to &ork for so!ial ! ange. 2s t is ideologi!al quagmire &orsens+ urgent problems t at are destro'ing t e fabri! of 2meri!an so!iet' &ill go unsolved . per aps even unre!ognized . onl' to fester more ominousl' in t e future. 2nd su! problems 3e!ologi!al !risis+ povert'+ urban de!a'+ spread of infe!tious diseases+ te! nologi!al displa!ement of &orkers4 !annot be understood outside t e larger so!ial and global !ontext of internationalized markets+
finan!e+ and !ommuni!ations. =aradoxi!all'+ t e &idespread retreat from politi!s+ often inspired b' lo!alist sentiment+ !omes at a time & en agendas t at ignore or sidestep t ese global realities &ill+ more t an ever+ be redu!ed to impoten!e. 5n is !ommentar' on t e state of !itizens ip toda'+ Holin refers to t e in!reasing sublimation and dilution of politi!s+ as larger numbers of people turn a&a' from publi!

&he fa&e of &he <orl- hangs in &he balance/ E e un'ielding trut is t at+ even as t e et os of anti(politi!s be!omes more !ompelling and even fas ionable in t e ?nited 9tates+ it is t e vagaries of politi!al po&er t at &ill !ontinue to de!ide t e fate of uman so!ieties. E is last point demands furt er elaboration. E e s rinkage of politi!s har-l* $eans &ha& cor%ora&e coloniBa&ion <ill be less of a reali&*. &ha& social hierarchies <ill so$eho< -isa%%ear. or &ha& gigan&ic s&a&e an$ili&ar* s&r+c&+res <ill lose &heir hol- o)er %eo%le9s li)es/ <ar from it: &he s%ace ab-ica&e- b' a broad !itizenr'+ &ell( informed and read' to parti!ipate at man' levels+ can in fac& be fille- b* a+&hori&arian an- reac&ionar* eli&es . an alread'
!on!erns to&ard private ones. L' diluting t e life of !ommon involvements+ &e negate t e ver' idea of politi!s as a sour!e of publi! ideals and visions. $4 5n t e meantime . familiar d'nami! in man' lesser(developed !ountries. E e fragmentation and ! aos of a >obbesian &orld+ not ver' far removed from t e rampant individualism+ so!ial Gar&inism+ and !ivi! violen!e t at ave been so mu! a part of t e 2meri!an lands!ape+ !ould be t e prelude to a po&erful 8eviat an designed to impose order in t e fa!e of disunit' and atomized retreat. 5n t is &a' t e e!lipse of politi!s mig t set t e stage for a reassertion of politi!s in more virulent guise . or it mig t elp furt er rationalize t e existing po&er stru!ture. 5n eit er !ase+ t e state &ould likel' be!ome & at >obbes anti!ipated: t e embodiment of t ose universal+ !olle!tive interests t at ad vanis ed from !ivil so!iet'. $"

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Ba+-rillar-9s al&erna&i)e is %oli&icall* %aral*Bing/ Wolin. 04 3E e 9edu!tion of ?nreason: E e 5ntelle!tual 6oman!e &it <as!ism from Cietzs! e to =ostmodernism+ 6i! ard Holin+ =rofessor of >istor' and 7omparative 8iterature at t e Draduate 7enter+ 7it' ?niversit'4. 5n t e epitome of postmodern politi!al fatalism+ t e onl' strateg' Laudrillard as to re!ommend is Ideat 1 solel' b' aping t e information so!iet'Ks o&n lifelessness and inertia(a pra!ti!e e refers to as I!r'stal revengeI does one stand a ! an!e+ argues Laudrillard+ of es!aping its enervating !lut! es. E us+ a!!ording to Laudrillard+ t e implosions of media so!iet' portend t e !ollapse of t e eman!ipator' pro/e!t in general. >is verdi!t on t e impossibilit' of progressive istori!al ! ange reiterates one of t e !ommonpla!es of rea!tionar' r etori!: t e so(!alled futilit' t esis+ a!!ording to & i! attempts to transform so!iet' are !ondemned a priori to failure. E e ni ilisti! impli!ations of LaudrillardKs approa! ave been !onfirmed b' t e unmitigated s! adenfreude &it & i! e responded to t e 9eptember 11+2001 terrorist atta!ks. 5n is vie& t e assault
represented a /ustified response to t e ! allenge of 2meri!an global egemon'. 2lt oug terrorist groups based in t e Aiddle Nast ma' ave been nominall' responsible for exe!uting t e atta!ks+ in trut it &as an a!t t at fulfilled t e longings and aspirations of people all over t e &orld. 2s Laudrillard observes+ I avenKt &e dreamt of t is event+ asnKt t e entire &orld+ &it out ex!eption+ dreamt of itF no one !ould not dream of t e destru!tion of a po&er t at ad be!ome egemoni! to su! a point. . . . 5n essen!e+ it &as Tt e terroristsU & o !ommitted t e deed+ but it is &e & o &is ed for it.

Ba+-rillar-9s &heories -e%oli&iciBe %oli&ics Boggs. 97 37arl+ Cational ?niversit'+ 8os 2ngeles+ E eor' and 9o!iet'+ 0E e great retreat: Ge!line of t e publi! sp ere in latet&entiet (!entur' 2meri!a1+ Ge!ember+ Bolume 2#+ Cumber #+ ttp:))&&&.springerlink.!om.prox'.librar'.emor'.edu)!ontent)m$2"4$#%m#3 1#r0)fulltext.pdf4 E e problem is t at t e main t rust of postmodernism so devalues t e!ommon realm of po&er+ governan!e+ and e!onom' t at t e d'nami!sof so!ial and institutional life vanis from sig t. H ere t e realit' of!orporate+ state+ and militar' po&er &ind up vanis ing &it in a post(modern amorp ousness+ t e ver' effort to anal'ze so!ial for!es andlo!ate agen!ies or strategies of ! ange be!omes impossible. 5n its rea!(tion against t e !ompre ensive istori!al s!ope of Aarxism+ t e mi!roapproa! dismisses in toto ma!ropoliti!s and &it it an' !on!eivablemodern pro/e!t of radi!al transformation. 2n extreme Imi!roI fo!us ismost visible in su! t eorists as Laudrillard & o+ as 9teven Lest andGouglas Qellner put it+ in effe!t Iannoun!e t e end of t e politi!alpro/e!t in t e end of istor' and so!iet' "1 ( a stan!e t at repli!atest e logi! of a profoundl' depoliti!ized !ulture. Ba+-rillar-9s al&erna&i)e fails &o confron& real <orl- %oli&ics/ Bes& C Kellner. 95 Gepartment of = ilosop ' at ?niversit' of Eexas(Nl =aso+ 199% T9teven : Gouglas+ ttp:))&&&2.!dd!.vt.edu)illuminations)kell2%. tm+ 0=ostmodern =oliti!s and t e Lattle for t e <uture1U Laudrillard and is follo&ers+ & o ex ibit a !'ni!al+ despairing re/e!tion of t e belief in eman!ipator' so!ial transformation+ as &ell as a variet' of efforts to !reate a ne& or re!onstru!ted politi!s. @n t e extreme and apoliti!al position of a Laudrillard+ &e are stranded at t e end of istor'+ paral'zed and frozen+ as t e masses !ollapse into inertia and indifferen!e+ and simula!ra and te! nolog' triump over agen!'. E us+ from LaudrillardKs perspe!tive+ all &e !an do is Ia!!ommodate ourselves to t e time left to us.I
5n t e aftermat of t e 19#0s+ novel and !onfli!ting !on!eptions of postmodern politi!s emerged. =ostmodern politi!s t us take a variet' of forms and &ould in!lude t e anti(politi!s of

Ba+-rillar- is H+s& a fashionable so+rce of c*nicis$,no& a %oli&ical s&ra&eg*/ (oHek 91 37 ris+ Geput' Gire!tor+ E eor'+ 7ulture : 9o!iet' 7entre + =rofessor of 9o!iolog' and 7ulture at Cotting am Erent ?niversit'+ <orget LuadrillardR Ndited b' 7 ris 6o/ek+ pgs 1094 >is la!erating ni ilism+ is readiness to pri!k an' !ause+ is devotion to experien!e for experien!e s sake+ are all re!urring tropes of at least one t'pe of modernism. Eo be sure+ modernism is a multi(fa!eted !on!ept. 6at er t an speak of the pro/e!t of modernism it is per aps more a!!urate to speak o pro ects of modernism. E ese pro/e!ts &ork around a !entral di! otom': refle!ting t e order of t ings and exposing t e funda mental disorder of t ings. 5n t e politi!al realm t e ke'note pro/e!ts designed to refle!t t e order of t ings ave been 3a4 providing a t eor' of liberal demo!ra!' & i! legitimates t e operation of e marketF 3b4 t e so!ialist !ritiques of !apitalism and t e plan for t e re!onstru!tion of so!iet'F and 3!4 t e feminist transformation of t e male order of t ings. E ese are all constructive pro/e!ts. E e' eit er aim to give s ape to peopleKs lives or t e' seek to repla!e t e easing set of politi!o(e!onomi! !onditions &it a state of affairs t at is /udged to be superior on rational or moral grounds. Laudrillard it mig t be said+ tra!es t e dispersal of t ese pro/e!ts >e relis es being t e imp of t e perverse+ t e rut less exponent of t e disorder of t ings >is &ork exposes t e posturing and !ir!ularities of !onstru!tive arguments. Lut in doing t is Laudrillard is not a!ting as t e arbinger of a ne& postmodern state of affairs. 6at er e is treading t e &ell &orn pat s of one t'pe of modernist s!eptism and ex!ess . a pat & i! as no ot er destin' t an repletion. >is message of Pno future* does not trans!end t e politi!al dilemma of modernism+ it exemplifies it.

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Ba+-rillar- lea)es &he $asses &o colla%se. onl* engaging in $acro>%oli&ics sol)es Bes& an- Kellner 02 prof p il M ?E el paso and Qellner prof p il M ?782 2k2 39teven+ Goug+ 0=ostmodern =oliti!s and t e Lattle for t e <uture1 ttp:))&&&.gseis.u!la.edu)fa!ult')kellner)5llumina`20<older)kell2%. tm4 2 postmodern politi!s begins to take s ape during t e 19#0s+ & en numerous ne& politi!al groups and struggles emerged. E e development of a ne& postmodern politi!s is strongl' informed b' t e vi!issitudes of so!ial movements in <ran!e+ t e ?nited 9tates+ and else& ere+ as &ell as b' emerging postmodern t eories. E e utopian visions of modern politi!s proved+ in t is !ontext+ diffi!ult to sustain and &ere eit er re/e!ted in favor of !'ni!ism+ ni ilism+ and+ in some !ases+ a turn to t e rig t+ or &ere dramati!all' re!ast and s!aled do&n to more ImodestI proportions. E e modern emp asis on !olle!tive struggle+ solidarit'+ and allian!e politi!s gave &a' to extreme fragmentation+ as t e ImovementI of t e 19#0s splintered into various !ompeting struggles for rig ts and liberties. E e previous emp asis on transforming t e publi! sp ere and institutions of domination gave &a' to ne& emp ases on !ulture+ personal identit'+ and ever'da' life+ as ma!ropoliti!s &ere repla!ed b' t e mi!ropoliti!s of lo!al transformation and sub/e!tivit'. 5n t e aftermat of t e 19#0s+ novel and !onfli!ting !on!eptions of postmodern politi!s emerged. =ostmodern politi!s t us take a variet' of forms and &ould in!lude t e anti( politi!s of Laudrillard and is follo&ers+ & o ex ibit a !'ni!al+ despairing re/e!tion of t e belief in eman!ipator' so!ial transformation+ as &ell as a variet' of efforts to !reate a ne& or re!onstru!ted politi!s. @n t e extreme and apoliti!al position of a Laudrillard+ &e are stranded at t e end of istor'+ paral'zed and frozen+ as t e masses !ollapse into inertia and indifferen!e+ and simula!ra and te! nolog' triump over agen!'. E us+ from LaudrillardKs perspe!tive+ all &e !an do is Ia!!ommodate ourselves to t e time left to us.I

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AT BA@"( LLA("' FJ=#(>(#AL TJ !O!S#!S# We -o. in fac&. kno< &he -ifference be&<een si$+la&ion an- reali&*,&he $e-ia %la*s a heal&h* role in &he %+blic s%here/ March. 93 ;ames Aars + =rofessor of = ilosop '+ <ord am ?niversit'+ 9"+ 7ritique+ 2!tion+ and 8iberation+ pp. 292(293 9u! an a!!ount+ o&ever+ is as one(sided or per aps even more one(sided t an t at of naive modernism. He note a residual idealism t at does not take into a!!ount so!ioe!onomi! realities alread' pointed out su! as t e !orporate nature of media+ t eir role in a! ieving and legitimating profit+ and t eir fun!tion of manufa!turing !onsent. 5n su! a postmodernist a!!ount is a redu!tion of ever't ing to image or s'mbol t at misses t e relations ip of t ese to realities su! as !orporations seeking profit+ impoveris ed &orkers in t ese !orporations+ or peasants in E ird(Horld !ountries tr'ing to !ondu!t ele!tions. =ostmodernism does not adequatel' distinguis ere bet&een a redu!tion of realit' to image and a mediation of realit' b' image. 2 media idealism exists rooted in t e influen!e of stru!turalism and poststru!turalism and doing insuffi!ient /usti!e to !on!rete uman experien!e+ /udgment+ and free intera!tion in t e &orld.4 5t is also paradoxi!al or !ontradi!tor' to sa' it reall' is true t at not ing is reall' true+ t at ever't ing is illusor' or imaginar'. =ostmodemism makes /udgments t at impli!itl' den' t e redu!tion of realit' to image. <or example+ =oster and Laudrillard do &ant to sa' t at &e reall' are in a ne& age t at is informational and postindustrial. 2gain+ to sa' t at ever't ing is imploded into media images is akin logi!all' to t e 7artesian !laim t at ever't ing is or mig t be a dream. H at appens is t at dream or image is absolutized or generalized to t e point t at its original meaning l'ing in its !ontrast to natural+ uman+ and so!ial realit' is lost. He !an dis!uss Gisne'land as repre ensible be!ause &e kno& t e differen!e bet&een Gisne'land and t e larger+ enveloping realit' of 9out ern 7alifornia and t e ?nited 9tates." He !an note also t at postmodernism misses t e realit' of t e a!!umulation(legitimation tension in late !apitalism in general and in !ommuni!ative media in parti!ular. E is tension takes different forms in different times. 5n t e ?nited 9tates in t e 19#0s and 19$0s+ for example+ so!ial+ e!onomi!+ and politi!al realit' o!!asionall' manifested itself in t e media in su! a &a' t at t e ele!torate responded !riti!all' to !orporate and politi!al poli!ies. 7overage of t e Bietnam &ar+ for example+ did elp turn people against t e &ar. 5n t e 19%0s+ b' !ontrast+ t e emp asis s ifted more to&ard a!!umulation in t e de!ade dominated b' t e 0great !ommuni!ator.1 Nven ere+ o&ever+ t e ma/orit' remained opposed to 6eagan*s poli!ies & ile voting for 6eagan. >uman and so!ial realit'+ & ile being influen!ed b' and represented b' t e media+ trans!ended t em and remained resistant to t em.# Eo t e extent t at postmodernists are !riti!al of t e role media pla'+ &e !an ask t e question about t e normative adequa!' of su! a !ritique. H '+ in t e absen!e of normative !on!eptions of rationalit' and freedom+ s ould media dominan!e be taken as bad rat er t an goodR 2lso+ t e most relevant !ontrasting+ normativel' stru!tured alternative to t e media is t at of t e 0publi! sp ere+1 in & i! t e imperatives of free+ demo!rati!+ nonmanipulable !ommuni!ative a!tion are institutionalized. 9u! a publi! sp ere as been present in &estern demo!ra!ies sin!e t e nineteent !entur' but as suffered erosion in t e t&entiet !entur' as !apitalism as more and more taken over t e media and !ommer!ialized t em. Nven no& t e publi! sp ere remains normativel' binding and reall' operative t roug institutionalizing t e ideals of free+ full+ publi! expression and dis!ussionF ideal+ legal requirements taking su! forms as publi! servi!e programs+ publi! broad!asting+ and provision for alternative mediaF and so!ial movements a!ting and dis!oursing in and outside of universities in print+ in demonstrations and forms of resistan!e+ and on media su! as movies+ television+ and radio.$

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AT BA@"( LLA("' FJ=#(>(#AL TJ !O!S#!S# Ba+-rillar- is <rong abo+& h*%er>reali&*/ We are )er* a<are of -ifferences be&<een real life an- $e-ia i$ages/ M+s& i$agine ho< horrifie- *o+ <o+l- be if *o+ <ere <a&ching a horror $o)ie an- fo+n- o+& &ha& &he ac&ors <ere reall* being kille-/ NiOek. 2000 3?niversit' of 8/ubl/ana4+ 2000 39lavo/+ Aar! )2pril 0E e 7'berspa!e 6eal+1 ttp:))&&&.egs.edu)fa!ult')Zi[ek)Zi[ek(t e(!'berspa!e(real. tml4. 2re t e pessimisti! !ultural !riti!ists 3from ;ean Laudrillard to =aul Birilio4 /ustified in t eir !laim t at !'berspa!e ultimatel' generates a kind of proto(ps'! oti! immersion into an imaginar' universe of allu!inations+ un!onstrained b' an' s'mboli! 8a& or b' an' impossibilit' of some 6ealR 5f not+ o& are &e to dete!t in !'berspa!e t e !ontours of t e ot er t&o dimensions of t e 8a!anian triad 596+
t e 9'mboli! and t e 6ealR 2s to t e s'mboli! dimension+ t e solution seems eas' - it suffi!es to fo!us on t e notion of aut ors ip t at fits t e emerging domain of !'berspa!e narratives+ t at of t e Ipro!edural aut ors ipI: t e aut or 3sa'+ of t e intera!tive immersive environment in & i! &e a!tivel' parti!ipate b' role(pla'ing4 no longer &rites detailed stor'(line+ s) e merel' provides t e basi! set of rules 3t e !oordinates of t e fi!tional universe in & i! &e immerse ourselves+ t e limited set of a!tions &e are allo&ed to a!!omplis &it in t is virtual spa!e+ et!.4+ & i! serves as t e basis for t e intera!torKs a!tive engagement 3intervention+ improvisation4. E is notion of Ipro!edural aut ors ipI demonstrates t e need for a kind of equivalent to t e 8a!anian Ibig @t erI: in order for t e intera!tor to be!ome engaged in !'berspa!e+ s) e as to operate &it in a minimal set of externall' imposed a!!epted s'mboli! rules)!oordinates. Hit out t ese rules+ t e sub/e!t)intera!tor &ould effe!tivel' be!ome immersed in a ps'! oti! experien!e of an universe in & i! I&e do & atever &e &antI and are+ paradoxi!all'+ for t at ver' reason deprived of our freedom+ !aug t in a demonia! !ompulsion. 5t is t us !ru!ial to establis t e rules t at engage us+ t at led us in our immersion into t e !'berspa!e+ & ile allo&ing us to maintain t e distan!e to&ards t e ena!ted universe. E e point is not simpl' to maintain It e rig t measureI bet&een t e t&o extremes 3total ps'! oti! immersion versus non(engaged external distan!e to&ards t e artifi!ial universe of t e !'ber(fi!tion4: distan!e is rat er a positive !ondition of

. 5f &e are to surrender to t e enti!ements of t e virtual environment+ &e ave to Imark t e border+I to rel' on a set of marks & i! !learl' designate t at &e are dealing &it a fi!tion+ in t e same &a' in & i! + in order to let ourselves go and en/o' a violent &ar movie+ &e some o& ave to kno& t at & at &e are seeing is a staged fi!tion+ not real(life killing 3imagine our orrible surprise if+ & ile &at! ing a &ar s!ene+ &e &ould suddenl' see t at &e are &at! ing a snuff+ t at t e a!tor engaged in fa!e(to(fa!e !ombat is effe!tivel' !utting t e t roat of is Ienem'Ia4. 2gainst t e t eorists & o fear t at !'berspa!e involves t e regression to a kind of ps'! oti! in!estuous immersion+ one s ould t us dis!ern in toda'Ks often !lums' and ambiguous improvisations about I!'berspa!e rulesI pre!isel' t e effort to establis !learl' t e !ontours of a ne& spa!e of s'mboli! fi!tions in & i! &e full' parti!ipate in t e mode disavo&al+ i.e. being a&are t at It is is not real life.I
immersion

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Ba+-rillar-9s si$+la&ion arg+$en& %la*s in&o &he han-s of %o<er/ Fis 7+lf War exa$%le is %roof of &he a+&hori&arian res+l&s of his arg+$en&,&he (eal is s&ill being cons&r+c&e- b+& &he =en&agon is -oing i&/ (ec&en<al-. LEi&iBens for Legi&i$a&e 7o)ern$en&I. 01 3Aar! 11+ Ai! ael+ 0Dulf Har 55: E e Ce& P6eal*+1 ttp:))legitgov.org)mikeYessa'Yt eYne&Yreal4Y031103. tml4. 5n is book Simulations 319%33$ ;ean Laudrillard introdu!ed t e notion of a ne& so!ial order based on simula!ra &it out originals. Aalls+ neig bor oods+ amusement parks+ even t e politi!al left and rig t-simulations of originals t at no longer exist+ imitations &it out real models. Laudrillard engaged a!ademi!s and enraged Aarxists and ot er so!ial realists+ & en e later announ!ed+ &it seeming blit eness+ t at t e first Dulf Har P&asn*t real.* PEell t at to t e estimated 1"+000 5raqi !ivilians killed in t e &ar+ or t e estimated 100+000 d'ing in its aftermat + or t e Dulf Har veterans+ suffering from Dulf Har 9'ndrome.* Lut despite t e !riti!s of postmodernism*s dissolution of t e Preal*+ t ere is somet ing to & at Laudrillard !laimed: t e first vi!tim of t e video &ar+ t e simulation+ t e reportage !ensored b' 5srael+ &as t e notion of Prealit'.* PE e real*
suffered a mortal blo&. E e video representation of t e Dulf Har be!ame t e &ar itself+ supplanting an' kernel of realit' &it simulation. 9o t at film !ould finall' announ!e: 0Hel!ome to t e desert of t e realJ1-deserted be!ause no one sees it+ t e desert of t e real be!ause for all pra!ti!al purposes+ it doesn*t exist. 5t appears from t e previe&s &e are re!eiving regarding t e media !overage of Dulf Har 55+

. E e media be!omes t e prox' purve'or of ne&sreels-t e ne- real being supplied b' t e =entagon. 6eporters are to be full' approved instruments of t e &ar ma! ine itself+ like additional s!opes fastened to t e instruments of deat + pointing onl' at a!!eptable targets+ &it a simulated vision not unlike t e video version of t e /et fig ters and s!opi! filters of t e !ombatants 3on one side4. E e notion of Pbias* is
t at t e real+ no& dead+ is to be de!lared alive(and(&ell+ dressed up+ !amouflaged+ and paraded around b' t e =entagon itself: a remediation of t e real de!imated in t e ver' a!t of killing-in media res?militar' perspectivalism serves as a pla!ebo. 2n' remaining memor' of 0real1 differing perspe!tives is t ereb' satisfied+ if not obliterated in advan!eF perspectivalism be!omes a multipli!ation of staged effe!ts. 8ike !able television &it its endless splintering of sameness into a reputed Pvariet'*+ t e multiple Pperspe!tives* of gunmen &ill supplant all ot er

. 5ndependent reporters+ t e =entagon no& reputedl' &arns+ &ill be fired upon. 0Geat to 6ealismJ1 &as t e per aps more apropos !r' in t at ot er+ more ironi! !'ber film+ e@istenA. Th+s. i& a%%ears &ha& Ba+-rillar- <as onl* %ar&l* righ&/ The real is in-ee- +n-er fire. b+& like &he re%resse- in Fre+-9s )ersion of &he %s*che. i& &hrea&ens &o re&+rn . 8ike&ise+ measures must be taken against it. E e =entagon promises to take su! measures. 9lavo/ Zi[ek suggested t at 9(11 t reatened to
standpoints s atter 0t e borderline & i! toda' separates t e digitized <irst Horld from t e E ird Horld Pdesert of t e 6eal+*1 'ielding+ &it its !ras ing of t e simulation+ an 0a&areness t at &e live in an insulated artifi!ial universe & i! generates t e notion t at some ominous agent is t reatening us all t e time &it total destru!tion.1 E is a&areness ma' be too painful for t e denizens of t e Aatrix. Dulf Har 55 3& ose Pmoralisti!)poeti!* name is still being debated b' t e =entagon4 is an attempt to re!onstru!t t at Aatrix+ to re(ins!ribe t e borderline+ to re!laim t e real and reissue it as militar' rations. E e real is

E e media asks us in!redulousl': 0Go 'ou t ink t at t e =entagon 3or =o&ell+ or Lus + or 6umsfeld4 &ould a!tuall' lie to t e 2meri!an peopleR1 He !annot ans&er+ simpl'+ 0'es.1 !o& onl* are &he* l*ing. &he* are ac&+all* producing &he ne< real/
par!eled out.

Ba+-rillar- conce-es &he al& can ne)er sol)e K he no $eans of crea&ing %oli&ical change/ Kellner 01 3Gouglas+ Deorge Qneller 7 air in t e = ilosop ' of Ndu!ation at ?782+ I;ean Laudrillard+I E e Lla!k&ell !ompanion to ma/or !ontemporar' so!ial t eorists+ p. 31"4 LaudrillardKs fo!us is on t e Ilogi! of so!ial differentiationI & ereb' individuals distinguis t emselves and attain so!ial prestige and standing t roug pur! ase and use of !onsumer goods. >e argues t at t e entire s'stem of produ!tion produ!es a s'stem of needs t at is rationalized+ omogenized+ reifi!ation+ domination+ and exploitation produ!ed b' !apitalism. 2t t is stage+ it appeared t at is !ritique !ame from t e standard neo(Aarxian vantage point+ & i! assumes t at !apitalism is blame&ort ' be!ause it is omogenizing+ !ontrolling+ and dominating so!ial life+ & ile robbing individuals of t eir freedom+ !reativit'+ time+ and uman potentialities. @ne t e ot er and+ e !ould not point to an' revolutionar' for!es and in parti!ular did not dis!uss t e situation and potential of t e &orking !lass as an agent of ! ange in t e !onsumer so!iet'. 5ndeed+ Laudrillard as no t eor' of t e sub/e!t as an a!tive agent of so!ial ! ange & atsoever 3t us per aps follo&ing t e stru!turalist and poststru!turalist !ritique of t e sub/e!t popular at t e time4. Cor does e ave a t eor' of !lass or group revolt+ or an' t eor' of politi!al organization+ struggle+ or strateg'.

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Bookchin9s al&erna&i)e fails,s$all socie&ies force confor$i&* &ha& %re)en& inno)a&ion an- +n-er$ine coo%era&ion/ -i?erega+ 92. = G in =oliti!al E eor' and Bisiting 2ssistant professor in t e Gepartment of Dovernment+ 9t. 8a&ren!e ?niversit'. Dus+ 9pring)9ummer+ 09@7528 N7@8@DX+ GNN= N7@8@DX+ 2CG 85LN62859A+1 7riti!al 6evie&+ ttp:))&&&.dizerega.!om)papers)so!e!ol.pdf.

Look! in*s argument. <irst+ e does not understand problems of s!ale. Look! in ignores differen!es bet&een fa!e(to(fa!e intera!tions among people & o kno& one anot er and t ose involving strangers+ and e appears una&are of t e 0!oordination problem1 and o& it applies to is praise of a de!entralized so!iet'. 9e!ond+ is vie& of !ompetition and !ooperation+ bot as t e' o!!ur in t e market and in nature+ is mu! too simplisti!. 2s a !onsequen!e+ e understands neit er markets nor e!os'stems . E e virtues of organi! so!ieties are quite real+ and
<rom a neoliberal perspe!tive 5 &ill develop t&o basi! !riti!isms of
modernit' as broug t a great loss b' diminis ing t eir role in our lives. Lut to a signifi!ant degree t e virtues of premodern organi! so!iet' gro& from its small s!ale. 5nformal means for keeping t e pea!e and preserving so!ial mores !an easil' operate in su! an environment. >elp for t ose & o are poorl' off t roug no fault of t eir o&n !an also flouris under su! !ir!umstan!es+ as !an friendliness and interest in t e &ell being of kno&n ot ers. Darret >ardin points out t at t e >utterites+ a gro&ing group of small religious !ommunities no& numbering more t an "0+000 members in t e ?nited 9tates+ deliberatel' limit t e size of t eir !ommunities to 1"0+ for t e' ave dis!overed t at & enever a group gro&s larger t an t at+ s irking of !ommunit' &ork begins to in!rease faster t an population. H en population gro&t &it in a >utterite !ommunit' ex!eeds 1"0+ it splits into t&o !ommunities.39 @n t e ot er and+ strong pressure for so!ial !onformit' is often t e dark side of premodern so!iet'. E is pressure+ and t e po&er of gossip and ostra!ism against t e deviant+ elped maintain be avior in a!!ordan!e &it group norms+ and enabled su! so!ieties to dispense &it t e more impersonal means for enfor!ement ! ara!teristi! of larger so!ieties. 5n su! so!ieties ostra!ism and exile &ere often severe punis ments for t ose & o met &it &idespread disapproval. Aoreover+

it as usuall' been in large !ities

t at !reativit' in t e arts and s!ien!es best flouris es. 5n t e relative anon'mit' of big !ities+ people & o mar! to t e beat of different drummers !an more easil' find kindred souls and avoid so!ial disapproval t an in small omogeneous !ommunities. 5n a &ord+ t e good t ings about small !ommunities stem from ever'one*s kno&ing and being interested in one anot er . and so do t e bad t ings. <ailing to appre!iate t is !onne!tion is a !onsistent problem among !ommunitarian t inkers.40 Cot all small fa!e(to(fa!e so!ieties appear in!lined to breed !onformism . Aan'+ t oug not all+ Cative 2meri!an !ultures+ su! as t e 8akota+ onored individualit'. Lut t ose t at did so &ere also frequentl' ig l' !ompetitive+ & i! 5 doubt &ould please Look! in. 5n fa!t+ t e &ide variet' of modes of life among Cative 2meri!an peoples suggests t at Look! inKs
3relative to t eir so!ieties4

idealized image of organi! so!ieties is based at best on sele!tive extrapolation from some peoples & ile ignoring t e experien!e of ot ers.41 <or an anal'st & o !ontinuall' &rites of t e advantages of olisti! reasoning and an e!ologi!al perspe!tive+ Look! in displa's a pe!uliar in!lination to pi!k and ! oose t e so!ial features e likes and dislikes + &it out an' apparent a&areness t at so!ieties !annot be !onstru!ted simpl' b' !ombining toget er all t e t ings &e appen to like and eliminating t ose &e dislike. E ere is a deeper s ort!oming in Look! in*s one(sided praise of t e virtues of small so!ieties. E e' ave traditionall' been ostile to or indifferent to&ard strangers . E is is even true of t e more individualisti! Cative 2meri!an !ultures. Look! in a!kno&ledges t at t e' rarel' made provision for t e needs of strangers+ but never pauses to ask & ' t is 0oversig t1 o!!urred. H en our relations ips are
intensel' fa!e(to(fa!e &e tend to mistrust t ose about & om &e kno& little. Look! in never &onders & et er relations ips depending upon personal kno&ledge of one anot er !an be dupli!ated for umanit' as a & ole+ & ere our kno&ledge of parti!ulars must ne!essaril' be small to nonexistent. 2ll t is as been dis!ussed b' <. 2. >a'ek+ and it is a great pit' t at Look! in appears una&are of >a'ekKs &ork.42 <a!e(to(fa!e relations ips+ in !ontrast to impersonal market pro!esses+ promote intense uman intera!tions. H en friendl' or loving+ t is is t e greatest of blessings. Lut intensit' is not al&a's

>istori!all' a &orld of small fa!e(to(fa!e !ommunities or tribes as been a &orld of !ountless feuds and pett' &ars . He !annot kno& t at t is &as so in pre istori! times+ but t e ar! aeologi!al
en/o'able be!ause it is not al&a's friendl'. Hisdom and !ompassion+ & i! &ould make it !onsistentl' so+ are rare.
eviden!e is not en!ouraging. Look! in argues t at &e advan!e over t e past 0& en &e relate on t e basis of a simple affinit' of tastes+ !ultural similarities+ emotional !ompatibilities+ sexual preferen!es+ and intelle!tual interests.143 >e apparentl' means t at &e ! oose t ese relations+ rat er t an taking t em for granted as in t e !ase of small tribes. 5s not su! 0freedom to ! oose1 t e bourgeois idealR 5s it not attained most readil' &it in a large impersonal !it'+ & ere t ose seeking different

E e large(s!ale a! ievement of intima!' e advo!ates &it in a small group &ould require intolerable !onformit' . Look! in appears unable to per!eive t e existen!e of an' t'pe of relations ip t at falls bet&een t e extremes of deep intima!' and impersonal ostilit'. Lu'ers and sellers in market orders are supposedl' 0polarized against ea! ot er+1 & ile it &ould be better for t em 0to !are for ea! ot er*s &ell(being + for t em to feel deepl' responsible to ea! ot er+ and for t em to be !emented b' a deep sense of obligation for t eir mutual &elfare.144 E is attitude goes &ell be'ond respe!t and !ompassion for ot ers. 5t is also impossible among people & o do not kno& one anot er. <urt er+ t e great gift liberal !ivilization gave to umanit'+ as >a'ek and =opper so !learl' explain+ is t at b'
modes of life !an lo!ate kindred spiritsR 5n large !ities &e !an ! oose our friends. 9u! !ir!umstan!es are extremel' unlikel' in t e fa!e(to(fa!e so!ieties e advo!ates. making !ooperation possible along purel' abstra!t and pro!edural grounds+ t e s!ope for pea!eful intera!tion &as extraordinaril' broadened. =eople no longer needed to agree about man' spe!ifi!s in order to benefit from pea!eful !ooperation.4"

E is observation brings me to a fatal &eakness in Look! in*s anal'sis. 5n an' so!iet' needing to provide for more t an t e needs of a relativel' small population+ &idespread impersonal !oordination of goods and servi!es be!omes ne!essar'. Look! in &ould presumabl' not &ant to do &it out railroads to move food in times of lo!alized !rop failure or antibioti!s to !ure buboni! plague. Lut to build a rail line or manufa!ture va!!ines requires a ver' &idel' integrated e!onomi! sp ere. 2n autarki! !ount' in Qansas+ or even Bermont+ !ould not do it. 2n't ing like a modern e!onom' !annot be based upon fa!e(to(fa!e relations ips . 5t is simpl' too !omplex. >ere enters t e !al!ulation problem first raised b' Aises+ a problem t at
E is extension of t e s!ope of !ooperation !ame at t e ne!essar' !ost of redu!ing t e intensit' of uman relations . as undermined ever' attempt to !reate a nonmarket e!onom' more !omplex t an a village. Look! in appears una&are t at su! a problem exists . even t oug Aises+ e! oed b' Aax Heber+ first !alled attention to t e matter in t e 1920s+ subsequentl' generating an enormous literature+ and even t oug t e problem as no& be!ome manifest in t e fall of !ommunist so!ieties.4# H at+ t en+ of Look! inKs proposal for repla!ing t e nation state &it a federation of small independent !it' republi!sR 5 agree &it im+ and &it &riters going ba!k to 2ristotle+ t at t e polis provides a frame&ork & ere !itizens ip+ t at is+ members ip in a !ommunit' of politi!al equals+ !an be easil' expressed. Cor is !ivi! lo!alism ne!essaril' ana! ronisti!. ;ane ;a!obs argues !onvin!ingl' t at !ities+ not nations+ are t e fundamental politi!al and e!onomi! units of t e modern &orld. 8arger units+ su! as states and nations+ ave essentiall' arbitrar' politi!al boundaries.4$ E ere &ould be not ing ob/e!tionable about Look! inKs pro/e!t if its purpose &ere to envision viable institutions able to en!ompass small(s!ale self(government+ & ile simultaneousl' preserving t e advantages made possible b' modern institutions.

Look! in*s error lies not in is advo!a!' of muni!ipal values+ for in t is regard e ma' &ell be rig t 3even if t e' are not quite t e !ure(all e seems to suggest4. 6at er+ is s ort!oming is in failing to dis!uss t e frame&ork & erein small !ommunities !ould !ooperate toget er. H at institutional ties &ould elp t em !oordinate t eir a!tivitiesR 5n t is regard is apparent ignoran!e of t e market*s role in !oordinating intri!ate relations ips among independent entities is a fatal &eakness .

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Bookchin9s al&erna&i)e is fla<e-,o%%ression of h+$ans an- o%%ression of na&+re are no& connec&e-,be&&er $anage$en& of na&+re is s+%erior &o anarch*/ ;ames ; F+ghes+ 59. 2ssistant Gire!tor of 5nstitutional 6esear! and =lanning+ and 8e!turer in =ubli! =oli!' 9tudies+ at Erinit' 7ollege in >artford. ILe'ond Look! inism: 2 8eft Dreen 6esponse+I 9o!ialist 6evie& %9.3+ ttp:))&&&.! angesurfer.!om) Lud)Look! in. tml. . 2 ke' 3apparentl' ps'! od'nami!4 point in Look! inKs politi!s seems to be t at &e umans began IoppressingI nature be!ause &e
95C7N 7@C975@?9CN99 pla's su! a !entral role in Look! inKs et i!s+ t is appears to be in !ontradi!tion to is assertion t at umans oppress nature

&ere oppressing ea! ot er. Lut t e IoppressionI of nature is fundamentall' different from t e oppression of sentient beings. 5t is+ in fa!t+ meaningless+ sin!e IoppressionI onl' as meaning in referen!e to sentient beings &it !ons!ious intents. 5tKs not &rong to put radioa!tive &aste in t e ground be!ause &e IoppressI t e dirt+ but be!ause &e
and ot er sentient life forms are t reatened b' t ose toxins+ and be!ause &e+ umans+ aest eti!all' value a non(irradiated environment. He donKt IoppressI nature+ but rat er impa!t on it in a &a' t at !auses us+ and ot er sentient beings+ arm or displeasure. Look! in seems !onfused on t is basi! point. Halter Eruett 2ndersonKs adamantl' ImanagerialI Dreen line+ arti!ulated in Eo Dovern Nvolution is an example of an
e!ologi!al politi!s t at is more !ompatible &it t e ant ropo!entrism of demo!rati! left t oug t t an Look! inKs metap ori!al e!o(anar! ism. 2nderson points out t at umans ave been impa!ting on t e

our ! allenge is not to &it dra& from nature altoget er 3as deep e!ologists suggest4+ or to get into organo(anar! i! armon' &it it 3as Look! in suggests4+ but to start managing it responsibl'. E e basi! t rust of Look! inKs Iso!ial e!olog'I is t e assertion t at e!ologi!al destru!tion is a dire!t result of Iso!ial ierar! '.I E us+ an anar! i! so!iet' is t e onl' ans&er to e!ologi!al destru!tion. H ile it is probabl' true t at so!ial ierar! ies make it more diffi!ult to reorient ourselves to&ard e!ologi!al prote!tion+ t is seems to be anot er ma/or &eakness of Look! inKs anal'sis. 5t seems quite possible t at an egalitarian so!iet' !ould be e!ologi!all' destru!tive+ and vi!e(versa. 5n fa!t+ Look! in !ontradi!ts imself & en e points out t at feudalism &as not e!ologi!all' destru!tive+ and a!kno&ledges t e possibilit' t at !orporate !apitalist or bureau!rati! !olle!tivist so!ieties !ould institute e!ologi!al poli!ie s. 5f so!ial ierar! ' and e!o!ide are relativel'
e!os'stem for tens of t ousands of 'ears+ and t at autonomous+ t e left !an onl' strive to understand o& t e' intera!t+ reinfor!e+ and under!ut one anot er+ and build a set of values and movements to ! ange t em bot . H at Look! in tends to&ard is t e redu!tion of t e struggle against one to t e struggle against t e ot er.

The al&erna&i)e is )ag+e an- +ns+%%or&e- b* an* e)i-ence,hierarch* is ine)i&able/ Gamian <inbar Whi&e+ 01. 8e!turer at Doldsmit 7ollege. 0>ierar! '+ Gomination+ Cature+1 @rganization and Nnvironment+ 9age ;ournals. @ne immediate problem t at arises is t at it is diffi!ult to avoid being stru!k b' t e s eer vagueness and impre!ision t at seem to linger around t is & ole enterprise. 9o alt oug 0organi! so!iet'1 is not presented as a 'pot eti!al 0state of nature1 but postulated as a istori!al a!tualit'+ as Aar' Aellor 31992+ p.1244 as noted+ it is never made ver' !lear b' Look! in & en or & ere t is earl' form of uman asso!iation a!tuall' existed. 2t points in E e N!olog' of <reedom+ one !an find referen!es to an
0earl' Ceolit i!1 village so!iet' and get t e impression t at organi! so!iet' !onsequentl' !an be lo!ated at a !rossover moment & en unter(gat erers first began to settle do&n into a orti!ultural so!iet'.

Look! in*s narrative does seem furt er problemati! b' t e manner in & i! is expositions &ings rat er dramati!all' bet&een a 0reflexive voi!e+1 & i! appears to a!!ept e is embarking on a ig l' spe!ulative exer!ise to a mu! more !onfident tone+ & i! at times seems to virtuall' !laim a Dod*s e'e vie&. E us+ one en!ounters persistent examples of a !arefull' qualified and tentative insig t being qui!kl' re&orked into a substantive proposition a fe& senten!es later+ & ere a spe!ulation on 0preliterate1 pra!tises+ values+ or institutions is t en suddenl' transformed into an implausibl' detailed a!!ount of 0 o& t ings reall' &ere ba!k t en.112 Diven t e time s!ales t at are being dealt &it ere+ and t e manner in & i! t ese spe!ulations are often +ns+%%or&e- b* e)i-ence or s+%%or&e- b* one or &<o case s&+-ies+ it is diffi!ult to avoid an immediate sense t at a !ertain !reative embellis ing is going on. 2dditional problems emerge & en it be!omes evident t at Look! in*s o&n understanding of & at e as demonstrated does+ at times+ seem at odds &it t e a!tual narrative e provides. <or example+ as &e ave seen+ one of t e boldest !laims t at Look! in
Nlse& ere+ in ot er &ritings+ one !an gain t e distin!t impression t at t is so!iet' stret! ed &ell up to t e emergen!e of t e earl' !ities.11 makes of is a!!ount of istori!al development is t at it 0radi!all' reverses1 !entral features of istori!al materialism. E us+ Aarx and Nngels+ 2dorno and >ork eimer+ are all ! astised for t eir Bi!torian

4 as emp ati!all' re/e!ted t e vie& 0t at forms of domination . . . ave t eir sour!es in e!onomi! !onditions and needs1 3p. 4"4. @n t e !ontrar'+ &e are told t e idea of domination initiall' arose from &it in so!ieties as part of t e development of so!ial ierar! ies+ 0& i! are not ne!essaril' e!onomi!all' motivated at all1 3p. 4#4. >o&ever+ an impli!it re!ognition of t e role t at material fa!tors pla'ed in t e development of ierar! '+ and even a !ertain sense t at t e development of ierar! ' is inevitable+ !an also be uneart ed from Look! in*s &ork.
image of 0sting' nature1 and t e vie& t at freedom from material &ant ne!essitated t e 0domination of nature.1 5ndeed+ at various points+ Look! in 31990b

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Fierarchies are na&+ral an- ine)i&able,Bookchin9s +&o%ian al&erna&i)e -es&ro*s &he Lef&/ F+ghes+ 59. ;ames ;+ 2ssistant Gire!tor of 5nstitutional 6esear! and =lanning+ and 8e!turer in =ubli! =oli!' 9tudies+ at Erinit' 7ollege in >artford. ILe'ond Look! inism: 2 8eft Dreen 6esponse+I 9o!ialist 6evie& %9.3+ ttp:))&&&.! angesurfer.!om) Lud)Look! in. tml. <5C288X L@@Q7>5C 9NNA9 to lead imself ba!k into one of t e same errors t at e so eloquentl' !ritiques in deep e!olog': t e separation of t e so!ial order from It e natural.I @n t e one and+ Look! in insists t at+ sin!e umans are naturall' evolved+ an't ing &e do is natural. @n t e ot er and+ e insists t at nature ab ors ierar! '+ and t at on!e &e get ba!k in tou! &it our !ontinuit' &it t e natural order &e &ill es! e& ierar! '+ and vi!e versa. E is is again t e problem of t e leap from 59 to @?D>E. >ierar! ies exist in t e e!os'stem+ in!luding animal !lass and gender s'stems+ and our ierar! ies are /ust as Inaturall'I evolved as t eirs. E e reason for us to oppose ierar! ' as to do &it an existential uman et i!al de!ision+ not &it its Iunnaturalness.I Look! inKs equation of non ierar! i!al organization &it e!olog' leads us astra' not onl' p ilosop i!all'+ but also politi!all'F i& lea-s +s in&o a +&o%ian reHec&ion of engage$en& <i&h &he ac&+al exis&ing 3albeit ierar! i!al4 %oli&ical s&r+c&+res+ su! as t e Gemo!rati! =art' and 7ongress. 2 !omplex so!ial order+ like a !omplex organism+ requires some degree of spe!ialization+ !entralization and ierar! '. Lut t e range of possibilities &it in t e uman so!ial ni! e is ver' broad and &e need to et i!all' de!ide & i! of t ese possible adaptations &ill ensure t e survival of t e spe!ies and t e e!os'stem+ & ile satisf'ing our et i!al goals. 9ome istori!al periods allo& onl' slo& and !umulative ! ange+ & ile ot er Itransformative !risisI periods+ & en t e so!ial equilibrium is Ipun!tuated+I allo& rapid and revolutionar' ! ange. @ur ! allenge is dis!erning & en t e &indo& of opportunit' is open for radi!al ! ange+ and & en &e must &age a more modest I&ar of position.I E e pro/e!t of t e left is to re!ognize t e ever(! anging limits of t is &indo&+ and to position ourselves &it in it <i&ho+& eit er ex&ing+ishing o+rsel)es in +&o%ian an- a%ocal*%&ic %roHec&s+ or blending into t e dominant gene(pool of possibilities. Bookchin9s i-eological foc+s aliena&es &he %+blic an- %re)en&s a broa->scale $o)e$en&/ Elark+ 95. ;o n+ =rofessor of = ilosop ' at 8o'ola. 0Auni!ipal Greams: 2 9o!ial N!ologi!al 7ritique of Look! in*s =oliti!s+1 ttp:))raforum.info)arti!le.p p3RidYarti!le,1039. H ile It e =eopleI are identified b' Look! in as t e emerging sub/e!t of istor' and agent of so!ial transformation+ e also identifies a spe!ifi! group &it in t is large !ategor' t at &ill be essential to its su!!essful formation. E us+ in t e strongest sense of agen!'+ t e I*agent* of revolutionar' ! angeI &ill be a Iradi!al intelligentsia+I & i! + a!!ording to Look! in+ as al&a's been ne!essar' Ito !atal'zeI su! ! ange. T1$U E e nature of su! an intelligentsia is not entirel' !lear+ ex!ept t at it &ould in!lude t eoreti!all' sop isti!ated a!tivists & o &ould lead a libertarian muni!ipalist movement. =resumabl'+ as as been istori!all' t e !ase+ it &ould also in!lude people in a variet' of !ultural and intelle!tual fields & o &ould elp spread revolutionar' ideas. Look! in is !ertainl' rig t in emp asizing t e need &it in a movement for so!ial transformation for a sizable segment of people &it developed politi!al !ommitments and t eoreti!al grounding. >o&ever+ most of t e literature of libertarian muni!ipalism+ & i! emp asizes so!ial !ritique and politi!al programs ver' eavil'+ as seemed t us far to be dire!ted almost ex!lusivel' at su! a group. <urt ermore+ it as assumed t at t e ma/or pre!ondition for effe!tive so!ial a!tion is kno&ledge of and !ommitment to Look! in*s t eoreti!al position. E is ideologi!al fo!us+ & i! refle!ts Look! in*s t eoreti!al and organizational approa! to so!ial ! ange+ <ill ine)i&abl* hin-er &he -e)elo%$en& of a broa-l*>base- social ecolog* $o)e$en&. to t e extent t at t is development requires a diverse intelle!tual milieu linking it to a larger publi!. =arti!ularl' as Look! in as be!ome in!reasingl' suspi!ious of t e imagination+ t e ps'! ologi!al dimension+ and an' form of Ispiritualit'+I and as e as narro&ed is !on!eption of reason+ e as !reated a version of so!ial e!olog' t at is likel' to appeal to onl' a small number of ig l'(politi!ized intelle!tuals. Gespite t e !ommitment of so!ial e!olog' to unit'(in(diversit'+ is approa! to so!ial ! ange in!reasingl' emp asizes ideologi!al unit' over diversit' of forms of expression. 5f t e Iradi!al intelligentsiaI &it in t e movement for radi!al demo!ra!' is to in!lude a signifi!ant number of poets and !reative &riters+ artists+ musi!ians+ and t oug tful people &orking in various professional and te! ni!al fields+ a more expansive vision of t e so!iall'(transformative pra!ti!e is ne!essar'.

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Bioregionalis$ is &oo isola&e- &o sol)e,in&erna&ional sol+&ions are nee-e-/ Ta*lor. 2000 . @s kos <oundation =rofessor of 6eligion and 9o!ial Nt i!s+ and Gire!tor of Nnvironmental 9tudies at t
3Lron+ Leneat t e 9urfa!e+ 2000+ pg. 2%24))C>>

e ?niversit' of His!onsin

Lioregionalism generall' fails to grapple adequatel' &it t e problem of po&er. 7onsequentl'+ it as little Ians&er to spe!ifi!all' global environmental problems+I su! as atmosp eri! depletion and t e disruption of o!ean e!os's tems b' pollution and overfis ing. =oliti!al s!ientist =aul Hapner argues t at t is is be!ause bioregionalism assumes It at all global t reats stem from lo!al instan!es of environmental abuse and t at b' !onfronting t em at t e lo!al level t e' &ill disappear .1Cor does bioregionalism ave mu! of a response to t e IglobalizationI of !orporate !apitalism and !onsumerist market so!iet'+ apart
from advo!ating lo!al resistan!e or long(odds !ampaigns to revoke t e !orporate ! arters of t e &orst environmental offenders. E ese efforts do little to inder t e inertia of t is pro!ess.I 2nd little is ever said about ho- to restrain t e vora!ious appetite of a global(!orporate( !onsumer !ulture for t e resour!es in ever' !orner of t e planet. Nven for t e devout+ promoting deep e!ologi!al spiritualit' and e!o!entri! values seems pitifull' inadequate in t e fa!e of su! for!es. =er aps it is be!ause t e' ave little if an' t eor' of so!ial ! ange+ and t us !annot reall' envision a pat to&ard a sustainable so!iet'+ t at man' bioregional deep e!ologists revert to apo!al'pti! s!enarios. Aan' of t em see t e !ollapse of e!os'stems and industrial !ivilization as t e onl' possible means to&ard t e envisioned ! anges. @t ers de!ide t at politi!al a!tivism is opeless+ and prioritize instead spiritual strategies for evoking deep e!ologi!al spiritualit'+ oping+ self( !ons!iousl'+ for a mira!le.

#ngaging ins&i&+&ions is essen&ial &o %ro&ec& &he en)iron$en& K bioregionalis$ an- localiBe- ac&i)is$ -oes no& %ro)i-e no& a lens for s+bs&an&i)e social change Far)e*. 99 . Gistinguis ed =rofessor of 2nt ropolog' at t e 7it' ?niversit' of Ce& Xork 3Gavid+ Dlobal Nt i!s and Nnvironment4
Lut t e !ontent and spirit of an' su! Krevolutionar'K movement is a ver' mu! more open question. 5 am !ertainl' prepared to listen+ for example+ to some of t e more radi!al de!entralizing and !ommunitarian+ e'en bioregionalist proposals t at !ir!ulate &it in green politi!s. Lut as 5 seek to translate su! potentiall' fe!und ideas into m' o&n language+ 5 find m'self &anting to transform t em t roug t at diale!ti!al !on!eption of t e relations bet&een universalit' and parti!ularit' &it & i! 5 began. <or example + mediating institutions pla'a vital

role in giving s ape and permanen!e+ solidit' and !onsisten!' to o& &e relate &it ot ers and &it t e natural &orld &e in abit. Eo give up on some version of t e !entral state apparatus+ for example+ is to surrender an extraordinaril' po&erful instrument 3&it all of its &arts and &rinkles4 for guiding future so!ia(e!ologi!al transformations. Eo opt out of !onsidering global forms of governan!e is similarl' to abandon not onl' ope about but also real !on!ern for a &ide range of global environmental issues 3or to pre sume+ &it out eviden!e+ t at a!ting purel' lo!all' &ill ave t e desired global effe!t4. He !annot !ease to transform t e &orld an' more t an &e !an give up breat ing+ and it seems to me neit er feasible nor desirable t at &e tr' to stop su! a pro!ess no&+ t oug t ere is mu! to be said about & at dire!tions. su! transformations mig t take and &it & at risks and so!io(politi!al effe!ts. 5 also find m'self questioning t e &a's in & i! man' environmental groups imagine t e future geograp ' of t e
&orld to be. @f !ourse+ &e ave to re!ognize t at so!io(environmental relations var' geograp i!all'+ t at stru!tures of feeling and !ultural understandings understood as & ole &a's of life exist bot in a state of uneven geograp i!al development 3a some& at+ unilinear !on!eption of a singular developmental pro!ess4 and in a &orld differentiated istori!all' and geograp i!all' b' radi!al differen!es in & at t e language of PdevelopmentK mig t mean. Lut+ being a geograp er+ 5 did not need t e environmentalists to tell me t is 3it as been a fo!us of m' o&n attempts to !reate a more geograp i!all' a&are istori!al materialism for man' 'ears no&4. E e bioregionalists and so!ial

e!ologists+ as &ell as man' of t ose dra&n to more !ommunitarian aspe!ts of environmentalism+ !ertainl' reinfor!e t e important idea t at pla!e(based or regionall' based politi!s are more often t an not a signifi!ant seed(bed for radi!al so!io(e!ologi!al politi!s as &ell as ke' sites for radi!al ! ange+ but in so doing t e' do not reall' provide an adequate frame&ork for t inking about o& future geograp ies of produ!tion+ distribu tion+ !onsumption and ex! ange mig t be produ!ed. t

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AT BOOKEF !' ALT#(!AT 8# A@TFO( TA( A! Bookchin9s bioregionalis$ <o+l- res+l& in s$all. o%%ressi)e co$$+ni&ies/ Ear&er+ 07. 9enior 8e!turer in =oliti!s M ?niversit' of Xork. 0E e =oliti!s of t e Nnvironment+1 p. "9+ Ceil. Ge!entralization ma' be a ne!essar' !ondition for parti!ipator' demo!ra!'+ but t ere is no guarantee t at a de!entralized so!iet' &ill be demo!rati!. 9ale 319%04 !on!edes t at a so!iet' based on a natural bioregion ma' not al&a's be ! ara!terized b' demo!rati! or liberal values be!ause anot er KnaturalK prin!iple+ diversit'+ implies t at bioregional so!ieties s ould boast a &ide range of politi!al s'stems+ some of & i! + presumabl'+ mig t be aut oritarian. Nven if t e politi!al s'stem is demo!rati!+ t ere ma' be dra&ba!ks about life in a small !ommunit'. 9o!ial !ontrol me! anisms ma' prove oppressive if+ as Doldsmit et al. 319$24 suggest+ offenders are broug t to eel b' t e &eig t of publi! opinion. Gis!rimination against minorities or non(!onformist opinion ma' be rife. 9mall paro! ial so!ieties ma' also be intelle!tuall' and !ulturall' impoveris ed+ per aps redu!ing innovation in !lean te! nologies 3<rankel 19%$4. 9o+ ironi!all'+ t e omogenous de!entralized so!iet' ma' la!k t e diversit' t at e!ologists value. Bioregionalis$ <o+l- ca+se $ore ra%i- en)iron$en&al -es&r+c&ion/ Whi&e+ 01. 8e!turer at Doldsmit 7ollege. 0>ierar! '+ Gomination+ Cature+1 @rganization and Nnvironment+ 9age ;ournals+ Gamian <inbar. Aore substantial diffi!ulties &it organi! so!iet' !an be found at t e met odologi!al level . @ne !entral problem ere &ould seem to be t at eviden!e for Look! in*s spe!ulations is not dra&n in t e main from paleo(

ant ropologi!al resear! but rat er from 20t (!entur' et nograp i! studies of tribal so!ieties and
tribes. Co&

istori!al a!!ounts of Nuropean en!ounters &it t e non(Nuropean. E us+ is spe!ulation on gender differentiation in organi! so!iet' is informed b' Nlizabet E omas*s studies of t e Lantu. Gis!ussions of animism make referen!e to Nd&ard L. E'lor*s observation of t e pra!tises of Cative 2meri!ans. Barious ot er a!!ounts of t e e!ologi!al embeddedness of umanit' at t e da&n of !ivilisation dra& from Gorot ' 8ee*s studies of t e >opi and Hintu

+ t is pra!tise is /ustified in E e N!olog' of <reedom on t e basis t at t e !ultural fa!ts of dress+ te! ni!s+ and environment t at link pre istori! peoples &it existing 0primitives1 is so striking t at it is diffi!ult to believe t at 9iberian mammot unters of 'ester'ear ... &ere so dissimilar from t e 2r!ti! seal unters of de =on!in*s da'. 3Look! in+ 19%2+ p. "$4 Xet reservations !ould immediatel' be voi!ed ere given t at t e impli!it 3and ig l' questionable4 assumption underl'ing t is is t at tribal people ave lived in a permanentl' stati! state+ &it out ! ange or so!ial development. Diven t e gro&ing re!ognition among so!ial ant ropologists t at man' supposedl' isolated small(s!ale so!ieties ave been part of &ider+ often global s'stems of ex! ange for man' millennia+ su! an approa! &ould seem to be in!reasingl' problemati! 3see Nllen+ 19%#+ p. 94. Aore generall'+ establis ing t e exa!t nature of
uman(nature relations among tribal people &ould seem furt er !ompli!ated b' t e fa!t t at as t e istori!al geograp er 5an 9immons 3199#4 as noted+ 0E e et nograp i! pi!ture is rat er spott' on t is

if &e turn to t e ant ropologi!al re!ord+ problems &it Look! in*s a!!ount of organi! so!iet' &ould seem to be!ome even more entren! ed . Cotabl'+ t ere &ould no& seem to be gro&ing paleo(ant ropologi!al eviden!e t at earl' umans &ere involved in substantive res aping of t eir natural environment+ even to t e point & ere &he* %ro-+ce- s+bs&an&i)e en)iron$en&al -egra-a&ion. 14 E us+ alt oug Look! in 319%24 in E e N!olog' of <reedom ma' !laim t at 0Ceolit i! artefa!ts seem to refle!t a !ommunion of umanit' and
parti!ular topi! so it does not seem possible to give a !omplete pi!ture for all groups even for near(re!ent times+ let alone t e past1 3p. ##4. 5ndeed+ nature t at patentl' expressed t e !ommunion of umans &it ea! ot er: a solidarit' of t e !ommunit' &it t e &orld of life t at arti!ulated an intense solidarit' &it in t e !ommunit' itself1 3p. #14+ else& ere &e !an find substantive eviden!e t at points dire!tl' to t e !ontrar'. 1" 5t !ould also be noted t at even if &e a!!epted t e notion t at ant ropologi!al data on more re!ent 0tribal so!ieties1 provide a legitimate basis for spe!ulation about earl' umanit'+ t ese studies &ould similarl' seem to suggest t at t e development of earl' uman so!ieties &as probabl' marked b' mu! more !omplex and

!on!erning Look! in*s 319%24 !laim t at relations in organi! so!iet' &ere 0distin!tl' e!ologi!al1 3p. "4+ it !ould simpl' be noted ere t at t e ant ropologi!al eviden!e on 0tribal1 people and unter(gat erers ardl' lends unqualified support to su! a generalisation. 1# E e !laim t at organi! so!iet' &as 0strikingl' non(domineering not onl' in its institutionalised stru!ture but in its ver' language1 3Look! in+ 1990b+ p. 4$4 similarl' !ould meet an' number of !ontrar' examples from small(s!ale so!ieties +1$ as !ould t e related !laim of an egalitarian sexual division of labour+ 1% and so on. E ere &ould seem to be
variable so!ial patterns+ pra!tises+ and institutions t an are found in t e !omposite a!!ount provided in E e N!olog' of <reedom. E us+ substantive reasons+ t en+ to doubt t e & ole a!!ount of organi! so!iet' found in E e N!olog' of <reedom and 6emaking 9o!iet'. L' t e earl' 1990s+ it in!reasingl' appeared t at Look! in imself ad be!ome less and less !omfortable &it man' aspe!ts of t is period of is &ork. 5nitiall' responding to !ertain !urrents in deep e!olog'+ !ommitted to & at Look! in 319914 no& sa& as 0atavisti! !elebrations of a m't i! Ceolit i! and =leisto!ene1 3p. xxx4+ 19 t e se!ond edition of E e N!olog' of <reedom provided a ne& introdu!tion t at qualified and revised man' earlier !ommitments. Co& !eding to t e ant ropologi!al eviden!e t at earl' umanit'*s relations &it t e natural &orld ma' &ell ave been mu! less armonious t an previousl' presumed and &arning against romanti!ising earl' umanit'*s inter!onne!tedness &it nature+ one !an find an un!omfortable attempt to ang on to !ertain elements of is o&n organi! so!iet' t esis. E us+ &e are told+ 0as umanit' began to emerge from first nature+ possibl' in t e =leisto!ene and !ertainl' in t e =alaeolit i!+ t eir relations to animals as ot er &as largel' !omplementar'1 3p. xlvii4.

Michigan 7 Week Seniors 2009 AT BOOKEF !' T(A!S T O! WA(S T@(! The &ransi&ion &o bioregionalis$ <ill ca+se $aHor <ars/ Ta*lor. 2000 . @s kos <oundation =rofessor of 6eligion and 9o!ial Nt
3Lron+ Leneat t e 9urfa!e+ 2000+ pg. 2%24))C>> 5t is not !lear+ o&ever+ t at in t e long run and on ever' !ontinent and during ever' era+ violen!e

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i!s+ and Gire!tor of Nnvironmental 9tudies at t e ?niversit' of His!onsin

and !onfli!t &ould be greater under bioregional forms of politi!al organization t an under politi!al units dra&n a!!ording to bioregional differen!es. <ear of balkanization raises important !on!erns+ but a universal !ondemnation of bioregional polit' does not logi!all' follo&. Dar'
9n'der+ for example+ &ould likel' point to ant ropologist 2. 8. QroeberKs &ork & i! s o&s t at Cative 2meri!ans ave usuall' lived pea!efull'+ largel' in differing bioregional provin!es. "% 2 more tren! ant problem is o& bioregionalists 3and t e anar! ists & o influen!ed t eir most influential t eorists4 often assume t at people are naturall' predisposed 3unless !orrupted b' life in unnatural+ ierar! i!al+ !entralized+ industrial so!ieties4 Y to !ooperative be avior. H E is debatable assumption appears to depend more on radi!al environmental fait + a kind of =aul 9 epard(st'le m't ologizing+ t an on e!olog' or ant ropolog'. ?nfortunatel' for bioregional t eor'+ evolutionar' biolog' s o&s t at not onl' !ooperation promotes spe!ies survivalF so also+ at times+ does aggressive !ompetitiveness. #0 Lased on its undul' ros' vie& of t e potential for uman

altruism+ it is doubtful t at bioregionalism !an offer suffi!ient stru!tural !onstraints on t e exer!ise of po&er b' selfis and &ell(entren! ed elites. 5t s ould be obvious+ for example+ t at nation(state governments &ill not voluntaril' !ede aut orit'+I 2n' politi!al reorganization along bioregional lines &ould likel' require I&idespread violen!e and dislo!ation.1 <e& bioregionalists seem to re!ognize t is likeli ood+ or o& devastating to nature su! a transitional struggle &ould probabl' be. Aoreover+
making an important but often overlooked point about politi!al po&er+ politi!al t eorist Ganiel Geudne' &arns:

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Bookchin &hinks &ha& a <i-e )arie&* of %oli&ical s&ra&egies nee- &o be &rie- si$+l&aneo+sl*/ Bookchin an- Fore$an. 90 . Aurra'+ founder of t e so!ial e!olog' movement &it in a libertarian)e!ologi!al t

oug t+ and Gave+ ?9 environmentalist and founder of Nart <irstJ 39e'ending the +arth: a dialogue bet-een Murray Boo"chin and 9ave 5oreman+ 9out Nnd =ress M Loston+ Nd. 1+ =g. 39(404 )) 2Q

He &ere prett' !lear from t e beginning+ o&ever+ t at &e &ere not t e radi!al environmental movement. He onl' sa& ourselves as one sli!e of t e radi!al environmental movement. 5 kno& 5 ave no absolute+ total+ and !omplete ans&er to t e &orld&ide e!ologi!al !risis &e are in. A' %a&h is no& &he righ& %a&hQ i&Rs &he %a&h &ha& <orks for $e/ 5 t ink t ere are dozens and dozens of ot er approa! es and ideas t at &e &ill need in order to solve t e !risis &eKre in rig t no&. He need t at kind of diversit' &it in our movement. 5n Nart <irstJ+ &e ave tended to spe!ialize in & at &eKre good at: &ilderness preservation and endangered spe!ies. E at doesnKt mean t e ot er issues arenKt importantF it /ust means t at &e mostl' talk about & at &e kno& most about. He &ork on & at moves us most parti!ularl'. 5t -oesnR& $ean &ha& <e9re &he <hole o%era&ion. or t at &e*re !overing all t e bases. He need all t e approa! es and angles.

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Bookchin is <rong,&here is no correla&ion be&<een hierarch* an- -o$ina&ion of na&+re/ Whi&e+ 01. 8e!turer at Doldsmit 7ollege. 0>ierar! '+ Gomination+ Cature+1 @rganization and Nnvironment+ 9age ;ournals+ Gamian <inbar. 5t &ould seem evident+ t oug + t at t e istori!al sequen!e Look! in 3199"b4 defends is simpl' not ver' !onvin!ing. Look! in*s starting point ere t at 0t e domination of nature first arose &it in society as part of its institutionalisation into geronto!ra!ies ... not in an' endeavour to !ontrol nature or natural for!es1 3p. 1424 &ould appear !ompletel' untenable.

E e & ole strengt of t is !laim is !learl' dependent on t e ros' image of a singular organi! so!iet' t at &e !an find in is earlier &ork. Co&+ given 3a4 t e !riti!isms of t is t at ave been offered above+ 3b4 t e !autionar' &ords
offered b' Quper about re!ognising t e uge spatial variation t at &as ver' likel' a !entral feature of t e relations ip bet&een uman so!ieties and t eir natures+ and 3!4 t e manner in & i! Look! in imself later retreats from t is position+ t is !laim &ould seem to fall apart. 5ndeed+ if &e follo& t e vie& of t e later Look! in 3199"!4+ & o states+ 05n t e band and tribe so!ieties of pre( istor'+ umanit' &as almost completely at the mercy o' uncontrollable natural 'orces1 3p. 1224+ su! an assertion &ould seem to suggest t at if an't ing+ !entral elements of t e basi! Aarxian t esis are more !onvin!ing as an existential statement of t e uman !ondition. E at is+ as Aarx argues in Bolume 3 of Capital+ 0t e asso!iated produ!ers1 need to rationall' regulate t eir inter! anges &it nature+ bring it under t eir !ommon !ontrol+ instead of being ruled b' it as b' t e blind for!es of natureF and a! ieving t is &it t e least expenditure of energ' and under !onditions most favourable to+ and most &ort ' of+ t eir uman nature. 3as !ited in 9mit + 199#+ pp. 4%(494 Look! in*s e!o!entri! !riti!s ave flagged a se!ond line of argument t at needs to be !onsidered ere. <ox 319%9+ p. 1"4 and N!kersle' 319924 ave argued t at Look! in does not full' re!ognise t at &here is no& a s&raigh&for<arrela&ionshi% be&<een hierarchical for$s of social organisa&ion an- &he ac&+al -o$ina&ion of na&+re . E us+ <ox as argued t at istori!al examples !an be offered of ierar! i!al so!ieties 3e.g.+ an!ient Ng'pt4 t at ad relativel' benign relations &it nature. Nquall'+ N!kersle' as argued t at it is possible to !on!eptualise a relativel' non ierar! i!al so!iet' t at is nevert eless extremel' exploitative e!ologi!all' . 22

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There is no correla&ion be&<een hierarch* an- social -o$ina&ion,&he al&erna&i)e is $ore likel* &o increase social -o$ina&ion/ Whi&e+ 01. Gamian <inbar + 8e!turer at Doldsmit 7ollege. 0>ierar! '+ Gomination+ Cature+1 @rganization and Nnvironment+ 9age ;ournals. Eo move on from t e organi! so!iet' issue t en+ o& plausible is t e rest of Look! in*s so!ial ierar! ' t esisR E e !on!ept of so!ial ierar! ' !learl' denotes t e most striking and interesting !on!eptual innovation t at !an be found in so!ial e!olog'+ delineating Look! in*s position from t e preo!!upations of !lassi!al !riti!al t eor'. 5f &e !onsider t is issue at t e s'n! roni! level for t e moment+ one !onsiderable advantage of t is demand to pla!e 0 ierar! '1 at t e !entre of !riti!al so!ial t eor' is t at it !learl' opens up t e possibilit' of examining multila'ered forms of domination+ ex!lusion+ and silen!ing t at are not simpl' redu!ible to epip enomena of !lass relations. Aoreover+ Look! in*s !laim t at it is likel' forms of so!ial ierar! ' based on generonto!ra!ies+ patriar! ies+ priest !ults+ and &arrior groups probabl'

provided t e pre!ursors to t e latter development of !lass and proto(state stru!tures &ould seem reasonabl' un!ontroversial 3see Diddens+ 19%1F Aann+ 19%#4. 2n issue t at does need furt er examination t oug is t at it is not !lear t at t e !omplexities t at pla' out in t e relations ips bet&een so!ial ierar! ' and so!ial domination are full' t eorised b' Look! in. <or example+ as numerous !riti!s ave observed 3N!kersle'+ 1992F <ox+ 19%9F Qovel+ 199%4+ t ere is !learl' a range of so!ial relations t at are in !ertain senses ierar! i!al 'et do not self( evidentl' !ontribute to so!ial domination. Eemporar' quasi( ierar! i!al relations based on t e a!!eptan!e of !ertain forms of aut orit' su! as parent(! ild relations 3Qovel+ 199%4 !an be so!iall' enabling. 9tudent(tea! er relations ips
3N!kersle'+ 19924 also invariabl' !ontain elements of ierar! ' and if freel' ! osen !an be enabling. 5ndeed+ one !ould t ink of a range of so!iall' stratified relations t at are emergent from fun!tionall'

an' so!iall' !omplex and politi!all' pluralisti! so!iet' seeking to avail itself of t e gains of ig te! nolog' is going to be marked b' !ertain forms of so!ial stratifi!ation t roug task differentiation. 2s long as t ese 0 ierar! ies1 are open and sub/e!t to demo!rati! re!ruitment+ rotation+ and !ontrol+ and influen!e in one sp ere of so!ial life is not allo&ed to !umulate in ot er sp eres 3Haltzer+ 19%"4+ it is simpl' not given t at su! relations ne!essaril' !ontribute to so!ial domination. 5ndeed+ !ontra !ertain !urrents of libertarianism+ it !learl' needs to be re!ognised t at !ertain demo!rati!all' !ontrolled representative stru!tures or so!iall' differentiated roles $igh& ac&+all* relie)e social -o$ina&ion. 7onversel'+ one !ould imagine !ertain non ierar! i!al so!ieties 3per aps most strikingl' t e kind of neo(primitivist fantasies advo!ated b' some e!o(anar! ists 4 t at &ould surel' exa!erbate so!ial domination of umans b' nature and per aps t roug t e 0t'rann' of stru!turelessness1 3<reeman+ 19$04 furt er fa!ilitate
differentiated so!ial roles and t at are ierar! i!al in a !ertain sense but t at also alleviate so!ial domination. 5n t is latter !ategor'+ it !ould &ell be argued t at

domination of some umans b' ot ers. 5t &ould seem important+ t en+ for a !redible !riti!al so!ial t eor' to be able to distinguis more !arefull' bet&een !oer!ive and oppressive so!ial(stratified so!ial relations and representative politi!al forms-& i! !learl' give rise to so!ial domination-and su! relations based on 0legitimate aut orit'1 or 0demo!rati! aut orit'+1 & i! per aps do not. 21 H at !an &e make t oug of t e furt er dia! roni! link t at Look! in as soug t to forge: bet&een so!ial ierar! '+ so!ial domination+ and t e 0idea1 of dominating natureR

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Bo+n-aries are no& &ie- &o coloniBa&ion or s&a&e con&rol> &he* are $erel* a $eans for re>i-en&ifica&ion (a-cliffe an- Wes&<oo- 94. 6ad!liffe is a le!turer in Deograp ' at t e ?niversit' of 7ambridge+ Hest&ood is a professor in so!iolog' at t e ?niversit' of 8ei!ester( 199# 39ara an 9allie+ 06emaking t e Cation1 p. 1294 E e topograp i! &ork !arried out b' indigenous !onfederations t e malleabilit' of !artograp '*s use+ and some of t e politi!s in its usage. 7artograp ies are not tied immutabl' into !olonizing and pro/e!ts of !ontrol+ but !an offer ambiguous spa!es for re(identifi!ation. 9in!e t e late 19%0s+ t e mobilization of indigenous groups for land!laims reveals t e s ifting politi!al agendas around !artograp ' and t e possibilit' for its subversive appropriation. Xet su! appropriation 3o!!urring &it in t e !ontext of t e state legal s'stem+ t e state*s sovereignt' over subsoil+ and t e in!reasing globalized e!onom' of t e region4 is restri!ted b' t e meanings po&ers and in!reasingl' de(!entred nature of !ontrol over land. 2mazonian land surfa!es ave been nominall' allo!ated to indigenous villages and nationalities.

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Al& -oesn9& sol)e>>> &he o%ening of bor-ers -oes no& res+l& in a re-efini&ion of i-en&i&ies K &he* are irrele)an& beca+se %o%+la&ions <ill al<a*s i-en&if* <i&h &heir e&hnic ca&egor* !e<$an+ 04 > Gepartment of =oliti!s and Dovernment+ Len Durion ?niversit'+ Leer 9 eba+ 5srael 3Gavid+ =rogress in >uman Deograp '+ 2pril+ 0E e lines t at !ontinue to separate us: borders in our KborderlessK &orld+1 vol. 30+ no. 2+ p. 14$4 E e opening of borders does not+ automati!all'+ result in t e 'bridization of et ni! and national identit'. 9eparate identities are dependent on t e existen!e of group !ategorization+ be t e' religious+ !ultural+ e!onomi!+ so!ial or et ni!. Nt ni!it' remains a ke' determinant of group affiliation+ in!lusion and ex!lusion+ & ile t e removal+ or opening+ oft e borders does not ne!essaril' or automati!all' transform a member of a national 9tate into a Nuropean+ or global+ !itizen. Nven if &e ave be!ome more mobile and find it easier to !ross t e boundaries t at previousl' indered our movement+ most of us retain strong et ni! or national affiliations and lo'alties+ be t e' territorial(fo!used or group affiliations 39igurdson+ 20004. E e global a!!ess to !'berspa!e and t e un indered spatial dissemination of information and kno&ledge as+ paradoxi!all'+ engendered a national identit' among diaspora populations & i! ave previousl' been remote and dislo!ated from t eir pla!es 3or parentsK pla!es4 of origin+ but & o are no& possessed &it more information+ and greater ease of a!!ess+ to t e an!estral 3si!4 omelands+ and identif' &it t e !auses and struggles of t e et ni! or national groups in fara&a' pla!es.

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The %er$+&a&ion sol)es> bor-ers &heor* sho+l- no& be consi-ere- in a )ac++$ <i&ho+& regar- for s%ecific %olicies Mohanson 02 3Aarta 7.+ 09N8< GNEN6A5C2E5@C 2CG L@6GN69: E e @bligation to 9 o& 7onsideration for t e 5nterests of @t ers+1 pg. 1$2(1$34
7 oi!es bet&een prin!iples ave been argued above to !onstitute a problemati! response to !olliding prin!iples+ and t e remaining legal options t erefore available are armonisation+ re!on!iliation or K&eig ingK of prin!iples against one anot er in spe!ifi! !ontexts. >o& t en is re!on!iliation+ balan!ing or &eig ing to be effe!tedR E e primar' &a' in & i! armonisation or re!on!iliation possibl' !ould be a! ieved is b' interpretation. 5t is debatable+ o&ever+ & et er balan!ing+ &eig ing or armonising reall' falls &it in t e s!ope of interpretation. 5f interpretation is limited to a dogmati! a!tivit' seeking onl' to !larif' t e meaning of norms+ t en appli!ation of t e rules or prin!iples in a situation & ere t e' !ome into !onfli!t !annot fall &it in t e definition. Lalan!ing goes be'ond t is+ as additional de!isions and valuations are required & en t e issue is not of t e priorit' of a rule over anot er rule.

<or interpretation to be useful as a tool in norm !onfli!ts & ere+ for example+ t e ne!essit' of limiting t e extent of prin!iples seems a distin!t possibilit'+ it &ould ave to determine t e meaning of t e norms in t e !ontext in & i! t e' are to be applied. 5t is !learl' impossible to !ondu!t su! an interpretation &it out regard to t e situation at and. E e logi!al !on!lusion is t at interpretation of t e ?C 7 arter =urposes+ at least in relation to issues of territor' and boundaries+ !annot be !ondu!ted in a va!uum. The regional a%%roach &aken b* &he %lan $akes &he %er$+&a&ion %ossible K <e -on9& reif* bor-ers Lai&enen . 00 =rofessor of =oliti!al 9!ien!e at @ulu ?niversit' in <inland . 3Qari+ 5nternational ;ournal of =ea!e 9tudies #.2+ 06efle!ting t e 9e!urit' Lorder in t e =ost 7old Har 7ontext+1 &&&.gmu.edu)a!ademi!)i/ps)vol#Y2)8aitinen. tm4
5n t e !ontext of post(positivist 3!onstru!tivist4 se!urit' t oug t t e notion of so!io(spatial !ons!iousness is essential and meaningful. E en+ t e spe!ifi! se!urit' border reveals o& it is not t e question of !ertain p 'si!al borderlines as su! + but t e pra!ti!al and mental traditions+ pra!ti!es and !ontinuums & i! + quite often+ prevent us from seeing and imagining a !ertain spa!e or border in a different &a'. <or instan!e+ t e eastern border of <inland and t e 7old Har demar!ations of t e &estern borders of 6ussia are su! border !ontinuums & i! still ver' mu! dominate t e present se!urit' t inking.

&e s ould see o& politi!al spa!es are being rearti!ulated to !onstitute ne& forms of !ommunit'. He s ould understand t e se!urit' border zones as a multifa!eted dimension & ere ea! aspe!t refle!ts a different fun!tion or idea. >en!e+ &e !ould deta! ourselves form t ose traditional se!urit' border pra!ti!es & i! so often dominate. Guring t e 7old Har t e stabilit' of borders seemed eternal. Lut+ as &e ave &itnessed+ t e' are in a state of flux. Co&+ in an integrating Nurope t e main task is to find su! politi!al solutions & i! !an be transformed into su! so!io(spatial !ons!iousness & i! does not in!lude t e element of violen!e. 7onsequentl'+ it &ould be possible to !onstru!t borders of !o(operation 3based on !riti!al and !ompre ensive se!urit' t inking4 instead of t e borders of traditional ex!lusive se!urit'.
>o&ever+

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Bor-ers are ine)i&able beca+se s&a&es +se &he$ for sec+ri&*/ S&arr. 04 3>arve'+ Gag >ammarsk/old =rofessor in 5nternational 2ffairs and 7 air of t e Gepartment of =oliti!al 9!ien!e at t e ?niversit' of 9out 7arolina. 05nternational Lorders: H at E e' 2re+ H at E e' Aean+ and H ' He 9 ould 7are1 9259 revie& vol. bbB5 no.1+ Hinter(9pring+ =ro/e!t Ause4. 5n a re!ent arti!le on t e nature of borders and t eir relations ip to international !onfli!t+ t is aut or noted: E e lo!ation of states+ t eir proximit' to one anot er+ and espe!iall' & et er or not t e' s are Iborders+I emerge time and again as ke' variables in studies of international !onfli!t p enomena: from ma/or po&er general &ar+ to t e diffusion of international !onfli!t+ to t e anal'sis of pea!e bet&een pairs of demo!ra!ies... <rom LouldingKs 319#24 ideas of Ibe avior spa!e+I Iloss(of(strengt
gradientI and I!riti!al boundar'I to t e simple but profound !on!ern of geograp ers t at umans intera!t most &it t ose to & om t e' are !losest 3Vipf 19494+ t ere are po&erful t eoreti!al reasons to be interested in borders and o& t e' affe!t international relations.1 Lroadl'+ t e !on!ept of IborderI as been an important one t roug out &orld istor'. E e !on!ept of a border as t e demar!ation of t&o sovereign states &as essential to t e Hestp alian state s'stem t at developed follo&ing t e E irt' Xears Har. E is example illustrates t&o related aspe!ts of borders derived from realismKs approa! to

+ territorialit' is a !entral !omponent of state se!urit' and is fundamental to t e 3more or less deterministi!4 geopoliti!al setting t at also affe!ts t e se!urit' of states.
international relations: borders as legal p enomena and borders as related to se!urit'. TNnd =age 3U 5nternational la& and legal matters ave never been ke' !on!erns of realism. >o&ever

Bor-ers are ine)i&able !e<$an+ 04 > Gepartment of =oliti!s and Dovernment+ Len Durion ?niversit'+ Leer 9 eba+ 5srael 3Gavid+ =rogress in >uman Deograp '+ 2pril+ 0E e lines t at !ontinue to separate us: borders in our KborderlessK &orld+1 vol. 30+ no. 2+ p. 1434 He live in a &orld of lines and !ompartments. He ma' not ne!essaril' see t e lines+ but t e' order our dail' life pra!ti!es+ strengt (ening our belonging to+ and identit' &it + pla!es and groups+ & ile( at one and t e same time ( perpetuating and reperpet(uating notions of differen!e and ot ering. <or some+ t e notion of a KborderlessK and KdeterritorializedK &orld as be!ome a buzz &ord for globalization 3Quper+ 2004F 7ane'+ 200"4+ but it is not possible to imagine a &orld & i! is borderless or deterritorialized. Nven t e globalization purists &ould a!!ept t at t e basi! ordering of so!iet' requires !ate( gories and !ompartments+ and t at borders !reate order 32lbert et at+ 2001F van >outum and van Caerssen+ 20024.

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Bor-ers ha)e an enor$o+s an- ine)i&able i$%ac& on in&erna&ional affairs/ S&arr. 04 3>arve'+ Gag >ammarsk/old =rofessor in 5nternational 2ffairs and 7 air of t e Gepartment of =oliti!al 9!ien!e at t e ?niversit' of 9out 7arolina. 05nternational Lorders: H at E e' 2re+ H at E e' Aean+ and H ' He 9 ould 7are1 9259 revie& vol. bbB5 no.1+ Hinter(9pring+=ro/e!t Ause4. Lorders matter. Nven in toda'Ks Iturbulent+I post(7old Har &orld of gro&ing demo!ra!'+ ever(extensive interdependen!e+ and globalization+ borders still serve a &ide variet' of fun!tions a!ross t e areas of se!urit'+ e!onomi!s+ politi!s+ and so!ial intera!tions. Nven as some aspe!ts of international la& ! allenge or erode traditional notions of sovereignt'+ borders delineate areas of legal !ompeten!e. Lorders provide one ke' element in t e stru!ture of t e global s'stem: mapping t e number and arrangement of t e territorial units upon & i! all umans live. Lorders permit a spatial approa! to international or global politi!s b' setting out t e lo!ation of states and t eir absolute and relative distan!es from ea! ot er. Lorders a!t as fa!tors of !onstraint on uman intera!tion+ as &ell as fa!tors t at fa!ilitate uman intera!tion. Lorders ave signifi!ant effe!ts on international politi!s+ bot b' t eir presen!e and b' t eir meaning to umans 3eit er peoples+ poli!'makers+ or s! olars4. 5n turn+ t e internal and external politi!s of peoples+ sub(state organizations+ and states affe!t t e !reation+ dissolution+ and meaning of borders. 2s 5 ave argued in earlier &ork+ anal'sts of international politi!s !annot ignore t e spatial dimension of uman relations. The cri&iD+e can9& sol)e K a&&e$%&s a& -e&erri&orialiBa&ion <ill onl* lea- &o re&erri&orialiBa&ion/ T+a&hail K 942ssistant professor of Deograp ' at Birginia =ol'te! ni! 5nstitute( 199# 3Dearoid+ 0Bisions and Bertigo: =ostmodernit' and t e Hriting of Dlobal 9pa!e1 7riti!al Deopoliti!s p.2304 H ile it is important not to exaggerate t e degree of globalization and deterritorialization+ t ese and ot er material transformations ave rendered t e rigidities of t e modern so!iospatial triad of t e interstate s'stem 3state sovereignt'+ territorial integrit'+ and !ommunit' identit'4 in!reasingl' problemati!. E is eavil' m't ologized triad of state(territor'( !ommunit' &as never perfe!tl' set and stable in an' !ountr'+ but its instabilit' and pre!ariousness are be!oming more and more pronoun!ed as pla!es are denationalized and globalized b' transnational flo&s. E ese tenden!ies &ere o!!urring &ell before t e dramati! !ollapse of 7ommunism and subsequent disintegration of t e territorial organization of t e Nastern blo! and 9oviet empire after 19%9. E is implosion of t e geopoliti!al order of t e 7old Har starkl' foregrounded t e degree to & i! t e post-Horld Har 55 &orld order ad !ome apart and pla!ed t e meaning of t e 0Hest+10Nurope+1 and t e 0?nited 9tates1 as so!iospatial identities in !risis+ t us provoking t e experien!e of vertigo &e ave noted. Lut ever' deterritorialization !reates t e !onditions for a reterritorialization of order using fragments of t e beliefs+ !ustoms+ pra!ti!es+ and narratives of t e old splintered &orld order. @ut of t e experien!e of vertigo+ ne&l' imagined visions of state+ territor'+ and !ommunit' are pro/e!ted in an effort to restabilize and reterritorialize identit' amid global flux. 2s one order of spa!e unravels+ ne& orders are deplo'ed to retriangulate lo!al foregrounds against global ba!kgrounds into ne& produ!tions of global spa!e.

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(es%ec& for bor-ers has %re)en&e- $aHor <ars/ ?acher. 00 3Aark+ Bnternational ;rganization+ Bol. ""+ Co. 2. 39pring+ 20014+ pp. 21"c ;stor4. E e de!line of su!!essful &ars of territorial aggrandizement during t e last alf !entur' is palpable. 5n fa!t+ t ere as not been a !ase of su!!essful territorial aggrandizement sin!e 19$#. <urt ermore t ere ave been important multilateral a!!ords in support of t e norm and frequent interventions b' international organizations to for!e states to &it dra& from foreign !ountries. 7learl'+ a !entral sour!e of t e norm as been t e industrialized &orld*s fear t at territorial revisionism !ould ignite a ma/or &ar t at &ould !ause great uman suffering. 9everal s! olars ave observed t at t is revision against t e imposition of p 'si!al pain as been !entral to t e strengt ening of a variet' of se!urit' and uman rig ts regimes. E e experien!es of t e t&o &orld &ars+ a general understanding of territorial revisionism*s en!ouragement of ma/or &ars+ and a fear of nu!lear &eapons drove t e development of t e territorial integrit' norm at ke' points in its multilateral legitimization. The lack of na&ional i-en&i&* crea&e- af&er &he =os&>Eolonial era <ill exacerba&e an- accelera&e s&a&e colla%se 7or-on 97 ( =rofessor of 8a&+ Billanova ?niversit' 9! ool of 8a&( 199$ 36ut + 09aving <ailed 9tates: 9ometimes 2 Ceo!olonialist Cotion1 2meri!an ?niversit' ;ournal of 5nternational 8a& : =oli!'4 5f &e define a nation as a Igroup t at s ares a !ommon istor' and identit' and T*922U is a&are of Tt e fa!t t at its !itizensU are a people and not /ust a population+I n101 per aps none of t e post(!olonial 2fri!an states emerged as nation(states be!ause none possessed t e element of Ination.I n102 6at er+ ea! of t e ne& states !ontained more t an one nation+ and t us t e ne&l' designated nation ad to be !reated. n103 This lack of na&ional i-en&i&*. co+%le- <i&h <eak s&a&e s*s&e$s or s&r+c&+res -es&ro*e- in &he <ake of ci)il s&rife. $a* exacerba&e an- accelera&e s&a&e colla%se/ 5n summar'+ state disintegration is attributed to t e destru!tion of state stru!tures b' !ivil &ar and t e destru!tion of su! stru!tures is so extensive t at t e emerging po&er stru!ture finds it diffi!ult+ if not impossible to rebuild t ese bodies. 5n t e absen!e of &idespread and purposeful p 'si!al destru!tion+ state !ollapse is found in &eak states t at !annot provide for t e basi! needs of t eir !itizens and+ t us+ graduall' be!ome irrelevant and useless to t e !itizenr'. E e debate is & et er t is state of events is rooted in an aut oritarianism t at is no longer able to fun!tion+ a dis!onne!tion or la!k of a InationI &it in t ese nation(states+ or simpl' an unpreparedness or inabilit' to govern. n104 Bor-ers -o no& ca+se <ar,legal -is%+&es are &he roo& ca+se/ S&arr 04 . 200#( 3>arve'+ =rofessor in 5nternational 2ffairs and 7 air of t e Gepartment of =oliti!al 9!ien!e at t

e ?niversit' of 9out 7arolina. >e spe!ializes in international relations t eor' and met od+ international !onfli!t+ and geopoliti!s. >e is !o(aut or of Horld =oliti!s: E e Aenu for 7 oi!e+ %t edition. 3200#4+ 05nternational Lorders: H at E e' 2re+ H at E e' Aean+ and H ' He 9 ould 7are14 ttp:))muse./ u.edu)/ournals)saisYrevie&)v02#)2#.1starr. tm

8iberal and pluralist ! allenges to realist t eor' ave developed various models over t e past "0 'ears-models of integration+ international intera!tion+ and e!onomi! interdependen!e. =aired &it t e !urrent attention to globalization+ t ese models question t e existen!e or utilit' of sovereignt'+ territorialit'+ and signifi!ant borders in t is ig l' interdependent+ globalized &orld. Xet+ as noted+ borders !ontinue to pla' an important legal role in &orld politi!s. Diven t e Idemo!rati! pea!eI t eor'+ & i! observes t at pairs of demo!ra!ies ave not foug t &ars against ea! ot er+ borders ave far less to do &it !onfli!t or militarized !onfli!t t an legal issues. 5ndeed+ for neig boring demo!ra!ies+ debates about borders revolve around issues of legal /urisdi!tion regarding !ommer!e+ t e movement of people or ideas+ and ot er ideas .

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O%ening &he bor-ers <o+l- crea&e a racis&. )iolen& backlash of e%ic %ro%or&ions ?iBek+ professor at t e 5nstitute of 9o!ial 9!ien!es at t e ?niversit' of 8/ubl/ana+ 2000 39lavo/+ 6et inking Aarxism+ v.13 n. 3)4+ ttp:))!o'ote.kein.org)pipermail)generationYonline)2002(Aa')0003"1. tml4
Cevert eless+ one immediatel' gets a sense of t e boundaries to >ardt and CegriKs anal'sis. 5n t eir so!ial(e!onomi! anal'sis+ t e la!k of !on!rete insig t is !on!ealed in t e Geleuzian /argon of multitude+ deterritorialization+ and so fort . Co &onder t at t e t ree Ipra!ti!al proposals &it & i! t e book ends appear anti!lima!ti!. E e aut ors propose to fo!us our politi!al struggle on t ree global rig ts: t e rig ts to global !itizens ip+ a minimal in!ome+ and t e reappropriation of t e ne& means of produ!tion 3i.e. a!!ess to and !ontrol over edu!ation+ information and !ommuni!ation4. 5t is a paradox t at >ardt and Cegri+ t e poets of mobilit'+ variet'+ 'bridization+ and so on+ !all for t ree demands formulated in t e terminolog' of universal uman rig ts. dt ese demands is t at t e' flu!tuate bet&een formal

+ if t is demand is meant to be taken more seriousl' t an a !elebrator' formal de!laration in t'pi!al ?nited Cations 9t'le+ t en it &ould mean t e abolition of state bordersF under present !onditions+ su! a step &ould trigger an invasion of ! eap labor from 5ndia+ 7 ina and 2fri!a into t e ?nited 9tates and Hestern Nurope+ & i! &ould result in a populist revolt against immigrants(a result of su! violent proportions t at figures like >aider &ould seem models of multi!ultural toleran!e. E e same is valid &it regard to t e ot er t&o
emptiness and impossible radi!alization. 8et us take t e rig t to global !itizens ip: t eoreti!all'+ t is rig t of !ourse s ould be approved. >o&ever demands: for instan!e+ t e universal 3&orld&ide4 rig t to minimal in!ome(of !ourse+ & ' notR Lut o& s ould one !reate t e ne!essar' so!ial(e!onomi! and ideologi!al !onditions for su! a s attering transformationR

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T+rn K Terroris$ 2. Bor-er con&rol is ke* &o %re)en&ing &erroris$ K +ncon&rolle- $$igra&ion risks na&ional sec+ri&* 7enenberg. 2009 L>erb . E e Lulletin+ 2pril 1#+ 2009+ E e Lulletin+ 5mmigration A't s Eo Le 2voided H en 7oming ?p Hit 6eforms+ ttp:))t ebulletin.us)arti!les)2009)04)1#) erbYdenenberg)do!49e#!910!!1"d402232%%4.txt4 A't @ne 5mmigration al&a's produ!es good results for t e e!onom' and t e !ountr'. Le!ause of our istor'+ be!ause &e are a nation of immigrants+ and be!ause immigration seems to ave turned out so &ell+ man' believe t at more immigration &ill produ!e good results. <or most of t e last t ree !enturies+ 2meri!a as a!!epted more immigrants t an an' ot er !ountr'. Nven as late as 200$+ t ere &ere 3% million people living in t e ?.9. t at &ere not born ere. E at*s about 20 per!ent of t e migrants of t e &orld. 2ll 'ou ave to do is look at Nurope to find out & at results immigration !an produ!e. E e influx of Auslims runs t e real danger of turning Nurope into & at as been !alled Nurabia - a ne& Nurope &it ma/orit' !ontrol in t e ands of Auslims and & ole nations be!oming sub/e!t to 9 aria. 9ome of t e most insig tful observers of t e Nuropean s!ene believe t at Nurope is alread' lost and &ill !ontinue to slide into Auslim domination and 9 aria as its legal s'stem. Nurope not onl' as a problem for itself be!ause of Auslim immigration but t at also poses a serious problem to t e ?nited 9tates. 8isten to t is &arning from 2meri!an 5ntelligen!e @ffi!ials+ as reported b' 6obert 9. 8eiken in an arti!le+ 0E e Aena!e in Nurope*s Aidst1 t at appeared in 7urrent >istor' 32pril 20094: 02meri!an intelligen!e offi!ials ave told =resident Lara!k @bama t at Lritis /i adists no& !onstitute t e ! ief terrorist t reat to t e ?nited 9tates a1 Lritain is a visa &aiver !ountr' meaning t ese terrorists are onl' an e(ti!ket a&a' from t e ?nited 9tates. E is <ebruar' t e ?.9. Gire!tor of Cational 5ntelligen!e+ in is first 2nnual E reat 2ssessment+ emp asized t at 02l _aeda as used Nurope as a laun! ing point for external operations against t e omeland on several o!!asions sin!e 9)11+ and &e believe t at t e group !ontinues to vie& Nurope as a viable laun! ing point.1 E ere are some legitimate !on!ern even about Auslims and Auslim immigrants in t e ?.9. 2n often(!ited poll+ found t at one out of four respondents under t e age of 30 a!!epted sui!ide bombings. B/ !+clear &erroris$ <ill ca+se ex&inc&ion Si->Ah$e-. 2 3Ao amed+ Aanaging Nditor for 2l(2 ali+ 0Nxtin!tionJ1 2ugust 2#(9eptember 1+ 5ssue no. $0"+ ttp:))&eekl'.a ram.org.eg)2004)$0")op". tm4 2 nu!lear atta!k b' terrorists &ill be mu! more !riti!al t an >iros ima and Cagazaki+ even if (( and t is is far from !ertain (( t

e &eapons used are less armful t an t ose used t en+ ;apan+ at t e time+ &it no kno&ledge of nu!lear te! nolog'+ ad no ! oi!e but to !apitulate. Eoda'+ t e te! nolog' is a se!ret for nobod'. 9o far+ ex!ept for t e t&o bombs dropped on ;apan+ nu!lear &eapons ave been used onl' to t reaten. Co& &e are at a stage & ere t e' !an be detonated. E is !ompletel' ! anges t e rules of t e game. He ave rea! ed a point & ere anti!ipator' measures !an determine t e !ourse of events. 2llegations of a terrorist !onne!tion !an be used to /ustif' anti!ipator' measures+ in!luding t e invasion of a sovereign state like 5raq. 2s it turned out+ t ese allegations+ as &ell as t e allegation t at 9addam &as arbouring HAG+ proved to be unfounded. H at &ould be t e !onsequen!es of a nu!lear atta!k b' terroristsR Nven if it fails+ it &ould furt er exa!erbate t e negative features of t e ne& and frig tening &orld in & i! &e are no& living. 9o!ieties &ould !lose in on t emselves+ poli!e measures &ould be stepped up at t e expense of uman rig ts+ tensions bet&een !ivilisations and religions &ould rise and et ni! !onfli!ts &ould proliferate. 5t &ould also speed up t e arms ra!e and develop t e a&areness t at a different t'pe of &orld order is imperative if umankind is to survive. Lut t e still more !riti!al s!enario is if t e atta!k su!!eeds. E is !ould lead to a t ird &orld &ar+ from & i! no one &ill emerge vi!torious. ?nlike a !onventional &ar & i! ends & en one side triump s over anot er+ t is &ar &ill be &it out &inners and losers. H en nu!lear pollution infe!ts t e & ole planet+ &e &ill all be losers.

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Their -escri%&ion of African bor-ers as onl* %ro-+c&s of colonialis$ ignores n+$ero+s o&her fac&ors &ha& <en& in&o &heir cons&r+c&ion/ Mbe$be. 2000 32! ille+ Cublic Culture 12.1 320004 2"9(2%4+ Bisitng =rofessor of >istor' at Xale ?niversit' 02t t e Ndge of t e Horld: Loundaries+ Eerritorialit'+ and 9overeignt' in 2fri!a1 =ro/e!t Ause4. Aoreover+ to state t at !urrent 2fri!an boundaries are merel' a produ!t of !olonial arbitrariness is to ignore t eir multiple geneses. 5n fa!t+ t eir establis ment long antedated t e 7ongress of Lerlin eld in 1%%4+ & ose ob/e!tive &as to distribute sovereignt' among t e different po&ers engaged in dividing up t e !ontinent.
E eir protogenesis goes ba!k to t e period of t e trading(post e!onom'+ & en Nuropeans set up agen!ies on t e !oasts and began to trade &it t e natives. E e establis ment of t is e!onom' explains+ in part+ some of t e p 'si!al ! ara!teristi!s of 2fri!an states+ and first of all t e distin!tion bet&een t e littoral areas and t e interland t at so deepl' marks t e geograp i!al stru!ture of various !ountries+ or

. Loundaries graduall' !r'stallized during t e period of Iinformal empireI 3from t e abolition of t e slave trade up to t e repression of t e first resistan!e movements4+ t anks to t e !ombined a!tion of traders and missionaries. E e rise of boundaries took a militar' turn &it t e !onstru!tion of forts+ t e penetration of t e interland+ and t e repression of lo!al revolts. <ar from being simple produ!ts of !olonialism+ !urrent boundaries t us refle!t !ommer!ial+ religious+ and militar' realities+ t e rivalries+ po&er relations ips+ and allian!es t at prevailed among t e various imperial po&ers and bet&een t em and 2fri!ans t roug t e !enturies pre!eding !olonization proper. <rom t is point of vie&+ t eir !onstitution depends on a relativel' long(term so!ial and !ultural pro!ess. Lefore t e !onquest+ t e' represented spa!es of en!ounter+ negotiation+ and opportunit' for Nuropeans and 2fri!ans. 2t t e time of !onquest+ t eir main fun!tion &as to mark t e spatial limits t at separated !olonial possessions from one anot er+ taking into a!!ount not ambitions but t e a!tual o!!upation of t e land.
again t e en!losure of vast en!laves situated far from t e o!eans

#)en if African bor-ers are arbi&rar*. &he* ha)e beco$e %ar& of &he social lan-sca%e an- are no& going &o change/ A&Bili. 07 3Loaz+ 6esear! <ello& in t e Lelfer 7enter for 9!ien!e and 5nternational 2ffairs at t e ;o n <. Qenned' 9! ool of Dovernment at >arvard ?niversit'. 0H en Dood <en!es Aake Lad Ceig bors: <ixed Lorders+ 9tate Heakness+ and 5nternational 7onfli!t1+ 5nternational 9e!urit'+ 31.3 page 139(1$3 =ro/e!t Ause4. 2fri!aKs borders are parti!ularl' intriguing. Gespite t e arbitrariness &it & i! man' state borders in 2fri!a &ere dra&n+ t e' ave remained largel' fixed. <rom its in!eption in 19#3+ t e @rganization of 2fri!an ?nit' 3@2?4 as endorsed t e norm in a!!ordan!e &it t e prin!iple of preserving t e !olonial territorial status quo. 5n pra!ti!e+ as ;effer' >erbst notes+ It e vast ma/orit' of T2fri!an bordersU ave remained virtuall' untou! ed sin!e t e late 1%00s+ & en t e' &ere first demar!ated.I E e @2?Ks determination to up old t e norm &as demonstrated+ for instan!e+ in t e 19#$.$0 !ivil &ar in Cigeria+ & en t e organization soug t to prevent LiafraKs attempts to se!ede.

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S&a&+s D+o sol)es K (egions are alrea-* &ranscen-ing bo+n-aries an- rei-en&if*ing &he$sel)es Mbe$be > resear! professor in istor' and politi!s at t e ?niversit' of t e Hit&atersrand in ;o annesburg.(20 00 32! ille+ 02t t e edge of t e &orld: boundaries+ territorialit'+ and sovereignt' in 2fri!a1 p. 2#1(24 @ver t e past t&o !enturies t e visible+ material+ and s'mboli! boundaries of 2fri!a ave !onstantl' expanded and !ontra!ted. E e stru!tural ! ara!ter of t is instabilit' as elped ! ange t e territorial bod' of t e !ontinent. Ce& forms of territorialit' and unexpe!ted forms of lo!alit' ave appeared. E eir limits do not ne!essaril' interse!t &it t e offi!ial limits+ norms+ or language of states. Ce& internal and external a!tors+ organized into net&orks and nu!lei+ !laim rig ts over t ese territories+ often b' for!e. @t er &a's of imagining
spa!e and territor' are developing. =aradoxi!all'+ t e dis!ourse t at is supposed to a!!ount for t ese transformations as ended up obs!uring t em. Nssentiall'+ t&o t eses ignore ea! ot er. @n one and+ t e prevailing idea is t at t e boundaries separating 2fri!an states &ere !reated b' !olonialism+ t at t ese boundaries &ere arbitraril' dra&n+ and t at t e' separated peoples+ linguisti! entities+ and !ultural and politi!al !ommunities t at formed natural and omogeneous & oles before !olonization. E e !olonial boundaries are also said to ave opened t e &a' to t e Lalkanization of t e !ontinent b' !utting it up into a maze of mi!rostates t at &ere not e!onomi!all' viable and &ere linked more to Nurope t an to t eir regional environment. @n t is vie&+ b' adopting t ese distortions in 19#3 t e @rganization of 2fri!an ?nit' 3@2?4 ad ered to t e dogma of t eir intangibilit' and gave t em a kind of legitima!'. Aan' of t e !urrent !onfli!ts are said to ave resulted from t e impre!ise nature of t e boundaries in erited from !olonialism. E ese boundaries !ould not be ! anged ex!ept in t e frame&ork of vigorous poli!ies of regional integration t at &ould !omplete t e implementation of defense and !olle!tive

a kin- of regional in&egra&ion is alrea-* &aking %lace :fro$ belo</1 5t seems to be o!!urring on t e margins of offi!ial institutions+ t roug so!io!ultural solidarities and interstate !ommer!ial net&orks. E is pro!ess is t e basis for t e emergen!e of alternative spa!es t at stru!ture t e informal e!onom'+ !ontraband+ and migrator' movements. <ar
se!urit' agreements.$ E e ot er t esis !laims t at from being merel' regional+ t ese interstate ex! anges are !onne!ted &it international markets and t eir d'nami!s. E e !ommer!e for & i! t e' provide t e moving for!e is favored b' a fundamental

. =o&erful religious and !ommer!ial net&orks &it multiple ramifi!ations ave taken advantage of !omplementarities bet&een areas of produ!tion+ as &ell as legislation and monetar' zones t at differ from one !ountr' to anot er+ in order to !reate markets t at elude t e states t emselves.9
! ara!teristi! of 2fri!an states+ namel' t e relative la!k of !ongruen!e bet&een t e territor' of a state and areas of ex! ange

Ma% re-ra<ing <o+l- H+s& recrea&e &he sa$e %roble$s in Africa Mbo-H. 02 Aan attanville 7ollege 3Ao amed+ 7ontested Eerrains and 7onstru!ted 7ategories: 7ontemporar' 2fri!a in <o!us+ ed: Lond+ questia4 to redra& t e map of 2fri!a is a fairl' dubious proposition and &ould not resolve man' !urrent borders disputes+ & i! are generall' /ust an extension of internal problems. 5n fa!t+ an' redra&n map &ould ave t e same ! ara!ter be!ause it &ould arbitrate among !laims and even bases for making !laims. E e pro!ess &ould be based on po&er rat er t an ideals. =ost(!olonial mapmaking &ould be /ust as arbitrar' as !olonial mapmaking+ /ust an exer!ise of po&er+ opening all sorts of questions about & o &ould and & o s ould ave & at sort of influen!e in su! a pro/e!t. E e legitima!' problems of man' 2fri!an governments raise questions about & o s ould negotiate ea! !ountr'Ks pla!e on t e map. 7onsidering t eir overall poor performan!e+ it is doubtful t at t ese governments &ould do a good /ob.
5t is legitimate to ask o& istori!al for!es ave generated t e !urrent politi!al map of 2fri!a and to ask if a better map !ould be produ!ed t at &ould be more benefi!ial for 2fri!a. Lut

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=er$ sol)es bes& K e)en B+&ler agrees s&ra&egicall* +sing gen-er ca&egories is %oli&icall* effec&i)e Bal-<in. 97 Aargaret 2. Lald&in+ 2sso!. =rof 8a& M <9?+ 9pring 199$+ 0=ubli! Homen and t e <eminist 9tate+1 20 >arv. Homen*s 8.;. 4$+ p ln >o&ever salutar' t e postmodern goal of de(essentializing &omen+ postmodern t eor' ultimatel' effa!es t e spe!ifi! situation of publi! &omen+ and forfeits altoget er an' a!!ount of gender along t e &a'. E is diffi!ult'+ and its impli!ations for politi!al strateg'+ is often spoken of but rarel' addressed seriousl' &it in postmodern feminism. Genise 6ile' offers t e diktat t at at su! /un!tures &omen !an kno& amongst t emselves It at K&omenK donKt exist (( & ile maintaining a politi!s of T*1#0U Kas if t e' existedK (( sin!e t e &orld be aves as if t e' unambiguousl' did.I 434 ;udit Lutler makes t e same ta!ti!al !on!ession & en s e affirms t e !ontinued ne!essit' of asserting Ia generall' s ared !on!eption of K&omenKI 43" as a politi!al strateg': Hit in feminism+ it seems as if t ere is some politi!al ne!essit' to speak as and for &omen+ and 5 &ould not !ontest t at ne!essit'. 9urel'+ t at is t e &a' in & i! representational politi!s operates+ and . . . lobb'ing efforts are virtuall' impossible &it out re!ourse to identit' politi!s. 9o &e agree t at demonstrations and legislative efforts and radi!al movements need to make !laims in t e name of &omen. 43#

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Ea%i&alis$ is +&&erl* ine)i&able,&he lef& onl* looks craB* <hen &he* foc+s on Marxis$ o)er %rac&ical refor$s/ Wilson. 2000 . 2ut or of man' books in!luding PE e A't of =oliti!al 7orre!tness* . 2000 3;o n Q. Hilson+ 0>o& t e 8eft !an Hin 2rguments and 5nfluen!e =eople1 p. $( 104 9o!ialism is dead. Qaput. 9ti!k a fork in 8eninKs !orpse. Eake t e <idel posters off t e &all. Hel!ome to t e t&ent'(first !entur'. Hake up and smell t e !apitalism. 5 ave no parti!ular ostilit' to so!ialism. Lut not ing !an kill a good idea in 2meri!a so qui!kl' as sti!king t e Iso!ialistI label on it. E e realit' in 2meri!a is t at so!ialism is about as su!!essful as Aarxist foot&ear 3and ave 'ou ever seen a si!kle and ammer on an'bod'Ks s oesR4. 2llo& 'our position to be defined as so!ialist even if it isnKt 3remember 7lintonKs !apitalist ealt !are planR4+ and t e idea is doomed. 5nstead of fig ting to repair t e tattered
remnants of so!ialism as a marketing slogan+ t e left needs to address t e !ore issues of so!ial /usti!e. Xou !an form t e &ord so!ialist from t e letters in so!ial /usti!e+ but it sounds better if 'ou donKt. 2t least 90 per!ent of 2meri!a opposes so!ialism+ and 90 per!ent of 2meri!a t inks Iso!ial /usti!eI mig t be a good idea. H ' alienate so man' people &it a &ordR Nven t e true believers a&king !opies of t e 6evolutionar' 9o!ialist Horker must realize b' no& t at t e &ord so!ialist doesnKt ave a lot of dra&ing po&er. 5n t e movie Lul&ort + Harren Leatt' de!lares: I8et me ear t at dirt' &ord: so!ialismJI 9o!ialism isnKt reall' a dirt' &ord+ o&everF if it &ere+ so!ialism mig t ave a little underground appeal as a forbidden topi!. 5nstead+ so!ialism is a forgotten &ord+ part of an ar! ai! vo!abular' and a dead language t at is no longer spoken in 2meri!a. Nven Ai! ael >arrington+ t e founder of t e Gemo!rati! 9o!ialists of 2meri!a 3G924+ didnKt use t e &ord so!ialism in is influential book on povert'+ E e

E e best reason for t e left to abandon so!ialism is not =6 but onest'. Aost of t e self(des!ribed Iso!ialistsI remaining in 2meri!a donKt qualif' as real so!ialists in an' te! ni!al sense. 5f 'ou look at t e G92 3& ose prominent members in!lude >arvard professor 7ornel Hest and former Eime !olumnist Larbara N renrei! 4+ most of t e poli!ies t e' urge(a living &age+ universal ealt !are+ environmental prote!tion+ redu!ed spending on t e =entagon+ and an end to !orporate &elfare( ave not ing to do &it so!ialism in t e spe!ifi! sense of government o&ners ip of t e means of produ!tion. 6at er+ t e G92 program is reall' not ing more t an & at a liberal politi!al part' oug t to pus for+ if &e ad one in 2meri!a. Nuropeans+ to & om t e 'steria over so!ialism must seem rat er strange+ &ould never !onsider abandoning so!ialism as a legitimate politi!al ideolog'. Lut in 2meri!a+ so!ialism simpl' isnKt taken seriousl' b' t e mainstream. E erefore+ if so!ialists &ant to be taken seriousl'+ t e' need to pursue so!ialist goals using nonso!ialist r etori!. H enever someone tries to atta!k an idea as Iso!ialistI 3or+ better 'et+ I!ommunistI4+ t ereKs an eas' ans&er: 9ome people t ink ever't ing done b' a government+ from 9o!ial 9e!urit' to
@t er 2meri!a. Aedi!are to publi! s! ools to publi! libraries+ is so!ialism. E e rest of us /ust t ink itKs a good idea. 3H enever possible+ t ro& publi! libraries into an argument+ & et er itKs about good government programs or CN2 funding. Cobod' &it an' sense is opposed to publi! libraries. E e' are b' far t e most popular government institutions.4 5f an argument turns into a debate over so!ialism+ simpl' define so!ialism as t e total government o&ners ip of all fa!tories and natural resour!es((& i! + sin!e &e donKt ave it and no one is reall' arguing for t is to appen+ makes so!ialism a rat er pointless debate. @f

+ abstra!t dis!ussions about so!ialism are &orse t an useless+ for t e' alienate t e progressive potential of t e 2meri!an people. 5tKs onl' b' pursuing spe!ifi! progressive poli!ies on nonso!ialist terms t at so!ialists ave an' ope in t e long term of !onvin!ing t e publi! t at so!ialism isnKt 3or s ouldnKt be4 a long(dead ideolog'.
!ourse+ so!ialists &ill al&a's argue among t emselves about so!ialism and !ontinue t eir internal debates. Lut & en it !omes to influen!ing publi! poli!'

A%ocal*%&ic %re-ic&ions abo+& &he ills of ca%i&alis$ <ill no& $o&i)a&e ac&i)is$,%rac&ical refor$s are &he onl* ho%e for &he lef&/ Wilson. 2000 . Nditor and =ublis er of 5llinois 2!ademe . 2000 3;o n Q. Hilson+ 0>o& t e 8eft !an Hin 2rguments and 5nfluen!e =eople1 p. 14( 1"4 8eftists also need to abandon t eir tenden!' to make apo!al'pti! predi!tions. 5tKs al&a's tempting to predi!t t at environmental destru!tion is imminent or t e sto!k market is read' to !ras in t e !oming se!ond Dreat Gepression. 2rguments t at t e ?.9. e!onom' is in terrible s ape fl' in t e fa!e of realit'. 5tKs ard to !laim t at a middle(!lass 2meri!an famil' &it t&o !ars+ a big(s!reen EB+ and a !omputer is oppressed. H ile t e poor in 2meri!a fell be ind during t e 6eagan)Dingri! )7linton era and t e middle !lass did not re!eive its s are of t e &ealt produ!ed during t is time+ t e e!onom' itself is in ex!ellent s ape. 5nstead+ t e problem is t e redistribution of &ealt to t e ver' ri! under t e resurgen!e of Ifree marketI !apitalism. 5nstead of &arning t at t e e!onom' &ill !ollapse &it out progressive poli!ies+ t e left s ould emp asize t at t e progressive aspe!ts of 2meri!an !apitalism ave !reated t e !urrent su!!ess of t e 2meri!an e!onom' after de!ades of eav' government investment in uman !apital. Lut t e !utba!ks in investment for edu!ation and t e gro&ing disparit' bet&een t e aves and t e ave(notes are t reatening t e e!onom'*s future su!!ess.

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Ea%i&alis$ is ine)i&able,refor$s. no& re)ol+&ion. are &he onl* o%&ion/ Wilson. 2000 . Nditor and =ublis er of 5llinois 2!ademe . 2000 3;o n Q. Hilson+ 0>o& t e 8eft !an Hin 2rguments and 5nfluen!e =eople1 p. 1"( 1#4 7apitalism is far too ingrained in 2meri!an life to eliminate. 5f 'ou go into t e most impoveris ed areas of 2meri!a+ 'ou &ill find t at t e people & o live t ere are not seeking government !ontrol over fa!tories or even more so!ial &elfare programsF t e'Kre oping+ usuall' in vain+ for a fair ! an!e to s are in t e !apitalist &ealt . E e poor do not pra' for so!ialism(t e' strive to be a part of t e !apitalist s'stem. E e' &ant /obs+ t e' &ant to start businesses+ and t e' &ant to make mone' and be su!!essful. H atKs &rong &it 2meri!a is not !apitalism as a s'stem but !apitalism as a religion. He &ors ip t e a!!umulation of &ealt and treat t e orrible inequalit' bet&een ri! and poor as if it &ere an a!t of Dod. Horst of all+ &e allo& t e government to exa!erbate t e finan!ial divide b' favoring t e &ealt ': go an'& ere in 2meri!a+ and !ompare a ri! suburb &it a poor to&n(t e !it' servi!es+ s! ools+ parks+ and pra!ti!all' ever't ing else &ill be better finan!ed in t e pla!e populated b' ri! people. E e aim is not to overt ro& !apitalism but to over aul it. Dive it a so!ial( /usti!e tune(up+ make it more effi!ient+ get t e e!onomi! engine to it on all !'linders for ever'bod'+ and stop putting out so man' environmentall' azardous substan!es. Eo some people+ t is goal means selling out leftist ideals for t e sake of !apitalism. Lut t e rig t t rives on aving an ineffe!tive opposition. E e 6evolutionar' 7ommunist =art' elps stabilize t e Ifree marketI !apitalist s'stem b' making it seem as if t e onl' alternative to free(market !apitalism is a return to 9talinism. =rospe!tive a!tivists for ! ange are instead ! anneled into pointless dis!ussions about t e revolutionar' potential of t e proletariat. 5nstead of &orking to persuade people to a!!ept progressive ideas+ t e far left talks to itself 3& i! ma' be a blessing+ given t e &a' it !ommuni!ates4 and tries to sell !opies of t e 9o!ialist Horker to an uninterested publi!. O)er&hro<ing ca%i&alis$ is a %oli&ical non>s&ar&er,refor$s are &he onl* <a* &ha& &he lef& <ill be effec&i)e/ Wilson. 2000 Nditor and =ublis er of 5llinois 2!ademe of man' books in!luding PE e A't of =oliti!al 7orre!tness* . 2000 3;o n Q. Hilson+ 0>o& t e 8eft !an Hin 2rguments and 5nfluen!e =eople1 p. 1234 E e left often finds itself stu!k in a debate bet&een revolution and reform. Eo self(des!ribed revolutionaries+ an' attempt to reform t e s'stem is a liberal !ompromise t at onl' dela's t e !reation of a so!ialist utopia. E e vision of &orkers !asting off t eir ! ains and embra!ing t e overt ro& of !apitalism is pure fantas'. Co one a!tuall' kno&s & at it means to overt ro& !apitalism+ and it !learl' isnKt going to appen+ an'&a'. 6eforming 2meri!an !apitalism is not a alf earted effort at modest ! angeF it is a fundamental atta!k on t e reigning ideolog' of Ifree marketI !apitalism. =rogressive reforms+ taken seriousl'+ are revolutionar' in ever' important sense. 6eforms su! as t e Ce& Geal &ere trul' revolutionar' for t eir time+ and 2meri!an !apitalism as been saved from its o&n fla&s b' t ese progressive reforms. E e problem is t at t ese progressive reforms ave not been !arried far enoug + in part be!ause t e revolutionar' left as too often failed to support t e progressives* reformist agenda. E e onl' leftist revolution in 2meri!a &ill !ome from an a!!umulation of progressive poli!ies+ and so t e question of revolution versus reform is irrelevant.

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AT EA= TAL SM' E#"# TF# =OL T EAL. T(A !#( S=#E F E Trainer a-$i&s his arg+$en& <o+l- -es&ro* $ains&rea$ en)iron$en&alis$ K an* reason <h* &his is goo- is a -isa&o &he al&erna&i)e/ Trainer. 07 3Eed Erainer+ 9enior 8e!turer in t e 9! ool of 9o!ial Hork at t e ?niversit' of Ce& 9out Hales. 06ene&able Nnerg' 7annot 9ustain a 7onsumer 9o!iet'1 p. $(%4 @bviousl' t is book*s message is not a pleasant one for people in t e Dreen Aovement and 5 am a!utel' a&are of t e damage it &ould do t e general environmental !ause if it &ere taken seriousl'. Nnvironmental a!tivists ave great diffi!ult' get( ting t e publi! in general to respond to environmental issues+ even & en t e' pose no signifi!ant ! allenges to t e lifest'les and s'stems of !onsumer so!iet'. 2lmost all environmental a!tivists seem to be oblivious to t e !ontradi!tion built into t eir t inking. E e' are in effe!t sa'ing+ 0=lease elp us save t e planet b' !all( ing for a s&it! to t e use of rene&able energ' sour!es - & i! !an sustain !on( sumer so!iet' and &ill pose no t reat to our obsession &it affluent lifest'les and e!onomi! gro&t .1 Nven getting people to attend to su! unt reatening messages is ver' diffi!ult. 9o o& mu! more diffi!ult &ould it be to get people to listen to t e !laim t at to save t e environment &e ave to !ut !onsumption b' per aps 90`+ and give up fossil fuels . and rene&ables !annot substitute for t emR Diven t at 5 ave been part of t e Dreen Aovement for de!ades+ 5 realise t at green goals !ould be signifi!antl' undermined if t e t eme of t is book be!ame &idel' dis!ussed+ let alone generall' a!!epted. E e most immediate effe!t &ould be a surge in support for nu!lear energ' 3despite t e !ase against it given in 7 apter 94.

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(e)ol+&ion <ill ne)er ha%%en o)er nigh&,%rogressi)e %olicies nee- &o be b+il& +%on o)er &i$e/ Wilson. 2000 3;o n Q+ !oordinator of t e 5ndependent =ress 2sso!iation*s 7ampus ;ournalism =ro/e!t+ Ho- the Le't can :in Arguments and Bn'luence Ceople$ pages 121(1234 =rogressives need to be pragmati! in order to be po&erful. >o&ever+ pragmatism s ouldnKt be !onfused &it 7lintonian !entrism and t e abandonment of all substan!e. =ragmatists ave prin!iples+ too. E e differen!e bet&een a pragmati! progressive and a foolis one is t e &illingness to pi!k t e rig t fig ts and fig t in t e rig t &a' to a!!omplis t ese same goals. E e !urrent failure of progressivism in 2meri!a is due to t e stru!ture of 2meri!an
politi!s and media+ not be!ause of a &rong turn t at t e movement took some& ere along t e &a'. H at t e left needs is not a IbetterI ideolog' but a ta!ti!al adaptation to t e obsta!les it fa!es in t e !ontemporar' politi!al s!ene. 2 pragmati! progressivism does not sa!rifi!e its ideals but simpl' !ommuni!ates t em better to t e larger publi!. E e &ords &e use s ape o& people respond to our ideas. 5tKs tempting to offer t e standard advi!e t at progressives s ould present t eir ideas in t e most palatable form. Lut palatable to & omR E e media managers and pedestrian pundits & o are t e intelle!tual

8eftists need to seize t e dominant politi!al r etori!+ even t oug it ma' be !onservative in its goals+ and turn it in a progressive dire!tion. =rogressives need to use t e antitax ideolog' to demand tax !uts for t e poor. =rogressives need to use t e antigovernment and anti&elfare ideolog' to demand t e end of !orporate &elfare. =rogressives need to translate ever' important issue into t e language
gatekeepers &onKt a!!ept t ese ideas. L' t e time progressives transform t eir ideas into t e politi!al bab' food ne!essar' for in!lusion in !urrent debates+ it barel' seems to be &ort t e effort. t at is permissible in t e mainstream. 9omet ing &ill inevitabl' be lost in t e translation. Lut t e politi!al soul underl'ing t ese progressive ideas !an be preserved and broug t to t e publi!Ks attention. E e left does not need to abandon its progressive vie&s in order to be popular. E e left onl' needs to abandon some of its failed strategies and be!ome as savv' as t e !onservatives are at manipulating t e press and t e politi!ians. E e language of progressives needs to be!ome more mainstream+ but t e ideas must remain radi!al. 5n an age of soulless politi!ians and spineless ideologies+ t e left as t e virtue of integrit'. ?ntil progressives be!ome less self(satisfied &it t e kno&ledge t at t e'Kre rig t and more determined to !onvin!e ever'one else of t is fa!t+ opportunities for politi!al ! ange &ill not be

2!!ording to some left &ingers+ in!remental progress is &ort less(t at is+ not ing s ort of a radi!al ! ange in government &ill mean an't ing to t em. 5ndeed+ for t e most radi!al left &ingers+ liberal reforms are a t reat to t e movement+ sin!e t e' redu!e t e desire for more extreme ! anges. H at t e revolutionaries fail to realize is t at progressive a! ievements !an build on one anot er. 5f an't ing approa! ing a politi!al revolution a!tuall' appens in 2meri!a+ it &ill be due to a su!!ession of popular+ effe!tive+ progressive reforms.
fort !oming. =rogressives ave also been ampered b' a revolutionar' instin!t among some leftist groups.

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Ea%i&alis$ is ine)i&able K i& is &he onl* s*s&e$ &ha& is ca%able of r+nning &he in-+s&rial <orl-/ S&ro$berg. 02 ( a 6esear! <ello& at E e 5ndependent 5nstitute+ and previousl' eld t e ;o2nn L. 6ot bard ! air in >istor' at t e 8ud&ig von Aises 5nstitute 3;osep 6. 9tromberg+ 8ud&ig von Aises 5nstitute+ 0H ' 7apitalism is 5nevitableR1 $(9(2004+ ttp:))mises.org)arti!le.aspxR5d,1"#24
E

e result is t at interventions are ! eered from all sides. <or example+ t e movement for t e 3government(imposed4 famil' &age spans left and rig t+ & en t e state intervenes to !urb mass retailing+ free

7apitalism+ it seems+ despite its triump s+ remains an irresistible target of t e opponents of libert' and propert'. >o& striking to dis!over+ t en+ o& fe& &riters and t inkers are &illing to spell out pre!isel' & at t e' mean & en t e' refer to t e e!onomi!s of !apitalism. <or man'+ t e term !apitalism is not ing but a vessel into & i! t e' pour all t e people+ institutions+ and ideas t at t e' ate. 2nd so !apitalism emerges as a s'non'm for greed+ dirt' rivers and streams+ pollution+ !orrupt businessmen+ entren! ed so!ial privilege+ t e 6epubli!an =art'+ !riminal s'ndi!ates+ &orld ;e&r'+ &ar for oil+ or & at ave 'ou. 5n fa!t+ t e advo!ates of !apitalism t emselves avenKt al&a's been entirel' !lear on t e meaning and impli!ations of !apitalist t eor'. 2nd t is is & ' Aurra' 6ot bard &ent to su! lengt s to spell out pre!isel' & at e &as endorsing & en e ! ampioned t e e!onomi!s of !apitalism. E is &as espe!iall' ne!essar' & en e
trade+ sound mone'+ freedom of asso!iation+ private propert'+ and all t e ot er institutional marks of !ommer!ial so!iet'+ it !an !ount on &ide intelle!tual agreement. &as &riting in 19$3+ a time & i! &as arguabl' t e lo& point for !apitalist t eor'. Aises died t at 'ear+ all e!onomists &ere said to be Qe'nesians+ Cixon !losed t e gold &indo&+ &age and pri!e !ontrols &ere fastened on industr' as an inflation fix+ and t e ?9 &as lo!ked in a titani! 7old Har struggle t at emp asized government &eaponr' over private enterprise. Aurra' 6ot bard+ mean& ile+ &as ard at &ork on is book <or 2 Ce& 8ibert': E e 8ibertarian Aanifesto+ an effort to breat ne& life into a traditionall' liberal program b' infusing it &it a eav' dose of politi!al radi!alism. 5t must ave seemed like a opeless task. E e same 'ear+ e &as asked to !ontribute an essa' in a series of readings !alled Aodern =oliti!al N!onom' 3Loston: 2ll'n and La!on+ 19$34. >e &as to address IE e <uture of 7apitalismI 3pp. 419(4304+ t e !on!lusion of & i! mig t ave seemed self(evidentl' bleak. Lut not to 6ot bard. >is !ontribution to t e volume &as livel'+ optimisti!+ enormousl' !larif'ing+ and pres!ient to t e extreme. 2bove all+ e used t e opportunit' to explain &it great !larit' & at pre!isel' e means & en e refers to !apitalism: no more and no less t an t e sum of voluntar' a!tivit' in so!iet'+ parti!ularl' t at ! ara!terized b' ex! ange. Qeep in mind t at t is &as 19$3+ & en ardl' an'one else believed t ese !ountries !apable of reform: I5n Nastern Nurope+ t en+ 5 t ink t at t e prospe!ts for t e free market are ex!ellent((5 t ink &e*re getting free(market !apitalism and t at its triump t ere is almost inevitable.I Een 'ears later+ it &as still fas ionable to speak of aut oritarian regimes t at !ould reform+ as !ontrasted &it so!ialist totalitarianism t at !ould not be reform and presumabl' ad to be obliterated. 6ot bard did not believe t is+ based on bot t eor' and eviden!e. 6ot bard sa& t at all se!tors in all !ountries moving eit er to&ard !apitalism or to&ard so!ialism+ & i! is to sa'+ to&ard freedom or to&ard !ontrol. 5n t e ?9+ t e trends looked ver' bleak indeed but e found trends to ! eer in t e anti&ar movement+ & i! e sa& as a positive development against militar' !entral planning. ILot in Bietnam and in domesti! government intervention+ ea! es!alating step onl' !reates more problems & i! !onfront t e publi! &it tile ! oi!e: eit er+ press on furt er &it more interventions+ or repeal t em((in Bietnam+ &it dra& from t e !ountr'.I >is !on!lusion must ave sounded impossibl' naeve in 19$3 but toda' &e !an see t at e sa& furt er t an an' ot er IfuturistsI of is time: It e advent of industrialism and t e 5ndustrial 6evolution as irreversibl' ! anged t e prognosis for freedom and statism.

industrialism as broken t e old tablesF for it as be!ome evident t at so!ialism !annot run an industrial s'stem+ and it is graduall' be!oming evident t at neomer!antilism+ interventionism+ in t e long run !annot run an industrial s'stem eit er. <ree(market !api talism+ t e vi!tor' of so!ial po&er and t e e!onomi! means+ is not onl' t e onl' moral and b' far t e most produ!tive s'stemF it as be!ome t e onl' viable s'stem for mankind in t e industrial era. 5ts eventual triump is t erefore virtuall' inevitable.I
5n t e pre(industrial era+ statism and despotism !ould peg along indefinitel'+ !ontent to keep t e peasantr' at subsisten!e levels and to live off t eir surplus. Lut

Ea%i&alis$ is ine)i&able K e)en <i&h financial crisis. free>$arke& ca%i&alis$ <ill s+r)i)e/ The A+s&ralian. 09 39taff Hriter+ 0E e 7ase for 7apitalism+1 #(2"(2009+ ttp:))&&&.t eaustralian.ne&s.!om.au)stor')0+2"19$+2"#%"#11(1#3%2+00. tml4
E>N &a' 2ustralians are selling out of s ares &ill delig t doomsa'ers+ giving t em additional eviden!e for t eir argument t at !apitalism as failed and t at onl' t e state !an save us from privation. E e number of s are olders as slumped b' 14 per !ent from 2004+ & en more t an alf of us ad portfolios. Lut t e problem &it t e !assandrasK !ommentar' is t at & ile t e' are obviousl' a!!urate in

. H atever !riti!s+ in!luding Qevin 6udd+ !laim+ t ere &as no !risis in !apitalism last 'earF t e la&s of market e!onomi!s did not suddenl' stop operating ( to suggest t e' did is t e equivalent of arguing t at t e prin!iples of p 'si!s are optional. E e immutable rule of suppl' and demand did not disappear in @!tober+ t e &a' &ealt is !reated did not ! ange. 5n t e real &orld+ entrepreneurs !ontinued to produ!e produ!ts and suppl' servi!es to sell for a profit+ /ust as t e' ave done sin!e umanit' first grasped t at free ex! ange on open markets is t e onl' /ust &a' to !reate &ealt . 8ast 'earKs disaster on sto!k ex! anges and in !redit markets around t e &orld ad not ing to do &it !apitalism. 6at er+ it &as !aused b' t e foll' of finan!ial al! emists+ & o t oug t t e' !ould !on investors t at it &as possible to make mone' from trading & at &ere ultimatel' promissor' notes based on t e supposed value of bundles of loans. 2nd it &as also !aused b' t e in!ompeten!e of regulators ! arged &it stopping su! market manipulation. 2!!ording to <inan!ial Eimes /ournalist Dillian Eett+ t e !ollapse of t e f?912+000 billion market
pointing to t e damage do&n b' t e global finan!ial !risis+ t e' ave misunderstood t e nature of t e disease and are peddling a snake oil solution to an imaginar' malad' for t ese so(!alled se!urities pre!ipitated t e mu! broader slump. 5n t e ?9+ & ere regulators on!e required banks to old reserves of f?9%00 million to !over loans &it a fa!e value of f?910bn+ t e

. E is sort of exposure meant disaster &as inevitable+ and be'ond t e global s!ope of t e problem t ere &as little to distinguis last 'earKs !risis from ot er get(ri! (qui!k s! emes t roug out istor'. Lut !riti!s+ su! as t e =rime Ainister in is no&(famous essa' in & i! e argued t at t e state must regulate t e e!onom' to prote!t ordinar' people from t e ravages of !apitalism+ miss t e point. H ile t e &orld requires effi!ient regulation to prote!t t e gullible from !orrupt !redit markets+ t is is ver' different from !onstraining !apitalism itself.
amount required &as redu!ed to /ust f?91#0m

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Ea%i&alis$ is ine)i&able K is H+s& rein)en&ing i&self K i& nee-s a fe< colla%ses &o kee% on &he righ& &rack K i& is &he onl* <a* &o ens+re &he gro<&h of $o-ern $arke&s The A+s&ralian. 07 39taff Hriter+ 0GonKt &orr' about global pani!: !apitalism is /ust reinventing itself+1 %(2"(200$+ 8exis4 5C E>N good old da's of t e 7old Har+ & en t e Hest ad one of its periodi! finan!ial pani!s+ &e al&a's ad t e 9oviets on and to remind us of t e mortalit' of !apitalism. 2s t e Go& ;ones tumbled and bankers t re& t emselves from &indo& ledges+ Aos!o& !ould be relied on to produ!e some ! eerful big&ig from t e politburo to explain t at t ings like t is never appened under !ommunism. Hit some deft quote from Qarl Aarx 3or+ if e &as subtle+ ;o n Aa'nard Qe'nes4 t e !lever 6ussian &ould le!ture us on t e essential !risis of !apitalism and its inevitable !ollapse under t e &eig t of its o&n !ontradi!tions. E ese da's+ t e 9oviets are long gone+ in ot pursuit of profits on global energ' markets+ and t e !ommunists in 7 ina ave got t e most over eated sto!k market in t e &orld. Lut even in our post( istori!al age+ &e are not quite free from t e o!!asional lapse of fait . Eoda'+ finan!ial alarms still ave t e po&er to indu!e a sense of existential !risis+ at least for our e!onomi! s'stem if not for ourselves. E e tenden!' is made &orse+ of !ourse+ b' a modern media obsessed &it presenting ever' spot of bot er
as t e end of t e &orld. E e poor 6ussians. 5f onl' t e'Kd kno&n. E eir endless prating about alienation and surplus labour &as no mat! for a modern business reporter in sear! of a eadline. E is mont Ks malaise in finan!ial markets is a po&erful !ase in point. 2rmed &it t eir quiver of s ort+ and' nouns+ t e s!ribblers besiege us dail' &it pani!s+ !ras es+ !run! es+ and m' personal favourite+ meltdo&ns. Lut to be fair+ t e !apa!it' of t e !urrent finan!ial mess to frig ten is greatl' en an!ed b' its apparent !omplexit'+ t e in!ompre ensibilit' of it all. 5n t e past 'ou t oug t 'ou vaguel' understood & at drove markets do&n. E e e!onom' stalled unexpe!tedl'+ profits dropped and sto!k pri!es follo&ed. Lut even t e keen reader of t e finan!ial pages must find is e'es glazing over & en t e !onversation turns to !ollateralised debt obligations and asset(ba!ked se!urities+ alp a(seeking edge funds and sub(prime mortgages. 5 love t e obs!urantism of finan!ial terminolog'. Lut & en 'ou dis!over t at t e <ed doesnKt a!tuall' set t e fed funds rate and t at t e dis!ount rate+ & i! it does set+ is at a premium to fed funds+ t e temptation is to roll over and beg not to be disturbed until t e !ommissars for finan!ial

. 2nd 'et &e must still !arefull' ponder our !urrent problems+ not be!ause t e' s o& us t e essential &eakness of our modern s'stem but be!ause t e' s o& us o& strong it is+ o& effi!ient+ o& durableF and above all+ o& brilliant !apitalism is at reinventing itself. <irst+ /ust as Boltaire noted t at t e <ren! needed to s oot t e o!!asional admiral from time to time to en!ourage t e ot ers+ so !apitalism needs a fe& good !ollapses to keep it on t e rig t pat . E e roots of t e !urrent !risis lie in an earlier period of app' ex!ess. 2lt oug in t e ?9 t e ousing boom &ould go on for ever+ people (( borro&ers as &ell as lenders (( got lazier and lazier about inspe!ting t e s ak' foundations on & i! it &as based. <ar from representing a !ollapse of !onfiden!e in t e s'stem+ finan!ial !rises are !apitalismKs &a' of purging itself of t e ex!esses and
stabilit' are in ! arge Co& itKs true+ 'ou donKt &ant ever' !orre!tion to &ipe out alf t e &ealt of t e !ountr'+ as used to be t e !ase+ a tenden!' t at ad t e effe!t of en!ouraging !apitalismKs !riti!s. Lut no&ada's t at doesnKt appen (( & i! is t e se!ond !ause for restrained optimism. E e finan!ial aut orities ave trul' learnt t e lessons of t e big disasters of t e past and no& a!t qui!kl' to stop t e bleeding. E ereKs a bit of fuss in t e ?9 t is &eek about & et er t e <ederal 6eserve+ t roug its in/e!tions of ! eap mone' into t e s'stem+ is bailing out institutions t at ave got t emselves into diffi!ulties. Lut t is is sill'. 2s t oug it

E e t ird reason for ! eer in t e !urrent gloom is t e stabilising inter!onne!tedness of t e global e!onom'. E is ma' sound odd. H en someone defaults on a mortgage in @ io and it !auses a !risis for a bank in <rankfurt+ isnKt t ere somet ing &rongR @n t e !ontrar'+ finan!ial innovation in t e past 10 'ears as enabled finan!ial markets (( and t e !ustomers t e' serve (( to spread risk around t e &orld. E e important lesson ere+ in fa!t+ is t at it is not an ex!ess of free markets t at as broug t us lo&+ but not enoug . Hidel' available and reliable information is essential to t e fun!tioning of markets. E e problems at too man' banks and edge funds t is mont is t at t e' ave invested in ?9
&ould be better for ever'bod' if t e' repeated t e example of t e 1930s and stood b' & ile t e devil took not onl' t e indmost+ but most of t e industrialised &orld. assets+ ba!ked b' dodg' mortgages t at &ere &rongl' !ategorised as ealt '. Lut t e biggest !ause for !omfort in t e !urrent !risis goes to t e ver' eart of modern !apitalism. Aost of t e !overage in t e past fe& &eeks as fo!used on t e iniquit' of an e!onomi! s'stem so dependent on finan!ial institutions. Erillions of dollars of finan!ial assets slos around t e &orld ever' da' at t e fli!k of a s&it! .

5n fa!t it is t e ver' gro&t of global finan!ial markets t at as given us so mu! of t e prosperit' &e en/o' toda'. He no longer ave boom(and(bust e!onomi!s. 5nstead &e ave long !'!les of gro&t pun!tuated b' s ort do&nturnsF and t at is t anks in ver' large part to t e effi!ien!' of our modern finan!ial markets.
GoesnKt t at make us orribl' vulnerable to sudden ! anges of sentimentR Co.

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Ea%i&alis$ is ine)i&able an- can be &+rne- in&o a force for libera&ion as long as %rogressi)es foc+s on %rac&ical refor$s/ Wilson. 2000 . Nditor and =ublis er of 5llinois 2!ademe . 2000 3;o n Q. Hilson+ 0>o& t e 8eft !an Hin 2rguments and 5nfluen!e =eople1 p. 12( 144 =rogressive !apitalism is not a !ontradi!tion in terms+ for progressives support !apitalism in man' &a's. Nven nonprofit organizations and !ooperatives are not antit eti!al to !apitalism and t e marketF t ese groups simpl' use !apitalism for aims different from t e single(minded pursuit of profits. Lut t e rules of suppl' and demand+ t e expenses and revenues+ t e idea of entrepreneurs ip and innovation+ and t e need to adapt to t e market are essential. 2n' progressive magazine or institution t at tries to def' t e rules of !apitalism &onKt be around for ver' long and !ertainl' &on*t ave t e resour!es to mount a serious advo!a!' of progressive ideas. @ne of t e most effe!tive ta!ti!s of t e environmental movement &as en!ouraging !onsumers to !onsider environmental values & en making !apitalist ! oi!es about & at produ!ts to bu'. Eoda'+ a manufa!turer & o ignores environmental issues puts its profits at risk be!ause so man' people are looking for environmentall' friendl' produ!ts and pa!kaging. 7rusades against 7o!a(7ola for its massive output of non(re!'!led plasti! bottles in 2meri!a or against !ompanies supporting foreign di!tators ips are part of t e !ontinuing battle to for!e !ompanies to pa' attention to !onsumer demands. @f !ourse+ !onsumer protests and bo'!otts are onl' one part of making I!apitalism for ever'one.I Aan' progressive groups are no& bu'ing sto!k in !ompanies pre!isel' to raise t ese issues at sto!k older meetings and pressure t e !ompanies to adopt environmentall' and so!iall' responsible poli!ies. ?nfortunatel'+ t e legal s'stem is stru!tured against progressive ideas. 5n 2000+ Len and ;err'Ks 5!e 7ream &as for!ed to sell out to a big !orporation t at mig t ignore its !ommitment to man' progressive !auses. E e !ompan' didnKt &ant to sell+ but t e la& demanded t at t e !ompan'Ks dut' to sto!k olders &as to !onsider onl' t e mone' involved. 5magine & at &ould appen if our !apitalist la&s &ere designed to promote progressive ideas instead of impeding t em. 5nstead of allo&ing a s are older la&suit against an' !ompan' a!ting in a morall'+ so!iall'+ and environmentall' !ons!ious &a'+ 2meri!an la&s s ould en!ourage t ese goals. E e !laim b' some leftists t at !apitalism is in erentl' irresponsible or evil doesnKt make sense. 7apitalism is simpl' a s'stem of markets. H at makes !apitalism so destru!tive isnKt t e basi! foundation but t e institutions t at ave been !reated in t e &ors ip of t e Ifree market.I ?nfortunatel'+ progressives spend most of t eir time atta!king !apitalism rat er t an taking !redit for all t e reforms t at led to 2meri!aKs e!onomi! gro&t . 5f 2meri!ans &ere !onvin!ed t at so!ial programs and investment in people 3rat er t an !orporate &elfare and investment in &eaponr'4 elped !reate t e !urrent e!onomi! gro&t + t e' &ould be far more &illing to pursue additional progressive poli!ies. 5nstead+ t e left allo&s !onservatives to dismiss t ese so!ial investments as 0too !ostl'1 or 0big government.1

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AT EA= TAL SM' !O S=#E F E ALT S FA L@(# The $assi)e b+& faile- WTO %ro&es&s %ro)e &ha& %ro&es&ing agains& ca%i&alis$ <i&ho+& a s%ecific al&erna&i)e is -oo$e- &o fail+re/ Wilson. 2000 . Nditor and =ublis er of 5llinois 2!ademe . 2000 3;o n Q. Hilson+ 0>o& t e 8eft !an Hin 2rguments and 5nfluen!e =eople1 p. 110( 1134 Bi!tor' isnKt eas' for t e left+ even & en it &ins. @ne example in & i! progressives did almost ever't ing rig t 3but nevert eless &as &idel' atta!ked4 &as t e 1999 Horld Erade @rganization 3HE@4 earings in 9eattle. E anks to t e ard &ork of leftists
around t e !ountr' 3and t e &orld4+ 9eattle &as overrun b' more t an "0+000 protesters & o &ere determined to bring publi! attention to a po&erful+ se!retive trade group. 2 uge rall' organized b' labor groups broug t tens of t ousands mar! ing t roug 9eattle+ !omplete &it union &orkers and environmentalists in sea turtle !ostumes. E ousands of protesters linked arms and prevented t e opening session of t e HE@ from meeting. Aost of t e media !overage blamed t e protesters for propert' damage t at &as planned and !aused b' anar! ists and not stopped b' t e poli!e. Lut t e protesters did ave a po&erful effe!t on t e s!ene+ & ere t e bias of t e 2meri!an media &as less important to t e delegates+ man' of & om s'mpat ized &it some of t e protests. =resident 7linton+ t e &orldKs leading trend dete!tor+ expressed is support for listening to t e pea!eful protesters+ s o&ing t at e &as more alert to t e persuasive po&er of t e anti(HE@ for!es t an most of t e media. 9eattle and Has ington left t e left &it man' lessons. E e first &as never to let t e media ! oose & at t e issue &ould be. ?nfortunatel'+ /ournalists 3and t eir editors4 are trained to overlook an important point for t e sake of a flas ' image and to portra' a dramati! !onfrontation rat er t an a moral !ause. E is doesnKt ex!use t e ina!!urate reporting+ biased atta!ks+ and unquestioning defense of t e aut orities t at filled most of t e front

progressives failed to spin t e issue be'ond t eir simple anti(HE@ message. E e reasons for opposing t e HE@ got some mention+ but t e idea of an alternative international organization built on genuine Ifree tradeI and t e prote!tion of basi! uman rig ts never &as aired. E e left as be!ome so a!!ustomed to being ignored t at progressives ave &isel' refined t e attention(grabbing te! niques of t eatri!al protest t at !an !onve' a simple message. ?nfortunatel'+ t e left asnKt developed t e diffi!ult te! niques of bringing more !omplex arguments into t e publi! debate+ and t e result is t at progressive vie&s seem s allo& and emotional !ompared &it t e more extensive !overage of t e ideas of t e rig t and t e !enter in t e mainstream media. 9till+ 9eattle &as bot a su!!ess and an opportunit' lost. E e left broug t attention
pages and EB ne&s about t e HE@ and 5A< demonstrations. E e to an organization &it out man' redeeming values+ but it never &as able to laun! a serious debate about & at t e alternative global values s ould be. 5gnoring t e massive eviden!e of poli!e mis!ondu!t and brutalit'+ t e media served a &ell(defined role as gatekeepers of t e trut . H en t e media !riti!ized 9eattle offi!ials+ it &as for 0permitting1 t e pea!eful protestors to exer!ise t eir rig t to protest instead of s utting do&n t e !it'+ as appened for t e rest of t e HE@ meetings. 9till+ t e inabilit' of t e left to unif' t eir ideas as easil' as t e' unified be ind t e p 'si!al protest made it possible for man' of t e media errors to go un! allenged. 5magine if all t e groups united be ind t e HE@ protests ad planned to meet after t e initial melee and formulated a united response. 5magine if t e' ad de!lared+ He denoun!e all violen!e+ & et er it is t e violen!e of smas ing &indo&sF t e violen!e of s ooting tear gas+ !on!ussion grenades+ pepper spra'+ and rubber bullets at pea!eful protestorsF or t e violen!e of regimes an'& ere in t e &orld & ere politi!al+ uman+ or labor rig ts are violated and t e environment is armed. He regret t at t e poli!e ! ose to ignore t e vandalism on t e streets of do&nto&n 9eattle and instead atta!ked nonviolent protestors &it tear gas and rubber bullets. 2s &e informed poli!e before t e protests began+ a group of violent anar! ists ad announ!ed t eir intention to tr' to disrupt our nonviolent protests and dis!redit our !ause. alt oug man' pea!eful demonstrators defended 9eattle*s stores-some of & i! &e ad previousl' protested in front of-against propert' damage and looting+ &e !ould no persuade t ese &ell(organized anar! ists to stop+ and &e !ould not persuade t e poli!' s ooting tear gas at us to stop t e violen!e. He remain united in our belief t at t e poli!ies of t e Horld Erade @rganization are armful to t e people of t e &orld and are designed instead to in!rease t e profits of !orporations and t e politi!ians & o serve t em. He &ill return to

9a'ing t at t e HE@ s ould be abolis ed is a simpl' and per aps desirable goal. Lut failing to present a !ompre ensive alternative to international trade left t e protesters open to a!!usations of being naeve or prote!tionist. E e problem for t e left &as t at t eir efforts &ere so disorganized t at no !lear alternative emerged. E ere &as no !ompre ensive solution offered for t e problems posed b' t e HE@+ t e Horld Land+ and t e 5A<. Co alternative institutions &ere proposed to take over t e &ork of elping t e &orld rat er t an arming it. =rogressives need an international approa! to free trade t at doesn*t seem like prote!tionism. 02meri!a <irst1 is not a progressive perspe!tive+ and it fails to elp t e rest of t e &orld. Hit out a progressive vision of globalism+ t e protests against free trade begin to merge &it narro&(minded Lu! ananesque !onspira!' t eories about t e ?C or t e HE@ taking over t e &orld.
do&nto&n 9eattle to exer!ise our !onstitutional rig ts to assemble pea!efull' and express our ideas about t e HE@.

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AT EA= TAL SM' !O S=#E F E ALT S FA L@(# "on9& b+* &heir no bl+e%rin&s nee-e- arg+$en& K no re)ol+&ion is %ossible <i&ho+& concre&e ac&ion/ Kli$an. 02 . = G+ =rofessor of N!onomi!s at =a!e ?niversit' 32ndre&+ 2ndre& Qliman*s Hritings+ 02lternatives to 7apitalism: H at >appens 2fter t e 6evolutionR1 ttp:))akliman.squarespa!e.!om)&ritings)4 Cegle!t is not t e onl' reason & ' revolutionaries ave failed to !on!retize t e vision of t e ne& so!iet'. Aan' ave opposed and !ontinue to oppose t is perspe!tive on t e ground t at &e s ould not dra& up 0blueprints for t e future.1 2nd man' invoke Aarx*s name on be alf of t is position. 5t is true t at e re/e!ted su! blueprints+ but pre!isel' -hat &as e re/e!ting+ and -hyR Ealk of 0blueprints1 is often !areless. 5t is important to re!all t at Aarx &as grappling &it some onest(to(goodness blueprints of a future so!iet'. <ourier+ for instan!e+ stipulated o& large ea! !ommunit' 3= alanx4 &ill be+ o& it &ill be laid out+ o& people &ill dine
and &it & om t e' &ill sit+ and & o &ill do t e dirt' &ork 3a legion of 0'oungsters aged nine to sixteen+ !omposed of one(t ird girls+ t&o(t irds bo's14. E ere is a great ! asm bet&een su! blueprints+ & i! Aarx re/e!ted+ and & at Guna'evska'a+ in er final presentation on t e diale!ti!s of organization and p ilosop '+ !alled 0a general vie& of & ere &e*re eaded.1 2s @lga*s report suggests+ t e differen!e is not essentiall' a matter of t e degree of generalit'+ but a matter of t e sel'Ddevelopment of t e idea. Guna'evska'a &rote t at on!e Capital &as finis ed and Aarx &as fa!ed &it t e Dot a =rogram in 1%$"+ 0E ere T&asU no &a' no&+ no& matter o& Aarx kept from tr'ing to give an' blueprints for t e future+ not to develop a general vie& of & ere &e*re eaded for t e da' a'ter t e !onquest of po&er+ t e da' a'ter &e ave rid ourselves of t e birt marks of !apitalism1 3C;!+ p. "4. Cor did Aarx remain silent about t is issue until t at moment. <or instan!e+ in t is 'ear*s !lasses on 02lternatives to 7apitalism+1 &e read t e follo&ing statement in is 1%4$ Coverty o' Chilosophy 3=@=4. 05n a future so!iet'+ in & i! a t ere &ill no longer be an' !lasses+ use &ill no longer be determined b' t e minimum time of produ!tion+ but t e time of produ!tion devoted to different arti!les &ill be determined b' t e degree of t eir so!ial utilit'.1 Nven more important t an Aarx*s expli!it statements about t e ne& so!iet' is t e overall t rust of is !ritique of politi!al e!onom'. 2lt oug it is true t at e devoted is t eoreti!al energ' to 0t e !riti!al anal'sis of t e a!tual fa!ts+ instead of &riting re!ipes a for t e !ook(s ops of t e future1 3=ostfa!e to 2nd ed. of Capital4+ !ritique as e pra!ti!ed it &as not mere negative so!ial !riti!ism. 5t &as a road to&ard t e positive. >e elped !larif' & at !apital is and o& it operates+ and e s o&ed t at leftist alternatives &ill fail if t e' ! allenge onl' t e s'stem*s out&ard manifestations rat er t an !apital itself. L' doing t is+ e elped to !larif' & at t e ne& so!iet' must not and !annot be like . & i! is alread' to tell us a good deal about & at it must and &ill be like. 02ll negation is determination1 3Aarx+ draft of Bol. 55 of Capital4. 5 believe t at t ere are t&o reasons & ' Aarx re/e!ted blueprints for t e future. 2s t is 'ear*s !lasses emp asized+ one reason is t at e regarded t e utopian so!ialists* s! emes as not 0utopian1 enoug . E e' &ere sanitized and idealized versions of existing !apitalism: 0t e determination of value b' labor time . t e formula A. =roud on gives us as t e regenerating formula of t e future . is t erefore merel' t e s!ientifi! expression of t e e!onomi! relations of present(da' so!iet'1 3Aarx+ C;C+ 7 . 1+ se!t. 24. Lut t is simpl' means t at Aarx re/e!ted a parti!ular kind of attempt to !on!retize t e vision of t e ne& so!iet'+ not t at e re/e!ted t e task itself. E e ot er reason &as t at Aarx+ & o aligned imself &it t e real movement of t e masses+ eld t e utopians* s! emes to be obsolete+ or &orse+ on!e t e &orking !lass &as moving in anot er dire!tion. 5 believe t at t is perspe!tive remains valid+ but t at t e sub/e!tive(ob/e!tive situation as ! anged radi!all'. Eoda'+ 0& at masses of people are ungering forT+U but & i! radi!al t eoreti!ians and parties are doing little to addressT+ isU t e pro/e!tion of a !ompre ensive alternative to existing so!iet'+1 as &e stated in our 2003(04 Aarxist(>umanist =erspe!tives t esis. E&o mont s ago+ 2nne ;a!lard spoke to a !lass of !ollege 'out . Aan' of t em &ere eager for a !on!rete+ &ell arti!ulated vision of a liberator' alternative to !apitalism+ and t e' re/e!ted t e notion t at its !on!retization s ould be put off to t e future. Bisitors to our !lasses+ and parti!ipants in t e 02lternatives to 7apital1 seminar on Capital in Ce& Xork+ ave also demanded greater !on!reteness. >o& do &e align &it t is real movement from belo&R Diven t e dire!tion in & i! t e masses* t inking is moving+ asn*t resistan!e to !on!retizing a liberator' alternative be!ome obsoleteR 5 do not mean to impl' t at &e s ould a!!ommodate demands for eas' ans&ers. 8ike t e =roud onists and utopian so!ialists &it & om Aarx !ontended+ man' folks seem to t ink t at !on!retizing an alternative to !apitalism is simpl' a matter of arti!ulating goals and t en implementing t em & en t e time !omes. H at &e need to do & en eas' ans&ers are demanded+ 5 t ink+ is !onve' t e lessons &e ave learned . t at t e desirabilit' of proposed alternatives means not ing if t e' give rise to unintended !onsequen!es t at make t em unsustainable+ t at politi!al ! ange flo&s from ! anges in t e mode of produ!tion+ and so fort . & ile also

. 6esistan!e to !on!retizing a liberator' alternative to !apitalism as been and !ontinues to be defended prin!ipall' in t e name of anti(vanguardism. 2n anar! o(s'ndi!alist named 0marko1 re!entl' put fort t is argument in opposition to Ai! ael 2lbert and 6obin >a nel*s 0pare!on1 3parti!ipator' e!onomi!s4: 02nar! o(9'ndi!alism demands t at t e detailed t inking about a future e!onom' is to be de!ided b' t e liberated &orking !lass itself+ not b' a prior group of intelle!tuals. E at is &orking !lass Pself(eman!ipation*.1 1 5n our o&n organization+ a member of t e !lique t at abandoned Aarxist(>umanism put fort a ver' similar argument. 5t as sometimes been suggested t at Aarx re/e!ted blueprints for t e same reason+ but 5 kno& of no eviden!e for t is. E e eviden!e sket! ed out above indi!ates t at e labored to !on!retize a liberator' alternative to !apitalism t roug out is life+ and did not regard t is &ork as antit eti!al to &orking(!lass self(eman!ipation. 5n an' !ase+ marko !onfuses and !onflates t inking &it poli!'( making in a quite telling &a'. 5t is generall' unfair to nitpi!k at unkno&n aut ors* internet posts+ but marko*s p raseolog' . 0detailed t inking about t e future e!onom' is to be de!ided1 . is too pe!uliar to be merel' an a!!idental slip. 2ll proponents of &orkers* self(eman!ipation agree t at t e policies of t e future e!onom' are to be de!ided upon b' t e &orking people t emselves+ but thin"ing simpl' !annot be s oe orned into t e old problemati! of 0& o de!idesR1 @n!e again+ a &ell(meaning attempt to posit spontaneit' as t e absolute opposite of vanguardist elitism ends up b' pla!ing t e entire burden of &orking out a liberator' alternative to !apitalism on t e ba!ks of t e masses. 2nd t e ne&l' liberated masses must some o& do t is from s!rat! + aving been deprived of t e abilit' to learn from t e t eoreti!al a! ievements and mistakes of prior generations.
sa'ing t at & i! can be said about t e ne& so!iet'+ as !on!retel' as it !an be said

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Ea%i&alis$ -oes no& nee- resc+ing K all econo$ies <ill rebo+nThe A+s&ralian. 9 39taff Hriter+ 06eports of deat of !apitalism are greatl' exaggerated+1 #(2"(2009+ ttp:))&&&.t eaustralian.ne&s.!om.au)stor')0+2"19$+2"#%"#0%(202#1+00. tml4 <areed Vakaria+ in Ce&s&eek+ suggests !apitalism ma' not need res!uing: A2CX experts are !onvin!ed t at t e situation !annot improve 'et be!ause t eir o&n s&eeping solutions to t e problem ave not been implemented. Aost of us &ant to see more punis ment infli!ted+ parti!ularl' on 2meri!aKs bankers ... Lut fundamentall'+ markets are not about moralit'. E e' are large+ !omplex s'stems+ and if t ings get stable enoug + t e' move on. 7onsider our tra!k re!ord over t e past 20 'ears+ starting &it t e sto!kmarket !ras of 19%$+ & en on @!tober19 t e Go& ;ones lost 23 per !ent+ t e
largest one(da' loss in its istor' ... ;o n Qennet Dalbrait &rote t at e /ust oped t at t e !oming re!ession &ouldnKt prove as painful as t e Dreat Gepression. 5t turned out to be a blip on t e &a' to an even bigger+ longer boom. E en t ere &as t e 199$ Nast 2sian !risis+ during t e dept s of & i! =aul Qrugman &rote in a <ortune !over essa'+ ICever in t e !ourse of e!onomi! events ( not even in t e earl' 'ears of t e

Gepression ( as so large a part of t e &orld e!onom' experien!ed so devastating a fall from gra!e.I >e &ent on to argue t at if 2sian !ountries did not adopt is radi!al strateg' ( !urren!' !ontrols ( &e !ould be looking at t e kind of slump t at #0 'ears ago devastated so!ieties+ destabilised governments and eventuall' led to &ar. @nl' one 2sian !ountr' instituted !urren!' !ontrols+ and partial ones at t at. 2ll rebounded &it in t&o 'ears. Ea%i&alis$ <ill ine)i&abl* &ransfor$e- in&o so$e&hing ne< K al&erna&i)e no& nee-eS&a+gne<s. 9 39!ott Lufis+ 9taff Hriter+ 05s 7apitalism G'ing or @n t e 7usp of 9omet ing Ce&R1 #(22(2009+ ttp:))staugne&s.!om)2009)0#)22)is(!apitalism(d'ing(or(on(t e(!usp(of(somet ing(ne&. tml4 Hit t e president*s ne& proposal+ t e 7onsumer <inan!ial =rote!tion 2gen!'+ pla!ing more restri!tions on business as &ell as t e !ontinuous bailouts re!eived b' so man' businesses+ it*s time to ask ourselves: & ere is !apitalism goingRdearl' merel' in a state of redesign and rene&alRE e idea of a free market is to allo& t e business and finan!iall' savv' to flouris & ile &eeding out t e laz' and alf(baked. 5f a business goes under+ t at*s /ust t e natural evolutionar' Gar&inisti! pro!ess of !apitalism: survival of t e fittest.9o & at does it mean & en our government pumps mone' into t e most dominant !ompanies & en t e' begin to fall as+ t emselves+ vi!tims of t e evolutionar' pro!ess of !apitalismR He t oug t businesses like DA ( t e largest automotive manufa!turer in t e &orld ( &ould never go under. 5 suppose &e &ere rig t ( t e government is ensuring t at t e' &on*t. Nven t e 9tate of 7alifornia as asked for a bailout. >istor' tells us t at !ommunism is a fruitless venture. @ur idea of a free market is ! anging rapidl'. 7apitalism+ like all ot er e!omoni! s'stems+ ad its e'da'+ &ill fall+ and be transformed into somet ing ne&. Ea%i&alis$ is s+s&ainable an- here &o s&a*> &he %as& %ro)es The #cono$is&. 02( 3E e N!onomist+ 07apitalism and its troubles1+ "(1%(02+ 8exis( Cexis 2!ademi!4 2ssuming terror !an be kept a&a' from t e developed &orld+ t ere are t&o broad s! ools of t oug t about t e future of !apitalism. E e bulls argue t at t e s'stemKs performan!e over t e past 'ear+ parti!ularl' in 2meri!a+ bodes &ell for t e future. 7learl'+ bursting sto!kmarket bubbles and s!andal(ridden !ollapses of leading !ompanies are !ause for !on!ern. Lut 2meri!a as a long re!ord of learning from its ex!esses to improve t e &orking of its parti!ular brand of !apitalism+ dating ba!k to t e imposition of antitrust !ontrols on t e robber barons in t e late 1%00s and t e en an!ement of investor prote!tion after t e 1929 !ras . E ere is no reason & ' it s ould not turn t e latest !alamities to its advantage too. 9enator ;on 7orzine+ a former
boss of Doldman 9a! s+ puts t e !ase for t e optimists: I2t t e !on!lusion of an' bull market t ere are al&a's elements of ex!ess t at get &as ed out or !ause t e s'stem to evolve. Lut t e fa!t is+ &e are !oming out of t e most s allo& re!ession in post(&ar istor'+ and t e outlook is good.I 9tar

performer E e resilien!e of t e finan!ial s'stem as surprised even t e regulators responsible for its ealt on bot sides of t e 2tlanti!. 2s one of t em put it+ I5f 'ou ad told me on 9eptember 10t t at &e &ere going to get t e terrorism+ Nnron and 2rgentina+ 5Kd ave predi!ted at least one ma/or international finan!ial institution going bust+ and serious !onsequen!es for t e e!onom'.I 2s it is+ t e onl' finan!ial firms to go under &ere on t e fringes of t e s'stem: some banks in 2rgentina+ and a andful of mostl' long(troubled or small insurers. E e bears too ave been surprised b' t e s'stemKs resilien!e+ but t e' still see a large remaining finan!ial
bubble & i! t e' fear ma' burst+ possibl' plunging 2meri!a and t e &orld into a depression similar to t at of t e 1930s+ or at least of t e past de!ade in ;apan. E e t reat of furt er terrorism+ fig ting in t e Aiddle Nast 3&it its reper!ussions for t e oil pri!e4 and ma'be a transatlanti! trade &ar+ !on/uring up g astl' parallels &it t e 1930s+ ave all !louded t eir !r'stal balls furt er. Hit 2rgentinaKs default+ t e' feel+ per aps globalisation as peaked.

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Marke& inno)a&ion <ill o+&%ace scarci&*,&heir a+&hors incorrec&l* &ha& -e$an- an- s+%%l* are s&a&ic/ !orberg. 01 3;o an Corberg+ 9enior <ello& at 7ato 5nstitute+ 05n Gefense of Dlobal 7apitalism1+ p. 2234 5t is a mistake+ t en+ to believe t at gro&t automati!all' ruins t e environment. 2nd !laims t at &e &ould need t is or t at number of planets for t e & ole &orld to attain a Hestern standard of !onsumption-t ose 0e!ologi!al footprint1 !al!ulations-are equall' untrut ful. 9u! a !laim is usuall' made b' environmentalists+ and it is !on!erned+ not so mu! &it emissions and pollution+ as &it resour!es running out if ever'one &ere to live as &e do in t e affluent &orld. 7learl'+ !ertain of t e ra& materials &e use toda'+ in present da' quantities+ &ould not suffi!e for t e & ole &orld if ever'one !onsumed t e same t ings. Lut t at information is /ust about as interesting as if a prosperous 9tone 2ge man &ere to sa' t at+ if ever'one attained is level of !onsumption+ t ere &ould not be enoug stone+ salt+ and furs to go around. 6a& material !onsumption is not stati!. Hit more and more people a! ieving a ig level of prosperit'+ &e start looking for &a's of using ot er ra& materials. >umanit' is !onstantl' improving te! nolog' so as to get at ra& materials t at &ere previousl' ina!!essible+ and &e are attaining a level of prosperit' t at makes t is possible. Ce& innovations make it possible for old ra& materials to be put to better use and for garbage to be turned into ne& ra& materials. 2 !entur' and a alf ago+ oil &as /ust somet ing bla!k and sti!k' t at people preferred not to step in and definitel' did not &ant to find beneat t eir land. Lut our interest in finding better energ' sour!es led to met ods being devised for using oil+ and toda' it is one of our prime resour!es. 9and as never been all t at ex!iting or pre!ious+ but toda' it is a vital ra& material in t e most po&erful te! nolog' of our age+ t e !omputer. 5n t e form of sili!on-& i! makes up a quarter of t e eart Ks !rustit is a ke' !omponent in !omputer ! ips. E ere is a simple market me! anism t at averts s ortages. 5f a !ertain ra& material !omes to be in s ort suppl'+ its pri!e goes up. E is makes ever'one more interested in e!onomizing on t at resour!e+ in finding more of it+ in reusing it+ and in tr'ing to find substitutes for it. Ea%i&alis$ is s+s&ainable,cons+$eris$ $a* ha)e an +%%er li$i& b+& efficienc* gains <ill be cri&ical &o sa)ing &he en)iron$en&/ Le<is 92 3Aartin+ le!turer in international istor' and interim dire!tor of t e program in 5nternational 6elations at 9tanford ?niversit'+ 4reen 9elusions: An +nvironmentalist Criti)ue o' ,adical +nvironmentalism + =ages 10(114 H ile t e global e!onom' !ertainl' !annot gro& indefinitel' in volume b' pouring out an ever mounting !aval!ade of !onsumer disposables+ it !an !ontinue to expand in value b' produ!ing better goods and servi!es ever more effi!ientl'. 2s 5 s all argue repeatedl' t roug out t is &ork+ e!onomi! gro&t of t is t'pe is absolutel' essential. @nl' a strongl' expanding e!onomi! base !an generate t e !apital ne!essar' to retool our e!onom' into one t at does not !onsume t e eart in feeding itself. N!ologi!al sanit' &ill be expensive+ and if &e !annot pa' t e pri!e &e ma' &ell peris . E is proposition is even more vital in regard to t e E ird HorldF onl' stead' e!onomi! expansion !an break t e linkages so often found in poor nations bet&een rural desperation and land degradation. Denuine development+ in turn+ requires bot !ertain forms of industrialization as &ell as parti!ipation in t e global e!onom'.

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!e< &echnologies <ill res+l& in an eco>frien-l* foo- s+%%l*/ Le<is 92 3Aartin+ le!turer in international istor' and interim dire!tor of t e program in 5nternational 6elations at 9tanford ?niversit'$ 4reen 9elusions: An +nvironmentalist Criti)ue o' ,adical +nvironmentalism$ =age 14#(14$4 2s advan!es in biote! nolog' make agri!ulture more effi!ient+ large tra!ts of land !an be progressivel' returned to nature. 9imilarl'. intensive green ouse !ultivation+ rel'ing on ig (te! glass !onstru!tion+ advan!ed atmosp eri! ! emi!al !ontrol+ and per aps even t e use of mole!ular antifungal agents+ !ould in!rease food supplies & ile at t e same time tremendousl' diminis ing t e extent of land needed for food produ!tion 3Grexler and =eterson 1991:1$"4. Xet some 2meri!an politi!ians appear to rule out
su! possibilities before and+ assuming t at in!reasing produ!tion &ill onl' translate into larger !ommodit' gluts 39agoff 1991:3"34. 7ertainl' t e biote! nolog' revolution &ill require a diffi!ult set of ad/ustments+ for 2meri!an farmers+ but onl' an anti(environmentalist &ould automati!all' rule out t e possibilit' of redu!ing t e extent of land monopolized b' agri!ulture. 2gri!ultural gluts represent

. 2dvan!ed te! niques in food s!ien!e+ espe!iall' t ose !on!erned &it enz'me produ!tion and protein s'nt esis+ ma' also offer substantial environmental benefits. Nspe!iall' desirable is t e development of palatable+ vegetable based meat substitutes. 5f so' burgers
politi!al+ not te! nologi!al+ failure be!ome indistinguis able from+ and less expensive t an+ t e genuine produ!t+ &e !ould expe!t &idespread !utba!ks in meat !onsumption+ allo&ing us to liberate vast tra!ts of land from agri!ultural

. 9u! environmental benefits &ould+ o&ever+ be impossible to realize if !onsumers &ere to take at fa!e value t e e!o(radi!al tenet t at artifi!ial produ!ts are to be avoided in all instan!es.
produ!tion

7ro<&h crea&es cleaner &echnologies &ha& are &he bes& ho%e for &he en)iron$en&/ ?e*. 95 TAi! ael+ exe!utive dire!tor of t e Nxpansionar' 5nstitute and professor at Aont!lair 9tate ?niversit' 9! ool of Lusiness+ 9eizing t e <uture+ p.3#(3$U E ird+ gro&t itself !ontains t e solutions to t e problems it produ!es. 9upporting t is prin!iple is t e Horld Lank*s 1992 report 0Gevelopment and t e Nnvironment+1 & i! blatantl' states t at gro&t is a po&erful antidote to a number of ills plaguing E ird Horld !ountries+ in!luding t e pollution t at gro&t supposedl' generates. E e report t us !ontends t at eliminating povert' s ould remain t e top goal of &orld poli!'makers. 2lt oug e!onomi! gro&t !an initiall' lead to su! problems as pollution and &aste+ t e resulting prosperit' also fa!ilitates t e developments of te! nologies t at lead to !leaner air and &ater. 5n fa!t+ on!e a nation*s per !apita in!ome rises to about f4000 in 1993 dollars+ it produ!es less of some pollutants per !apita+ mainl' due to t e fa!t t at it !an afford te! nolog' like !atal'ti! !onverters and se&age s'stems t at treat a variet' of &astes. 2!!ording to Corio Xamamoto+ resear! dire!tor of t e Aitsubis i 6esear! 5nstitute+ 0He !onsider an' kind of environmental damage to result from mismanagement of t e e!onom'.1 >e !laims t at t e pollution problems of poorer regions su! as Nastern Nurope !an be tra!ed to t eir e!onomi! &oes. >en!e+ e !on!ludes t at in order to ensure environmental safet' 0&e need a sound e!onom' on a global basis.1 9o t e ans&er to pollution+ t e supposed outgro&t of progress+ oug t to be more e!onomi! gro&t . E e Horld Lank estimated t at ever' dollar invested in developing !ountries &ill gro& to f100 in fift' 'ears. 2s t at appens+ t ese !ountries !an take all t e ne!essar' steps to invest in pollution(free !ars+ !atal'ti! !onverters+ and ot er pollution(free te! nologies+ su! as t e !leanest of all energ' sour!es+ nu!lear po&er.

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Ea%i&alis$ %ro$o&es -e$ocra&ic %eace/ F+k+*a$a 93 . 9enior 9o!ial 9!ientist+ 6and 7orporation . 199" 3<ran!is+ E6?9E+ p. 3#0(14 E e role t at a !apitalist e!onom' pla's in ! anneling re!ognition struggles in a pea!eful dire!tion+ and its !onsequent importan!e to demo!rati! stabilit'+ is evident in post(!ommunist Nastern Nurope. E e totalitarian pro/e!t envisioned t e destru!tion of an independent !ivil so!iet' and t e !reation of a ne& so!ialist !ommunit' !entered ex!lusivel' around t e state. H en t e latter+ ig l' artifi!ial !ommunit'+ t ere &ere virtuall' no alternative forms of !ommunit' be'ond t ose of famil' and et ni! group+ or else in t e delinquent !ommunities !onstituted b' !riminal gangs. 5n t e absen!e of a la'er of voluntar' asso!iations+ individuals !lung to t eir as!riptive identities all t e more fier!el'. Nt ni!it' provided an eas' form of !ommunit' b' & i! t e' !ould avoid feeling atomized+ &eak+ and vi!timized b' t e larger istori!al for!es s&irling around t em. 5n developed !apitalist so!ieties &it strong !ivil so!ieties+ b' !ontrast+ t e e!onom' itself is t e lo!us of a substantial part of so!ial life. H en one &orks for Aotorola+ 9iemens+ Eo'ota+ or even a small famil' dr'(!leaning business+ one is part of a moral net&ork t at absorbs a large part of one*s energies and ambitions. E e Nastern Nuropean !ountries t at appear to ave t e greatest ! an!es for su!!ess as demo!ra!ies are >ungar'+ =oland and t e 7ze! 6epubli!+ & i! retained nas!ent !ivil so!ieties t roug out t e !ommunist period and &ere able to generate !apitalist private se!tors in relativel' s ort order. E ere is no la!k of divisive et ni! !onfli!ts in t ese pla!es+ & et er over !ompeting =olis and 8it uanian !laims to Bilnius or >ungarian irredenta vis(](vis neig bors. Lut t e' ave not flared up into violent !onfli!ts 'et be!ause t e e!onom' as been suffi!ientl' vigorous to provide an alternative sour!e of so!ial identit' and belonging. E e mutual dependen!e of e!onom' and polit' is not limited to demo!ratizing states in t e former !ommunist &orld. 5n a &a'+ t e loss of so!ial !apital in t e ?nited 9tates as more immediate !onsequen!es for 2meri!an demo!ra!' t an for t e 2meri!an e!onom'. Gemo!rati! politi!al institutions no less t an businesses depend on trust for effe!tive operation+ and t e redu!tion of trust in a so!iet' &ill require a more intrusive+ rule(making government to regulate so!ial relations.

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S&+-ies %ro)e &ha& globaliBa&ion an- ca%i&alis$ lessen &he freD+enc* an- in&ensi&* of <ar/ 7ris<ol-. 03 3Ganiel+ dire!tor of t e 7enter for Erade =oli!' 9tudies at 7ato+ 0=ea!e on eart R Er' free trade among men1+ ttp:))&&&.freetrade.org)node)2%24 2s one little(noti!ed eadline on an 2sso!iated =ress stor' re!entl' reported+ IHar de!lining &orld&ide+ studies sa'.I 2!!ording to t e 9to!k olm 5nternational =ea!e 6esear! 5nstitute+ t e number of armed !onfli!ts around t e &orld as been in de!line for t e past alf !entur'. 5n /ust t e past 1" 'ears+ ongoing !onfli!ts ave dropped from 33 to 1%+ &it all of t em no& !ivil !onfli!ts &it in !ountries. 2s 200" dra&s to an end+ no t&o nations in t e &orld are at &ar &it ea! ot er. E e deat toll from &ar as also been falling.
2!!ording to t e 2= stor'+ IE e number killed in battle as fallen to its lo&est point in t e post(Horld Har 55 period+ dipping belo& 20+000 a 'ear b' one measure. =ea!emaking missions+ mean& ile+ are gro&ing in number.I E ose estimates are do&n s arpl' from annual tolls ranging from 40+000 to 100+000 in t e 1990s+ and from a peak of $00+000 in 19"1 during t e Qorean Har. Aan' !auses lie be ind

expanding trade and globalization appear to be pla'ing a ma/or role. <ar from stoking a IHorld on <ire+I as one misguided 2meri!an aut or as argued+ gro&ing !ommer!ial ties bet&een nations ave ad a dampening effe!t on armed !onfli!t and &ar+ for t ree main reasons. <irst+ trade and globalization ave reinfor!ed t e trend to&ard demo!ra!'+ and demo!ra!ies donKt pi!k fig ts &it ea! ot er. <reedom to trade nurtures demo!ra!' b' expanding t e
t e good ne&s (( t e end of t e 7old Har and t e spread of demo!ra!'+ among t em (( but middle !lass in globalizing !ountries and equipping people &it tools of !ommuni!ation su! as !ell p ones+ satellite EB+ and t e 5nternet. Hit trade !omes more travel+ more !onta!t &it people in ot er

9e!ond+ as national e!onomies be!ome more integrated &it ea! ot er+ t ose nations ave more to lose s ould &ar break out. Har in a globalized &orld not onl' means uman !asualties and bigger government+ but also ruptured trade and investment ties t at impose lasting damage on t e e!onom'. 5n s ort+ globalization as dramati!all' raised t e e!onomi! !ost of &ar. E ird+ globalization allo&s nations to a!quire &ealt t roug produ!tion and trade rat er t an !onquest of territor' and resour!es. 5n!reasingl'+ &ealt is measured in terms of intelle!tual propert'+ finan!ial assets+ and uman !apital.
!ountries+ and more exposure to ne& ideas. E anks in part to globalization+ almost t&o t irds of t e &orldKs !ountries toda' are demo!ra!ies (( a re!ord ig .

Ea%i&alis$ enco+rages in&erna&ional coo%era&ion &ha& fos&ers %eace/ Ban-o<. 03 3Goug+ 9enior <ello& at 7ato+ 09preading 7apitalism is Dood for =ea!e1+ ttp:))&&&.!ato.org)pubYdispla'.p pRpubYid,"1934 5n a &orld t at seems !onstantl' aflame+ one naturall' asks: H at !auses pea!eR Aan' people+ in!luding ?.9. =resident Deorge H. Lus +
ope t at spreading demo!ra!' &ill dis!ourage &ar. Lut ne& resear! suggests t at expanding free markets is a far more important fa!tor+ leading to & at 7olumbia ?niversit'Ks Nrik Dartzke !alls a I!apitalist pea!e.I 5tKs a reason for even t e left to support free markets. E e !apitalist pea!e t eor' isnKt ne&: Aontesquieu and 2dam 9mit believed in it. Aan' of LritainKs !lassi!al liberals+ su! as 6i! ard 7obden+ pus ed free markets & ile opposing imperialism. Lut Horld Har 5 demonstrated t at in!reased trade &as not enoug . E e prospe!t of e!onomi! ruin did not prevent rampant nationalism+ et ni! atred+ and se!urit' fears from trumping t e po&er of markets. 2n even greater !onfli!t follo&ed a generation later. E ankfull'+ Horld Har 55 left &ar essentiall' unt inkable among leading industrialized ( and demo!rati! ( states. 9upport gre& for t e argument+ going ba!k to 5mmanual Qant+ t at republi!s are less &arlike t an ot er s'stems. Eoda'Ks !orollar' is t at !reating demo!ra!ies out of di!tators ips &ill redu!e !onfli!t. E is !ontention animated some support outside as &ell as inside t e ?nited 9tates for t e invasion of 5raq. Lut Dartzke argues t at It e Kdemo!rati! pea!eK is a mirage !reated b' t e overlap bet&een e!onomi! and politi!al freedom.I E at is+ demo!ra!ies t'pi!all' ave freer e!onomies t an do aut oritarian states. E us+ & ile Idemo!ra!' is desirable for man' reasons+I e notes in a ! apter in t e latest

I 7apitalism is b' far t e more important fa!tor. E e s ift from statist mer!antilism to ig (te! !apitalism as transformed t e e!onomi!s be ind &ar. Aarkets generate e!onomi! opportunities t at make &ar less desirable. Eerritorial aggrandizement no longer provides t e best pat to ri! es. <ree(flo&ing !apital markets and ot er aspe!ts of globalization simultaneousl' dra& nations toget er and raise t e e!onomi! pri!e of militar' !onfli!t. Aoreover+ san!tions+ & i! interfere &it e!onomi! prosperit'+ provides a !oer!ive step s ort of &ar to
volume of N!onomi! <reedom in t e Horld+ !reated b' t e <raser 5nstitute+ Irepresentative governments are unlikel' to !ontribute dire!tl' to international pea!e. a! ieve foreign poli!' ends. =ositive e!onomi! trends are not enoug to prevent &ar+ but t en+ neit er is demo!ra!'. 5t long as been obvious t at demo!ra!ies are &illing to fig t+ /ust usuall' not ea! ot er. 7ontends Dartzke+ Iliberal politi!al s'stems+ in and of t emselves+ ave no impa!t on & et er states fig t.I 5n parti!ular+ poorer demo!ra!ies perform like non(demo!ra!ies. >e explains: IGemo!ra!' does not ave a measurable impa!t+ & ile nations &it ver' lo& levels of e!onomi! freedom are 14 times more prone to !onfli!t t an t ose &it ver' ig levels.I Dartzke !onsiders ot er variables+ in!luding allian!e members ips+ nu!lear deterren!e+ and regional differen!es.

2lt oug t e !auses of !onfli!t var'+ t e relations ip bet&een e!onomi! libert'

and pea!e remains.

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We con&rol &he +niD+eness K %o)er&* is $assi)el* -ecreasing beca+se of ca%i&alis$ ! E. 05 3Cational 5ntelligen!e 7oun!il+ ?.9. Cational 5ntelligen!e 2gen!' Aid(Eerm and 8ong(Eerm E inking+ 0Dlobal Erends 202": 2 Eransformed Horld+1 7 apter 1: 2 Dlobalizing N!onom'+ pg. %4 He are &itnessing an unpre!edented moment in uman istor': never before ave so man' been lifted out of extreme povert' as is appening toda'. 2 stunning 13" million people es!aped dire povert' bet&een 1999 and 2004 alone-more t an t e population of ;apan and almost as man' as live in 6ussia toda'. states &it 9H<s as gro&n from t ree to over 40+ and t e aggregate sum under t eir !ontrol from around f$00 billion to f3 trillion. E e range of fun!tions served b' 9H<s also as expanded+ as man' of t e states t at !reated t em re!entl' ave done so out of a desire to perpetuate !urrent a!!ount surpluses+ or to !ultivate intergenerational savings+ rat er t an to buffer !ommodit' market volatilit'. 9 ould !urrent trends old+ 9H<s &ill s&ell to over f#." trillion &it in five 'ears+ and to f12(1" trillion &it in a de!ade+ ex!eeding total fis!al reserves and !omprising some 20 per!ent of all global !apitalization. @ver t e next several de!ades t e number of people !onsidered to be in t e 0global middle !lass1 is pro/e!ted to s&ell from 440 million to 1.2 billion or from $.# per!ent of t e &orld*s population to 1#.1 per!ent+ a!!ording to t e Horld Lank. Aost of t e ne& entrants &ill !ome from 7 ina and 5ndia. >o&ever+ t ere is a dark side to t e global middle !lass !oin: !ontinued divergen!e at t e extremes. Aan' !ountries- espe!iall' t e landlo!ked and resour!e( poor ones in 9ub 9a aran 2fri!a-la!k t e fundamentals for entering t e globalization game. The free $arke& sol)es %o)er&*,e$%irics %ro)e Wilkinson. 04( Hill Hilkinson is a poli!' anal'st at t e 7ato 5nstitute in Has ington+ G.7. 3Hill Hilkinson+ 0Gepressed marketsR >appiness and free trade.3free market s'stemKs impa!t on qualit' of life1 Ge!ember 200#+ =roquest4 G@N9 6N9N267> on appiness prove markets are a bummerR =oliti!al s!ientist Len/amin 6ad!liff of Cotre Game ?niversit'+ summing up is re!ent studies in 9o!ial <or!es and t e 2meri!an =oliti!al 9!ien!e 6evie&+ sa's surve' resear! s o&s t at It e more &e supplement t e !old effi!ien!' of t e free market s'stem &it interventions t at redu!e povert'+ inse!urit' and inequalit'+ t e more &e improve t e qualit' of life.I Lut !ontrar' to is expe!tations+ t e Gut! so!iologist 6uut Been oven+ editor of t e ;ournal of >appiness 9tudies+ found in a 2000 paper t at a larger &elfare state does not !reate Ian' &ell(being surplus. I2 2001 Cational Lureau of N!onomi! 6esear! paper b' t e e!onomists 2lberto 2lesina+ 6afael Gi Eella+ and 6obert Aa!7ullo! indi!ated t at inequalit' as no negative effe!t on appiness in t e ?.9.(( unless 'ouKre a ri! leftist. Aore re!entl'+ a 200# stud' b' t e ?niversit' of 6eginaKs Eomi @vaska and t e ?niversit' of Hest BirginiaKs 6'o Eakas ima+ publis ed in t e ;ournal of 9o!io(N!onomi!s+ s o&s t at t e variable most strongl' !orrelated &it a nationKs average self(reported appiness is Ie!onomi! freedomI as measured b' t e <raser 5nstituteKs N!onomi! <reedom of t e Horld index. Eo be sure+ t e egalitarian 9&edes arenKt suffering+ but neit er are t e more market( friendl' 2meri!ans. 6ad!liff &rites t at IKeman!ipationK from t e market ... is t e prin!ipal politi!al determinant of sub/e!tive &ell(being.I Lut & en &elfare states &ork relativel' &ell+ itKs be!ause t e' !an dra& on t e big bu!ks generated b' reasonabl' free and &ell(fun!tioning markets.

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Ea%i&alis$ sol)es %o)er&*,foo- %rices %ro)e Bar&holo$e<. 04( 2ut or of KE e Helfare 9tate HeKre 5nK e is also a &riter and !olumnist for t e Gail' Eelegrap 3;ames Lart olome&+ 0He need a revision !ourse on & ' !apitalism is a good t ing1 Aa' 24t + 200#+ 8exis(Cexis 2!ademi!4
5 &as going to sa'+ I8etKs take a revision !ourse in & ' !apitalism is good.KK Lut fe& of us ad an initial lesson. 5 donKt suggest t at ever' s! ool s ould ave been tea! ing t e virtues of !apitalism+ but rig t no& t e' do pre!isel' t e opposite. E e' tea! t at !apitalists destro' rainforests+ insidiousl' !ontrol 2meri!an foreign poli!' and spread t e uman vi!es of greed and selfis ness. 2nti(!apitalism is no& t e subtext of istor' and geograp ' lessons+ as &ell as politi!s+ e!onomi!s and so!iolog'. 7apitalism is said to ave given rise to slaver'. E e state is depi!ted as a ero t at as tempered t e !ruelt' of t e beast &it la&s+ regulations and interventions. 5f 'ou ave ! ildren at s! ool ( state or private ( e or s e &ill be getting anot er little dose of anti(!apitalist propaganda toda'. 5t is absurdl' lopsided+ of !ourse+ and

H at is t e biggest benefit t at t e relativel' poor ave experien!ed over t e past t&o !enturiesR 5t is surel' t e terrifi! redu!tion in t e !ost of food. E&o !enturies ago+ food &as t e biggest part in a famil'Ks budget. 5t &as ard for a poor famil' to get enoug to eat. 5f t ere &as a s ortage+ t ere !ould be a famine+ resulting in t ousands of deat s. Nven in t e 1920s+ people on average spent a t ird of t eir in!ome on food. Co& t e' spend onl' a tent . 8ook at an' ! art of t e pri!e of t e basi! foodstuffs+ su! as & eat+ barle' and milk+ and 'ou &ill see almost !ontinuous and deep falls. H at as !aused t is massive benefit to t e poorR 2 series of government regulationsR 2 good( looking politi!ian &it an eas' smile and a IvisionKKR Co. 7apitalism. Co single individual did it. E ousands+ or millions+ did it. E e' &ere not dire!ted b' an' !entral agen!'. E e' /ust operated in a !apitalist s'stem. E e' invented farm ma! iner' t at repla!ed man' men and t erefore made food mu! ! eaper. <armers deplo'ed t ese ma! ines. @t ers !reated s ips t at !ould !arr' grain ! eapl'+ qui!kl' from fara&a' lands & ere food &as gro&n more ! eapl'. @t ers still distributed t e food in ever more !ost(effi!ient &a's+ b' rail and b' road on ne&l' !reated and deplo'ed trains and lorries. E e' did t is+ ea! of t em living is o&n separate life in is o&n undire!ted &a'. E e' transformed t e situation. E e poor &ere given food in abundan!e. E e' &ere given it at a pri!e t e' !ould easil' afford. 9 ortages+ unger and famine be!ame istor'. E at is & at !apitalism did. Eo sneer at it is to sneer at t e abolition of unger in t is !ountr'. E is as been+ per aps+ !apitalismKs greatest a! ievement. Lut
it puts our so!iet' on a self(destru!tive pat . t at is /ust t e beginning. 7apitalism a! ieved a similar feat in !lot ing. E&o !enturies ago+ man' people ad !logs on t eir feet. 7lot ing &as anot er ma/or expense for t e poor. C'e Levan+ as a ! ild+ t re& an ink&ell at is tea! er be!ause t e man made fun of a bo' & ose famil' !ould afford onl' one pair of s oes bet&een t e bo' and is brot er. E at is a measure of t e povert' t at &e ave !ome from. E at is t e povert' from & i! !apitalism as elevated t is !ountr'. 2gain+ ne& and mu! ! eaper met ods of produ!tion ave been put in pla!e b' individuals importing !otton+ improving textile produ!tion te! niques+ deplo'ing ne& kinds of transport and distributing t e ra& material and final produ!ts more ! eapl'. Co longer do ! ildren s are s oes.

Ea%i&alis$ is be&&er a& %ro$o&ing fairness an- eD+ali&* &o &he %oor ra&her &han an* al&erna&i)e,Fis&or* %ro)es Bar&holo$e<. 04( 2ut or of KE e Helfare 9tate HeKre 5nK e is also a &riter and !olumnist for t e Gail' Eelegrap 3;ames Lart olome&+ 0He need a revision !ourse on & ' !apitalism is a good t ing1 Aa' 24t + 200#+ 8exis(Cexis 2!ademi!4 7apitalism as made us ri! er and given us t e opportunit' of vastl' more diverse experien!es. Nven in m' o&n lifetime+ 5 ave seen t e
normal lengt of olida's rise from one or t&o &eeks to four or five &eeks. <oreign travel t at &as unkno&n for most &orking people t&o !enturies ago is no& !ommonpla!e. Gid government dire!tion make t is possibleR @f !ourse not. Aost families no& ave !ars. 6ead E omas >ard'Ks novels and 'ou find t at people are al&a's &alking. Halking !an be ealt ' and pleasant+ but t e average famil' of >ard'Ks time did not ave a ! oi!e. H o invented !arsR H o refined t eir design and manufa!ture to t e point & ere t e' are affordable b' millions of peopleR Cot governments. E e diverse+ resour!eful+

H ' does t e s'stem &orkR Le!ause it provides in!entives and motivation. 5f 'ou invent somet ing+ 'ou ma' get fame and fortune. 5f 'ou suppl' food or !ars ! eaper+ 'ou get more !ustomers. 9imple enoug . =rovide a good produ!t or servi!e at a lo& pri!e and 'ou ave a business. E at simple logi! means !apitalism tends to produ!e good produ!ts and servi!es at better pri!es. H at about t e argument t at !apitalism promotes inequalit'R 8etKs remember+ before even starting to ans&er+ /ust o& disastrous &ere t e attempts in t e 20t !entur' to impose equalit'. <armers in 8eninist 6ussia &ere prose!uted and in man' !ases killed. Eens of millions died under !ommunist rule in 7 ina. 2nd after all t e oppression and suffering+ t ere &as still no equalit'. E ere &as t e privileged ruling !lass &it + in 6ussiaKs !ase+ spe!ial da! as in t e !ountr' and road lanes in to&n. 5mposing equalit' is not an eas' ride. 5t is oppressive and doomed to failure. 7apitalism+ mean& ile+ as !laims+ at t e least+ to redu!ing inequalit' over time. E e inequalit' &as enormous & en Deorge 555 &as sitting on is gilded t rone in 1%0#+ &it t ousands of servants and farm &orkers and ot er underlings at is be!k and !all+ & ile else& ere in t e !ountr' &ere t ose & o !ould barel' find enoug to eat and+ in some !ases+ died of unger. Co&ada's+ more t an nine out of 10 'oung people ave mobile p ones+ 99 per !ent of ouse olds ave !olour televisions+ most ouse olds ave !ars. Xes+ t e ri! are still &it us. Lut t e !ontrast in finan!ial &ealt as been greatl' redu!ed over t e long term. E at &as not due to an' government+ let alone a deliberate attempt to promote equalit'. 5t &as a! ieved b' !apitalism. H ' is t e s'stem no& taken for granted and despisedR =er aps it is be!ause t e !ollapse of t e !ommunist states as removed from our sig t useful reminders of o& vastl' superior !apitalism is to state !ontrol. He s ould be !areful.
determined po&er of !apitalism.

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Ea%i&alis$ ca+ses s&r+c&+ral o%%or&+ni&ies for &he %oor 7e--es. 01( 2n 2u!kland freelan!e &riter 3Aar! Deddes+ E e Ce& Vealand >erald+ 0Aar! Deddes: N!onomi! s'stem still t e &orldKs best despite fla&s1+ Covember 10t 2003+ 8exis(Cexis 2!ademi!4 ;o n Ainto bemoaned t e fa!t t at under !apitalism t ere &as a minorit' of obs!enel' ri! people and a larger number of people suffering I uge ards ipI. Lut !apitalism did not !ause t e povert'+ and t e ri! did not get ri! at t e expense of t e poor. Healt is not somet ing t at simpl' exists. 5t is !reated t roug uman labour and ingenuit'. E at is & ' &e speak of Imaking mone'I. E ere is no fixed pool of resour!es &aiting to be distributed. 6esour!es ave to be !reated t roug ard &ork. 7apitalism is not a zero(sum game but a positive(sum game in & i! ever'one !an benefit. N!onomi! gro&t !reates &ealt t at did not exist before+ and+ provided t e &ealt is spread about a bit+ ever'one gets ri! er. >ards ip exists not be!ause t ere is too mu! !apitalism but be!ause t ere is too little. 7apitalism is lifting umanit' out of povert'+ and !apitalism generates t e &ealt t at pa's for t e ealt !are+ edu!ation+ and &elfare t at t ose living in advan!ed demo!ra!ies no& en/o'. 5f &e desire a de!ent standard of living for all+ &e s ould en!ourage more entrepreneurs ip. E e !laim t at t e removal of tariffs and more free trade !auses unemplo'ment is false. 5n fa!t+ more free trade !reates more /obs. 7apitalism is a d'nami! s'stem in & i! t e nature of &ork !ontinues to evolve. 9ome people lose t eir /obs but more /obs are being !reated else& ere. >uman ingenuit' enables more of us to figure out &a's to a! ieve more produ!tivel' for less effort. 9o fe&er people are needed to do t e same amount of &ork. E is is progress. 7apitalism results in net /ob !reation be!ause &ealt !reation results in ne& opportunities and ne& kinds of &ork. <or instan!e+ !ars resulted in
drivers of t e orse and bugg' losing t eir /obs+ but & ole ne& kinds of &ork ( me! ani!s+ for instan!e ( produ!ed a net /ob !reation. ;o n Ainto t inks t at emplo'ees !reate &ealt + and investors in s aremarkets are parasites. Cot ing !ould be furt er from t e trut . 5t is true t at emplo'ees elp to !reate &ealt + for & i! t e' re!eive &ages. Lut investors and business o&ners !reate &ealt as &ell. 5t is not simpl' labour t at adds value but uman ingenuit' and intelligen!e. N!onomists are !oming to re!ognise t at t e Ikno&ledgeI !omponent is t e most important. E e business o&ner and investors suppl' t e kno&ledge !omponent. E e IprofitI t e' make is not parasiti! but a measure of Iadded valueI to t e good or servi!e produ!ed. =rofit is not somet ing s&indled from ot er people. 5t is a re&ard and remuneration for t e &ork and ingenuit' t at &ent into produ!ing t e goods and servi!es t at ot er people &ant;o n Ainto !alled for someone from t e Iunder!lassI to defend !apitalism. 5 ave responded. 5 defend it be!ause as an unemplo'ed person 5 kno& & o pa's m' dole. 5tKs t e people & o !reated ever' !ent of t at mone'. E e entrepreneurs of Ce& Vealand ... t e !apitalists

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Ea%i&alis$ -oesn9& f+el &erroris$> ba- foreign %olic* is &he roo& ca+se/ Lin-se*. 00( 5s t e senior editor of 7ato ?nbound. 8indse' olds an 2.L. from =rin!eton ?niversit' and a ;.G. from >arvard 8a& 9! ool. 3Lrink 8indse'+ =oli!' 6eport+ 0Eerrorism*s <ello& Eravelers1+ Covember) Ge!ember 2001+ ttp:))$4.12".9".132)!ustomR q,!a! e:u278bl"'7r4;:&&&.!ato.org)pubs)poli!'Yreport)v23n#)terrorism.pdfc!apitalismcandcterrorism:!d,$: l,en: !t,!lnk:gl,us:!lient,google(!oop(np4
2l _aedaKs ideolog' no& as a life of its o&n. E e ?.9. preo!!upation &it 5raq for more t an t&o 'ears after 9eptember 11 3beginning &it =resident Lus naming 5raq as a member of t e 0axis of evil1 in is ;anuar' 2002 9tate of t e ?nion address4 as given time and spa!e for t e !an!er to spread+ as &ell as a rall'ing !r' to re!ruit more Auslims to 2l _aedaKs radi!al !ause. 2!!ording to @mar Lakri Ao ammed+ t e 8ondon(based leader of t e radi!al 5slami! group al(Au a/iroun: 02l _aeda is no longer a group. 5t*s be!ome a p enomenon of t e Auslim &orld resisting t e global !rusade of t e ?.9. against 5slam.1 He kno& t at 2l _aeda as be!ome a fran! ise of sorts+ bring( ing ot er radi!al 5slami! groups+ su! as ;emaa 5slami'a in 5ndonesia+ into its fold. Lut it also no& appears t at a 0reverse fran( ! ise1 effe!t ma' be taking pla!e. E at is+ ot er groups ma' !ondu!t terrorist atta!ks !iting s'mpat ' &it 2l _aeda but &it out an' dire!t !onne!tion to or !onta!t &it 2l _aeda. E e Covember 2003 !ar bombings in Eurke' 3t e 2bu >afs al Aasri Lrigades and Dreat Nastern 5slami! 6aiderKs <ront bot !laimed responsibilit'4 and t e Aar! 2004 train bombings in 9pain 3t e 2bu >afs al Aasri Lrigades !laimed responsibilit' but t e Aoro!!an 5slami! 7ombatant Droup as been t e primar' target of t e 9panis investigation4 are signs of t is p enomenon. 7 anging ?.9. <oreign =oli!'

?nderstanding t e 2l _aeda t reat also means ! allenging t e !onventional &is( dom arti!ulated b' =resident Lus in t e aftermat of 9eptember 11: 0H ' do t e' ate usR E e' ate & at &e see rig t ere in t is ! amber-a demo!rati!all' ele!ted government. E e' ate our freedoms-our freedom of religion+ our freedom of spee! + our freedom to vote and assemble and dis( agree &it ea! ot er.1 E at*s a misleading anal'sis. E roug ( out t e &orld+ even t e Auslim &orld+ people admire and appre!iate 2meri!an a!!omplis ments+ !ulture+ and values 3in!luding demo!ra!' and !apitalism4. Lut man' of t ose people ate ?.9. poli!ies. =olls !on( du!ted t roug out t e &orld s o& t at anti(2meri!anism is fueled more b' & at &e do t an & o &e are. 2s a 199% stud' for t e Gepartment of Gefense reported+ mu! of t e anti(2mer( i!an resentment around t e &orld+ par( ti!ularl' t e 5slami! &orld+ is t e result of interventionist ?.9. foreign poli!'. 9u! resentment is t e first step to atred+ & i! !an lead to violen!e+ in!luding terrorism. E erefore+ t e ?nited 9tates needs to stop meddling in t e internal affairs of ot er !ountries and regions+ ex!ept & en t e' dire!tl' t reaten ?.9. national se!urit' inter( ests+ t at is+ & en t e territorial integrit'+ national sovereignt'+ or libert' of t e ?nit( ed 9tates is at risk.

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Ea%i&alis& %ri)a&iBa&ion is ke* &o s%ace ex%lora&ion an- coloniBa&ion/ 7ar$ong. 03 . = G in p ilosop ' 36i! ard+ 7ap Aag+ 0=rivatize 9pa!e Nxploration+1 ttp:))&&&.!apmag.!om)arti!le.aspR5G,432$4 2s C292 s!rambles to make t e ;ul' 31 &indo& for t e troubled laun! of spa!e s uttle Gis!over'+ &e s ould re!all t e first privatel' funded manned spa!e!raft+ 9pa!e9 ip@ne+ & i! over a 'ear ago s attered more t an t e boundar' of outer spa!e: it destro'ed forever t e m't t at spa!e exploration !an onl' be done b' t e government . E&o 'ears ago+ a Lus 2dministration panel on spa!e exploration re!ommended t at C292 in!rease t e role of private !ontra!tors in t e pus to permanentl' settle t e moon and eventuall' explore Aars. ?nfortunatel'+ it appears unlikel' t at C292 &ill !onsider t e true free(market solution for 2meri!aKs expensive spa!e program: !omplete privatization. E ere is a !ontradi!tion at t e eart of t e spa!e program: spa!e exploration+ as t e grandest of manKs te! nologi!al advan!ements+ requires t e kind of bold innovation possible onl' to minds left free to pursue t e best of t eir !reative t inking and /udgment. Xet+ b' funding t e spa!e program t roug taxation+ &e ne!essaril' pla!e it at t e mer!' of bureau!rati! & im . E e results are &ritten all over t e past t&ent' 'ears of C292Ks istor': t e spa!e program is a politi!al animal+ marked b' s ifting+ in!onsistent+ and ill(defined goals. E e spa!e s uttle &as built and maintained to please !las ing spe!ial interest groups+ not to do a !learl' defined /ob for & i! t ere &as an e!onomi! and te! ni!al need. E e s uttle &as to laun! satellites for t e Gepartment of Gefense and private !ontra!tors((& i! !ould be done more ! eapl' b' lig t&eig t+ disposable ro!kets. 5t &as to !arr' s!ientifi! experiments((& i! !ould be done more effi!ientl' b' unmanned ve i!les. Lut one IneedI !ame before all te! ni!al issues: C292Ks politi!al need for s o&' manned ve i!les. E e result+ as great a te! ni!al a! ievement as it is+ &as an over(sized+ over(!ompli!ated+ over(budget+ overl' dangerous ve i!le t at does ever't ing poorl' and not ing &ell. 5ndeed+ t e spa!e s uttle program &as supposed to be p ased out 'ears ago+ but t e sear! for its repla!ement as been alted+ largel' be!ause spa!e !ontra!tors en/o' !olle!ting on t e overpri!ed s uttle &it out t e expense and bot er of resear! ing ! eaper alternatives. 2 private industr' !ould ave fired t em((but not so in a government pro/e!t+ &it ome( distri!t !ongressmen to lobb' on t eir be alf. S%ace coloniBa&ion $eans <e s+r)i)e global n+clear <ar. bio<ea%on +se. an- en)iron$en&al -es&r+c&ion/ Koschara. 00 . Aa/or in =lanetar' 9tudies 3<red+ 8" Gevelopment Droup+ ttp:))&&&.l"development.!om)fkespa!e)finan!ial(return. tml4 =otentiall' one of t e greatest benefits t at ma' be a! ieved b' t e spa!e !olonies is nu!lear survival+ and t e abilit' to live past an' ot er t'pes of mass geno!ide t at be!ome available. He ave !onstru!ted ourselves a ouse of d'namite+ and no& live in fear t at someone mig t lig t a mat! . 5f a global nu!lear &ar &ere to break out+ or if a deadl' geneti! experiment got released into t e atmosp ere+ t e entire uman ra!e !ould be destro'ed in a ver' s ort period of time. 5n addition+ man' !orporate attitudes seem !on!erned &it onl' maximizing toda'Ks bottom line+ &it no !on!ern for t e future. E is outlook leads to dumping amazingl' toxi! &astes into t e atmosp ere and o!eans+ a move & i! !an onl' bring arm in t e long run. >umanit' as to diversif' its old in t e universe if it is to survive. @nl' t roug spa!e !olonization is t at option available+ and &e ad all best ope &eKre not to late. &9s &i$e K en)iron$en&al -a$age has alrea-* %asse- &he &i%%ing %oin& K i& <ill kill +s all b* 2030 if <e -on9& coloniBe "ail* (ecor-. 02 3Dra am Lroug + 9taff Hriter+ 0Hould t e 8ast =erson to 8eave Nart =lease Eurn @ut t e 8ig tsF Nxperts Harn &e Ceed to Aove =lanet as Aodern 8ife Qills @urs+1 $(%(2002+ 8exis4 E e Nart &ill be so gutted+ &re!ked+ over(exploited and t e barren seas so fis ed out t at &e &ill ave to find a ne& planet . or even t&o ( b' 20"0. Nnvironmentalists at t e Horld Hildlife <und sa' &e ave /ust anot er alf !entur' of luxur' living left before t e Nart be!omes a spent usk. L' t at time+ &e &ill eit er ave to !olonise spa!e or risk uman extin!tion as population and !onsumption expand.

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Once ca%i&alis$ is %resen&e- as a $onoli&h. no al&erna&i)e is %ossible/ 7ibson>7raha$. 4 . =rofessor of Deos!ien!es at ?niversit' of Aassa! usetts+ = GF <eminist N!onomi! Deograp er and =rofessor at t e 2ustralian Cational ?niversit'+ = G 3;.Q. Dibson(Dra am+ 0E e Nnd of 7apitalism as He Qne& 5t+1 pg. 2""(2"$4 E roug its ar! ite!tural or organismi! depi!tion as an edifi!e or bod'+ 7apitalism be!omes not an un!entered aggregate of pra!ti!es but a stru!tural and s'stemi! unit'+ potentiall' !o(extensive &it t e national or global e!onom' as a & ole. 11 2s a large+ durable+ and self(sustaining formation+ it is relativel' impervious to ordinar' politi!al and !ultural u+ ex!ept t roug some er!ulean and !oordinated struggle. ?nderstood as a unified s'stem or stru!ture+ 7apitalism is not ultimatel' vulnerable to lo!al and partial efforts at transformation. 2n' su! efforts !an al&a's be subverted b' 7apitalism at anot er s!ale or in anot er dimension. 2ttempts to transform produ!tion ma' be seen as opeless &it out !ontrol of t e finan!ial s'stem. 9o!ialisms in one !it' or in one !ountr' ma' be seen as undermined b' 7apitalism at t e international s!ale. 7apitalism !annot be ! ipped a&a' at+ graduall' repla!ed or removed pie!emeal. 5t must be transformed in its entiret' or not at all. E us one of t e effe!ts of t e unit' of 7apitalism is to present t e left &it t e task of s'stemi! transformation. 9ingularit' 5f t e unit' of 7apitalism !onfronts us &it t e mammot task of s'stemi! transformation+ it is t e singularit' and totalit' of 7apitalism t at make t e task so opeless. 7apitalism presents itself as a singularit' in t e sense of aving no peer or equivalent+ of existing in a !ategor' b' itselfF and also in t e sense t at & en it appears full' realized &it in a parti!ular so!ial formation+ it tends to be dominant or alone. 2s a sui generis e!onomi! form+ 7apitalism as no true analogues. 9laver'+ independent !ommodit' produ!tion+ feudalism+ so!ialism+ primitive !ommunism and ot er forms of e!onom' all la!k t e s'stemi! properties of 7apitalism and t e abilit' to reprodu!e and expand t emselves a!!ording to internal la&s. 12 ?nlike so!ialism+ for example+ & i! is al&a's struggling to be born+ & i! needs t e prote!tion and fostering of t e state+ & i! is fragile and easil' deformed+ 7apitalism takes on its full form as a natural out!ome of an internall' driven gro&t pro!ess. 5ts organi! unit' gives !apitalism t e pe!uliar po&er to regenerate itself+ and even to subsume its moments of !risis as requirements of its !ontinued gro&t and development. 9o!ialism as never been endo&ed &it t at m't i! !apabilit' of feeding on its o&n !risesF its reprodu!tion &as never driven from &it in b' a life for!e but al&a's from &it outF it !ould never reprodu!e itself but al&a's ad to be reprodu!ed+ often an arduous if not impossible pro!ess. 13 Ea%i&alis$ has no %eer so i& &en-s &o be -o$inan& an- canno& coexis& <i&h o&her for$s of econo$ics/ 7ibson>7raha$. 91 . =rofessor of Deos!ien!es at ?niversit' of Aassa! usetts+ = GF <eminist N!onomi! Deograp er and =rofessor at t e 2ustralian Cational ?niversit'+ = G 3;.Q. Dibson(Dra am+ 0Haiting for t e 6evolution+ or >o& to 9mas 7apitalism & ile Horking at >ome in Xour 9pare Eime+1 publis ed in Mar&ism in the Costmodern Age b' 2ntonio 7allari et al in 1994+ pg 1%%(19$4 7apitalism presents itself as a singularit' in t e sense of aving no peer or equivalent and also in t e sense t at+ & en it appears full' developed &it in a parti!ular so!ial formation+ it tends to be dominant or alone. 2s a sui generis e!onomi! form+ 7apitalism as no true analogues. 9laver'+ independent !ommodit' produ!tion+ feudalism+ so!ialism+ and primitive !ommunism all la!k t e s'stemi! properties of 7apitalism and t e abilit' to reprodu!e and expand t emselves a!!ording to internal la&s. ?nlike so!ialism+ & i! is al&a's struggling to be born+ & i! needs t e prote!tion and fostering of t e state+ & i! is fragile and easil' deformed+ 7apitalism takes on its full form as a natural out!ome of an internall' driven gro&t pro!ess. 5ts organi! unit' gives 7apitalism t e pe!uliar po&er to regenerate itself+ and even to subsume its moments of !risis as requirements of its !ontinued gro&t and development. 9o!ialism as never been endo&ed &it t at m't i! !apabilit' of feeding on its o&n !risesF its reprodu!tion &as never driven from &it in b' a life for!e+ but al&a's from &it outF it !ould never reprodu!e itself but al&a's ad to be reprodu!ed+ often an arduous if not impossible pro!ess. @t er modes of produ!tion t at la!k t e organi! unit' of 7apitalism ar! more !apable of being instituted or repla!ed in!rementall' and more likel' to !oexist &it ot er e!onomi! forms. 7anitalism. b' !ontrast. tends to appear b' itself. E us. in t e ?nited 9tates+ if feudal or an!ient !lasses exist+ t e' exist as residual formsF if slaver' exists+ it exists as a marginal formF if so!ialism or !ommunism exists+ it exists as a prefigurative form. Cone of t ese forms trul' and full' !oexists &it 7apitalism. H ere 7apitalism does !oexist &it ot er forms+ t ose pla!es 3t e so(!alled t ird &orld+ for example4 are seen as not full' Pdeveloped.1 6at er t an signaling t e real possibilit' of 7apitalism*s !oexisten!e &it non!apitalist e!onomi! forms+ t e simultaneous presen!e of 7apitalism and non!apitalism marks t e t ird &orld as insuffi!ient and in!omplete.

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Ea%i&alis$ is a single. +nifie- force K &heir a&&e$%& a& %ersonall* reHec&ing ca%i&alis$ <ill be $assi)el* o)ersha-o<e-/ 7ibson>7raha$. 91 . =rofessor of Deos!ien!es at ?niversit' of Aassa! usetts+ = GF <eminist N!onomi! Deograp er and =rofessor at t e 2ustralian Cational ?niversit'+ = G 3;.Q. Dibson(Dra am+ 0Haiting for t e 6evolution+ or >o& to 9mas 7apitalism & ile Horking at >ome in Xour 9pare Eime+1 publis ed in Mar&ism in the Costmodern Age b' 2ntonio 7allari et al in 1994+ pg 1%%(19$4 E e birt of t e !on!ept of 7apitalism as &e kno& it !oin!ided in time &it t e birt of 0t e e!onom'1 as an autonomous so!ial sp ere. Cot surprisingl'+ t en+ 7apitalism s ares &it its more abstra!t sibling t e qualities of an integrated s'stem and t e !apabilit' of reprodu!ing itself 3or of being reprodu!ed4. 6epresented as an organism t roug & i! flo&s of so!ial labor !ir!ulate in various forms+ 7apitalism regulates itself a!!ording to logi!s or la&s+* propelled b' a life for!e along a preordained 3t oug not untroubled4 tra/e!tor' of gro&t .@ften t e unit' of 7apitalism is represented in more ar! ite!tural terms. 7apitalism 3or !apitalist so!iet'4 be!omes a stru!ture in & i! parts are related to one anot er+ linked to fun!tions+ and arranged 0in a!!ordan!e &it an ar! ite!ture t at is.. . no less invisible t an visible1 3<ou!auk 19$3+ 2314. E e ar! ite!tural)stru!tural metap or !onfers upon 7apitalism qualities of durabilit' and persisten!e as &ell as unit' and !o eren!e+ giving it greater pur! ase on so!ial realit' t an more ep emeral p enomena. H ile Aarxist !on!eptions usuall' emp asize t e !ontradi!tor' and !risis(ridden nature of !apitalist development+ !apitalist !risis ma' itself be seen as a unif'ing pro!ess. 7rises are !ommonl' presented as originating at t e organi! !enter of a !apitalist so!iet'-t e !apital a!!umulation-and as radiating out&ard to destabilize t e entire e!onomi! and so!ial formation.H at is important ere is not t e different metap ors and images of e!onom' and so!iet' but t e fa!t t at t e' all !onfer integrit' upon 7apitalism. E roug its ar! ite!tural or organismi! representation as an edifi!e or bod'. 7apitalism be!omes not an un!entered aggregate of pra!ti!es but a stru!tural and s'stemi! unit'. potentiall' !oextensive &it t e 3national or global4 e!onom' as a & ole. ?nderstood as a unified s'stem or stru!ture+ 7apitalism is not ultimatel' vulnerable to lo!al and partial efforts at transformation. 2n' su! efforts !an al&a's be subverted b' 7apitalism at anot er s!ale or in anot er dimension. 2ttempts+ for example+ to transform produ!tion ma' be seen as opeless &it out !ontrol of t e finan!ial s'stemF and so!ialisms in one !it' or in one !ountr' ma' be seen as undermined b' 7apitalism at t e international s!ale. 7apitalism !annot be graduall' repla!ed or removed pie!emealF it must be transformed in its entiret' or not at all. E us one of t e effe!ts of t e unit' of 7apitalism is to !onfront t e 8eft &it t e task of s'stemi! transformation.

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The #=A9s &rack recor- %ro)es &ha& ca%i&alis$ can be refor$e-/ Walberg an- Bas&. 901 3>erbert ;. Halberg+ distinguis ed visiting fello& at t e >oover 5nstitution+ and ;osep 8. Last+ president of t e >eartland 5nstitute+ +ducation and Capitalism: Ho- ;vercoming ;ur 5ear o' Mar"ets and +conomics Can Bmprove AmericaEs Schools+ 07 apter <ive: Cine A't s 2bout 7apitalism+1 ttp:))&&&. oover.org)publi!ations)books)299"211. tml+ 2!!essed 0$(1$(0%4 5n t e ?nited 9tates+ t e environment is unequivo!all' be!oming !leaner and safer. 2!!ording to t e Nnvironmental =rote!tion 2gen!' 3N=24+ total air pollution emissions in t e ?nited 9tates fell 34 per!ent bet&een 19$0 and 1990.40 =arti!ulate(matter emissions fell b' #0 per!ent+ sulfur oxides b' 2" per!ent+ !arbon monoxide b' 40 per!ent+ and lead b' 9# per!ent. Let&een 19%$.1992 and 1994.1999+ t e number of bad(air da's 3& en air qualit' failed to meet federal standards4 fell %2 per!ent in Ce&ark+ "4 per!ent in 8os 2ngeles+ $%per!ent in 7 i!ago+ and #9 per!ent in Ail&aukee.41Eotal emissions of air pollutants tra!ked b' t e N=2 are fore!ast to fall b' 22per!ent bet&een 199$ and 201" 3assuming t ere are no ne& air(qualit' regulations4 t anks to redu!tions in tailpipe emissions for most t'pes of ve i!les 3alread' do&n 9# per!ent or more sin!e 19$%4 and !leaner fuels. 2!!ording to t e N=2+ &ater qualit' also as improved+ and in some !ases dramati!all' so.42 9ports fis ing as returned to all five of t e Dreat 8akes+ t e number of fis ing advisories as fallen+ and a debate as started !on!erning t e s!ientifi! basis of man' of t e remaining advisories. 2!!ording to t e 7oun!il on Nnvironmental _ualit'+ levels of =7Ls+ GGE+ and ot er toxins in t e Dreat 8akes fell dramati!all' during t e 19$0s and !ontinued to fall 3at a slo&er rate4 during t e 19%0s and 1990s.43 E e number of &ooded a!res in t e ?nited 9tates as gro&n b' 20 per!ent in t e past t&ent' 'ears. E e average annual &ood gro&t in t e ?nited 9tates toda' is t ree times & at it &as in 1920.44 5n Bermont+ for example+ t e area !overed b' forests as in!reased from 3" per!ent a undred 'ears ago to about $# per!ent toda'.4" 5n t e four states of Aaine+ Ce& >amps ire+ Bermont+ and Ce& Xork+ t ere are 2# million more a!res of forest toda' t an t ere &ere at t e turn of t e !entur'.4# 2s a result of t is re(greening of 2meri!a+ &ildlife is en/o'ing a big !omeba!k. 2!!ording to t e ?.9. <is and Hildlife 9ervi!e+ breeding populations of bald eagles in t e lo&er 4% states ave doubled ever' six or seven 'ears sin!e t e late 19$0s. 5n 1994+ t ere &ere more t an 4+000 a!tive nests+ five times t e number reported in 19$4.4$

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AT EA= TAL SM' #EO! "#EL !# ( SKS #XT !ET O! #cono$ic -ecline risks ex&inc&ion/ Bear-en. 2000 TEom+ 8ieutenant 7olonel in t e ?.9. 2rm'+ ;une 24+ ttp:))&&&.freerepubli!.!om)forum)a3aaf9$f22e23. tmU >istor' bears out t at desperate nations take desperate a!tions. =rior to t e final e!onomi! !ollapse+ t e stress on nations &ill ave in!reased t e intensit' and number of t eir !onfli!ts+ to t e point & ere t e arsenals of &eapons of mass destru!tion 3HAG4 no& possessed b' some 2" nations+ are almost !ertain to be released. 2s an example+ suppose a starving Cort Qorea laun! es nu!lear &eapons upon ;apan and 9out Qorea+ in!luding ?.9. for!es t ere+ in a spasmodi! sui!idal response. @r suppose a desperate 7 ina(& ose long(range nu!lear missiles 3some4 !an rea! t e ?nited 9tates( atta!ks Eai&an. 5n addition to immediate responses+ t e mutual treaties involved in su! s!enarios &ill qui!kl' dra& ot er nations into t e !onfli!t+ es!alating it signifi!antl'. 9trategi! nu!lear studies ave s o&n for de!ades t at+ under su! extreme stress !onditions+ on!e a fe& nukes are laun! ed+ adversaries and potential adversaries are t en !ompelled to laun! on per!eption of preparations b' oneKs adversar'. E e real lega!' of t e A2G !on!ept is t is side of t e A2G !oin t at is almost never dis!ussed. Hit out effe!tive defense+ t e onl' ! an!e a nation as to survive at all is to laun! immediate full(bore pre(emptive strikes and tr' to take out its per!eived foes as rapidl' and massivel' as possible. 2s t e studies s o&ed+ rapid es!alation to full HAG ex! ange o!!urs. Eoda'+ a great per!ent of t e HAG arsenals t at &ill be unleas ed+ are alread' on site &it in t e ?nited 9tates itself. E e resulting great 2rmageddon &ill destro' !ivilization as &e kno& it+ and per aps most of t e biosp ere+ at least for man' de!ades. #cono$ic colla%se ca+ses ex&inc&ion/ ?e*. 95 3Ai! ael D. =rofessor of management in t e 9! ool of Lusiness 2dministration at Aont!lair 9tate ?niversit' and exe!utive dire!tor of t e Nxpansionar' 5nstitute. 9eizing t e <uture: E e Ga&n of t e Aa!roindustrial Nra. 9e!ond Ndition. =age 33(344 2s &e ave seen+ istor' attest to t e fa!t t at an' so!iet' t at maintains t e belief in progress &ill ave a better ! an!e of a! ieving its goals t an a so!iet' &it out it. 2s ot er nation*s ave !ome to understand t e effe!t of su! a !on!ept on t e Hest*s su!!ess+ t e'+ too+ ave internalized t e !on!ept of progress and made it t eir o&nJ E e 5mperative of Dro&t >aving rea! ed its !urrent
loft' point of development+ t e spe!ies &ill not ! oose to regress. E e fa!t t at t e spe!ies is forging its &a' en masse into t e Aa!roindustrial Nra proves our need to gro& is almost a geneti!all' based predisposition. E e spe!ies innatel' understands t ere !an be no turning ba!k on t e road of progress. >o&ever+ no outside for!e guarantees t e !ontinued progress of t e uman spe!ies+ nor does an't ing mandate t at t e uman spe!ies must even !ontinue to exist. 5n fa!t+ istor' is littered &it ra!es and !ivilizations t at ave disappeared &it out a tra!e. 9o+ too+ !ould t e uman spe!ies. E ere is no guarantee t at t e uman spe!ies &ill survive even if &e posit+ as man' ave+ a spe!ial purpose to t e spe!ies* existen!e. E erefore+ t e spe!ies innatel' !ompre ends t at it must engage in purposive a!tions in order to maintain its level of gro&t and progress. >umanit'*s future is !onditioned b' & at 5 !all t e 5mperative of Dro&t + a prin!iple 5 &ill ere&it des!ribe along &it its several !orollaries. E e

in order to survive+ an' nation+ indeed+ t e uman ra!e+ must gro&+ bot materiall' and intelle!tuall'. E e Aa!roindustrial era represents gro&t in t e areas of bot te! nolog' and uman development+ a natural stage in t e evolution of t e spe!ies* !ontinued extension of its !ontrol over itself and its environment. 2lt oug " billion strong+ our !ontinued existen!e depends on our abilit' to !ontinue t e progress &e ave been making at ig er and ig er levels. 9'stems+ & et er organizations+ so!ieties+ or !ells+ ave t ree basi! dire!tions in & i! to move. E e' !an gro&+ de!line+ or temporaril' reside in t e state of equilibrium. E ese are t e ! oi!es. 7 oosing an' alternative to gro&t + for instan!e+ stabilization of produ!tion)!onsumption t roug zero(gro&t poli!ies+ !ould ave alarmingl' perni!ious side effe!ts+ in!luding extin!tion.
5mperative of Dro&t states t at

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AT EA= TAL SM' #EO! "#EL !# ( SKS #XT !ET O! Eon&in+e- econo$ic gro<&h is ke* &o h+$an s+r)i)al/ ?e*. 95 TAi! ael+ exe!utive dire!tor of t e Nxpansionar' 5nstitute and professor at Aont!lair 9tate ?niversit' 9! ool of Lusiness+ 9eizing t e <uture+ p.34U >o&ever+ no outside for!e guarantees t e !ontinued progress of t e uman spe!ies+ nor does an't ing mandate t at t e uman spe!ies must even !ontinue to exist. 5n fa!t+ istor' is littered &it ra!es and !ivilizations t at ave disappeared &it out a tra!e. 9o+ too+ !ould t e uman spe!ies. E ere is no guarantee t at t e uman spe!ies &ill survive even if &e posit+ as man' ave+ a spe!ial purpose to t e spe!ies* existen!e. E erefore+ t e spe!ies innatel' !ompre ends t at it must engage in purposive a!tions in order to maintain its level of gro&t and progress. >umanit'*s future is !onditioned b' & at 5 !all t e 5mperative of Dro&t + a prin!iple 5 &ill ere&it des!ribe along &it its several !orollaries. E e 5mperative of Dro&t states t at in order to survive+ an' nation+ indeed+ t e uman ra!e+ must gro&+ bot materiall' and intelle!tuall'. E e Aa!roindustrial Nra represents gro&t in t e areas of bot te! nolog' and uman development+ a natural stage in t e evolution of t e spe!ies* !ontinued extension of its !ontrol over itself and its environment. 2lt oug " billion strong+ our !ontinued existen!e depends on our abilit' to !ontinue t e progress &e ave been making at ig er and ig er levels. 9'stems+ & et er organizations+ so!ieties+ or !ells+ ave t ree basi! dire!tions in & i! to move. E e' !an gro&+ de!line+ or temporaril' reside in a state of equilibrium. E ese are t e ! oi!es. 7 oosing an' alternative to gro&t + for instan!e+ stabilization of produ!tion)!onsumption t roug zero(gro&t poli!ies+ !ould ave alarmingl' perni!ious side effe!ts+ in!luding extin!tion.

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Socialis$ is inheren&l* &o&ali&arian,&ransi&ioning no< <o+l- kill $illions/ (ock<ell. 05 T8le&ell'n+ president of t e 8ud&ig von Aises 5nstitute+ Nver't ing Xou 8ove Xou @&e to 7apitalism+ ")1$+ ttp:))mises.org)stor')29%2U H atever t e spe!ifi!s of t e !ase in question+ so!ialism al&a's means overriding t e free de!isions of individuals and repla!ing t at !apa!it' for de!ision making &it an overar! ing plan b' t e state. Eaken far enoug + t is mode of t oug t &onKt /ust spell an end to opulent lun! es. 5t &ill mean t e end of & at &e all kno& as !ivilization itself. 5t &ould plunge us ba!k to a primitive state of existen!e+ living off unting and gat ering in a &orld &it little art+ musi!+ leisure+ or ! arit'. Cor is an' form of so!ialism !apable of providing for t e needs of t e &orldKs six billion people+ so t e population &ould s rink dramati!all' and qui!kl' and in a manner t at &ould make ever' uman orror ever kno&n seem mild b' !omparison. Cor is it possible to divor!e so!ialism from totalitarianism+ be!ause if 'ou are serious about ending private o&ners ip of t e means of produ!tion+ 'ou ave to be serious about ending freedom and !reativit' too. Xou &ill ave to make t e & ole of so!iet'+ or & at is left of it+ into a prison. 5n s ort+ t e &is for so!ialism is a &is for unparalleled uman evil. 5f &e reall' understood t is+ no one &ould express !asual support for it in polite !ompan'. 5t &ould be like sa'ing+ 'ou kno&+ t ere is reall' somet ing to be said for malaria and t'p oid and dropping atom bombs on millions of inno!ents. "e>-e)elo%$en& <o+l- reD+ire a $assi)e h+$an -ie>off/ Le<is 92 3Aartin+ le!turer in international istor' and interim dire!tor of t e program in 5nternational 6elations at 9tanford ?niversit'$ 4reen 9elusions: An +nvironmentalist Criti)ue o' ,adical +nvironmentalism + =age 2"(2#4 Co one a!quainted &it t e rudiments of medi!al istor' !ould den' t at ealt as vastl' improved sin!e t e industrial revolution. Aost of t e !redit for su! amelioration belongs pre!isel' to t e medi!al+ dietar'+ and sanitar' advan!es asso!iated &it t e transition to industrialism. @ne as onl' to examine average longevit'+ & i! stood in t e ?nited 9tates at a miserable fort'(seven 'ears as re!entl' as
1900+ to grasp t e magnitude of progress over t is period. 1g &e go ba!k to medieval Nurope+ so!io(e!ologi!al id'll of man' e!o(radi!als+ &e find t at in some villages average life spans &ere as lo& as seventeen to eig teen 'ears 37o en 19%9: 12414. L' ot er indi!es as &ell+ t e ealt standards of most pre(industrial regimes &ere atro!ious. 2gain+ !onsider medieval and earl' modem Nurope. 2s Lraudel 319%1:914 relates+ t e an!ient regime &as ! ara!terized b' Iver' ig infant mortalit'+ famine+ ! roni! under(nouris ment+ and formidable epidemi!s.I Aoreover+ non(elite Nuropeans &ere !ontaminated b' a &ide variet' of toxins on a regular basis. <e& even experien!ed t e delig ts of breat ing !lean air+ for t e atmosp eres of t eir o&n d&ellings &ere orribl' polluted. 5t is diffi!ult ... to !ompre end+I &rites Corman =ounds 319%9:1%$14 I o& fetid and offensive must ave been t e air about most !ottages and omes.I 5ndeed+ indoor air pollution as long been 3as it per aps still is4 a greater !ontributor to respirator' illness t an industrial airborne &aste. Lut t e most severe toxi! pollution problem of t e pre(modern &orld &as asso!iated &it natural poisons produ!ed b' molds infe!ting t e food suppl'. INver'one suffered from food t at &as tainted+I =ounds reminds us+ Iand t e number & o died of food(poisoning must ave been immense 310%9:2134. Nspe!iall' pronoun!ed & ere r'e &as t e staple food poisons produ!ed b' t e ergot and <usarium molds massivel' suppressed immune s'stems+ redu!ed fertilit' levels+ broug t on delusions and sometimes mass insanit'+ and redu!ed blood !ir!ulation to su!

Nven & ere t e food suppl' &as safe+ poor nutrition resulted in &idespread immunologi!al stress. 5nfe!tious diseases &ere rife+ and periodi! plagues &ould de!imate most populations in a !ruel manner. Hater supplies+ espe!iall' in to&ns+ &ere so !ontaminated b' uman &aste as to be!ome deadl' in t eir o&n rig t. 9kin and venereal diseases &ere often rife and diffi!ult+ if not impossible+ to !ure. @t er s!ourges abounded+ in!luding t ose(su! as lepros'(t at ave been virtuall' eliminated b' modem medi!ines and sanitar' te! niques. 5ndividuals
an extent t at gangrene in t e lo&er extremities &as !ommonpla!e 3Aatossian 19%9:14. deformed b' geneti! in eritan!e or a!!ident t'pi!all' led s ort and brutal lives. 2nd ever' time a &oman &ent into labor s e fa!ed a ver' ig risk of d'ing. E is !ursor' revie& of t e orrors of pre(

. Lut it is important to re!all in detail t e kind of so!ial environment man' e!o(radi!als &ould seek to re!reate. 2nd &ere &e to ad ere stri!tl' to t e tenets of bioregionalism+ even t e levels of prosperit' a! ieved in t e medieval &orld &ould be diffi!ult if not impossible to maintain &it out first experien!ing a trul' massive uman die off.
industrial Nuropean life ma' seem a pointless exer!ise in overkillF all of t is is+ or at least used to be+ !ommon kno&ledge

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AT EA= TAL SM' WO(ST 7O8#(!M#!TS ! FS TO(J Lef&is& re)ol+&ions ha)e %ro-+ce- so$e of &he <ors& h+$an s+ffering in his&or*/ =ere&B. 01 3Aartin+ <ormer 2ssistant =rofessor at >arvard+ Nditor(in 7 ief of E e Ce& 6epubli!+ IAanqueI+ E e Ce& 6epubli!+ <ebruar' 3+ lexis4 H at is t e grand IprogressiveI vision for & i! t e <ren! left fig ts+ & i! t e Vionists and ;e&s are insidiousl' olding ba!kR 5n t e grand !onfli!ts of t e last !entur'+ t ere &as al&a's a left(&ing stru!ture of Aani! aeanism. @n t e one side: imperialism and !apitalism. @n t e ot er: a !ompelling and revolutionar' dream. E e dreams turned out to be nig tmares. Lut t e' &ere dreams+ nonet eless. 8enin+ 9talin+ Aao+ 7astro+ 7 e+ t e Biet 7ong+ t e 9andinistas+ al&a's a man and a movement sa'ing t e' aimed to build a better &orld+ & i! t e' a!tuall' tried to des!ribe. 5n t e end+ of !ourse+ t e better &orld did not arrive: 5n its pla!e &ere deat !amps+ mass deportations+ for!ed famines+ massa!res+ reedu!ation programs+ prisons of t e bod'+ and greater prisons of t e soul.

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AT EA= TAL SM' EA= SOL8#S #!8 (O!M#!T M+l&i%le na&ions %ro)e &ha& socialis$ is far <orse for &he en)iron$en& &han ca%i&alis$. es%eciall* in &er$s of energ* cons+$%&ion/ Le<is 92 3Aartin+ le!turer in international istor' and interim dire!tor of t e program in 5nternational 6elations at 9tanford ?niversit'$ 4reen 9elusions: An +nvironmentalist Criti)ue o' ,adical +nvironmentalism + =age 14#(14$4 E e easiest defense of !apitalism is to simpl' !ontrast it &it existing and re!entl' existing examples of Aarxian so!ialism. 2s is no& abundantl' !lear+ Aarxism*s re!ord is dismal on almost ever' s!ore+ be it e!onomi!+ so!ial+ or environmental. E ese failures !annot be dismissed as errant quirksF Aarxian regimes ave !ome to po&er in numerous !ountries+ and ever'& ere t e results ave been dis eartening. <rom impoveris ed 2fri!an 9tates like Aozambique+ Nt iopia+ Duinea+ Aadagas!ar+ and t e 7ongo to ig l' industrialized+ on!e(prosperous Nuropean !ontries like t e former Nast Derman' and 7ze! oslovakia+ all Aarxist experiments ave ended in disaster. 7 apter six &ill address t e failings of Aarxism in t e t ird &orldF t e present dis!ussion is
!on!erned &it t e formerl' !ommunist industrial states of Nastern Nurope. <or !onvenien!e sake+ t e anal'sis fo!uses on t e !onditions t at pertained before t e demo!rati! revolutions of t e late 19%0s and earl' 1990s. 6adi!al greens admit t at environmental !onditions in Nastern Nurope are as bad as t ose found in t e &est. Lut sin!e admissions are far from adequateF b' almost ever' measure

+t e

!ommunist environment is more severel' degraded t an t e !apitalist environment. @nl' &it

t e re!ent do&nfall of Aarxian regimes as t e e!ologi!al deba!le of t e east !ome to lig t. 2s our kno&ledge in!reases+ t e environmental !onditions of Nastern Nurope are revealed as ever more orrifi!. 2nd & en one !onsiders t e poor performan!es of t e e!onomies t at ave &reaked su! destru!tion t e !omparison bet&een !apitalism and !ommunism be!omes one(sided indeed. 2lt oug t e general state of environmental devastation in Nastern Nurope is no& &ell kno&n+ a fe& spe!ifi! examples are still in order. 5t is quite possible t at t e &orldKs most industriall' devastated lands!ape is t at of =olandKs 9ilesia+ an area in & i! t e soil is so lead( impregnated as to render farm produ!ts virtuall' poisonous. Cor are !onditions mu! better in ot er =olis regions. Aan' =olis rivers are so filt ' t at t eir &aters 7annot even be used for industrial purposes. 2s <is! off 5 5 99 5: 5 3J reports+ Ib' ?.9. and Nuropean standards+ t e !ountr' as virtuall' no potable &ater.I 5n =olandKs industrial belt+ air pollution+ espe!iall' sulfur dioxide !ontamination+ far

. Gevastation of similar magnitude ma' be found in man' regions &it in t e former 9oviet ?nion. 8atvia+ for example+ is burdened b' man' poorl' regulated and !onstantl' @ozing toxi! &aste pits+ and its Lalti! s ores are eavil'
ex!eeds an't ing found in t e Hest. Aan' buildings in 7ra!o& are simpl' melting a&a' in an a!id bat !ontaminated &it ba!teria+ eav' metals+ and even ! unks of p osp orus 3in 19%% t e 9oviet arm' dropped 400 bombs !ontaining 20 tons of p osp orus into t e Lalti! 9ea TLurgelis n.d.:$U4. E e transformation of t e on!e(ri! 2ral 9ea into a s runken+ almost lifeless sump is no& a virtual international emblem of t e po&ers at uman destru!tiveness 3Qotl'akov 19914. Nver'& ere one looks t e

Nquall' telling are !omparative figures on energ' use. @ne of t e prin!iple reasons for Nastern NuropeKs environmental !atastrop e is its appallingl' ineffi!ient use of energ'. 2s E e N!onomist 3<ebruar' 1$+ 19904 reports: I@n average+ t e six !ountries of Nastern Nuropeause more t an t&i!e as mu! energ' per dollar of national in!ome as even t e more industrialized !ountries of &estern Nurope. =oland+ Hit on some !ounts a DG= smaller t an LelgiumKs+ uses nearl' t ree times as
same stories re!ounting one e!ologi!al disaster after anot er. mu! energ'+ >ungar'+ & ose DG= is supposedl' onl' a fift of 9painKs+ uses more t an a t ird as mu! energ'.I >ere one !an appre!iate t e environmental !onsequen!es of an e!onom' t at as

<a!tories ave remained in operation t at &ould ave been s uttered de!ades ago in t e Hest. E e Gismal environmental !onditions of t e !ommunist &orld stem from t e politi!al and e!onomi! stru!tures impli!it in Aarxism and not+ as a!ademi! Aarxist apologists &ould ave it+ from eit er istori!al !ontingen!ies or t e stru!tural po&er of t e !apitalist &orld s'stem.
approa! ed t e vaunted stead'(stateF la!king e!onomi! vitalit'+ t e Nast as been found to retain an antiquated+ ineffi!ient+ and ig l' polluting set of industrial plants.

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AT EA= TAL SM' EA= SOL8#S #!8 (O!M#!T Ea%i&alis$ enco+rages conser)a&ion an- efficienc* &ha& are &he bes& <a* &o %ro&ec& &he en)iron$en&/ The <ors& en)iron$en&al -isas&ers in his&or* <ere in non ca%i&alis& s&a&es/ !orberg. 01 3;o an Corberg+ 9enior <ello& at 7ato 5nstitute+ 05n Gefense of Dlobal 7apitalism1+ p. 23"4 Ber' often+ environmental improvements are due to t e ver' !apitalism so often blamed for t e problems. E e introdu!tion of private propert' !reates o&ners &it long(term interests. 8ando&ners must see to it t at t ere is good soil or forest t ere tomorro& as &ell+ be!ause ot er&ise t e' &ill ave no in!ome later on+ & et er t e' !ontinue using t e land or intend to sell it. 5f t e propert' is !olle!tive or government(o&ned+ no one as an' su! long(term interest. @n t e !ontrar'+ ever'one t en as an interest in using up t e resour!es qui!kl' before someone else does. 5t &as be!ause t e' &ere !ommon lands t at t e rain forests of t e 2mazon began to be rapidl' exploited in t e 19#0s and 19$0s and are still being rapidl' exploited toda'. @nl' about a 10t of forests are re!ognized b' t e governments as privatel' o&ned+ even t oug in pra!ti!e 5ndians possess and in abit large parts of t em. 5t is t e absen!e of definite fis ing rig ts t at !auses 3 eavil' subsidized4 fis ing fleets to tr' to va!uum t e o!eans of fis before someone else does. Co &onder+ t en+ t at t e most large(s!ale destru!tion of environment in istor' as o!!urred in t e !ommunist di!tators ips+ & ere all o&ners ip &as !olle!tive. 2 fe& 'ears ago+ a satellite image &as taken of t e borders of t e 9a ara+ & ere t e desert &as spreading. Nver'& ere+ t e land &as par! ed 'ello&+ after nomads ad overexploited t e !ommon lands and t en moved on. Lut in t e midst of t is desert environment !ould be seen a small pat! of green. E is proved to be an area of privatel' o&ned land & ere t e o&ners of t e farm prevented overexploitation and engaged in !attle farming t at &as profitable in t e long term. Erade and freig t are sometimes !riti!ized for destro'ing t e environment+ but t e problem !an be re!tified &it more effi!ient transport and purifi!ation te! niques+ as &ell as emissions fees to make t e !ost of pollution visible t roug pri!ing. E e biggest environmental problems are asso!iated &it produ!tion and !onsumption+ and t ere trade !an make a positive !ontribution+ even aside from t e general effe!t it as on gro&t . Erade leads to a !ountr'Ks resour!es being used as effi!ientl' as possible. Doods are produ!ed in t e pla!es & ere produ!tion entails least expense and least &ear and tear on t e environment. E at is & ' t e amount of ra& materials needed to make a given produ!t keeps diminis ing as produ!tive effi!ien!' improves. Hit modern produ!tion pro!esses+ 9$ per!ent less metal is needed for a soft drink !an t an 30 'ears ago+ partl' be!ause of t e use of lig ter aluminum. 2 !ar toda' !ontains onl' alf as mu! metal as a !ar of 30 'ears ago.

Michigan 7 Week Seniors 2009

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AT EA= TAL SM' EA= SOL8#S #!8 (O!M#!T #cono$ic gro<&h co$bine- <i&h en)iron$en&al reg+la&ions are &he onl* <a* &o a--ress en)iron$en&al crises/ The #cono$is&. 05 T>o& green is t eir gro&t + 1)24+ ttp:))&&&.e!onomist.!om)&orld)international)displa'stor'.!fmR stor'Yid,10"##$3%U 9ome ne& lig t as been !ast b' a team of resear! ers led b' Ganiel Nst' of Xale ?niversit'+ & o delivered t eir !on!lusions t
is &eek to t e Horld N!onomi! <orum in Gavos+ 9&itzerland. H at t e' presented &as t e latest annual Nnvironmental 9ustainabilit' 5ndex+ & i! grades t e 0environmental ealt 1 of 1"0 !ountries-using man' indi!ators+ from population stress and e!o(s'stem ealt to so!ial and institutional !apa!it'. E is 'earKs report fo!uses on t e link bet&een t e state of t e environment and uman ealt . 5n a nuts ell+ & at t e ne& report 3also sponsored b' t e Nuropean 7ommission and 7olumbia ?niversit'4 suggests is t at poor !ountries ave been quite rig t to ! allenge t e sort of green ort odox' & i! re/e!ts t e ver' idea of e!onomi! gro&t . 5ndeed+ t e single biggest variable in determining a !ountr'Ks ranking is in!ome per ead. Lut t at doesnKt impl' t at e!onomi! gro&t automati!all' leads to an improvement in t e

s finding is t at gro&t does offer solutions to t e sorts of environmental &oes 3lo!al air pollution+ for example4 t at dire!tl' kill umans. E is matters+ be!ause about a quarter of all deat s in t e &orld ave some link to environmental fa!tors. Aost of t e vi!tims are poor people & o
environment. E e teamK are alread' vulnerable be!ause of bad living !onditions+ la!k of a!!ess to medi!ine+ and malnutrition 3see arti!le4. 2mong t e killers 3espe!iall' of ! ildren4 in & i! t e environment pla's a role are diarr oea+ respirator' infe!tions and malaria. E ese diseases reinfor!e a vi!ious !ir!le of povert' and opelessness b' depressing produ!tion. 2!!ording to t e Horld Lank+ t e e!onomi! burden on so!iet'

as poor !ountries get ri! er+ t e' usuall' invest eavil' in environmental improvements+ su! as !leaning up &ater supplies and improving sanitation+ t at boost uman ealt . 3E eir
!aused b' bad environmental ealt amounts to bet&een 2` and "` of DG=. Ar Nst'Ks anal'sis suggests t at e!onomies ma' also s ift gear+ from making steel or ! emi!als to turning out !omputer ! ips.4 Lut t e link bet&een gro&t and environmentall' benign out!omes is mu! less !lear+ t e stud' suggests+ & en it !omes to t e sort of pollution t at fouls up nature 3su! as a!id rain+ & i! poisons lakes and forests4 as opposed to dire!tl' killing uman beings.

E e ke' to addressing t at sort

of pollution+ Ar Nst' argues+ is not /ust mone' but good governan!e. 2 !loser look at t

e rankings makes t is relations ip !learer. @f !ourse it is no surprise t at 9&itzerland fares better t an Ciger. Lut & ' is t e poor Gomini!an 6epubli! mu! ealt ier and greener t an nearb' >aitiR @r 7osta 6i!a so far a ead of Ci!aragua+ & ose nature and resour!es are broadl' similarR 2nd & ' is &ealt ' Lelgium t e si!k man of &estern Nurope+ &it an environmental re!ord &orse t an t at of man' developing !ountriesR 2 mixture of fa!tors related to good governmenta!!urate data+ transparent administration+ la!k of !orruption+ ! e!ks and balan!es-all s o& a !lear statisti!al relations ip &it environmental performan!e. 2mong !ountries of !omparable in!ome+ Ar Nst' !on!ludes+ 2ll t is ma' be a elpful &a' of looking at pollution in t e !lassi! sense+ but t ere is anot er fa!tor t at ma' upset all previous !al!ulations about t e relations ip bet&een gro&t and t e state of t e eart : !limate ! ange. Dreen ouse emissions do not poison people+ or lakes or &oods+ in t e dire!t or obvious &a' t at noxious ! emi!als do. Lut at least in t e medium term+ t e' !learl' alter t e eart in &a's t at arm t e &elfare of t e poor. =aul Npstein of t e >arvard Aedi!al 9! ool sa's t e impa!t bot on nature and dire!tl' on umanit' of global &arming &ill s&amp all ot er environmental fa!tors. 2s alterations in t e !limate lead to mass migrations+ epidemi!s &ill spreadF as temperate zones &arm up+ tropi!al diseases like malaria &ill surgeF storms &ill over& elm se&er s'stemsF eat &aves &ill pus ozone levels up. >e ma' be rig t+ but ere too

toug regulations and above all+ enfor!ement are t e ke' fa!tors in keeping t ings green.

e!onomi! gro&t + !oupled &it good governan!e+ ma' 'et prove to be a sour!e of solutions rat er t an problems. 2t t e moment+ per aps 2 billion people ave no formal a!!ess to modern energ'-t e' make do &it !o& dung+ agri!ultural residue and ot er solid fuels & i! are far from ealt '. ?nless foresig t and intelligen!e are applied to t e satisfa!tion of t ese peopleKs needs+ t e' ma' embra!e t e filt iest and most !arbon(emitting forms of fossil(fuel energ' as soon as t e' get t e ! an!e. 2 mixture of e!onomi! gro&t and transparent governan!e ma' offer t e onl' ! an!e of avoiding t at disaster.

Michigan 7 Week Seniors 2009

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AT EA= TAL SM' EA= SOL8#S #!8 (O!M#!T Ea%i&alis$ %ro&ec&s &he en)iron$en&/ Le<is 92 . =rofessor+ 9! ool of t e Nnvironment+ Guke ?niversit' . 1992 3Aartin+ D6NNC GN895@C9+ p. 104 @nl' a strongl' expending e!onomi! base !an generate t e !apital ne!essar' to retool our e!onom' into one t at does not !onsume t e eart in feeding itself. N!ologi!al sanit' &ill be expensive+ and if &e !annot pa' t e pri!e &e ma' &ell peris . E is proposition is even more vital in regard to t e E ird HorldF onl' stead' e!onomi! expansion !an break t e linkage so often found in poor nations bet&een rural desperation and land degradation. Denuine development+ in turn+ requires bot !ertain forms of industrialization as &ell as parti!ipation in t e global e!onom'. E e most &idespread e!o(radi!al position no& is t at E ird Horld environments !an onl' be preserved if povert' is alleviated t roug !ertain kinds of development initiatives. E ird Horld peasants+ t e' !orre!tl' argue+ are for!ed to deforest and overgraze t eir lands!apes pre!isel' be!ause of t eir povert'. The &ransi&ion <o+l- -es&ro* &he en)iron$en&,h+ngr* %eo%le <o+l- h+n& ani$als &o ex&inc&ion an- ol-er. -ir&ier &ech <o+l- be +se- again. Le<is 92 . =rofessor+ 9! ool of t e Nnvironment+ Guke ?niversit' . 1992 3Aartin+ D6NNC GN8?95@C9+ p. 11$4 5f t e most extreme version of t e radi!al green agenda &ere to be full' ena!ted &it out trul' massive uman die(off first+ forests &ould be stripped !lean of &ood and all large animals &ould be unted to extin!tion b' ordes of neo(primitives desperate for food and &armt . 5f+ on t e ot er and+ e!o(extremists &ere to su!!eed onl' in paral'zing t e e!onom'*s !apa!it' for furt er resear! + development+ and expansion+ our future !ould turn out to be reminis!ent of t e environmental nig tmare of =oland in t e 19%0*s+ &it a stagnant e!onom' !ontinuing to rel' on outmoded+ pollution(bel! ing industries. 2 t rottled stead'(state e!onom' &ould simpl' la!k t e resour!es ne!essar' to !reate an environment benign te! nologi!al base for a popula!e t at s o&s ever' sign of !ontinuing to demand ele!tri!it'+ ot &ater+ and ot er !onnivan!es. Nastern Nurope s o&s &ell t e environmental devastation t at o!!urs & en e!onomi! gro&t stalls out in an alread' industrialized so!iet'.

Michigan 7 Week Seniors 2009 AT EA= TAL SM' 7LOBAL ?AT O! 7OO"

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#cono$ic ineD+ali&ies -o no& %ro)e &ha& globaliBa&ion is ba-,e)en +neD+al gro<&h is %osi&i)e for all na&ions/ Ba&e. 02 36oger+ 6esident <ello& at t e 2meri!an Nnterprise 5nstitute+ 9eptember 1st+ 0H o Goes Dlobalization >urtR1+ ttp:))&&&.aei.org)publi!ations)pub5G.2111"+filter.all)pubYdetail.asp4
8ike man' of t e pressure groups t at oppose !orporations and e!onomi! liberalisation on apparentl' moral grounds 3!ompanies and markets allegedl' promote greed4+ t e 58@ report &ants poli!' ! anges to ensure t at globalisation be!omes Ia positive for!e for all people and all !ountriesI as it believes t at at t e moment it benefits t e elite of t e ri! &orld. 5n parti!ular+ t e 58@ &ants reform at t e Horld

+ inequalit' measures are largel' pointless+ irrelevant and also misleading. 5f relativel' ri! Lritain gre& 20` over five 'ears and relativel' poor 5ndonesia gre& 12` in t e same period+ t ere &ould be an in!rease in inequalit'+ but bot !ountries &ould be better off t an if t e' bot gre& 10`. Xet t e 58@ and all t e pressure groups t e' support impl' t at t e reason t at !ountries like 5ndonesia gro& slo&er t an !ountries like Lritain is be!ause Lritain is part of t e elite and distorts t e &orld trade environment in its favour 3It e pro!ess of globalisation is generating unbalan!ed out!omes+ bot &it in and bet&een !ountriesI4.
Erade @rganisation to prote!t t e poor. E e report dra&s its !on!lusions mainl' from t e alleged in!rease in inequalit' bet&een ri! and poor !ountries. @f !ourse

7lobaliBa&ion is %osi&i)e for %oor na&ions,&he co+n&ries &ha& ha)e fare- %oorl* s+ffer fro$ ba- go)ernance/ Ba&e. 02 36oger+ 6esident <ello& at t e 2meri!an Nnterprise 5nstitute+ 9eptember 1st+ 0H o Goes Dlobalization >urtR1+ ttp:))&&&.aei.org)publi!ations)pub5G.2111"+filter.all)pubYdetail.asp4 E e belief t at t e ri! and po&erful !ountries prevent t e poor !ountries from performing as a long and undistinguis ed istor' but no intelle!tual support. 5ndeed+ t e report a!kno&ledges t at man' problems ave not ing to do &it international trade or globalisation at all. 7uba under <idel 7astro+ Benezuela under >ugo 7 avez+ 5raq under 9addam >ussein+ Cort Qorea under Qim ;ong(il+ Vimbab&e under 6obert Augabe and m'riad !ountries 3adding up to t e 23 imploding nations identified b' t e report4 ave all failed be!ause t e' are Id'sfun!tional states torn apart b' !ivil strife+ aut oritarian governments of various ues and states &it demo!rati! but severe inadequa!ies in terms of t e poli!ies and institutions required to support a &ell(fun!tioning market e!onom'I+ sa's t e report. E e report fails to explain & ' 7 ina+ in opening up to globalisation+ as developed so rapidl' in t e past 2" 'ears. 5t takes Holf to explain t at 7 ina and t e ot er su!!essful e!onomies all s ared Ia move to&ards t e market e!onom'+ one in & i! private propert' rig ts+ free enterprise and !ompetition in!reasingl' took t e pla!e of state o&ners ip+ planning and prote!tion. E e' ! ose+ o&ever altingl'+ t e pat of e!onomi! liberalisation and international integration.I =er aps even more importantl'+ Holf sa's t at It ere are no examples of !ountries t at ave risen in t e ranks of global living standards & ile being less open to trade and !apital in t e 1990s t an in t e 19#0sI.

Michigan 7 Week Seniors 2009 6E#"# TF# =OL T EAL6

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Michigan 7 Week Seniors 2009 E#"# TF# =OL T EAL

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This fail+re &o engage &he %oli&ical %rocess &+rns &he affir$a&i)e in&o s%ec&a&ors <ho are %o<erless &o %ro-+ce real change/ (or&* 95 . professor emeritus of !omparative literature and p ilosop '+ b' !ourtes'+ at 9tanford ?niversit' 36i! ard+ 027>5NB5CD @?6 7@?CE6X: 8eftist E oug t in E&entiet (7entur' 2meri!a1+ 199%+ =g. $(94
9u! people find pride in 2meri!an !itizens ip impossible+ and vigorous parti!ipation in ele!toral politi!s pointless. E e' asso!iate 2meri!an patriotism &it an endorsement of atro!ities: t e importation of 2fri!an slaves+ t e slaug ter of Cative 2meri!ans+ t e rape of an!ient forests+ and t e Bietnam Har. Aan' of t em t ink of national pride as appropriate onl' for ! auvinists: for t e sort of 2meri!an & o

H en 'oung intelle!tuals &at! ;o n Ha'ne &ar movies after reading >eidegger+ <ou!ault+ 9tep enson+ or 9ilko+ t e' often be!ome !onvin!ed t at t e' live in a violent+ in uman+ !orrupt !ountr'. E e' begin to t ink of t emselves as a saving remnant(as t e app' fe& & o ave t e insig t to see t roug nationalist r etori! to t e g astl' realit' of !ontemporar' 2meri!a. Lut t is insig t does not move t em to formulate a legislative program+ to /oin a politi!al movement+ or to s are in a national ope. E e !ontrast bet&een national ope
re/oi!es t at 2meri!a !an still or! estrate somet ing like t e Dulf Har+ !an still bring deadl' for!e to bear & enever and & erever it ! ooses. and national self(mo!ker' and self(disgust be!omes vivid & en one !ompares novels like 9no& 7ras and 2lmana! of t e Gead &it so!ialist novels of t e first alf of t e !entur'(books like E e ;ungle+ 2n 2meri!an Eraged'+ and E e Drapes of Hrat . E e latter &ere &ritten in t e belief t at t e tone of t e Dett'sburg 2ddress &as absolutel' rig t+ but t at our !ountr' &ould ave to transform itself in order to fulfill 8in!olnKs opes. Eransformation &ould be needed be!ause t e rise of industrial !apitalism ad made t e individualist r etori! of 2meri!aKs first !entur' obsolete. E e aut ors of t ese novels t oug t t at t is r etori! s ould be repla!ed b' one in & i! 2meri!a is destined to be!ome t e first !ooperative !ommon&ealt + t e first !lassless so!iet'. E is 2meri!a &ould be one in & i! in!ome and &ealt are equitabl' distributed+ and in & i! t e government ensures equalit' of opportunit' as &ell as individual libert'. E is ne&+ quasi(!ommunitarian r etori! &as at t e eart of t e =rogressive Aovement and

E e differen!e bet&een earl' t&entiet (!entur' leftist intelle!tuals and t e ma/orit' of t eir !ontemporar' !ounterparts is t e differen!e bet&een agents and spe!tators. 5n t e earl' de!ades of t is !entur'+ & en an intelle!tual stepped ba!k from is or er !ountr'Ks istor' and looked at it t roug skepti!al e'es+ t e ! an!es &ere t at e or s e &as about to propose a ne& politi!al initiative. >enr' 2dams &as+ of !ourse+ t e great ex!eption(t e great abstainer from hpoliti!s. Lut Hilliam ;ames t oug t t at 2damsK diagnosis of t e <irst Dilded 2ge as a s'mptom of irreversible moral and politi!al de!line &as merel' perverse. ;amesKs pragmatist t eor' of trut &as in part a rea!tion against t e sort of deta! ed spe!tators ip & i! 2dams affe!ted. <or ;ames+ disgust &it 2meri!an 'po!ris' and self(de!eption &as pointless unless a!!ompanied b' an effort to give 2meri!a reason to be proud of itself in t e future. E e kind of proto( >eideggerian !ultural pessimism & i! 2dams !ultivated seemed+ to ;ames+ de!adent and !o&ardl'. IGemo!ra!'+I ;ames &rote+ Iis a kind of religion+ and &e are bound not to admit its failure. <ait s and utopias are t e noblest exer!ise of uman reason+ and no one &it a spark of reason in im &ill sit do&n fatalisti!all' before t e !roakerKs pi!ture. I2
t e Ce& Geal. 5t set t e tone for t e 2meri!an 8eft during t e first six de!ades of t e t&entiet !entur'. Halt H itman and ;o n Ge&e'+ as &e s all see+ did a great deal to s ape t is r etori!.

The affir$a&i)e9s s&ra&eg* is no& %oli&ical > i& is a s&ra&eg* agains& %oli&ics <hich +n-er$ines &he %ossibili&* of libera&ion/ 7rossberg. 92 38a&ren!e+ Aorris Gavis =rofessor of 7ommuni!ation 9tudies at t e ?niversit' of Cort 7arolina at 7 apel >ill+ 0He Dotta Det @ut of t is =la!e: =opular 7onservatism and =ostmodern 7ulture1+ page 2$%(2$94 <inall'+ t e frontier itself is transformed. 5t is still partl' defined b' an attitude in & i! &e are all impli!ated. 5n t is sense+ t e frontier is in ever'one-and &it it+ t e possibilit' of evil. Lut no& its popular)resonan!e is rearti!ulated to Ia!tivitiesI t at ave to be affe!tivel' and morall' /udged and poli!ed. E e enem' is not &it in people but in spe!ifi! a!tivities t at !onstru!t t e frontier over in t e image of t e ne& !onservatism. E e frontier be!omes a sedu!tive ma! ine+ sedu!ing people not onl' into t e need to invest+ but ultimatel' into a series of temporar' and mobile investments & i! lo!ate t em &it in a popular !onservatism. E e frontierKs arti!ulation b' t e logi! of s!andal marks a real break &it older !onserva( tisms built on some notion of tradition. >ere politi!s is not a solution to problems+ but a ma! ine & i! organizes t e population and its pra!ti!es. H at is on t e Irig tI 3in bot senses4 side of t e frontier+ on t e ot er side of politi!s+ is a purel' affe!tive moralit' 3ie.+ one & i! leaves no spa!e &it in & i! spe!ifi! a!tions !an be /udged as an't ing ot er t an s!andalous4. E e ne& !onservatism embodies+ not a politi!al rebellion but a rebellion against politi!s. 5t makes politi!s into an ot er+ lo!ated on t e ot er side of t e frontier. 2n'one & o a!tuall' talks about serious problems and t eir solutions is a dreamerF an'one & o !elebrates t e mood in & i! t e problem is at on!e terrif'ing and boring is a realist. 5t is no longer believing too strongl' t at is dangerous+ but a!tuall' t inking t at one is supposed to make oneKs dreams !ome true. E e failure of Nart Ga' !annot be explained b' merel' pointing to its status as a feel(good media event+ nor b' pointing out t e in!reasingl' 'po!riti!al appropriation of Igreen politi!sI b' !orporate polluters. 5t is rat er t at e!olog'+ like an' Ipoliti!s+I as be!ome a question of attitude and investment+ as if investing in t e I!orre!tI ideologi!al beliefs+ even demonstrating it+ &as an adequate !onstru!tion of t e politi!al. Hit in t e ne& !onservative arti!ulation of t e frontier+ politi!al positions onl' exist as entirel' affe!tive investments+ separated from an' abilit' to a!t.

Michigan 7 Week Seniors 2009 E#"# TF# =OL T EAL, M=AET WA(

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Fail+re &o engage in &he %oli&ical %rocess <ill res+l& in &he &akeo)er b* &he ex&re$e righ&. lea-ing &o -iscri$ina&ion an- <ar <orl-<i-e (or&* 95 . professor emeritus of !omparative literature and p ilosop '+ b' !ourtes'+ at 9tanford ?niversit' 36i! ard+ 027>5NB5CD @?6 7@?CE6X: 8eftist E oug t in E&entiet (7entur' 2meri!a1+ 199%+ pg. %9(944 *HN G@ C@E NCG@69N DNCGN6NG 82CD?2DN* Aan' &riters on so!ioe!onomi! poli!' ave &arned t at t e old industrialized demo!ra!ies are eading into a Heimar(like period+ one in & i! populist movements are likel' to overturn !onstitutional governments. Nd&ard 8utt&ak+ for example+ as suggested t at fas!ism ma' be t e 2meri!an future. E e point of is book E e Nndangered 2meri!an Gream is t at members of labor unions+ and unorganized unskilled &orkers+ &ill sooner or later realize t at t eir government is not even tr'ing to prevent &ages from sinking or to prevent /obs from being exported. 2round t e same time+ t e' &ill realize t at suburban & ite(!ollar &orkers ( t emselves desperatel' afraid of being do&nsized ( are not going to let t emselves be taxed to provide so!ial benefits for an'one else. 2t t at point+ somet ing &ill !ra!k. E e nonsuburban ele!torate &ill de!ide t at t e s'stem as failed and start looking around for a strongman to vote for(someone &illing to assure t em t at+ on!e e is ele!ted+ t e smug bureau!rats+ tri!k' la&'ers+ overpaid bond salesmen+ and postmodernist professors &ill no longer be !alling t e s ots. 2 s!enario like t at of 9in!lair 8e&is* novel 5t 7an*t >appen >ere ma' t en be pla'ed out. <or on!e su! a strongman takes offi!e+ nobod' !an predi!t & at &ill appen. 5n 1932+ most of t e predi!tions made about & at &ould appen if >indenburg named >itler ! an!ellor &ere &ildl' overoptimisti!. @ne t ing t at is ver' likel' to appen is t at t e gains made in t e past fort' 'ears b' bla!k and bro&n 2meri!ans+ and b' omosexuals+ &ill be &iped out. ;o!ular !ontempt for &omen &ill !ome ba!k into fas ion. E e &ords IniggerI and IkikeI &ill on!e again be eard in t e &orkpla!e. 2ll t e sadism & i! t e a!ademi! 8eft as tried to make una!!ept able to its students &ill !ome flooding ba!k. 2ll t e resentment & i! badl' edu!ated 2meri!ans feel about aving t eir manners di!tated to t em b' !ollege graduates &ill find an outlet. Lut su! a rene&al of sadism &ill not alter t e effe!ts of selfis ness. <or after m' imagined strongman takes ! arge+ e &ill qui!kl' make is pea!e &it t e international superri! + /ust as >itler made is &it t e Derman industrialists. >e &ill invoke t e glorious memor' of t e Dulf Har to provoke militar' adventures & i! &ill generate s ort(term prosperit'. >e &ill be a disaster for t e !ountr' and t e &orld. =eople &ill &onder & ' t ere &as so little resistan!e to is evitable rise. H ere+ t e' &ill ask+ &as t e 2meri!an 8eftR H ' &as it onl' rig tists like Lu! anan & o spoke to t e &orkers about t e
!onsequen!es of globalizationR H ' !ould not t e 8eft ! annel t e mounting rage of t e ne&l' dispossessedR 5t is often said t at &e 2meri!ans+ at t e end of t e t&entiet !entur'+ no longer ave a 8eft. 9in!e nobod' denies t e existen!e of & at 5 ave !alled t e !ultural 8eft+ t is amounts to an admission t at t at 8eft is unable to engage in national politi!s. 5t is not t e sort of 8eft & i! !an be asked to deal &it t e !onsequen!es of globalization. Eo get t e !ountr' to deal &it t ose !onsequen!es+ t e present !ultural 8eft &ould ave to transform itself b' opening relations &it t e residue of t e old reformist 8eft+ and in parti!ular &it t e labor unions. 5t &ould ave to talk mu! more about mone'+ even at t e !ost of talking less about stigma. 5 ave t&o suggestions about o& to effe!t t is transition E e se!ond is t at t e 8eft s ould tr' to mobilize & at remains of our pride in being 2meri!ans. 5t s ould ask t e publi! to !onsider o& t e !ountr' of 8in!oln and H itman mig t be a! ieved. 5n support of m' first suggestion+ let me !ite a passage from Ge&e'Ks 6e!onstru!tion in = ilosop ' in & i! e expresses is exasperation &it t e sort of sterile debate no& going on under t e rubri! of Iindividualism versus !ommunitarianism.I Ge&e' t oug t t at all dis!ussions & i! took t is di! otom' seriousl' suffer from a !ommon defe!t. E e' are all !ommitted to t e logi! of general notions under & i! spe!ifi! situations are to be broug t. H at &e &ant is lig t upon t is or t at group of individuals+ t is or t at !on!rete uman being+ t is or t at spe!ial institution or so!ial arrangement. <or su! a logi! of inquir'+ t e traditionall' a!!epted logi! substitutes dis!ussion of t e meaning of !on!epts and t eir diale!ti!al relations ips &it one anot er. Ge&e' &as rig t to be exasperated b' so!iopoliti!al t eor' !ondu!ted at t is level of abstra!tion. >e &as &rong & en e &ent on to sa' t at as!ending to t is level is t'pi!all' a rig tist maneuver+ one & i! supplies It e apparatus for intelle!tual /ustifi!ations of t e establis ed order. I9 <or su! as!ents are no& more !ommon on t e 8eft t an on t e 6ig t. E e !ontemporar' a!ademi! 8eft seems to t ink t at t e ig er 'our level of abstra!tion+ t e more subversive of t e establis ed order 'ou !an be. E e more s&eeping and novel 'our !on!eptual apparatus+ t e more radi!al 'our !ritique. H en one of toda'Ks a!ademi! leftists sa's t at some topi! as been Iinadequatel' t eorized+I 'ou !an be prett' !ertain t at e or s e is going to drag in eit er p ilosop ' of language+ or 8a!anian ps'! oanal'sis+ or some neo(Aarxist version of e!onomi! determinism. E eorists of t e 8eft t ink t at dissolving politi!al agents into pla's of differential sub/e!tivit'+ or politi!al initiatives into pursuits of 8a!anKs impossible ob/e!t of desire+ elps to subvert t e establis ed order. 9u! subversion+ t e' sa'+ is a!!omplis ed b' Iproblematizing familiar !on!epts.I 6e!ent attempts to subvert so!ial institutions b' problematizing !on!epts ave produ!ed a fe& ver' good books. E e' ave also produ!ed man' t ousands of books & i! represent s! olasti! p ilosop izing at its &orst. E e aut ors of t ese purportedl' IsubversiveI books onestl' believe t at t e' are serving uman libert'. Lut it is almost impossible to !lamber ba!k do&n from t eir books to a level of abstra!tion on & i! one mig t dis!uss t e merits of a la&+ a treat'+ a !andidate+ or a politi!al strateg'. Nven t oug & at t ese aut ors It eorizeI is often somet ing ver' !on!rete and near at and(a !urrent EB s o&+ a media !elebrit'+ a re!ent s!andal(t e' offer t e most abstra!t and barren expla(

. E e first is t at t e 8eft s ould put a moratorium on t eor'. 5t s ould tr' to ki!k its p ilosop ' abit.

E ese futile attempts to p ilosop ize oneKs &a' into politi!al relevan!e are a s'mptom of & at appens & en a 8eft retreats from a!tivism and adopts a spe!tatorial approa! to t e problems of its !ountr'. Gisengagement from pra!ti!e produ!es t eoreti!al allu!inations. E ese result in an intelle!tual environment & i! is+ as Aark Ndmundson sa's in is book Cig tmare on Aain 9treet+ Dot i!. E e !ultural 8eft is aunted b' ubiquitous spe!ters+ t e most frig tening of & i! is !alled Ipo&er.I E is is t e name of & at Ndmundson !alls <ou!aultKs I aunting agen!'+ & i! is ever'& ere and no& ere+ as evanes!ent and insistent as a resour!eful spook.I10
nations imaginable.

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E#"# TF# =OL T EAL, M=AET K LLS ALT SOL8#!EJ ns&i&+&ional a%%roaches are &he onl* <a* &o a)oi- &he colla%se of all $o)e$en&s an- effec&i)el* challenge &he fla<es&a&e %olicies/ 7rossberg. 92 38a&ren!e+ Aorris Gavis =rofessor of 7ommuni!ation 9tudies at t e ?niversit' of Cort 7arolina at 7 apel >ill+ 0He Dotta Det @ut of t is =la!e: =opular 7onservatism and =ostmodern 7ulture1+ page 3%%(3%94 E e demand for moral and ideologi!al purit' often results in t e re/e!tion of an' ierar! ' or organization. E e question( !an t e masterKs tools be used to tear do&n t e masterKs ouseR(ignores bot t e !ontingen!' of t e relation bet&een su! tools and t e masterKs po&er and+ even more importantl'+ t e fa!t t at &here $a* be no o&her &ools a)ailable/ 5nstitutionalization is seen as a repressive impurit' &it in t e bod' politi! rat er t an as a strategi! and ta!ti!al+ even empo&ering+ ne!essit'. 5t sometimes seems as if ever' progressive organization is !ondemned to re!apitulate t e same arguments and !risis+ often leading to t eir !ollapse. "4 <or example+ Ainko&itz as des!ribed a !risis in 2!t ?p over t e need for effi!ien!' and organization+ professionalization and even ierar! '+"" as if t ese in erentl' !ontradi!ted its !ommitment to demo!ra!'. E is is parti!ularl' unfortunate sin!e 2!t ?p+ & atever its limitations+ as proven itself an effe!tive and imaginative politi!al strategist. E e problems are obviousl' magnified &it su!!ess+ as members ip+ finan!es and a!tivities gro&. E is refusal of effi!ient operation and t e moment of organization is intimatel' !onne!ted &it t e 8eftKs appropriation and privileging of t e lo!al 3as t e site of demo!ra!' and resistan!e4. E is is 'et anot er reason & ' stru!tures of allian!e are inadequate+ sin!e t e' often assume t at an effe!tive movement !an be organized and sustained &it out su! stru!turing. E e 8eft needs to re!ognize t e ne!essit' of institutionalization and of s'stems of ierar! '+ &it out falling ba!k into its o&n aut oritarianism. 5t needs to find reasonabl' demo!rati! stru!tures of institutionalization+ even if t e' are impure and !ompromised. The -esire for %+re %oli&ics +n-er$ines a li&an* of $eaningf+l %ossibili&ies a& o)erco$ing -o$ina&ion/ 7rossberg. 92 38a&ren!e+ Aorris Gavis =rofessor of 7ommuni!ation 9tudies at t e ?niversit' of Cort 7arolina at 7 apel >ill+ 0He Dotta Det @ut of t is =la!e: =opular 7onservatism and =ostmodern 7ulture1+ page 39#4 2bove all+ ret inking t e possibilit' of a 8eft politi!s &ill require a ne& model of intelle!tual and politi!al aut orit' & i! does not begin b' !onfidentl' /udging ever' investment+ ever' pra!ti!e+ ever' arti!ulation and ever' individual. 5t &ill ave to measure bot intelle!tual and politi!al progress b' movement &it in t e fragile and !ontradi!tor' realities of peopleKs lives+ desires+ fears and !ommitments+ and not b' some idealized utopia nor b' its o&n t eoreti!al !riteria. 5t &ill offer a moral and progressive politi!s & i! refuses to Ipoli!eI ever'da' life and to define a stru!ture of IproperI and appropriate be aviors and attitudes. 2n impure politi!s-!ertainl'+ &it out t e m't of a perfe!t reflexivit' & i! !an guarantee its aut orit' 3for aut orit' is not an intelle!tual prize4. 2 !ontaminated politi!s+ never inno!ent+ rooted in t e organization of distan!e and densities t roug & i! all of us move toget er and apart+ sometimes esitatingl'+ at ot er times re!klessl'. 2 politi!s t at attempts to move people+ per aps /ust a little at first+ in a different dire!tion. Lut a politi!s nonet eless+ one & i! speaks &it a !ertain aut orit'+ as limited and frail as t e lives of t ose & o speak it. 5t &ill ave to be a politi!s arti!ulated b' and for people & o are inevitabl' impli!ated in t e !ontemporar' !risis of aut orit' and & ose lives ave been s aped b' it. 2 politi!s for and b' people & o live in t e !ontemporar' &orld of popular tastes+ and & o are !aug t in t e dis!iplined mobilization of ever'da' life. 2 politi!s for people & o are never inno!ent and & ose opes are al&a's partl' defined b' t e ver' po&ers and inequalities t e' oppose. 2 modest politi!s t at struggles to effe!t real ! ange+ t at enters into t e often boring ! allenges of strateg' and !ompromise. 2n impure politi!s fig ting for ig stakes.

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E#"# TF# =OL T EAL, M=AET K LLS ALT SOL8#!EJ The cri&iD+e -i)i-es %oli&ics fro$ engage$en& in ci)il socie&*,&his -es&ro*s social change/ 7rossberg. 92 38a&ren!e+ Aorris Gavis =rofessor of 7ommuni!ation 9tudies at t e ?niversit' of Cort 7arolina at 7 apel >ill+ 0He Dotta Det @ut of t is =la!e: =opular 7onservatism and =ostmodern 7ulture1+ page 302(3044 7ivil so!iet' is t at spa!e bet&een t e domain of t e state and e!onomi! apparatuses and t e domain of private 3& i! is not to sa' nonso!ial4 life and experien!e. 5t is ere t at publi! forms of intera!tion and !ooperation are forged+ t at individuals and groups find forms of language and asso!iation b' & i! t e' are able to evaluate and struggle to ! ange t e so!ial order. 5n t e 19"0s+ !ivil so!iet' did not disappear+ but it &as !aug t in a battle. H en it &as losing+ it &as pus ed aside+ overs ado&ed b' t e in!reasingl' safe and sedu!tive preo!!upation
&it an ever'da' life & i! &as not quite t e same as t e domain of private life. Lut o!!asionall' it reappeared to offer possibilities for genuinel' publi! forms of so!ial a!tion and r etori! 3e.g.+ t e !ivil rig ts movement+ o&ever limited its su!!esses4. Lut in t e 19%0s+ bot !ivil so!iet' and private life ave !ollapsed into t e domain of ever'da' life and+ as a result+ t e ver' possibilit' of lines of flig t from ever'da' life into t e publi! arena of state and e!onomi! apparatuses is disappearing. 5t is not /ust t at !apitalism or t e state as !ome to dominate !ivil so!iet' or t at t e languages of !ivil so!iet' 3along

a ver' real sense+ t is ex!lusion of politi!s is itself built upon t e postmodern refusal of taking t ings too seriousl'. 5t is pre!isel' t e sense of elplessness in t e fa!e of politi!al and e!onomi! relations t at /ustifies t e retreat into ever'da' lifeF if 'ou !anKt ! ange t e &orld+ ! ange t e little pie!e of it t at is &it in 'our !onstant rea! . Lut t at rea! must be limited+ not onl' to a spe!ifi! geograp i! region+ but to a spe!ifi! plane as &ell. 5f it is too dangerous to !are about t e &orld+ too diffi!ult to ! ange it+ !are about ever'da' life+ ! ange 'our life(st'le. E us+ for example+ even t e leader of 5C <27E 3an a!tivist group & i! a!tuall' does enter into battle &it e!onomi! institutions4 defines t e
&it t ose of peopleKs private lives4 ave been !ommodified. 6at er+ it is be!oming arder to lo!ate t e differen!es on peopleKs mattering maps. 5t enem' in an't ing but stru!tural terms: IE e enem' is not !apitalism but t e KabusesK of multinational !orporations.I 9 e des!ribes er o&n position as follo&s: IE is isnKt a /ob ... 5tKs a !ommitmentF itKs a

I12 =oliti!al a!tivism is being repla!ed b' I uman a!tivism. ++13 E e distan!e bet&een life(st'le 3as a statement4 and politi!al struggle appears to be disappearing+ so t at t e !ondition of ! ildren living in povert' !an be seen as t e result of t e Ila!k of responsible parenting. I 5t is not t at politi!s is privatized but t at it disappears from t e perspe!tive of t ose moving &it in t e transits of t e ever'da' life. E e pla!e of politi!s is itself transformed into a spa!e & i! is ina!!essible from ever'da' life+ and en!e it remains invisible to t ose &it in ever'da' life. =oliti!s as t e realm of governan!e itself t e issues+ interests+ !omplexities and !ompromises involved in state and e!onomi! poli!'(!annot matter. Eo put it
life(st'le ... t at is based on t e Kp ilosop ' of living simpl'+K t at makes a statement about o& mone' gets distributed in t e &orld. simpl'+ t ere is no qui!ker &a' to end a !onversation or ruin a part' t ese da's t an to start Italking politi!s.I E e &orst t ing to be labeled is a Ipoliti!o+I not merel' be!ause It e'I take t ings so seriousl'+ but be!ause t e' take seriousl' t ings outside t e boundaries of ever'da' life. 5t is in!reasingl' !ommon to ear people sa' t at Iit takes all t eir time and energ' to get t roug t e da'+I as if t at a!!ounted for t eir avoidan!e of politi!s as &ell as of t e depressing information & i! mig t lead t em ba!k into politi!s. 5t is as if+ some o&+ people are too involved in ever'da' life to noti!e t at & i! s apes it.

E ere seems to be no &a' out of ever'da' life+ as if maintaining a life(st'le &as a full(time /ob & i! absorbed all of peopleKs energ' and time. E e ver' pra!ti!es of ever'da' life(t e speed and dire!tion of t eir mobilities(seem to lo!k people into t e dis!iplined mobilizationKs expanding ex!lusivities. 2nd t e onl' sour!e of mobilit' &it in its !ir!uits is !apital itself. 2s 8efebvre !orre!tl' points out+ Ino&ada's ever'da' life as taken t e pla!e of e!onomi!s+I1" not onl' in t e sense t at it is t e ob/e!t & i! po&er struggles to !onstru!t and regulate+ but also t at it as be!ome t e field on & i! struggles are in!reasingl' !onfined.

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E#"# TF# =OL T EAL, M=AET K LLS ALT SOL8#!EJ The* can9& sol)e,$o)e$en&s &ha& -o no& engage %oli&ics are o)er<hel$e- b* larger s&r+c&+res/ 7rossberg. 92 38a&ren!e+ Aorris Gavis =rofessor of 7ommuni!ation 9tudies at t e ?niversit' of Cort 7arolina at 7 apel >ill+ 0He Dotta Det @ut of t is =la!e: =opular 7onservatism and =ostmodern 7ulture1+ pages 3#3(3#44 Lot I!risesI involve a struggle to redefine !ultural aut orit'. <or t e former it is a struggle to reestablis t e politi!al possibilit' of t eor'. <or t e latter it involves t e need to !onstru!t politi!all' effe!tive aut orities+ and to relo!ate t e rig t of intelle!tuals to !laim su! aut orit' &it out reprodu!ing aut oritarian relations. E e intelle!tualsK !risis is a reflexive and rat er self(indulgent struggle against a pessimism & i! t e' ave largel' !reated for t emselves. E e !onflation of t e t&o glosses over t e in!reasing presen!e 3even as popular figures4 of ne& !onservative intelle!tuals+ and t e t reatening impli!ations of t e po&er of a popular ne& !onservatism. E e ne& !onservative allian!e as quite intentionall' addressed t e !risis of aut orit'+ often blaming it on t e 8eftKs intelle!tual !risis of representation 3e. g.+ t e atta!ks on Ipoliti!al !orre!tnessI4+ as t e o!!asion for t eir o&n efforts to set ne& aut orities in pla!e: ne& positions+ ne& !riteria and ne& statements. 8eft intelle!tuals ave !onstru!ted t eir o&n irrelevan!e+ not t roug t eir IelitistI language+ but t roug t eir refusal to find appropriate forms and sites of aut orit'. 2ut orit' is not ne!essaril' aut oritarianF it need not !laim t e privilege of an autonomous+ sovereign and unified speaking sub/e!t. 5n t e fa!e of real istori!al relations of domination and subordination+ politi!al intervention seems to demand+ as part of t e politi!al responsibilit' of t ose empo&ered to speak+ t at t e' speak to(and sometimes for(ot ers. 2nd sometimes t at spee! must address questions about t e relative importan!e of different struggles and t e relative value+ even t e enabling possibilities of+ different stru!tures.

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E#"# TF# =OL T EAL, M=AET K LLS ALT SOL8#!EJ E*nicis$ &o<ar-s %oli&ics %aral*Bes change an- -es&ro*s a+&hen&ic resis&ance beca+se %eo%le ref+se &he recogni&ion of ac&+al change/ 7rossberg. 92 38a&ren!e+ Aorris Gavis =rofessor of 7ommuni!ation 9tudies at t e ?niversit' of Cort 7arolina at 7 apel >ill+ 0He Dotta Det @ut of t is =la!e: =opular 7onservatism and =ostmodern 7ulture1+ pages 2$4(2$$4 E e popularization of t e ne& !onservatism depends on t is re!ognition and on its abilit' to arti!ulate t is !'ni!ism into a parti!ular politi!al relations ip. 5ts various agen!ies use a variet' of strategies+ not to negate or ! allenge t is !'ni!ism+ but to arti!ulate its effe!ts. =opular !onservative intelle!tuals !onstantl' remind Kpeople of o& bad t ings are and blame it all on t e relativism of postmodern !'ni!ism. 2t t e same time+ t e' speak t e language of t at !'ni!ism.21 =opular media 3from t e spate of re!ent Bietnam movies to t e various politi!al exposes4 reins!ribe t e irrationalit'+ not onl' of our politi!al s'stem+ but of t e &orld in & i! it must operate. E e onl' response to su! a !ondition is to redu!e oneKs !laims to understand and intervene intelligentl'+ and retreat into oneKs !ommitments. 2s politi!s be!omes freed from t e !onstraints of meaning and re!onstru!ted &it in t e terms of !ontemporar' !'ni!ism+ as people in!reasingl' a!!ept t eir ignoran!e and t e affe!tive nature of politi!al ! oi!es+ t eir !ommitments !arr' little or no responsibilit' &it t em. Lut t e !'ni!ism never stands alone &it in t e ne& !onservative dis!ourse: it is al&a's infle!ted b' an ironi! glan!e: 6eaganKs Imost
effe!tive publi! gesture is t e umorous s rug of in!ompre ension+ a mannerism t at appears strangel' genuine. Eo see im do it is to laug &it befuddlement at t e mess t e &orldKs in.I im+ to s are is amused

E is ironi! !'ni!ism not onl' divides t e population into t&o groups on eit er side of t e frontier. 5t also divides t at population arti!ulated to t e frontier into t&o groups+ ea! &it a different relation to t e frontier: t ose & o a!tivel' oppose its logi! even as t e' per aps unkno&ingl' live in it+ and t ose & o surrender to t at logi!. E e first group a!tivel' parti!ipates in !onservative politi!al struggles 3embodied in @peration 6es!ue+ for example4+ believing not onl' in t eir o&n affe!tive
!ommitment to spe!ifi! gut issues+ but in t e ideologi!al !orre!tness of t eir positions. E eir passion is dire!ted against t eir o&n pla!e &it in t e frontier as mu! as it is against t e m't i! enemies & i! t e ne& !onservatism as !reated. E e se!ond group is unable or un&illing to struggle against t eir pla!e in t e frontier. E e' ma' find t emselves !aug t in t e dis!ursive trap of t e ne& !onservative arti!ulation of t e frontier. E is involves a reversal b' & i! so!ial !on!ern is translated into selfis ness and spe!ial interests. <or example+ t e press release for a re!ent ad !ampaign &it t e slogan IGo 8ifeI des!ribes itself as refle!ting It e transformation in outlook from t e KmeK generation to t e K&eK generation ... KGo 8ifeK means donKt &aste 'our life. 5tKs about self a!tualizationI 3emp asis added4. 23 E is reversal enables one fan of Leaut' and t e Least+ a t eologian & o defends t e s o& as a !atal'st of ! ange+ to /ustif' er o&n ina!tivit': I5 mig t be able to elp 1" people ... Lut if t e s o& survives+ t ere &ill be millions & o are inspired to go out and elp ot ers. ++24 H at is la!king ere is an' sense of politi!al a!tion aimed at ! anging t e &orld. E is logi! of reversal foregrounds t e futilit' of struggle as a ta!ti! for one of t e most expli!it so!ial and politi!al struggles in re!ent istor'. E

e proliferation of statements suggesting+ not onl' t at t e various movements of t e 19#0s and 19$0s are dead but t at t eir struggles &ere largel' ineffe!tive+ is part of a larger r etori! of elplessness & i! entails t at !ontrol as al&a's to be surrendered to someone else+ & et er !orporate te! nolog' or t e ne& !onservatives. 2t t e same time+ it ignores and even ides t e fa!t t at t ese agents are a!tivel' struggling to gain !ontrol 3e. g.+ t e often noted iron' in t e a!tive struggles of antifeminists & o defend t e !laim t at a &omanKs pla!e is in t e ome & ile t e' are
organizing and !ampaigning4. >ere a!tivit' is used in t e name of passivit'+ and passivit' is !onstru!ted as a ne& form of a!tivism. 9urel' it is not !oin!idental t at a po&erfull' visible r etori! of t e end of feminism as appeared alongside t e explosion of struggles over abortion. =er aps t

e most perni!ious example of t is ironi! reversal is t e r etori! & i! lo!ates peopleKs freedom in t eir abilit' to ! oose to re/e!t ! ange. Co & ere as t is logi! been more a!tivel' deplo'ed
t an in various attempts to rearti!ulate t e tra/e!tor' of t e &omenKs movements. Dood >ousekeeping des!ribes It e leading edge of 2meri!aKs ne&est life(st'leI as belonging to t e &oman & o Iis part of t e po&erful so!ial movement t at resear! ers !all Kneotraditionalism.K ++2" E e !ampaign suggests t at it is a &omanKs rig t to ! oose to ignore t e arguments and gains of t e feminist movement. Aarketer Ganiel Xankelovi! sa's+ I5tKs a !ombination of t e best parts of t e K40s and K"0s(se!urit'+ safet' and famil' values &it t e K#0s and K$0s emp asis on personal freedom of ! oi!e. 5tKs t e first ma/or ! ange in t e basi! &a' &e &ant to organize our so!iet' sin!e t e K#0s. ++2# 5ts best images are per aps Banna H ite and Eamm' <a'e Lakker. 8eslie 9avan !omments: I9impl' insisting t at not ing as reall' ! anged(divor!e+ abuse+ drugs+ et!. not&it standing(does t&o t ings: 5t makes t e traditional virtuous it must deserve its longevit'. 2nd it presents a solution(eternit' is t e ultimate se!urit'.In Gespite t eir real politi!al differen!es+ t e so( !alled ne& postfeminists in ro!k !ulture 3from 9inead @K7onnor to Aadonna4 !an be arti!ulated into a similar logi! of reversal. Cot onl' do t e' offer a vision of aut enti!it' as a marketable image+ but t eir image of Ibe!oming feministI is often defined b' images or simple reversals of a !ounter!ultural traditionalism. ?ltimatel' +

t e impa!t of t is ironi! reversal is t at politi!s be!omes an a!t of investment in a position & ere one does not ave to do an't ing+ & atever oneKs o&n relation is to & at is appening+ o&ever one mig t feel about events. E is goes be'ond image politi!s+ for t e logi!
of images is itself reversed in t e ne& !onservatism. E e !urrent po&er of images in politi!s is not an end in itself. Aood politi!s is not image politi!s+ for t e latter privatizes politi!s+ & ile t e former takes politi!s out of t e realm of publi! debate. @ne !an debate about images+ but o& !an 'ou debate moodsR 9!andal repla!es debates+ and emotional !onfessions be!ome t e dominant form of politi!al self(definition. H '+ after all+ do s!andals arise in !ertain pla!es and not ot ersR 2nd & '+ & en t e' ave appeared+ is it so unpredi!table & et er t e' &ill ave an' !onsequen!esR 5n t e end+ t is is less important t an t e fa!t t at publi! life itself is in!reasingl' !onstituted as t e spa!e of s!andal+ and s!andal is t e ambiguous ma! iner' b' & i! stars are made+ remade and onl' rarel' undone.

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E#"# TF# =OL T EAL, MA=ET "#MOE(AEJ An-. "e$ocrac* A/ @niD+eness K We are on &he brink of aban-oning -e$ocrac* S&oker o4 . =rofessor of =oliti!s+ ?niversit' of Aan! ester 3Derr'+ 0H>X =@85E579 A2EEN69: A2Q5CD GNA@7627X H@6Q1+ 200#+ =g. 4"4 9ome argue t at formal politi!s is not dead+ it is /ust sleeping. 5f t ere is somet ing important at stake+ people &ill return to t e polls and politi!ians. E e Lus (Qerr' ?9 presidential !ampaign in 2004 sa& turnout rise to #0 per !ent+ aving been around t e "0 per !ent mark in t e t ree previous ele!tions. Lut su! a turnout took presidential ele!tion voting onl' to t e levels a! ieved in t e earl' 19#0s. ?p&ard s ifts in voting are to be &el!omed+ but it &ould be &ise not to !on!lude t at all is &ell &it t e state of ?9 politi!s. E e disquiet about politi!s goes mu! deeper t an turnout rates !an reveal. 7ertainl' people !an be mobilized ba!k into voting+ and per aps politi!s in general+"1 but in t e lig t of t e eviden!e presented in t is ! apter it appears t at t ere is a deeper malaise about t e &a' politi!s is bot pra!tised and understood in ne& and establis ed demo!ra!ies. E ere !an be little doubt t at a degree of s!epti!ism about politi!s is ealt '. H en 'ou look ba!k to t e 19"0s and earl' 19#0s in some of t e establis ed demo!ra!ies+ it is diffi!ult not to t ink t at people &ere too deferential or trusting. 5n t e ne&er demo!ra!ies+ it !ould be argued t at people /ust gained a ealt ' disrespe!t for politi!s more qui!kl'. E ese dis!ontents !ould be explained a&a' b' a rise in e&pectations on t e part of !itizens+ and a greater &illingness on t eir part to !omplain. Xet satisfa!tion &it government and politi!s is do&n virtuall' ever'& ere and it is ard to give advi!e to poli!' makers about & at !ould ! ange t is+ be'ond turning ba!k t e !lo!k to a time & en people &ere more deferential+ more polite and less sop isti!ated about politi!s."2 5n s ort+ t ere ma' not be a problem t at !an be addressed+ it is /ust t at !itizens ave be!ome more !riti!al. E ere is+ o&ever+ a dividing bet&een ealt ' s!epti!ism and outrig t non(belief in t e value and effi!a!' of politi!s in demo!rati! governan!e. B/ (ef+sal &o engage in for$al %oli&ics lea-s &o &he colla%se of -e$ocrac* S&oker 04 K =rofessor of =oliti!s+ ?niversit' of Aan! ester 3Derr'+ 0H>X =@85E579 A2EEN69: A2Q5CD GNA@7627X H@6Q1+ 200#+ =g. 4"(4#4 5t is diffi!ult to get a&a' from t e idea t at a general and &idespread disengagement from+ and disen! antment &it + formal politi!s does not sit !omfortabl' &it t e long(term ealt of demo!ra!'. 5ndeed+ a pessimisti! reading of t e degree of disen! antment from formal politi!s is t at it &ill in t e end undermine support for bot demo!ra!' and demo!rati! de!ision making. E at is t e expli!it fear expressed in t e ?C report on 8atin 2meri!a+ referred to earlier+ and plainl' it is a !on!ern in some of t e ot er ne&er sites for demo!rati! governan!e & ere t e !on!ern is+ as =ippa Corris puts it+ t at Ka disillusioned publi! &ill not fun!tion as a ! e!k on aut oritarianismK ."3 5f demo!ra!' is seen to fail+ t en ot er forms of governan!e ma' &in popular endorsement. E is fear is t e one t at stalks man' of t e !ommentaries about t e state of politi!s in demo!ra!ies in advan!ed industrial so!ieties. 6ussell Galton makes t e point ver' !learl': E e politi!al !ulture literature argues t at !itizens must be supportive of t e politi!al s'stem if it is to endure ( and t is seems espe!iall' relevant to demo!rati! politi!s. 5n addition+ demo!ra!' is at least partiall' based on publi! endorsement of t e politi!al de!ision(making pro!essF it is not to be measured primaril' b' t e effi!ien!' of its outputs. Gemo!ra!' is a pro!ess and a set of politi!al expe!tations t at elevate demo!ra!' above ot er politi!al forms. 5n s ort+ t e universal appeal of demo!rati! governan!e t at &as !elebrated in 7 apter 5 mig t prove to be s ort(lived if t e pra!ti!e of demo!ra!' fails to be seen to be making a de!ent go of fulfilling t ose ideals. H at !ould be severel' damaging to demo!ra!' as a set of pro!edures for making !olle!tive de!isions in so!iet' is if people per!eive t at t e formal s'stem of politi!s is no longer &ort engaging &it . E e trouble &it disen! antment at t e beginning of t e t&ent'(first !entur' is t at it mig t be undermining t e pro!esses of formal politi!s t at make demo!ra!' &ork and offering no viable alternative. E e danger is t at people &ill !ome to regard t e formal politi!al s'stem as not &ort bot ering &it and 'et also find t at t e ne& politi!s of !ampaigns and protests ( a minorit' interest+ in an' !ase ( fails to satisf' be!ause it !annot ultimatel' b'(pass t e formal politi!al s'stem or overt ro& its po&er. Le!ause of t ese !on!erns+ it s ould be !lear t at &e s ould not be sanguine about t e s!ale of dis!ontent &it formal demo!rati! politi!s+ and t at &e need to understand in greater dept & at is driving t e disengagement from politi!al a!tivit'.

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E#"# TF# =OL T EAL, MA=ET "#MOE(AEJ E/ "e$ocrac* is essen&ial &o %re)en& $an* scenarios for <ar an- ex&inc&ion/ "ia$on-. 93 38arr' Giamond+ senior fello& at t e >oover 5nstitution+ Ge!ember 199"+ =romoting Gemo!ra!' in t e 1990s+ ttp:))&&i!s.si.edu)subsites)!!pd!)pubs)di)1. tm4 @E>N6 E>6N2E9 E is ardl' ex austs t e lists of t reats to our se!urit' and &ell(being in t e !oming 'ears and de!ades. 5n t e former Xugoslavia nationalist aggression tears at t e stabilit' of Nurope and !ould easil' spread. E e flo& of illegal drugs intensifies t roug in!reasingl' po&erful international !rime s'ndi!ates t at ave made !ommon !ause &it aut oritarian regimes and ave utterl' !orrupted t e institutions of tenuous+ demo!rati! ones. !+clear. che$ical. an- biological <ea%ons con&in+e &o %rolifera&e/ The )er* so+rce of life on #ar&h. &he global ecos*s&e$. a%%ears increasingl* en-angere-/ Mos& of &hese ne< an- +ncon)en&ional &hrea&s &o sec+ri&* are associa&e- <i&h or aggra)a&e- b* &he <eakness or absence of -e$ocrac*. <i&h i&s %ro)isions for legalit'. acco+n&abili&*+ popular sovereignt'+ an- o%enness. 8N99@C9 @< E>N EHNCE5NE> 7NCE?6X E e experien!e of t is !entur' offers important lessons. Eo+n&ries &ha& go)ern &he$sel)es in a &r+l* -e$ocra&ic fashion -o no& go &o <ar <i&h one ano&her. E e' do not aggress against t eir neig bors to aggrandize t emselves or glorif' t eir leaders. "e$ocra&ic go)ern$en&s -o no& e&hnicall* TcleanseT &heir o<n %o%+la&ions. and t e' are mu! less likel' to fa!e et ni! insurgen!'. Gemo!ra!ies do not sponsor terrorism against one anot er. The* -o no& b+il- <ea%ons of $ass -es&r+c&ion &o +se on or to t reaten one ano&her. Gemo!rati! !ountries form more reliable+ open+ and enduring trading partners ips. 5n t e long run t e' offer better and more stable !limates for investment. The* are $ore en)iron$en&all* res%onsible beca+se &he* $+s& ans<er &o &heir o<n ci&iBens. & o organize to protest t e destru!tion of t eir environments. E e' are better bets to onor international treaties sin!e t e' value legal obligations and be!ause t eir openness makes it mu! more diffi!ult
to brea! agreements in se!ret. =re!isel' be!ause+ &it in t eir o&n borders+ t e' respe!t !ompetition+ !ivil liberties+ propert' rig ts+ and t e rule of la&+ demo!ra!ies are t e onl' reliable foundation on & i! a ne& &orld order of international se!urit' and prosperit' !an be built.

Michigan 7 Week Seniors 2009

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E#"# TF# =OL T EAL, M=AET #!8 (O!M!#T The onl* <a* &o a--ress &he en)iron$en& is b* engaging in in&erna&ional %oli&ical refor$s/ 7rossberg. 92 38a&ren!e+ Aorris Gavis =rofessor of 7ommuni!ation 9tudies at t e ?niversit' of Cort 7arolina at 7 apel >ill+ 0He Dotta Det @ut of t is =la!e: =opular 7onservatism and =ostmodern 7ulture1+ page 30"(30#4 <or example+ e!olog' as a politi!al struggle is in!reasingl' displa!ed from questions of national and international poli!' and e!onomi!s to t e immediate mi!ro( abits of ever'da' !onsumerism 3e.g.+ re!'!ling4. Hit out den'ing t e importan!e of ! anging individual !ons!iousness and pra!ti!es+ it is still imperative to re!ognize t at t e e!ologi!al disaster !annot be averted unless individuals !an be mobilized+ on an international s!ale+ to ! ange t e e!onomi! and politi!al stru!tures & i! allo& and even en!ourage t e !ontinued pollution of t e environment and t e destru!tion of its 3not our4 resour!es. Eo sa' t at e!olog' !an be politi!ized onl' &it in t e terms of ever'da' life means t at it is a matter of !olle!tive life( st'les and so!ial a!tions+ but t at it !annot be treated as a question of state+ !orporate and e!onomi! poli!'. 9u! movements seem in!apable of mounting a sustained !ritique of t e for!es & i! impinge upon and organize t e stru!tured &a's people move t roug t eir lives. E us+ t e ver' empo&erment & i! struggles &it in ever'da' life make available !an be arti!ulated into larger stru!tures of disempo&erment & i! !ontinue to subordinate people b' erasing t e possibilit' of politi!al struggles in anot er spa!e. 5t is as if t e feminist insig t t at It e personal is politi!alI ad been magi!all' transformed into t e statement t at t e personal is t e politi!al+ t e onl' politi!al realm t at !an matter.

Michigan 7 Week Seniors 2009 E#"# TF# =OL T EAL @! A@#!#SS 2AE

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The %rogressi)e $o)e$en& is gro<ing. ri-ing on a clear $an-a&e fro$ )o&ers &o en- back<ar- conser)a&i)e %olicies/ =o-es&a. 04 3;o n+ =resident and 7 ief Nxe!utive @ffi!er of t e 7enter for 2meri!an =rogress+ 7 ief of 9taff to =resident 7linton+ 0E e 6ising =rogressive Eide1 9o!ial =oli!' Aagazine+ E e 7enter for 2meri!an =rogress+ Hinter Ndition+ ttp:))&&&.so!ialpoli!'.org)index.p pRid,1%104 E e 200# ele!tions marked t e end of t e grand !onservative experiment and t e beginnings of a resurgent progressive movement at t e national and state levels. 2meri!ans unequivo!all' re/e!ted t e 5raq &ar and t e failures of =resident Lus and is &ar !abinet in prose!uting t is foreign poli!' disaster. 2meri!ans re/e!ted t e redistribution of &ealt to t e top and demanded a return to poli!ies t at &ill elp t e middle !lass and lo& in!ome &orking people get a ead. 2nd voters re/e!ted 'ears of !onservative in!ompeten!e and anti(government vitriol+ most a!utel' felt in t e federal government*s s ameful response to >urri!ane Qatrina. 5n t e end+ 2meri!ans deemed t e existing !onservative regime to be too !orrupt+ too inattentive to uman needs+ and too removed from t e pra!ti!al !onsequen!es of its ideologi!al s! emes to remain in po&er. <or t e first time in re!ent memor'+ t e ele!toral results &ere !ast not in gra'+ but in bla!k and & ite. 2!!ording to t e national >ouse exit polls+ Gemo!rats &on voters in ever' in!ome
!ategor' up to f100+000 per 'ear and &on a ma/orit' of non(!ollege edu!ated voters. E ese voters !onstitute t e !ore of &orking and middle !lass families t at ave abandoned Gemo!rats in re!ent ele!tions. Gemo!rats essentiall' split married voters after losing t is blo! b' a large margin in 2004 and &on nearl' six in 10 of bot moderate and independent voters. Eraditional Gemo!rati! voters . in!luding union ouse olds+ 2fri!an(2meri!ans+ and unmarried &omen . gre& in strengt t is !'!le and Gemo!rats managed to erase all of Lus *s gains among >ispani!s in 2004+ &inning t is important !onstituen!' b' a #9(to(30 per!ent margin. 200# marked t e 'ear &a'&ard 6eagan Gemo!rats returned ome+ t e progressive base gre& stronger and more po&erful+ and Gemo!rats su!!essfull' built a "3 per!ent national ma/orit' !oalition. Cot to be outdone b' t eir national !ounterparts+ Gemo!rats pi!ked up six governors* seats and no& old a 2%(22 state advantage in gubernatorial positions. E e' pi!ked up a total of 323 state legislative seats and !ontrol bot legislative ! ambers in 23 states. Gemo!rats also !ontrol 31 state attorne's general seats and old a four(state advantage in se!retar' of state seats. 5n terms of progressive issues+ efforts to in!rease e!onomi! opportunities for &orkers and prote!t t e po&er

progressives made tremendous gains in t e states as &ell.

2ll six ballot measures to in!rease t e minimum &age passed and onl' one of 1$ ballot measures to limit t e po&er of government &as ena!ted. E e post(Dold&ater)post(6eagan !onservatism as been dis!redited as a governing p ilosop '+ and simultaneousl'+ a ne& progressive movement as seized t e moment to assert itself to restore !redibilit' to a government t at serves t e !ommon good and provides pra!ti!al leaders ip for a nation seeking a better future and a more se!ure &orld. Eo be !lear+ Gemo!rati! !ontrol a!ross t e states and in 7ongress does not ne!essaril' mean t at progressive
of government to serve t e publi! interest &ere extremel' popular t is !'!le. reforms are on t e &a'. @urs is not a partisan effort and &e s ould old t e feet of all leaders to t e fire . Gemo!rati! and 6epubli!an+ alike . in order to move poli!ies t at !an improve people*s lives.

E ere are en!ouraging signs+ o&ever. 2lt oug it re!eived little attention during t e last ele!tion+ t e ne& ma/orit' did put fort a spe!ifi! poli!' agenda of a distin!tl' progressive tone: raising t e minimum &ageF allo&ing t e government to negotiate &it p arma!euti!al
!ompanies for lo&er drug pri!esF raising =ell grants and lo&ering t e !ost of student loansF repla!ing tax breaks for polluting oil !ompanies &it !lean energ' te! nolog'F and implementing t e 9(11 7ommission re!ommendations for se!uring t e omeland and prote!ting us abroad

. 7ongress is a!ting on t ese progressive priorities as &e &rite t is.

Michigan 7 Week Seniors 2009 E#"# TF# =OL T EAL @! A@#!#SS

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The %rogressi)e $o)e$en& is s+ccee-ing an- $+s& $ake big refor$s no< L+x. 09 3Aike+ 7o(founder and 7N@ of =rogressive 9trategies+ 0@bama and t e =rogressive Aovement+1 Aar! 2nd+ ?68: ttp:))&&&. uffingtonpost.!om)mike(lux)obama(and(t e(progressiveYbY1$10%3. tml4 2009 is t e 'ear. E is is t e moment & en progressives+ and 2meri!a+ s o& & et er &e !an live up to t e eroes of our istor'. =rogressives in t e past ave ended slaver' and ;im 7ro&+ given &omen and minorities and t e poor t e rig t to vote+ !reated t e Cational =arks 9'stem+ made dramati! improvements in !leaning up our air and &ater+ and laun! ed transformational programs like 9o!ial 9e!urit'+ Aedi!are+ Aedi!aid and >ead 9tart. Lara!k @bama as boldl' announ!ed is ambition to /oin t ose istori! eroes and !reate anot er Lig 7 ange Aoment. E is 'ear &ill de!ide & et er Gemo!rats in 7ongress and t e progressive movement !an elp im deliver on t at noble ambition. 9eize t e da'. Oba$a is s+ccee-ing in being %rogressi)e K if he fails &he %rogressi)e $o)e$en& <ill be s&+n&e- for ano&her genera&ion/ L+x. 09 3Aike+ 7o(founder and 7N@ of =rogressive 9trategies+ 0@bama and t e =rogressive Aovement+1 Aar! 2nd+ ?68: ttp:))&&&. uffingtonpost.!om)mike(lux)obama(and(t e(progressiveYbY1$10%3. tml4 Lut &e s ould be ver' !lear: @bama as de!ided to !ast is lot &it t ose of us & o ave been fig ting for big+ transformative ! ange. 5f e su!!eeds+ &e su!!eed+ and if e fails+ &e fail ( and &e fail for at least anot er generation+ be!ause no Gemo!rat &ill take big risks again for a ver' long time if @bama loses t is gamble. 5n traveling all over t e !ountr' promoting m' ne& book+ 8he Crogressive ,evolution: Ho- the Best in America Came to Be+ 5 ave been sa'ing t at t e lesson of istor' is t at @bama s ould seize t is opportunit' to t ink ver' big and bold+ to be transformative in pus ing to fundamentall' re(stru!ture our e!onom'+ our energ' s'stem+ our ealt s'stem+ and our ver' politi!s. 2nd t at is exa!tl' & at =resident @bama is doing ( no !redit due to me or an' ot er advi!e given. >e is /ust listening to is o&n remarkable politi!al instin!ts. E oug t e re!ent e!onomi! re!over' bill &as too small and ad its fla&s+ it &as literall' t e biggest single investment in progressive so!ial !apital ( ealt !are+ publi! edu!ation+ green /obs+ infrastru!ture+ universal broadband ( in istor'. >is budget mig t &ell be t e most auda!ious and s&eeping in progressive istor' as &ell ( !ertainl' one t at !ompetes &it 8L;Ks 19#" budget and <G6Ks 193" budget. @bama is fulfilling is promise to t e 2meri!a people in t e 200% !ampaign: big+ bold+ trul' transformative ! ange.

Michigan 7 Week Seniors 2009 E#"# TF# =OL T EAL @! A@#!#SS

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=rogressi)e $o$en&+$ can be b+il& +%on <i&h big &en&. %rac&ical %oli&ics,o%era&ing a& onl* &he le)el of i-eolog* -oo$s &he $o)e$en&/ Wilson. 2000 . Nditor and =ublis er of 5llinois 2!ademe . 2000 3;o n Q. Hilson+ 0>o& t e 8eft !an Hin 2rguments and 5nfluen!e =eople1 p. "( #4 E e trend to&ard progressive attitudes among 2meri!ans as onl' a!!elerated. Eoda'+ 2meri!ans advo!ate gender equalit' on a level unt inkable at t e time 5 &as born+ an era & en airline ste&ardess &ere fired & en t e' turned t irt'+ got married+ or gained fifteen pounds. Eoda'+ ra!ial equalit' is an ideal &idel' a!!epted+ even if t e realit' falls s ort. Eoda'+ equalit' for ga's and lesbians is a politi!all' viable possibilit'+ a remarkable leap for an issue t at &as virtuall' invisible at t e time of t e 9tone&all riot. Eoda'+ environmental a&areness and t e enormous number of people & o re!'!le &ould ave been unimaginable to t e small group of a!tivists & o gat ered to !elebrate t e first Nart Ga'. Nven t oug t e 2meri!an people ave been moving to t e left on a number of important issues+ t e t&o ma/or politi!al parties ave s ifted to t e rig t. E e leftKs revival requires bot t e re!ognition of t e disadvantages it fa!es and a &illingness to fig t against t ose barriers & ile making use of t e advantages t at progressives ave over t e rig t. E e biggest advantage t at t e left olds is t at it doesnKt ave to be afraid of speaking t e trut to t e publi!. 7onservatives+ despite t eir assertions of publi! support+ must al&a's be &ar' of dealing too openl' &it 2meri!ans. E at is+ ever' idea on t e rig t must be !arefull' vetted to ensure t e proper spin !ontrol. Nven Iradi!alI ideas su! as 9teve <orbesKs flat tax must !on!eal t e extent of tax !uts for t e ri! under t e disguise of a universal tax redu!tion. E is book argues t at progressives need to res ape t eir arguments and t eir poli!' proposals to in!rease t eir influen!e over 2meri!an politi!s. 5t also !ontends t at t e left need not sell its soul or /ettison its diverse !onstituents in order to su!!eed. 6at er t an moderation+ 5 urge a ne& kind of ta!ti!al radi!alism. 6at er t an a monolit i! left fo!used on !lass or labor or postmodernism or & atever t e pet ideologi!al pro/e!t of t e da' is+ 5 advo!ate a big(tent left !apable of mobilizing all its people. =rogressives alread' ave t e earts and minds of t e 2meri!an people. H at t e left la!ks is a politi!al movement to translate t at popularit' into politi!al a!tion. H at t e left needs is a r etori!al frame&ork and politi!al plan of a!tion to turn t e progressive potential in 2meri!a into a politi!al for!e. =rogressi)e i-eals are ali)e an- <ell in &he @S/ Wilson. 2000 . Nditor and =ublis er of 5llinois 2!ademe . 2000 3;o n Q. Hilson+ 0>o& t e 8eft !an Hin 2rguments and 5nfluen!e =eople1 p. 2( 44 E e t esis of t is book is t at a ma/orit' of 2meri!ans no& believe 3or !ould easil' be persuaded to believe4 in man' progressive ideas+ even t oug t e po&er of t e progressive movement itself in mainstream politi!s as largel' disintegrated. 5n realit'+ progressives are nearl' ever'& ere+ &it t e possible ex!eption of !orporate boardrooms+ t e H ite >ouse+ and Lob ;ones ?niversit'. =rogressives look like ever'one else+ alt oug t e' appear to be a little more forlorn t an most. ?nfortunatel'+ t e progressive vie&s of t e 2meri!an ma/orit' do not translate into politi!al po&er. =rogressives !annot sit ba!k and a&ait t e rising masses to t rust t e left into po&er. 6at er+ progressives need to give t eir potential supporters a
reason to be politi!all' a!tive and intelle!tuall' interested in t e ideas of t e left. 5f 'ou relied on /ust t e mass media in 2meri!a or on ele!tion results+ 'ou &ould ave to !on!lude t at t is is a !onservative nation. He ear about polls de!laring t at t e 2meri!an people demand lo&er taxes+ smaller government+ t e elimination of &elfare+ t e mass exe!ution of !riminals+ and dail' pledges of allegian!e to t e free market. He see 6epubli!ans in ! arge of 7ongress+ su!!essfull' pursuing t eir goals of putting a prison on ever' !orner and lo&ering taxes on t e &ealt ' in order to allo& e!onomi! prosperit' to tri!kle do&n to ever'one else. 2meri!a must be !onservative. 5t seems logi!al+ doesnKt itR 5f t e 6epubli!ans old politi!al po&er and t e IliberalI Gemo!rats are follo&ing t eir lead+ t is must mean t at t e

. =rogressivism as an ideolog' is a po&erful for!e in t e 2meri!an ps'! e. <rom environmentalism to feminism to ra!ial equalit'+ 2meri!ans believe deepl' in progressive ideas. 2ll t ese ideologies &ere minorit' movements /ust a generation agoF no&+ o&ever+ open opposition to t em is !onsidered politi!al sui!ide in most of t e !ountr'. H '+ t en+ does a progressive politi!al
ma/orit' of 2meri!ans s are t e values of t e rig t. 5f t e IliberalI media agree &it t is assessment+ t en itKs surel' an establis ed fa!t: progressivism as a mass movement is dead in 2meri!a movement seem so unt inkableR 5n a politi!al s'stem !ontrolled b' t e prin!iple of Ione dollar+ one vote+I t ese progressive vie&s lose out to t e more e!onomi!all' po&erful ideas eld b' t e !onservative status quo. E ese progressive ideas end up being ignored b' mega(media !orporations !ontrolled b' t e same &ealt ' for!es. E is book is not an attempt to establis a p ilosop ' of t e left. 8ike an' politi!al movement+ t e left as man' different p ilosop ies driving its members. 8eftists are !on!erned about !ivil rig ts+ ga' rig ts+ &omenKs rig ts+ povert'+ omelessness+ edu!ation+ imprisonment+ empo&erment+ and mu! more. 8eftists believe in liberalism+ Aarxism+ libertarianism+ 7 ristianit'+ and a &ide range of ot er ideologies. Er'ing to find a !ommon intelle!tual ground for ever't ing is impossible+ sin!e not ever' leftist !an possibl' s are t e same belief in ever' issue and in & at t e top priorities s ould be. Nven tr'ing to define & at a leftist is seems to be a diffi!ult task+ espe!iall' sin!e most of t e people & o believe in leftist ideas ma' be un&illing to a!!ept t e label. E is book is+ instead+ a guide for politi!al r etori! and strategi! a!tion+ a sometimes elpful+ sometimes anno'ing attempt to elp t e left over!ome its o&n fla&s and seek out &a's to rea! and !onvin!e a larger audien!e about progressive ideas. E is is a self( elp book for leftists looking for &a's to !onvin!e t e &orld t at

E is book originates from a puzzling paradox: over t e past several de!ades+ 2meri!an politi!al attitudes ave be!ome dramati!all' more progressive. Aovements for !ivil rig ts+ &omenKs equalit'+ and environmental prote!tion+ on!e promoted b' a radi!al fringe+ are no& full' embra!ed b' t e mainstream.
& at t e' believe is !orre!t. E is book is also a road map s o&ing o& t e left !an turn t e publi! debate to issues t e' !an &in.

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E#"# TF# =OL T EAL @! A@#!#SS K #EO!OMJ The block of free>$arke& conser)a&i)es is cr+$bling <i&h &he econo$* K s&r+c&+ralis&s ha)e rallie- behin- Oba$a an- &he lef& Farris an- "a)i-son. 2009 3Carl 9avidson and Ferry Harris are founders of t e Dlobal 9tudies 2sso!iation of Cort 2meri!a. >arris is a =rof of >istor' at GeBr' ?niversit'+ 0@bama: t e Ce& 7ontours of =o&er1 6a!e : 7lass+ ttp:))ra!.sagepub.!om.prox'.lib.umi! .edu)!gi)reprint)"0)4)14 9in!e 19%0+ 6eagan)E at! er free(market !onservatives ave led t e globalist blo! and+ alt oug a!!epting some stru!tural and regulator' !onstraints+ t e' expanded t e &idel' spe!ulative markets t at !ras ed so spe!ta!ularl' in 200%. Ceoliberalism &as aided and abetted b' t e E ird Ha' politi!s of Lill 7linton+ Eon' Llair and ot ers & ose poli!es represented a !entre)rig t allian!e bet&een free(market fundamentalists and stru!turalists. E is allian!e &as sustained during t e Lus administration+ as neoliberals !ontinued to follo& t e p ilosop ' of Ailton <riedman &it blind fait . 2s <riedman su!!in!tl' &rote: P<e& trends !ould so t oroug l' undermine t e ver' foundations of our free so!iet' as t e a!!eptan!e b' !orporate offi!ials of a so!ial responsibilit' ot er t an to make as mu! mone' for t eir sto!k olders as possible.*3 2s t e era*s popular sa'ing &ent+ Pgreed is good*. Lut b' 200$+ as t e dept s of t e e!onomi! !risis be!ame !learl' revealed+ t e stru!turalists began to abandon t eir neoliberal dogma and+ in 200%+ split &it t e !onservatives and rallied to @bama. We are en&ering in&o an econo$ic %rogressi)e era/ McF+gh. 09 3Ai! ael 7+ = G+ <ormer 7 air of t e =oliti!al 9!ien!e Gepartment+ at Q5AN= ?niversit'+ 2lamat'+ Qazakstan. 0E>N 9N7@CG D58GNG 2DN 2CG CNH =6@D6N995BN N62+1 ?68: ttp:))&&&.se!ondprogressiveera.!om)2YCe&Y=rogressiveYNra. tml4 5 t ink &eKre in a reform period t at &ill resemble t e <irst =rogressive Nra 31900(204 and t e Ce& Geal 31932(404 rat er t an t e 19#0s. E is means t at e!onomi! issues &ill be first and foremost rat er t an issues of ra!e+ !ulture+ sexualit' and
gender+ et!.
<or one t is+ t e &orking !lass and middle !lass &ere it ard during t e 9e!ond Dilded 2ge 319$0(20004+ and real &ealt and in!omes stagnated or de!lined for %0` of t e population. E is e'da' of free market !apitalism is a &ell kno&n stor' b' no&+ &it its destru!tion of organized labor+ t e &elfare state+ tax and trade poli!ies t at favored t e &ealt ' and big business. 5t &as bound is reforms+ at least in outline. 2side from t e emergen!' stimulus pa!kages+ publi! &orks and relief+ &e !an alread' see t at e &ants to !reate a greener e!onom'+ and expand and improve edu!ational opportunities+ and provide ealt !are for t ose & o ave none. E is also opens up t e t orn' area to end in a !ras and it did((a ver' big one. 9o did t e <irst Dilded 2ge and t e Ce& Nra of t e 1920s. He !an alread' see & ere @bama is going &it of de fa!to segregation in ousing and edu!ation+ & i! as not been addressed sin!e t e 19$0s+ but t e fa!t is t at bla!ks and >ispani!s still get t e s ort end of t e sti!k disproportionatel' & en it !omes to /obs+ ousing+ ealt !are and edu!ation. @bama is understandabl' !autious about t is+ re!alling all too &ell & at appened & en t ese issues exploded in t e 19#0s+ but e is also !lever enoug to realize t at toda'+ as in t e 1930s+ enoug & ite voters are urting e!onomi!all' so t at ma/or federal initiatives and reforms &ill ave as mu! opposition as t e' mig t ot er&ise. 5nternationall'+ &e !an also expe!t ma/or ! anges in t e 5A< and Horld Lank+ &it t e developing !ountries aving more of a sa' in o& t ese organizations are run. 5 regard t is as an absolutel' essential reform+ t at t e role of Hall 9treet and private !apital be redu!ed in t e &orld+ and t at t e poorer !ountries are no longer sub/e!ted to free market austerit' programs. 5Kd go so far as to sa' t at if t is s'stem isnKt ! anged+ t en t ere &ill be no re!over' from t is depression. 5 also suspe!t t at t e ?9 is going to ave a mu! less militaristi! and interventionist foreign poli!'+ not least be!ause &e simpl' !anKt afford it an' more. HeKre no longer t e Dreat 9uperpo&er of 194"+ and trut be told &e avenKt been for a long time. HeKre /ust going to ave to a!!ept t e realit' of a diminis ed and diminis ing &orld role+ and learn o& to better

2t t e ver' least+ private !apital is going to be a lot more regulated and !ontrolled t an it as been in t e last 30 'ears+ and some banks and industries ma' sta' under de fa!to state !ontrol for quite some time((at least until t e next !onservative !'!le in 10 or 12 'ears. He mig t ave a more mixed e!onom' rat er t an pure free market !apitalism+ more along t e lines of so!ial demo!ra!ies like 7anada or Hestern Nurope.
&ork and pla' &ell &it ot ers.

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E#"# TF# =OL T EAL @! A@#!#SS K =(O7(#SS 8#S !OW Oba$a has coalesce- a large liberal block &ha& has &he $o$en&+$ &o %ass %rogressi)e legisla&ion Farris an- "a)i-son. 09 3Carl 9avidson and Ferry Harris are founders of t e Dlobal 9tudies 2sso!iation of Cort 2meri!a. >arris is a =rof of >istor' at GeBr' ?niversit'+ 0@bama: t e Ce& 7ontours of =o&er1 6a!e : 7lass+ ttp:))ra!.sagepub.!om.prox'.lib.umi! .edu)!gi)reprint)"0)4)14 E e egemoni! blo! in formation around @bama is broad and deep+ !ontaining t e possibilit' of a generational s ift in politi!al orientation. Ceoliberal ideolog' as reigned over !apitalism for t irt' 'ears but t e !risis as stripped bare its dominant narrative. 2ll !an no& see t at t e emperor as no !lot es+ and even free(market guru 2lan Dreenspan admitted to Pa state of s o!ked disbelief*." E e elite of t e ne& blo! are neo(Qe'nesian globalists attempting to redefine liberalism for t e t&ent'(first !entur' in bot ideolog' and poli!'. E is unites broad se!tors of t e !apitalist !lass. E e !entre as s ifted left+ !reating ne& dialogue and ne& debates. Dovernment /ob programmes+ infrastru!ture spending+ expanded federal support to states+ greater environmental investments and regulation of finan!ial markets ave suddenl' all be!ome mainstream. 5deas rarel' spoken of b' ma/or ne&s outlets no& appear on magazine !overs and dail' talk s o&s. 2 ne& Ce& Geal as be!ome t e !ommon expe!tation of millions. @bama made su! ideas t e !entre of is !ampaign+ a ig road strateg' of !apital investments in produ!tion+ /ob !reation+ green te! nolog'+ ealt !are for all and a &it dra&al from 5raq. =oliti!all'+ @bama is a pragmati! !entrist &it out t e ideologi!al sensibilities of t e 19#0s+ 'et is vision is often driven b' some !ore progressive values. 5t &as t ese values+ more t an is politi!s+ & i! dre& massive support from minorities+ 'out and unions. Oba$a has genera&e- a ne< genera&ion of %rogressi)es consis&ing of $ore *o+&h an- $inori&ies Farris an- "a)i-son. 09 3Carl 9avidson and Ferry Harris are founders of t e Dlobal 9tudies 2sso!iation of Cort 2meri!a. >arris is a =rof of >istor' at GeBr' ?niversit'+ 0@bama: t e Ce& 7ontours of =o&er1 6a!e : 7lass+ ttp:))ra!.sagepub.!om.prox'.lib.umi! .edu)!gi)reprint)"0)4)14 E e most important and a!tive se!tors of t e base are anti(&ar 'out + minorities and union a!tivists. 5n terms of voting results+ 9$ per !entof Lla!ks+ #$ per !ent of 8atinos+ #3 per !ent of 2sian 2meri!ans and 4" per !ent of & ites !ast t eir ballots for @bama. 2mong & ite union members+ #$ per !ent voted for @bama.1% 2mong 'out + @bama took #" per !ent of t e vote. E ere &as also an upsurge in voting patterns+ Lla!ks voted in greater numbers b' 14 per !ent+ 8atinos b' 2" per !ent and 'oung people aged bet&een 1% and 29 b' 2" per !ent. E is pla'ed a ke' role in &inning over s&ing states and giving @bama is vi!tor'. 5n Ce& Aexi!o+ t e 'out and 8atino vote surged b' $1 per !entF in @ io+ 2$ per !ent more Lla!ks !ame outF in Cort 7arolina+ t e Lla!k vote in!reased b' 23
per !ent and t e 'out vote b' 33 per !entF and+ in <lorida+ Lla!ks voted in greater numbers b' 19 per !ent and 8atinos b' 2$ per !ent. E e large number of & ite voters+ espe!iall' union voters+ is also signifi!ant. E e ele!tion in 19%2 of >arold Has ington+ t e progressive Lla!k ma'or of 7 i!ago+ is an interesting marker for !omparison. Has ington &as a life(long Gemo!rat but took on t e 6i! ard Gale' ma! ine in an ele!tion & ere ra!e be!ame an explosive element. 8ike @bama+ Has ington*s ele!tion &as t e impetus for massive ne& voter registration and parti!ipation. Geserted and opposed b' t e regular Gemo!rati! =art' ma! ine+ e put a volunteer arm' of 10+000 on to t e streets of 7 i!ago. Has ington &on t&o ele!tions but &it never more t an 1% per !ent of t e & ite vote+ and 7 i!ago &as

. E e fa!t t at @bama !ould !arr' 4" per !ent of t e & ite vote nationall' indi!ates a signifi!ant ! ange in 2meri!an politi!al !ulture. @bama &as able to a&aken+ organise and mobilise an in!redible for!e of & at gre& into an arm' of more t an 3 million volunteers. @bama started &it is lo!al !oalition in 7 i!ago+ t e Lla!k !ommunit'+ P8akefront liberals* from t e !orporate &orld+ and a se!tor of labour+ mainl' servi!e &orkers. @bama*s initial attra!tion &as is earl' opposition to t e 5raq &ar and is parti!ipation in t&o mass rallies against it+ one before it began and ot er after t e &ar &as under &a'. E is bot a&akened and inspired a large la'er of 'oung anti(&ar a!tivists+ some a!tive for t e first time+ to /oin is effort to &in t e 5o&a primar'. E e fa!t t at e ad publi!l' opposed t e &ar before it ad begun distinguis ed im from >illar' 7linton and ;o n Nd&ards+ is ! ief opponents. E ese 'oung people also !ontributed to t e innovative nature of is organisation+ !ombining grassroots !ommunit' organising &it t e mass !ommuni!ation tools of internet(based so!ial net&orking and fundraising. Aan' ad some earlier experien!e organising and parti!ipating in t e Horld 9o!ial <orum in 2tlanta 200$+ & i! energised nearl' 10+000 'oung a!tivists. E ose & o !ame for&ard put t eir energ' to good use. >ad @bama not &on 5o&a+ it is not likel' &e &ould be talking about im toda'.
a union to&n

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E#"# TF# =OL T EAL @! A@#!#SS K T(#!"S =rogressi)is$ is gro<ing,-e$ogra%hic &ren-s %ro)e/ Teixeira 9 36u'+ Bisiting <ello& at t e Lrookings 5nstitution+ & ere e !o(dire!ted a /oint Lrookings(2meri!an Nnterprise 5nstitute pro/e!t on politi!al demograp ' and geograp '+ 0Ce& =rogressive 2meri!a+1 Aar! 11+ ?68: ttp:))&&&.ameri!anprogress.org)issues)2009)03)progressiveYameri!a. tml4 H at appenedR >o& did !onservatives do so &ell in one ele!tion but progressives so &ell in t e ot erR E e ans&er: 5n t ose intervening 20 'ears+ a ne& progressive 2meri!a as emerged &it a ne& demograp '+ a ne& geograp '+ and a ne& agenda. E e ne& demograp ' refers to t e arra' of gro&ing demograp i! groups t at ave aligned t emselves &it progressives and s&elled t eir ranks. E e ne& geograp ' refers to t e !lose relations ip bet&een pro( progressive politi!al s ifts and d'nami! gro&t areas a!ross t e !ountr'+ parti!ularl' &it in !ontested states. E e ne& agenda is t e !urrent tilt of t e publi! to&ard progressive ideas and poli!' priorities-a tilt t at is being a!!entuated b' t e strong support for t is agenda among gro&ing demograp i! groups. 2ll t is adds up to big ! ange t at is res aping our !ountr' in a fundamentall' progressive dire!tion. 7onsider some of t e !omponents of t e ne& demograp '. Let&een 19%% and 200%+ t e minorit' s are of voters in presidential ele!tions as risen b' 11 per!entage points+ & ile t e s are of in!reasingl' progressive & ite !ollege graduate voters as risen b' four points. Lut t e s are of & ite(&orking !lass voters+ & o ave remained !onservative in t eir orientation+ as plummeted b' 1" points. E+l&+ral -isagree$en&s are ge&&ing o)er<hel$e- b* a na&ion><i-e %rogressi)e i-eolog*/ Teixeira 9 36u'+ Bisiting <ello& at t e Lrookings 5nstitution+ & ere e !o(dire!ted a /oint Lrookings(2meri!an Nnterprise 5nstitute pro/e!t on politi!al demograp ' and geograp '+ 0Ce& =rogressive 2meri!a+1 Aar! 11+ ?68: ttp:))&&&.ameri!anprogress.org)issues)2009)03)progressiveYameri!a. tml4 2s t e !ountr' is gro&ing and ! anging+ so are t e 2meri!an people*s vie&s on & at government !an and s ould do. E is is s aping a ne& progressive agenda to go &it t e ne& demograp ' and t e ne& geograp '+ starting &it t e likel' diminution in t e !ulture &ars t at ave bedeviled 2meri!an politi!s for so long. H ile !ultural disagreements remain+ t eir politi!al influen!e is being undermined b' t e rise of t e Aillennial Deneration+ in!reasing religious and famil' diversit' and t e de!line of t e !ulturall' !onservative & ite &orking !lass. 7ulture &ars issues+ & i! so !onspi!uousl' failed to move man' voters in t e last !ouple of ele!tions+ &ill lose even more for!e in 'ears to !ome. 5nstead+ &e &ill see more attention paid to issues su! as ealt !are+ energ' and edu!ation+ & ere government as a positive role to pla'. E e publi! olds distin!tl' progressive vie&s in ea! of t ese areas+ ba!king ealt !are for all+ a transition to !lean energ' and building a 21st(!entur' edu!ation s'stem+ in!luding a ma/or infusion of resour!es to improve kindergarten(t roug (12t grade edu!ation and !ollege a!!ess. 5n ea! of t ese areas+ ongoing demograp i! ! ange is likel' to intensif' t e publi!*s !ommitment to progressive goals+ sin!e rising demograp i! groups tend to be espe!iall' supportive. 5n t e pages t at follo&+ t is report &ill do!ument t e emergen!e and !urrent state of t is ne& progressive 2meri!a t roug intensive anal'sis of ele!tion+ demograp i! and publi! opinion data. 2s &e &ill demonstrate+ at t is point in our istor'+ progressive arguments !ombined &it t e !ontinuing demograp i! and geograp i! ! anges are tilting our !ountr' in a progressive dire!tion-trends s ould take 2meri!a do&n a ver' different road t an as been traveled in t e last eig t 'ears. 2 ne& progressive 2meri!a is on t e rise.

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E#"# TF# =OL T EAL @! A@#!#SS K T(#!"S =rogressi)is$ is gro<ing in all $aHor areas of gro<&h in &he @/S/ Teixeira. 09 36u'+ Bisiting <ello& at t e Lrookings 5nstitution+ & ere e !o(dire!ted a /oint Lrookings(2meri!an Nnterprise 5nstitute pro/e!t on politi!al demograp ' and geograp '+ 0Ce& =rogressive 2meri!a+1 Aar! 11+ ?68: ttp:))&&&.ameri!anprogress.org)issues)2009)03)progressiveYameri!a. tml4 Deograp i!al trends are equall' as stunning. =rogressive gains sin!e 19%% ave been eavil' !on!entrated in not /ust t e urbanized !ores of large metropolitan areas+ but also t e gro&ing suburbs around t em. Nven in exurbia+ progressives ave made big gains. =rogressive gains &ere onl' minimal in t e smallest metropolitan areas and in small to&n rural 2meri!a and onl' in t e most isolated+ least populated rural !ounties did progressives a!tuall' lose ground. Hit in states+ t ere is a persistent pattern of strong pro(progressive s ifts in fast(gro&ing d'nami! metropolitan areas. 5n 7olorado+ @bama in t e 200% presidential ele!tion improved over 9en. ;o n Qerr'*s margin in 2004 b' 14 points in t e fast(gro&ing Genver metropolitan area and made is greatest gains in t e super fast(gro&ing Genver suburbs. 9en. Qerr' lost 7olorado to =resident Lus F @bama defeated 9en. ;o n A!7ain. 2nd so it &ent a!ross ke' s&ing states. 5n Cevada+ @bama !arried t e 8as Begas metro b' 19 points+ & i! &as 14 points better t an Qerr' in 2004 and 3" points better t an Ai! ael Gukakis in 19%%. 5n <lorida+ @bama !arried t e @rlando metropolitan area in t e 5(4 !orridor b' nine points+ a 1$(point gain over 2004 and an amazing 4% point s ift sin!e 19%%. 5n Birginia+ @bama dominated t e state*s nort ern suburbs a!ross t e =otoma! 6iver from t e Gistri!t of 7olumbia b' 19 points-1" points better t an Qerr' and 3% points better t an Gukakis. E ere are man' ot er examples+ but t e stor' is t e same from state to state: & ere 2meri!a is gro&ing+ progressives are gaining strengt and gaining it fast. !a&ional s+r)e* %ro)es &ha& A$ericans are %rogressi)e/ Teixeira. 09 36u'+ Bisiting <ello& at t e Lrookings 5nstitution+ & ere e !o(dire!ted a /oint Lrookings(2meri!an Nnterprise 5nstitute pro/e!t on politi!al demograp ' and geograp '+ 0Xes Birginia+ E ere is a Ce& =rogressive 2meri!a: 2 6epl' to ;a' 7ost+1 Aar! 1%+ ?68: ttp:))&&&.real!learpoliti!s.!om)arti!les)2009)03)'esYvirginiaYt ereYisYaYne&Ypr. tml4 Lut it is also true t at our ne& surve' does in fa!t s o& t at t e publi! leans progressive. E e surve' in!luded a batter' of 40 statements+ ea! of & i! &as a positive expression of eit er a !onservative or progressive argument+ &it an even mix bet&een !onservative and progressive arguments. @verall+ 2meri!ans expressed more agreement &it t e progressive t an !onservative arguments. 5ndeed+ six of t e top seven statements in terms of level of agreement+ and eig t of t e top ten+ &ere progressive statements. E ese statements in!luded su! items as t e need for government investment in edu!ation+ infrastru!ture and s!ien!e+ t e need for a transition to !lean energ'+ t e need for government regulation and t e need to provide finan!ial support for t e poor+ t e si!k and t e elderl'+ t e need for a positive image around t e &orld to promote our national se!urit'+ t e idea t at our se!urit' is best promoted b' diploma!'+ allian!es and international institutions and t e idea t at 2meri!a s ould pla' a leading role in addressing !limate ! ange t roug redu!ed emissions and international agreements. E is is not to sa' t at !onservative arguments do not retain !onsiderable strengt ((t e' do+ as t e report !learl' and+ 5 t ink+ ver' onestl' do!uments. Lut t e net of progressive and !onservative vie&s at t is point favors progressives.

Michigan 7 Week Seniors 2009 E#"# TF# =OL T EAL' AT EF( ST A! ( 7FT The Ehris&ian righ& is -eclining/

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Teixeira. 09 36u'+ Bisiting <ello& at t e Lrookings 5nstitution+ & ere e !o(dire!ted a /oint Lrookings(2meri!an Nnterprise 5nstitute pro/e!t on politi!al demograp ' and geograp '+ 0Ce& =rogressive 2meri!a+1 Aar! 11+ ?68: ttp:))&&&.ameri!anprogress.org)issues)2009)03)progressiveYameri!a. tml4 @t er demograp i! trends a!!entuate progressives* advantage. E e Aillennial Deneration-t ose born bet&een19$% and 2000-gave @bama stunning ## per!ent(to(32 per!ent margin in 200%. E is generation is adding 4." million adults to t e voting pool ever' 'ear. @r !onsider professionals+ & o are no& t e most progressive o!!upational group and in!rease t at support &it ever' ele!tion. <ast(gro&t segments among &omen like singles and t e !ollege(edu!ated favor progressives over !onservatives b' large margins. 2nd even as progressives improve t eir performan!e among t e traditional fait ful+ t e gro&t of religious diversit'-espe!iall' rapid in!reases among t e unaffiliated-favors progressives. L' t e ele!tion of 201#+ it is likel' t at t e ?nited 9tates &ill no longer be a ma/orit' & ite 7 ristian nation.

Michigan 7 Week Seniors 2009 E#"# TF# =OL T EAL' AT =#(FO(MA!E# Fai&h in %erfor$ance is naU)e an- fails &o resha%e %oli&ics

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(o&hberg C 8alen&e 97 Aoll' 2nne 6ot enberg+ 2sso!. =rof Nnglis M Eulane and ;osep Balente+ 2ssis. =rof Nnglis M ?. 5ll+ <eb. 199$+ 7ollege 8iterature+ v. 2"+ 5ss. 1+ 0=erformative ! i!+1 p pq E e re!ent vogue for performativit'+ parti!ularl' in gender and post!olonial studies+ suggests t at t e desire for politi!al poten!' as displa!ed t e demand for !riti!al rigor.l Le!ause ;udit Lutler bears t e primar' responsibilit' for investing performativit' &it its present !riti!al !a! et+ er &ork furnis es a !onvenient site for exposing t e fla&ed t eoreti!al formulations and t e ollo& politi!al !laims advan!ed under t e banner of performativit'. He ave undertaken t is !ritique not solel' in t e interests of !larif'ing performativit'Ks t eoreti!al stakes: in our vie&+ t e appropriation of performativit' for purposes to & i! it is !ompletel' unsuited as misdire!ted !ru!ial a!tivist energies+ not onl' squandering resour!es but even endangering t ose naive enoug to a!t on performativit'Ks 3false4 politi!al promise. 5t is reasonable to expe!t an' pra!ti!al politi!al dis!ourse to essa' an anal'sis & i! links its proposed a!tions &it t eir supposed effe!ts+ appraising t e fruits of spe!ifi! politi!al labors before t eir seeds are so&n. @nl' b' means of su! an assessment !an an' politi!al program persuade us to undertake some tasks and forgo ot ers. Lutler pro!eeds a!!ordingl': IE e task is not & et er to repeat+ but o& to repeat or+ indeed to repeat+ and t roug a radi!al proliferation of gender+ to displa!e t e ver' gender norms t at enable repetition itselfK 3Dender Erouble 14%4. >ere+ at t e !on!lusion to Dender Erouble+ s e makes good er promise t at sub/e!ts !an intervene meaningfull'+ politi!all'+ in t e signifi!ation s'stem & i! iterativel' !onstitutes t em. E e politi!al ItaskI &e fa!e requires t at &e ! oose I o& to repeatI gender norms in su! a &a' as to displa!e t em. 2!!ording to er final ! apter+ IE e =oliti!s of =arod'+I t e &a' to displa!e gender norms is t roug t e deliberate performan!e of drag as gender parod'.

Michigan 7 Week Seniors 2009 E#"# TF# =OL T EAL' AT (#FO(MS FA L

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A cri&ical $ass of s$all refor$s is &he onl* <a* &ha& a ra-ical lef& agen-a is %ossible/ Wilson. 2000 . Nditor and =ublis er of 5llinois 2!ademe . 2000 3;o n Q. Hilson+ 0>o& t e 8eft !an Hin 2rguments and 5nfluen!e =eople1 p. 121( 1234 =rogressives need to be pragmati! in order to be po&erful. >o&ever+ pragmatism s ouldnKt be !onfused &it 7lintonian !entrism and t e abandonment of all substan!e. =ragmatists ave prin!iples+ too. E e differen!e bet&een a pragmati! progressive and a foolis one is t e &illingness to pi!k t e rig t fig ts and fig t in t e rig t &a' to a!!omplis t ese same goals. E e !urrent failure of progressivism in 2meri!a is due to t e stru!ture of 2meri!an politi!s and media+ not be!ause of a &rong turn t at t e movement took some& ere along t e &a'. H at t e left needs is not a IbetterI ideolog' but a ta!ti!al adaptation to t e obsta!les it fa!es in t e !ontemporar' politi!al s!ene. 2 pragmati! progressivism does not sa!rifi!e its ideals but simpl' !ommuni!ates t em better to t e larger publi!. E e &ords &e use s ape o& people respond to our ideas. 5t*s tempting to offer t e standard advi!e t at progressives s ould present t eir ideas in t e most palatable form. Lut palatable to & omR E e media managers and pedestrian pundits & o are t e intelle!tual gatekeepers &onKt a!!ept t ese ideas. L' t e time progressives transform t eir ideas into t e politi!al bab' food ne!essar' for in!lusion in !urrent debates+ it barel' seems to be &ort t e effort. 8eftists need to seize t e dominant politi!al r etori!+ even t oug it ma' be !onservative in its goals+ and turn it in a progressive dire!tion. =rogressives need to use t e antitax ideolog' to demand tax !uts for t e poor. =rogressives need to use t e antigovernment and anti&elfare ideolog' to demand t e end of !orporate &elfare. =rogressives need to translate ever' important issue into t e language t at is permissible in t e mainstream. 9omet ing &ill inevitabl' be lost in t e translation. Lut t e politi!al soul underl'ing t ese progressive ideas !an be preserved and broug t to t e publi!Ks attention. E e left does not need to abandon its progressive vie&s in order to be popular. E e left onl' needs to abandon some of its failed strategies and be!ome as savv' as t e !onservatives are at manipulating t e press and t e politi!ians. E e language of progressive needs to be!ome more mainstream+ but t e ideas must remain radi!al. 5n an age of soulless politi!ians and spineless ideologies+ t e left as t e virtue of integrit'. ?ntil progressives be!ome less self(satisfied &it t e kno&ledge t at t e'Kre rig t and more determined to !onvin!e ever'one else of t is fa!t+ opportunities for politi!al ! ange &ill not be fort !oming. =rogressives ave also been ampered b' a revolutionar' instin!t among some leftist groups. 2!!ording to some left &ingers+ in!remental progress is &ort less(((t at is+ not ing s ort of a radi!al ! ange in government &ill mean an't ing to t em. 5ndeed+ for most radi!al left &ingers+ liberal reforms are a t reat to t e movement+ sin!e t e' redu!e t e desire for more extreme ! anges. H at t e revolutionaries fail to realize is t at progressive a! ievements !an build on one anot er. 5f an't ing approa! ing a politi!al revolution a!tuall' appens in 2meri!a+ it &ill be due to a su!!ession of popular+ effe!tive+ progressive reforms. 2 popular uprising in t e ballot box is possible onl' if t e left !an ! ange its politi!al assumptions about smaller+ spe!ifi! issues.

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AT EO#(E O!' F(## MA(K#TS S #EO>"#ST(@ET O! Marke&s canno& sa)e &he en)iron$en&,in-+s&r* lies abo+& global <ar$ing are a %ri$e exa$%le of &heir social irres%onsibili&*/ Ma*er. 07 3Gon+ =rofessor of Aanagement+ @akland ?niversit'+ 07orporate 7itizens ip and Erust&ort ' 7apitalism: 7o!reating a Aore =ea!eful =lanet1+ 2meri!an Luisness 8a& ;ournal+ 44 2m. Lus. 8.;. 23$+ lexis4 T*2"2U L. 7orporations ;ust <ollo& t e 6ules of t e Dame 2not er mental frame&ork t at does not fit &it !urrent realit' is t at !orporations are effe!tivel' governed or restrained from antiso!ial a!tions b' t e publi! se!tor and are sub/e!t to rules of t e game set b' publi! aut orit'. 7onsider Ailton <riedmanKs guidan!e on !orporate so!ial responsibilit'+ 43 & i! assumes t at profit maximization takes pla!e &it in a set of meaningful rules and boundaries set b' publi! governan!e . ?sing
t is model+ some business et i!ists ave suggested t at manufa!turers ave a dut' to obe' & atever la&s 7ongress or international institutions pres!ribe and to not resist t e publi! !ontrol of private

. E e !urrent realit'+ o&ever+ is t at !orporations ma' 3singl' or in !on!ert &it ot ers4: 314 &ork to undermine poli!' making b' misleading t e publi!+ 324 avoid a!!ountabilit' under t e rule of la&+ and 334 lobb' for ne& or !ontinued subsidies and anti!ompetitive advantages from politi!ians. 1. Aisleading t e =ubli! E e self(interest of !orporations is evident b' t eir use of media to mislead t e publi! on one of t e most !riti!al issues of our time((global &arming.
enterprise. 44 E e idea is t at+ b' obe'ing t ese rules+ !orporations fulfill t eir basi! so!ial responsibilities

Free $arke&s can ne)er sol)e beca+se en)iron$en&al effec&s -o no& ha)e -irec&. i$$e-ia&e. %ro%or&iona&e cos&s/ Fos&er. 02 3;o n Lellam'+ =rofessor of environmental so!iolog'+ Aarxism+ and politi!al e!onom' at t e ?niversit' of @regon+ +cology Against Capitalism$ p. 3#(3$4 E e prin!ipal ! ara!teristi! of !apitalism+ & i! t is & ole market(utopian notion of t e !apitalization of nature ignores+ is t at it is a s'stem of self(expanding value in & i! a!!umulation of e!onomi! surplus . rooted in exploitation and given t e for!e of la& b' !ompetition . must o!!ur on an ever(larger s!ale. 2t t e same time+ t is represents a narro& form of expansion t at dissolves all qualitative
relations into quantitative ones+ and spe!ifi!all' in monetar' or ex! ange value terms. E e general formula for !apital 3generalized !ommodit' produ!tion4+ as Aarx explained+ is one of A(7(A+ & ereb' mone' is ex! anged for a !ommodit' 3or t e means of produ!ing a !ommodit'4+ & i! is t en sold again for mone'+ but &it a profit. E is expresses !apitalism*s overriding goal: t e expansion of mone'

E e !easeless expansion t at ! ara!terizes su! a s'stem is obvious. 2s t e great !onservative e!onomist ;osep 9! umpeter remarked+ 0!apitalism is a pro!ess+ stationar' !apitalism &ould be a contradictio in ad ecto.* N!onomists+ even environmental e!onomists+ rarel' deal &it t e question of t e effe!t t at an in!reasing e!onomi! s!ale resulting from !easeless e!onomi! gro&t &ill ave on t e environment. Aost
values 3A*4+ not t e satisfa!tion of uman needs. E e produ!tion of !ommodities 374 is simpl' t e means to t at end. e!onomists treat t e e!onom' as if it &ere suspended in spa!e+ not as a subs'stem &it in a larger biosp ere. Aoreover+ man' e!onomists & o re!ognize t e importan!e of natural !apital nevert eless adopt & at is kno&n as t e 0&eak sustainabilit' 'pot esis.1 2!!ording to t is 'pot esis+ in!reases in t e value of uman !apital full' !ompensate for an' losses in natural !apital+ su! as forests+ fis sto!ks+ and petroleum reserves. 9ome e!ologi!al e!onomists+ o&ever+ ave !ountered &it & at is kno&n as t e 0strong sustainabilit' 'pot esis+1 a!!ording to & i! uman made !apital !annot al&a's substitute for natural !apital+ sin!e t ere is su! a t ing as !riti!al natural !apital+ t at is+ natural !apital ne!essar' for t e maintenan!e of t e biosp ere. Eropi!al forests+ for example+ are ome to about alf t e &orld*s

E e self(regulating market s'stem as no &a' of valuing nature on su! a s!ale. Aoreover+ t ere is an in erent !onfli!t bet&een t e maintenan!e of e!os'stems and t e biosp ere and t e kind of rapid+ unbounded e!onomi! gro&t t at !apitalism represents. 5ndeed+ sustainable development envisioned as t e 0pri!ing of t e planet1 3to refer to t e title of one re!ent book4 is little more t an e!onomi! imperialism vis(](vis nature. 5t tends to avoid t&o !ore issues: & et er all environmental !osts !an a!tuall' be internalized &it in t e !ontext of a profit(making e!onom'+ and o& t e internalization of su! !osts !an a!!ount for t e effe!ts of in!reasing e!onomi! s!ale &it in a limited biosop ere. E e diffi!ult' of internalizing all external !osts be!omes obvious & en one !onsiders & at it &ould take to internalize t e !osts to so!iet' and t e planet of t e automobile(petroleum !omplex alone+ & i! is degrading our !ities+ t e planetar' atmosp ere+ and uman life itself. 5ndeed+ as t e great e!ologi!al e!onomist Q. Hilliam Qapp on!e remarked+ 07apitalism must be regarded as t e e!onom' of unpaid !osts.1 E e full internalization of so!ial and environmental !osts &it in t e stru!ture of t e private market is unt inkable.
spe!ies and are !riti!al in regulating t e planet*s !limate. @n!e t is is admitted+ t oug + t e dream of redu!ing all of nature to natural !apital to be in!orporated &it in t e market fades quite qui!kl'.

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AT EO#(E O!' F(## MA(K#TS S #EO>"#ST(@ET O! Free $arke&s canno& sol)e &he en)iron$en&/ 0I & is a $*&h &ha& cor%ora&ions are $ore efficien& &han go)ern$en&s. an- 2I acco+n&ing %rac&ices ne)er $eas+re &he f+ll ex&en& of en)iron$en&al -a$age/ Ma*er. 07 3Gon+ =rofessor of Aanagement+ @akland ?niversit'+ 07orporate 7itizens ip and Erust&ort ' 7apitalism: 7o!reating a Aore =ea!eful =lanet1+ 2meri!an Lusiness 8a& ;ournal+ 44 2m. Lus. 8.;. 23$+ lexis4 7onventional &isdom tells us t at free markets and private enterprise bring about t e greatest good t roug optimall' effi!ient use of resour!es. E e realit' is t at !orporations !an be as bureau!rati! as an' government agen!' &it ne& effi!ien!ies and innovations being strangled &it in t e organization. 7orporate initiatives to !onserve energ' and materials and to invest in !ost(effe!tive and e!o(friendl' produ!ts and effi!ien!ies are not a given for man' organizationsF & ile t ere are some emerging !orporate exemplars t at &ill be dis!ussed in =art 555+ t e' are ex!eptional. @n a T*2##U more basi! level+ !laims t at t e free market !reates greater &ealt and &ell(being globall' &ill invariabl' rel' on Dross Gomesti! =rodu!t 3DG=4 numbers t at s'stemati!all' ex!lude t e a!!elerating dra&(do&n of natural !apital. H at is natural !apitalR Catural !apital is breat able air+ drinkable &ater+ fertile soil+ &etlands and !oastal dunes t at mediate storm surges+ aquifers t at provide a sour!e for irrigating ot er&ise unprodu!tive land+ rivers and lakes t at provide re!reation and fis ing+ and o!eans t at ave provided sustenan!e and a &a' of life for people over t e !enturies. 5n our e!onomi! !al!ulations of o& &e are doing in terms of &ealt !reation+ t e no&(a!!elerating diminution of natural !apital as been left out of t e equation. Le!ause t e market paradigm re!ognizes onl' pri!ed ex! anges+ it !annot !ompute ot er !onditions about life+ ealt + or appiness. E us+ & ile &e are((b' standard e!onomi! measures((getting ri! er+ t e natural environment t at &e bequeat to su!!essive generations is getting poorer. 99 E e &ell(do!umented eviden!e in!ludes a 1+000(times(normal rate of spe!ies extin!tion+ intensif'ing pollution of t e air and &ater+ !ollapse of fis eries and forest sto!ks a!ross !ontinents+ in!reasing !limate destabilization+ and irreversible depletion of nonrene&able subsoil assets and energ' sour!es. 100 E e surge in dra&ing do&n natural !apital is a looming azard to uman life and !ontinuing !ommer!e+ but is !urrentl' not !omputed in market a!!ountings or for national DG=s. 101 N!onomists re!ognize t at t e market allo!ates resour!es and distributes &ealt among parti!ipants. H ile agreeing &it t is+
Gouglas Q'sar also do!uments t e re!ent emergen!e of t e !on!ept of s!ale from e!ologi!al e!onomists su! as 6obert 7ostanza+ >erman Gal'+ and Qennet Loulding 3& ose !lassi! essa' on I9pa!es ip Nart I 102 ! allenged prevailing ma!roe!onomi! assumptions4. 2!!ording to Q'sar+ T*2#$U N!ologi!al e!onomists argue t at a t ird fun!tion served b' t e market as been overlooked b' !onventional anal'sis: moderation of t e s!ale of uman e!onomi! a!tivit' vis(a(vis t e e!ologi!al superstru!ture upon & i! all life and a!tivit' depends 3s!ale4. H ile allo!ation determines t e purposes for & i! resour!es are used+ s!ale determines t e rate and amounts of resour!es t at are used. 103 Loulding noted t at mainstream e!onomists vie&ed t e e!onom' as an open s'stem of pure ex! ange value &it externalized environmental !onsequen!es+ 'et t eir vie& failed to note t at t e s!ale of externalities &as be!oming massive and on a publi! s!ale. >e summarized t e mainstream perspe!tive as I!o&bo' e!onomi!s+I in & i! natural frontiers are seen as limitless+ resour!es as inex austible+ and &astes as inno!uous. 104 Diven t e assumptions of an open s'stem &it infinite reservoirs of natural !apital and no limits on t e effluvia t at !an be left be ind+ infinite gro&t is an entirel' rational and un!ontroversial goal. Xet+ in fa!t+ t e eart is a !losed s'stem+ & i! requires t at !onsideration be given to t e sto!k of natural resour!es and t e undesirable b'produ!ts of !ertain kinds of produ!tion and !onsumption. @n a spa!es ip+ 'ou !an not ignore t e b'produ!ts of produ!tion and !onsumption+ and 'ou must+ of ne!essit'+ pa' attention to t e sto!k of resour!es t at 'ou !arried on board. 8ike&ise on I9pa!es ip Nart +I umans must be !on!erned &it t e !apa!it' of t e global ve i!le to support t eir needs and a!!ommodate t eir &astes. IE e essential measure of t e su!!ess of t e e!onom' is not produ!tion and !onsumption at all+ but t e nature+ extent+ qualit'+ and !omplexit' of t e total !apital sto!k+ in!luding

" 9 ould &e simpl' let posterit' &orr' about 9pa!es ip Nart R Loulding seems to t ink &e umans ave enoug Iet i!al m'opiaI to do /ust t at. Lut doing so fails to meet t e moral ! allenge of our time+ & et er as individuals+ !orporations+ or nations. Conet eless+ mainstream e!onomi!s does not 3a!!ording to Q'sar4 pa' parti!ular attention to LouldingKs ideas. 2long &it mainstream e!onomi!s+ &e prefer to live for toda'+ defining progress in standard e!onomi! terms of gro&ing T*2#%U DG=. 10# 5n s ort+ &e are onl' being effi!ient in narro& terms+ &it out referen!e to our larger environmental !ontext.
in t is t e state of t e uman bodies and minds in!luded in t e s'stem.I 10

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Oil co$%anies are &he %erfec& exa$%le of irres%onsible cor%ora&ions,&he* s%onsor global )iolence an- are -es&ro*ing &he en)iron$en&/ Ma*er. 07 3Gon+ =rofessor of Aanagement+ @akland ?niversit'+ 07orporate 7itizens ip and Erust&ort ' 7apitalism: 7o!reating a Aore =ea!eful =lanet1+ 2meri!an Luisness 8a& ;ournal+ 44 2m. Lus. 8.;. 23$+ lexis4 Au! of t e above is no longer true. E e vision of 2meri!an businesses spreading t e lig t of pea!e and prosperit' and free trade t roug out t e &orld is at best a partial trut . E ere are ex!eptional businesses+ some of t em 2meri!an+ & ose a!tions abroad !reate respe!t for t e rule of la&F respe!t for t e environmentF and fairness for emplo'ees of differing et ni!it'+ ra!e+ and gender and & o refuse to bribe !orrupt publi! offi!ials. 20 9till+ more t an a fe& !orporations are engaged in t e kinds of a!tivities t at !ontribute to global &arming and lobb' against regulator' solutions of an' kindF 21 ot ers are profiting andsomel' in t e pro/e!tion T*24#U of 2meri!an militar' po&er and ma' also do business &it regimes t at sponsor terrorism. 23 <urt er+ 2meri!aKs addi!tion to oil !onsumption((b' far t e most !onspi!uous in t e &orld((is supported b' a foreign poli!' t at as re!entl' been
des!ribed as Iimperial.I 24 E e ne& great game for 7entral 2sian oil is on+ 2" and militar' ventures to &in t at game are likel' to !ause !onsiderable e!ologi!al damage domesti!all' and T*24$U globall'. 2# Aoreover+ t e &aste and fraud t at is attendant on t is use of taxpa'er resour!es no longer seems sub/e!t to demo!rati! !ontrols. 2$ 9ome observers ave begun to &onder & et er t e ?nited 9tates is tending to&ard a kind of !ron' !apitalism t at breeds fraud+ &aste+ se!re!'+ and de!eit rat er t an t e kind of open and !ompetitive !apitalism t at e!onomi!s texts !elebrate. 2% 2. Dovernments((Cot

E e familiar sa'ing t at I&ar is good for businessI !ertainl' olds true for some businesses. =.H. 9inger s o&s o& ?.9. !orporations are no& vital sub!ontra!tors in t e outsour!ing of &ar from t e publi! se!tor. 29 E e militar'(industrial !omplex 30 and t e gro&t in exports from t e arms T*24%U industr' in t e ?nited 9tates and Nurope ave proven quite profitable for some businesses. H ile some !orporations ma' find lu!rative opportunities in &ar and !onfli!t+ ot ers ma' be tempted to en!ourage !onfli!t as a normal !ourse of business. Eo aid !ommer!ial interests+ ?.9. foreign poli!' as often made use of !overt a!tion and militar' for!e+ be!oming e!onomized over su!!essive administrations+ & et er 6epubli!an or Gemo!rat. 31 7orporations ma' also a!tivel' !ollaborate &it regimes t at are oppressive+ antidemo!rati!+ and militaril' aggressive. 32 9ome ?.9. and Nuropean multinational enterprises 3ACNs4 ave been !riti!ized over t e past fifteen 'ears for all'ing t emselves &it militar' regimes in foreign lands. 5n Cigeria+ for example+ 9 ell and 7 evron ave allegedl' en!ouraged or allo&ed t e lo!al militar' to arass and even kill lo!al people & o protest environmental and ot er problems t at t e !ompanies ave !aused. 33 2!tivists !riti!ized Go& in t e 19#0s for providing napalm to t e
7orporations((Aake Har ?.9. militar'+ /ust as >alliburton is !riti!ized toda' for its no(bid !ontra!ts in a &ar t at man' !onsider to be un/ust. 34 7orporate T*249U moral agnosti!ism is fairl' normal in t is regard. 3" H en san!tions &ere put on so(!alled rogue nations 38ib'a and 5raq in t e 1990s4+ ?.9. and Nuropean ?nion 3N?4 san!tions &ere not altoget er effe!tive in preventing ?.9. and N? !ompanies from profiting b' dealing &it t ese and ot er nations & o resisted t e rule of la&. Nven no&+ 7 inese and 6ussian !ommer!ial interests t reaten to veto an' ars ?nited Cations san!tions against 5ran for developing its !apa!it' to make nu!lear bombs. 3# T*2"0U E e extent of t e !apture of publi! poli!' b' private interests as apparentl' in!reased during t e Lus 55 administration. @ne example is t e 7arl'le Droup+ a group of fourteen investment funds t at leads all ot er private equit' funds in annual returns. 5ts modus operandi is to use former government offi!ials for t eir a!!ess to government bureau!ra!ies to get government !ontra!ts+ espe!iall' in defense pro!urement. 3$ 7 almers ;o nson as said+ ITHUeKre reall' talking about a s'stemati! merging of t e private and publi! se!tors to t e point & ere t e distin!tions get lost.I 3% H ile 7arl'leKs a!tivities are legal+ t e' raise legitimate questions about t e !onfusion of private interests and publi! expenditures and poli!ies. T*2"1U E e extraordinar' degree to & i! publi! and private se!tors are merging as been evident in no(bid !ontra!ts for 5raq+ t e a!tivities of >alliburton+ and (( a!!ording to Qevin = illips in 2meri!an G'nast'((in t e publi! and private lives of t e Lus famil'. 5t is tempting to dismiss = illipsK indi!tment of t e Lus famil' as blatantl' politi!al+ but t e pattern of t ree generations of Lus men using politi!al offi!e for private gain is &ell do!umented and disturbing. 39 5f bot Lus 5 and Lus 55 are oil men+ t en it seems fair to assume t at t e sear! for oil as profit s aped t eir perspe!tives+ and it s ould not be surprising t at oil !ompanies &ould use politi!al a!!ess to elp forge !riti!al ?.9. energ' poli!ies. 40 ?.9. foreign poli!' and national se!urit' are inextri!abl' linked to t e prima!' of oil supplies and oil !ompanies. 41 Xet !ontinuing

. Nuropean and ?.9. dependen!e on oil((and t e predi!ted rise of 7 inese and 5ndian dependen!e on fossil fuels((is t e ma!ro(e!onomi! stor' of our time and t e biggest resour!e struggle of all. E e still(gro&ing use of oil and fossil fuels poses dangers to a stable global environment and t us to a predi!table so!ial and natural environment for doing business. ?.9. foreign poli!ies en!ouraged b' t e business se!tor(( oriented to&ard ensuring supplies of oil((provide t e perfe!t re!ipe for global !onfli!t and global e!ologi!al degradation.
do&n t e fossil(fuel energ' pat seriousl' undermines t e environment and t e future se!urit' of global !apitalism

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Fra$e<orks &ha& ra-icall* en-orse liber&* allo< for nihilis&ic cri$inali&* beca+se e)er*one has &he righ& &o -efine &heir o<n )al+es/ Sch<arB. 59 3=eter+ &riter+ /ournalist+ and original editor for E e 5ntelle!tual 2!tivist+ E e 5ntelle!tual 2!tivist Bol. B+ Co.1+ 2'n 6and 5nstitute+ 0@n Aoral 9an!tions1+ ttp:))&&&.a'nrand.org)site)=age9erverR pagename,ob/e!tivismYsan!tions4 59 85LN6E2652C59A 2C NB58 G@7E65CNR Xes+ if evil is t e irrational and t e destru!tive. 8ibertarianism belligerentl' re/e!ts t e ver' need for an' /ustifi!ation for its belief in somet ing !alled Ilibert'.I 5t repudiates t e need for an' intelle!tual foundation to explain & ' Ilibert'I is desirable and & at Ilibert'I means. 2n'one from a ga'(rig ts a!tivist to a !riminal !ounterfeiter to an overt anar! ist !an de!lare t at e is merel' asserting is Ilibert'I-and no 8ibertarian 3even t ose & o appen to disagree4 !an ob/e!tivel' refute is definition. 9ub/e!tivism+ amoralism and anar! ism are not merel' present in !ertain I&ingsI of t e 8ibertarian movementF t e' are integral to it. 5n t e absen!e of an' intelle!tual frame&ork+ t e zealous advo!a!' of Ilibert'I !an represent onl' t e mindless quest to eliminate all restraints on uman be avior-politi!al+ moral+ metap 'si!al. 2nd sin!e realit' is t e fundamental IrestraintI upon menKs a!tions+ it is ni ilism-t e desire to obliterate realit'-t at is t e ver' essen!e of 8ibertarianism. 5f t e 8ibertarian movement &ere ever to !ome to po&er+ &idespread deat &ould be t e !onsequen!e.

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AT EO#(E O!' MA(K#T !E#!T 8#S SOL8# TF# M=AET Marke& incen&i)es are bes& a& %ro&ec&ing &he en)iron$en&. a)oi-ing &heir i$%ac& of cen&raliBe- %lanning. an%ro&ec&ing liber&*/ Scarle&&. 97 38'nn+ Bi!e =resident of 6esear! at t e 6eason <oundation. ;anuar'. Cational 7enter for =oli!' 2nal'sis+ 0Ce& Nnvironmentalism+1 &&&.n!pa.org)studies)s201)s201. tmlie4 Eraditional environmentalism assumes t at in important &a's people do not matter ( our values donKt matterF our level of kno&ledge doesnKt matterF t e in!entives &e fa!e donKt matter. E us it assumes environmental problems !an be anal'zed and solved &it out referen!e to individuals and !ir!umstan!es. 5n !ontrast+ t e ne& environmentalism re!ognizes t at in order to solve !omplex problems+ &e must ave an understanding of t e values+ kno&ledge and in!entives of t e affe!ted parties. Balues. Eraditional environmentalism assumes t at environmental goals are sa!rosan!t+ t at t e' are more fundamental t an ot er values. <rom t is it follo&s t at individualsK values are
unimportant in formulating so!ial goals. Lut environmental values are not sa!rosan!t. E e' are part of t e man' values t at define t e qualit' of uman life. Eime and resour!e !onstraints require t at &e make ! oi!es among t ese values. Qno&ledge. Eraditional environmentalism assumes t at planners or ot er experts possess t e kno&ledge most relevant to environmental problem solving and ignores t e

t most information relevant to understanding and solving environmental problems varies b' time+ pla!e and !ir!umstan!e. Le!ause environmental problems are !omplex and realit' is d'nami!+ most of t e relevant information is dispersed and not readil' amenable to !entralized gat ering or use. 5n!entives. Eraditional environmentalism fails to appre!iate t e importan!e of in!entives in guiding uman a!tion. Ce& environmentalism fo!uses on de!ision(making pro!esses and strives to !reate in!entives for people to obtain t e information to be!ome good environmental ste&ards. Le!ause of its respe!t for in!entives+ ne& environmentalism vie&s t e marketpla!e as an important me! anism for problem solving. 5t re!ognizes t at &ealt !reation+ appropriatel' arnessed+ is an engine of environmental progress.
value of lo!ation(spe!ifi! kno&ledge and t e pra!ti!al experien!e of ordinar' !itizens. Ce& environmentalism re!ognizes t a

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#cono$ic s&a&is$ has s&ea-il* increase-,&heir arg+$en& is ri-ic+lo+sl* non>+niD+e/ Machan 93 3Eibor+ >oover resear! fello&+ professor emeritus of p ilosop ' at 2uburn ?niversit'+ and olds t e 6. 7. >oiles Nndo&ed 7 air in Lusiness Nt i!s and <ree Nnterprise at t e 2rg'ros 9! ool of Lusiness : N!onomi!s+ 0=rivate 6ig ts and =ubli! 5llusions14 E roug out t e last several de!ades e!onomists ave amassed eviden!e about t e effe!ts of government regulation of peopleKs e!onomi! affairs.1 E e general !onsensus among s! olars is t at+ b' t e standard e!onomi! measure of !ost and benefit+ t e governmentKs regulator' poli!ies and a!tions

ave failed. 5n a number of studies it as also been s o&n t at t e avo&ed goals of regulation ave not+ in fa!t+ been a! ieved b' regulation. 7omparative anal'ses s o&+ on t e ot er and+ t at in t e absen!e of regulation t ose same goals are being attained.2 Gespite t e &ide a!!eptan!e of t e met ods emplo'ed in t ese studies+ t e results ave not produ!ed t e deregulation t at t e' &ould appear to &arrant.K 5n vie& of t e la!k of signifi!ant progress in t at dire!tion+ some ave advan!ed t eories aiming to explain & ' deregulation is not pro!eeding. >enr' D. Aanne+ for example+ originall' projposed t at bureau!rats &ere a!ting in pursuit of t eir self(interest+ & i! resulted+ in part+ in t eir refusal to institute deregulation measures. >aving revised is t eor' in some measure+ Aanne later proposed t at+ in addition to t e bureau!rats+ t e managers of regulated firms &ere a!ting in pursuit of t eir self(interest too.4 9o bot regulators and t e regulated+ a!ting from e!onomi! self(interest+ promoted regulator' a!tivities in t e fa!e of eviden!e s o&ing t e failure of t ese in terms of !osts and benefits or of t eir avo&ed purpose. 9everal ot er e!onomists and legal t eorists ave also fo!used on t e issue of & ' deregulation is not pro!eeding." 5 &ill not attempt ere to summarize t e findings or t eories of t ese e!onomists but merel' note t at t e met od of anal'sis emplo'ed b' t em dra&s eavil' from t e standard Ie!onomi! manI model of uman be avior. <or example+ =rojfessor Ailton <riedman uses t is model in a re!ent nonte! ni!al arti!le & en e !laims t at Iever' individual serves is o&n private interest E e great 9aints of istor' ave served t eir Kprivate interestK /ust as t e most mone'(grubbing miser as served is interest. E e private interest is & atever it is t at drives an individual.I# 5 &ant+

+ t ere is no serious move to&ard deregulation. @ne of t e laments expressed about t e so(!alled 6eagan 6evolution b' friends of t e market e!onom' is t at despite its r etori! it did not involve signifi!ant !utba!ks in t e stateKs involvement in t e e!onom'+ nor in t e tax and regulator' burdens s ouldered b' t e 2meri!an people. Nven in t e fa!e of substantial privatization+ t e absolute level of e!onomi! statism as !onstantl' in!reased.
instead of s!rutinizing t e e!onomi! approa! to t e problem of regulation and deregulation+ to propose a different explanation for & '+ despite t e e!onomistsK findings

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Acce%&ing &o&al in-i)i-+alis$ <ill -e)as&a&e socie&*,coercion is H+s&ifie-/ 7als&on+03 Hilliam+ ")23=rofessor of 7ivi! Nngagement and t e Gire!tor of t e 5nstitute for = ilosop ' and =ubli! =oli!' at t e ?niversit' of Aar'land. 0E e 7ase for ?niversal 9ervi!e+1 ttp:))&&&.ppionline.org)do!uments)2meriLook)2meriLookY7 ap#.pdf. 7lassi!al liberals &ill ob/e!t+ of !ourse+ on t e grounds t at it &ould be an abuse of state po&er to move to&ard mandator' universal servi!e. 5t is &ort noting+ o&ever+ t at one of t e ig priests of !lassi!al liberalism disagrees. 7onsider t e opening senten!es of 7 apter
4 of ;o n 9tuart Aill*s @n 8ibert'+ titled 0@f t e 8imits to t e 2ut orit' of 9o!iet' @ver t e 5ndividual1: 0TNUver'one & o re!eives t e prote!tion of so!iet' o&es a return for t e benefit+ and t e fa!t of living in so!iet' renders it indispensable t at ea! s ould be bound to observe a !ertain line of !ondu!t to&ard t e rest. E is !ondu!t !onsists+ first+ in not in/uring t e interests of one anot er+ or rat er !ertain interests & i! + eit er b' express legal provision or b' ta!it understanding+ oug t to be !onsidered as rig tsF and se!ondl'+ in ea! person*s bearing is s are 3to be fixed on some equitable prin!iple4 of t e labors and sa!rifi!es in!urred for defending t e so!iet' or its members from in/ur' and molestation. E ese !onditions so!iet' is /ustified in enfor!ing at all !osts to t ose & o endeavor to &it old fulfillment.1 5t is not diffi!ult to re!ast Aill*s position in t e vo!abular' of !on temporar' liberal politi!al t oug t. Legin &it a !on!eption of so!iet' as a s'stem of !ooperation for mutual advantage. 9o!iet' is legitimate & en t e !riterion of mutual advantage is broadl' satisfied 3versus+ sa'+ a situation in & i! t e government or some group s'stemati!all' !oer!es some for t e sake of ot ers4. H en so!iet' meets t e standard of broad legitima!'+ each ci&iBen has a -+&* &o -o his or her fair

share &o s+s&ain &he social arrange$en&s fro$ <hich all benefi&. an- socie&* is H+s&ifie- in +sing i&s coerci)e %o<er <hen necessar* &o ens+re &ha& &his -+&* is %erfor$e- . E at legitimate so!ietal !oer!ion ma' in!lude mandator' militar' servi!e in t e nation*s defense+ as &ell as ot er required a!tivities t at promote broad !ivi! goals. Lrookings s! olar 6obert 8itan as re!entl' suggested t at !itizens s ould be 0required to give somet ing to t eir !ountr' in ex! ange for t e full range of rig ts to & i! !itizens ip entitles t em.1 6esponding in a quasi(libertarian vein+ Lru!e 7 apman+ founder and president of t e
9eattle(based Gis!over' 5nstitute+ ! arges t at t is proposal as 0no moral /ustifi!ation.1 8inking rig ts to !on!rete responsibilities+ e sa's+ is 0!ontrar' to t e purposes for & i! Tt e ?nited 9tatesU &as founded and as endured.1 E is simpl' isnKt true. <or example+ t e rig t to re!eive D5 Lill benefits is linked to t e fulfillment of militar' duties. Nven t e rig t to vote 3and & at !ould be more !entral to !itizens ip t an t atR4 rests on being la&(abidingF man' states disenfran! ise !onvi!ted felons during t eir period of in!ar!eration and probation. 2s 8itan points out + t is linkage

is ardl' t'ranni!al moralism. 6at er+ it refle!ts t e bedro!k realit' t at 0t e rig ts &e en/o' are not free1 and t at it takes real &ork-!ontribu tions from !itizens-to sustain !onstitutional institutions. f each in-i)i-+al9s o<nershi% of his or her o<n labor is seen as absol+&e. &hen socie&* as s+ch beco$es i$%ossible. beca+se no %oli&ical co$$+ni&* can o%era&e <i&ho+& reso+rces. <hich +l&i$a&el* $+s& co$e fro$ so$eone. =ubli! ! oi!e t eor' predi!ts+ and all of uman istor' proves+ t at no %oli&* of an* siBe can s+bsis& &hro+gh )ol+n&ar* con&rib+&ions aloneF t e inevitable free riders must be !ompelled b' la&+ ba!ked b' for!e+ to do t eir part.

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Eo$$+ni&arian e&hics are &he onl* <a* &o ens+re h+$an s+r)i)al/ =+nBo. 74 Bin!ent+ =rofessor of Nt i!s at 9t. 8ouis ?niversit'. 0E e Aodern 9tate and t e 9ear! for 7ommunit'+1 5nternational = ilosop i!al _uarterl'+ 1#.3+ p. 32. Qropotkin soug t to invalidate a 9o!ial Gar&inist reading of uman natureKs pen! ant for narro& self(interest and violent struggle. >e appealed to et ologi!al eviden!e from t e stud' of animal life+ toget er &it a refle!tive+ istori!al anal'sis of uman so!iet'. >e did t is to prove t e naturalness of uman beings establis ing a de!ent !ommunit' &it out needing state !oer!ion. 9o!iabilit' and mutual support+ e maintained+ rat er t an !utt roat !ompetition+ are !entral elements in t e evolutionar' struggle for uman survival. >uman life b' its ver' nature is not narro&l' individualisti! or brutall' !ompetitive. A co$$+ni&arian e&hics is a na&+ral -e)ice for ins+ring $ankin-Rs biological s+r)i)al . >is et i!s of !ommunit' affirm o& su! a s'stem promotes /usti!e and freedom. 9o!iabilit' 3as an evolutionar' Iinstin!tI developed in t e lives of umans and animals4 !onstitutes a biologi!al root of moral be avior. 6eason+ subsequentl'+ developed t e Iinstin!tI of so!iabilit' to lead to /usti!e and maganimit' as !orollaries for
de!ent survival.

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Sec+ring life is a %rereD+isi&e &o -e&er$ining )al+e/ Sch<ar&B. 02 38isa+ Aedi!al Nt i!s+ ttp:))&&&.fles andbones.!om)readingroom)pdf)399.pdf4 E e se!ond assertion made b' supporters of t e qualit' of life as a !riterion for de!ision( making is !losel' related to t e first+ but &it an added dimension. E is assertion suggests t at t e determination of t e value of t e qualit' of a given life is a sub/e!tive determi(nation to be made b' t e person experien!ing t at life. E e important addition ere is t at t e de!ision is a personal one t at+ ideall'+ oug t not to be made externall' b' anot er person but internall' b' t e individual involved. Qat erine 8e&is made t is de!ision for erself based on a !omparison bet&een t&o stages of er life. 9o did ;ames Lrad'. Hit out t is element+ de!isions based on qualit' of life !riteria la!k salient information and t e patients !on!erned !annot give informed !onsent. =atients must be given t e opportunit' to de!ide for t emselves & et er t e' t ink t eir lives are &ort living or not. Eo ignore or overlook patients* /udgement in t is matter is to violate t eir autonom' and t eir freedom to de!ide for t emselves on t e basis of relevant informa( tion about t eir future+ and !omparative !on( sideration of t eir past. 2s t e deontologi!al position puts it so &ell+ to do so is to violate t e imperative t at &e must treat persons as rational and as ends in t emselves. 5t is important to remember t e sub/e!tiv(it' assertion in t is !ontext+ so as to emp a(size t at t e /udgement made about t e value of a life oug t to be made onl' b' t e person !on!erned and not b' ot ers.

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Free $arke&s res+l& in -e)as&a&ing %o)er&*/ Trainer 93 3Eed Erainer is a professor at t e 9! ool of 9o!ial Hork+ ?niversit' of Hales+ 0E e 7onserver 9o!iet'F 2lternatives for sustainabilit'1+ pg.44 @nl' one(fift of t e &orldKs people live affluentl'. >alf of t em average a per !apita in!ome one(sixtiet of t ose of t e ri! !ountries and more t an 1 billion people live in desperate povert'. Geprivation takes t e lives of more t an 40+000 E ird Horld ! ildren ever' da'. KE ere are enoug resour!es to provide adequatel' for all. E e appallingl' un/ust distributions exist be!ause t e ri! !ountries take most of t e &orldKs resour!e output b' bidding more for it in t e global marketpla!e. E e' also take man' of t e t ings produ!ed b' E ird Horld land+ labor and !apital+ & i! s ould be produ!ing t ings for impoveris ed E ird Horld people. Aan' plantation and mine &orkers are ungr'+ & ile &e en/o' t e luxuries t e' produ!e. E e appalling distributions and deprivation ar! dire!t !onsequen!es of t e &a' t e global market e!onom' fun!tions. 2 market s'stem &ill al&a's enable t e relativel' ri! to take & at t e' &ant and to deprive t ose in most need.

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AT E@OMO' !#7AT 8# =#AE# K#J TO =OS T 8# =#AE# =re)en&ing n+clear <ar is &he absol+&e %rereD+isi&e &o %osi&i)e %eace/ Folk. 75 =rofessor of 6eligious and =ea!e 9tudies at Let an' 7ollege+ $% T;err'+ 0=ea!e Ndu!ations . =ea!e 9tudies : Eo&ards an 5ntegrated 2pproa! +1 =ea!e : 7 ange+ volume B+ number 1+ 9pring+ p. "%U E ose proponents of t e positive pea!e approa! & o re/e!t out of and t e &ork of resear! ers and edu!ators !oming to t e field from t e perspe!tive of negative pea!e too easil' forget t at t e prevention of a nu!lear !onfrontation of global dimensions is t e prerequisite for all ot er pea!e resear! + edu!ation+ and a!tion. ?nless su! a !onfrontation !an be avoided t ere &ill be no &orld left in & i! to build positive pea!e. Aoreover+ t e blanket !ondemnation of all su! negative pea!e oriented resear! + edu!ation or a!tion as a rea!tionar' attempt to support and reinfor!e t e status quo is do!trinaire. 7onfli!t t eor' and resolution+ disarmament studies+ studies of t e international s'stem and of international organizations+ and integration studies are in t emselves neutral. E e' do not intrinsi!all' support eit er t e status quo or revolutionar' efforts to ! ange or overt ro& it. 6at er t e' offer a bod' of kno&ledge & i! !an be used for eit er purpose or for some purpose in bet&een. 5t is mu! more logi!al for t ose & o understand pea!e as positive pea!e to integrate t is kno&ledge into t eir o&n frame&ork and to utilize it in a! ieving t eir o&n purposes. 2 balan!ed pea!e studies program s ould t erefore offer t e student exposure to t e questions and !on!erns & i! o!!up' t ose & o vie& t e field essentiall' from t e point of vie& of negative pea!e.

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Michigan 7 Week Seniors 2009 "#EO!ST(@ET O! BA" > "#MOE(AEJ

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"econs&r+c&ion kills -e$ocrac* an- crea&es a ci)iliBa&ion of $a-ness an- ill+sion/ Wolin. 02 36i! ard+ L.2. from 6eed 7ollege((A.2. and = .G. from Xork ?niversit' in Eoronto((G.G. A!Aurtr' =rofessor of >istor' at 6eed 7ollege and 6i!e ?niversit'+ E e sedu!tion of unreason : t e intelle!tual roman!e &it fas!ism : from Cietzs! e to postmodernism+ p. 214 @ver t e last ten 'ears Gerrida as made a !on!erted effort to redress t is per!eived &eakness+ &riting &idel' on questions of/usti!e+ et i!s+ and politi!s. Lut ave t ese fora's into t e realm of It e politi!alI in fa!t made a Idifferen!eIR H en all is said and done+ one suspe!ts t at dis!ussions of It e politi!alI are merel' a metapoliti!al pretext for !ir!umventing t e realm of IrealI politi!s. Nndemi! to GerridaKs perspe!tive is t e problem t at+ earl' on+ e attained reno&n b' reiterating a Itotal !ritiqueI of t e Hest t at derived from >eideggerKs anti umanism. 2!!ording to t is vie&+ umanism !ulminates in t e 7artesian I&ill to &ill.I E e t&entiet !entur'Ks politi!al orrors(geno!ide+ totalitarianism+ nu!lear &ar+ and environmental devastation(are merel' t e logi!al !onsequen!es t ereof. E e dilemma besetting GerridaKs approa! to politi!s is t at on!e one a!!epts t e frame&orks of Ianti umanismI and Itotal !ritique+I it be!omes extremel' diffi!ult(if not imposible(to re!on!ile oneKs standpoint &it a partisans ip for reasonable demo!ra!'. 5n IGo&n L' 8a&: Ge!onstru!tion and t e =roblem of;usti!e+I 5 reassess GerridaKs t eoreti!al lega!'+ !on!luding t at t e s ort!omings of Ireall' existing demo!ra!'I !annot be remedied b' re!ourse to t e antidemo!rati! met ods re!ommended b' >eidegger and Cietzs! e. Gerrida is b' no means a 7ounter(Nnlig tenment t inker. Cevert eless+ in t e lexi!on of de!onstru!tion+ IreasonI is identified as a fundamental sour!e of t'rann' and oppression. 2n analogous pre/udi!e affli!ts <ou!aultKs !on!ept of Idis!ursive regime.I >ere+ too+ Idis!ourseI is primaril' per!eived as a sour!e of domination. H atever de!onstru!tionKs met odologi!al intentions ma' be+ its pragmati! effe!t a!!ords &it t e anti(intelle!tual orientation of t e anti(p ilosop es. L' t e time de!onstru!tion gets t roug &it t e istor' of p ilosop '+ ver' little remains. @ne is tempted to seek refuge in m't + magi!+ madness+ illusion+ or intoxi!ation(all seem preferable to & at I!ivilizationI as to offer. E e end result is t at de!onstru!tion leaves its pra!titioners in a t eoreti!al no(manKs land+ a forlorn and barren lands!ape+ analogous to one des!ribed b' >eidegger: an Iage of affli!tionI ! ara!terized b' t e flig t of t e old gods and t e Inot 'etI of t e gods to !ome.

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"econs&r+c&ion is racis&. ho$o%hobic. an- $isog*nis&/ FeHfar. 07 32nt on' ;+ L.2. = ilosop '+ Aagna 7um 8aude+ 7reig ton ?niversit'+ ;.G.+ Hit Gistin!tion+ ?niversit' of Cebraska 7ollege of 8a&+ 0Ge!onstru!ting Ge!onstru!tion: Ge!onstru!ting Gerrida1+ ttp:))&&&.s!ribd.!om)do!)9%0)Ge!onstru!ting(Ge!onstru!tion(Ge!onstru!ting(Gerrida4 5 ave eard t at Gerrida as de!onstru!ted Gerrida+ but 5 aven*t found t e book+ so 5 t oug t 5 &ould give it a tr'. Gerrida believes in de!onstru!tion. >is follo&ers ave tried to de!onstru!t 0la&1 for example+ arguing t at it is simpl' 0& ite male+ misog'nist+ ra!ist+ and omop obi! !rap.1 5 &ould like to argue t at Gerrida*s de!onstru!tion itself is 0& ite male+ misog'nist+ ra!ist+ and omop obi!.1 Gerrida is a & ite male & o !onsistentl' takes a fas!ist pig anal'ti! approa! to realit' & i! re/e!ts bod'+ spirit+ relationalit'+ freedom+ autonom'+ and ot er &onderful values. H o !ould possibl' be bigoted enoug to t ink t at realit' is simpl' a matter of anal'ti! ideas. E is is totall' opposed to t e an!ient+ medieval. indigenous &orld vie&s. Gerrida*s de!onstru!tion is also ra!ist and misog'nist. 5n Gerrida*s postmodern de!onstru!tionist vie& 5ntuition and 7ompassion don*t reall' exist. <inall'+ Gerrida*s &ork is anti(ga'. Da' men are supposed to be artisti!+ intelle!tual+ !ultural+ and relational( all positive attributes. Lut Gerrida*s de!onstru!tion &ould tell us t at t ere is no art+ t ere is no intelle!t+ onl' !rap. =er aps Da' men aren*t even omosexual. =er aps t ese are different !ategories. <inall'+ it s ould be pointed out t at some mig t disagree &it m' interpretations of 0& ite male+ misog'nist+ ra!ist and omop obi!.1 =er aps one s ould de!onstru!t t e !ategories of 0& ite male1 0misog'nist1 0ra!ist1 and 0 omop obi!.1 =er aps t ese !ategories too+ are !ulturall' relative !rap+ or per aps even non(existant. Ge!onstru!tion is onl' negative+ and b' it*s ver' terms !annot support an' positive statements. "econs&r+c&ion is eli&is&. racis&. an- fascis&/ #llis>Ehris&ensen. 01 LEri!ia+ degree in Nnglis literature+ 0H at is de!onstru!tionR1+ ttp:))&&&.&isegeek.!om)& at(is( de!onstru!tion. tm4 <or t ose pra!ti!ing de!onstru!tion+ t is bizarre ! apter suggests t at t e so(!alled &ork about uman rig ts is an't ing but. E e underl'ing values in t e text are not !onsistent &it t e &a' it is presented to students. 5n a sense+ t e de!onstru!tionist as taken apart t e novel and its !riti!al tradition+ displa'ing its in!onsisten!ies. Aan' literar' !riti!s ab or de!onstru!tion+ stating t at de!onstru!ting a text deprives t e text of meaning and ultimatel' dismisses t e value of an't ing it tou! es. Eo t ose & o use de!onstru!tion+ t e ans&er to t is !riti!ism mig t be: 0>o& does one define valueR H at is meaningR1 E oug t is ans&er ma' frustrate !riti!s of de!onstru!tion+ it points to t e &a' in & i! de!onstru!tionists see t e text as a sour!e of multiple meanings+ determined ver' mu! b' ea! readerKs o&n subtexts and definitions. Eo redu!e and redu!e t e meaning of a &ork ma' ultimatel' make it purposeless+ sa' some !riti!s. 2t its best+ t oug + de!onstru!tion !an be elpful in unmasking uge !ontradi!tions present in a text. 7riti!s of de!onstru!tion ave also a!!used t e t eor' of being fas!ist in nature. E is is largel' due to one ma/or proponent+ =aul de Aan+ & o ma' ave &ritten for a magazine t at ad some Cazi s'mpat ies. =aul de Aan as refuted t ese ! arges+ 'et de!onstru!tion seems inexorabl' tied to fas!ism in t e minds of man'. 5t is true t at reading a de!onstru!tion of a text !an be similar to attempting to de!ode a se!ret message. Ge!onstru!tionists like ;a!k Gerrida deliberatel' ! oose !onfusing and lengt ' &ords to derive a multipli!it' of meanings from t eir interpretation. 5n some &a's+ t is makes de!onstru!tion elitist and ina!!essible to man' readers. E e de!onstru!tionist !ares not+ o&ever+ for t ose & o are !onfused. E e' believe t at !onfusion s ould be t e result of reading a de!onstru!tion of a text. 2 more a!!essible de!onstru!tionist is 6oland Lart es+ & o tragi!all' died in is earl' 40s. >is &riting on de!onstru!tion is some& at more straig tfor&ard+ and an'one stud'ing literar' !riti!ism &ould do &ell to read is &ork before

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"econs&r+c&ion H+s&ifies naBis$ an- racis$/ Wolin. o2 36i! ard+ L.2. from 6eed 7ollege((A.2. and = .G. from Xork ?niversit' in Eoronto((G.G. A!Aurtr' =rofessor of >istor' at 6eed 7ollege and 6i!e ?niversit'+ E e sedu!tion of unreason : t e intelle!tual roman!e &it fas!ism : from Cietzs! e to postmodernism+ p. 2344 7>2=EN6 95b Aoreover+ one !an for example t ink of Iot ersI(neo(Cazis+ & ite suprema!ists+ and ot er ra!ists(& o ave forfeited t eir rig t to m' openness. 9 ould 5 remain open to all ot ers(m' &ife+ !olleagues+ friends+ perfe!t strangers+ enemies(in pre!isel' t e same &a'R <reud tried to address some of t ese dilemmas in 7ivilization and Bts 9iscontents & en e !alled into question t e bibli!al in/un!tion to Ilove t ' neig bor as t 'self.I <or im t is maxim represented merel' one more in a series of unattainable ideals and unrealisti! demands ere!ted b' I!ivilization.I 9u! !ommandments+ & i! emanate from t e so!ial super ego+ are a primar' sour!e of a neuroti! dis!omfort &it !ivilization+ !ontended <reud. IA' love is somet ing valuable to me & i! 5 oug t not to t ro& a&a' &it out refle!tion+I observed t e founder of ps'! oanal'sis. I@n !loser inspe!tion ... not merel' is Tt eU stranger in general un&ort ' of m' loveF 5 must onestl' !onfess t at e as more !laim to m' ostilit' and even m' atred.I

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"#EO!ST(@ET O! BA" K E#"# TF# =OL T EAL "econs&r+c&ion9s foc+s on se$an&ics &ra-es off <i&h real <orl- sol+&ions/ Wolin. 02 36i! ard+ L.2. from 6eed 7ollege((A.2. and = .G. from Xork ?niversit' in Eoronto((G.G. A!Aurtr' =rofessor of >istor' at 6eed 7ollege and 6i!e ?niversit'+ E e sedu!tion of unreason : t e intelle!tual roman!e &it fas!ism : from Cietzs! e to postmodernism+ p. 229(2304 9econstruction and the GColiticalG E e question of de!onstru!tionKs relations ip to !ontemporar' politi!s as al&a's been some& at of a sore point. Aost are b' no& familiar &it t e !riti!isms leveled against it for its defi!ien!ies in t is regard. E ese !ritiques ave mostl' !entered on t e issue of de!onstru!tionKs inordinate fo!us on questions of textualit' and reading(an issue best dramatized per aps b' GerridaKs oft(!ited+ !ontroversial maxim+ IE ere is not ing outside t e te&tGDGil nEy a pas de h;8S te&te.G<1 Ge!onstru!tionKs detra!tors ave alleged t at t is &ell(nig ex!lusive preo!!upation &it semioti! t emes+ &it t e figuration and involutions of texts+ as fun!tioned at t e expense of more &orldl' and pra!ti!al !on!erns. E e &orld mig t be !rumbling all around us+ t e' ! arge+ but Gerrida seems more interested in t e !ontingen!ies of t is or t at p oneme(t e amusing fa!t t at in <ren! >egelKs name is t e p oni! equivalent of IeagleI 3aigleI4. 2s t ose familiar &it GerridaKs &ork kno&+ in 4las 3dirgeI4 t is ! an!e omon'mi! equivalen!e gave rise to a rumination of some t ree undred pages on analogous linguisti! slippages and fissures. 2" @ne of t e first to raise su! ! arges of pra!ti!al( politi!al irrelevan!e against GerridaKs negative semioti!s of reading &as Ai! el <ou!ault. 5n is response to GerridaKs unsparing !ritique of Madness 230 7>2=EN6 95b and Civilization$ <ou!ault pilloried de!onstru!tion as not ing more t an an idios'n!rati! variant of t e !lassi!al met od of Ge&plication de terte.I 2s <ou!ault observes &it palpable !ondes!ension+ de!onstru!tion pra!ti!es an I istori!all' determined little pedagog'I ! ara!terized b' Gthe reduction o' discursive practices T& i! for <ou!ault+ of !ourse+ are sour!es of Ipo&erI(6.HU to te&tual traces: t e elision of t e events produ!ed t erein and t e retention onl' of marks for a readingF t e invention of voi!es be ind texts to avoid aving to anal'ze t e modes of impli!ation of t e sub/e!t in dis!oursesF t e assigning of t e originar' as said and unsaid in t e text to avoid repla!ing dis!ursive pra!ti!es in t e field of transformations & ere t e' are !arried out.I E us+ a!!ording to <ou!ault+ Gerrida offers us little more t an an interpretive pra!ti!e t at Itea! es t e pupil t at t ere is not ing outside t e textI and I& i! !onversel' gives to t e masterKs voi!e t e limitless sovereignt' & i! allo&s it to restate t e text indefinitel'.I2# 2s t e progenitor of de!onstru!tion+ Gerrida is t e master ventriloquist & o in sovereign fas ion determines & i! textual meanings be!ome unraveled and o&. <ou!aultKs ma/or fear is t at+ in t e ands of de!onstru!tion+ t e !ritique of po&er and domination+ one of t e ke' out!omes of Aa'K#%+ &ould be supplanted b' an ex!lusive orientation to&ard politi!all' pointless textual anal'sis. Cor is <ou!ault t e onl' !riti! to ave ! allenged Gerrida in t is &a'. Nd&ard 9aid as !ontended t at GerridaKs igH' formalized obsession &it t e abstruse terms of Iar! e&ritingI(t at is+ &it Inon!on!eptsI su! as t e tra!e+ grammatolog'+ supplement+ differan!e+ dissemination+ and so fort (ends up b' Imuddling ... t oug t be'ond t e possibilit' of usefulness.I 9aid !ontinues+ E e effe!t of Tde!onstru!tionistU logi! 3t e miseeH abime3 is to redu!e ever't ing t at &e t ink of as aving some extra textual leverage in t e text to a textual fun!tion.... GerridaKs ke' &ords ... are unregenerate signs: e sa's t at t e' !annot be made more signifi!ant t an signifiers are. 5n some quite urgent &a'+ t en+ t ere is somet ing frivolous about t em+ as all &ords t at !annot be a!!ommodated to a p ilosop ' of serious need or utilit' are futile or unserious.2$

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"#EO!ST(@ET O! BA" > E#"# TF# =OL T EAL Al& fails,"econs&r+c&ion lea-s &o %oli&ical a%a&h* Wolin. 02 36i! ard+ L.2. from 6eed 7ollege((A.2. and = .G. from Xork ?niversit' in Eoronto((G.G. A!Aurtr' =rofessor of >istor' at 6eed 7ollege and 6i!e ?niversit'+ E e sedu!tion of unreason : t e intelle!tual roman!e &it fas!ism : from Cietzs! e to postmodernism+ p. 2334
Hit t ese remarks Gerrida insinuates t at existing demo!rati! so!ieties are in!apable of self(refle!tion. 5nstead+ t e' ave an endemi! tenden!' to fuse Iempiri!alI and InormativeI momentsa debatable !laim. 9u! an interpretive approa! as de!onstru!tion is ne!essar'+ Gerrida implies+ to produ!e a !riti!al spa!e at a suffi!ient remove from t e manifold failings of existing demo!rati! pra!ti!e. GerridaKs &riting over t e last de!ade as been replete &it analogous reassuran!es !on!erning de!onstru!tionKs politi!al relevan!e. H at seems less !onvin!ing+ o&ever+ given de!onstru!tionKs &illful lexi!al

GerridaKs self(avo&ed fas!ination &it dis!ourses on t eIdouble bindI and t e IimpossibleI(t e paradoxi!al ! allenge of rel'ing on a dis!redited metap 'si!al vo!abular' & ile at t e same time full' re!ognizing its d'sfun!tionalit'(is not merel' !ondu!ive to inde!ision and fen!e(straddling rat er t an to meaningful politi!al engagementR3# Aoreover+ in & at &a's mig t de!onstru!tionKs trademark Ipla'fulnessI be !ondu!ive to politi!al earnestnessR 8astl'+ sin!e de!onstru!tion qua politi!al dis!ourse seems to privilege t e InegativeI moments of IdestabilizationI and Idismantling+I o& mig t it !ounter t e suspi!ion t at it remains !onstitutionall' in!apable of fostering politi!al solidarit': t e demo!rati! ideal of politi!s as an equitable and /ust frame&ork for realizing !olle!tive goals and pro/e!ts. <rom is ver' first texts+ Gerrida as al&a's emp asized t e positional or !ontextual nature of de!onstru!tion. >is re!ent preo!!upation &it politi!s is no ex!eption. 9in!e t e earl' 1990s+ Gerrida as soug t to reposition is t oug t to !ounter ! arges of apoliti!ism+ t e &idespread suspi!ion t at de!onstru!tion is interested in little more t an t e Ifree pla' of signifi!ation.I Cevert eless+ often is efforts ave failed to go be'ond a fe& rat er abstra!t and perfun!tor' invo!ations of Iresponsibilit'I and Iopenness to&ard t e ot er+I as in t e remarks quoted above. E us+ in lieu of a more !on!rete spe!ifi!ation of t e meaning of openness+ of t e parti!ular Iot ersI to&ard & om &e s ould open ourselves+ of o& &e s ould open ourselves to t e ot er and & '+ and of o& &e mig t translate t e et i!al maxim of IopennessI into forms of pra!ti!al life !ondu!t or ever'da' institutional settings+ &e are left &it a dire!tive t at+ in its generalit' and impre!ision+ seems more frustrating t an illuminating. 2s one !riti! as remarked+ despite its apparent merits+ t e inordinate stress on ot erness seems indi!ative of an endemi! Iot er(&orldlinessI t at suffuses de!onstru!tionist dis!ussions of real &orld politi!s.3R 5n !ertain respe!ts t e problemati! of Iot ernessI(a distin!tl' 8evinasian in eritan!e( raises more questions t an solves. E is standpointKs !riti!ism of t e modern natural la& tradition(t e normative basis of t e !ontemporar' demo!rati! so!ieties(is s&eeping and total to t e point t at demo!rati! ideals t emselves seem indefensible+ and in t is &a' undermines a politi!s of Ireasonable demo!ra!'.I 5nstead+ &e are left &it a Ipoliti!al existentialism+I in & i! + given t e IgroundlessI nature of moral and politi!al ! oi!e+ one politi!al Ide!isionI seems almost as good as anot er.
abstruseness+ are t e pra!ti!al impli!ations of su! avo&als. <or example+ o& !an &e be sure t at

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"econs&r+c&ion -es&ro*s fe$inis$/ !ilsson. 09 3Aagnus+ Gire!tor of Nngineering for GNE27> 2L+ Aasters of 9!ien!e degree in 2pplied = 'si!s and Nle!tri!al Nngineering from 8inkkping ?niversit'+ 0Giversit' and >omogeneit' in a 0Aulti!ultural 9o!iet'1: 2 7ritique of t e =ervasive =i!ture of 7olle!tive 5dentities1+ 5nternational Aigration : Nt ni! 6elations 6esear! ?nit at t e ?niverist' of Lergen+ 3 ttp:))imer.uib.no)14Cordi!)=apers`20fra`2014.`20Aigras/onsforskerkonferanse)Cilsson.pdf4 <raser doesn*t vie& de!onstru!tion of !olle!tive identities as unproblemati!. @n t e !ontrar'+ s e points out t at de!onstru!tive !ultural politi!s is often 0far removed from t e immediate interests and identities1 of t e people & o suffer !ultural in/usti!es+ and t at it be!omes ps'! ologi!all' and politi!all' feasible first & en all people are 0&eaned from t eir atta! ments to !urrent !ultural !onstru!tions of t eir interests and identities.121 E is problem be!omes espe!iall' a!ute & en t ere is a need for abandoning an identit'(!ategor' altoget er. @ne su! situation &ould be & en anti(ra!ists &is to abolis t e !ategor' race. E is is a fairl' !ommon . and full' legitimate . position+ taken b'+ for example+ =aul Dilro' in Against ,ace 320004. Dilro' argues t at 0ra!iolog'1 . defined as 0t e lore t at brings t e virtual realities of *ra!e* to dismal and destru!tive. Dilro' argues t at 0ra!iolog'1 . defined as 0t e lore t at brings t e virtual realities of *ra!e* to dismal and destru!tive quandar'+ a more pragmati! approa! to !olle!tive identities must be tried. E e basi! outline of su! an approa! !an be found in Eoril Aoi*s !ritique of 0t e pervasive pi!ture of sex+1 formulated in :hat is a :oman 319994. @ne of Aoi*s aims is to s o& t at t e idea t at 0an' use of t e &ord P&oman* 3and an' ans&er to t e question *H at is a &omanR*4 must entail a p ilosop i!al !ommitment to metap 'si!s and essentialism1 is mistaken.2# 5nstead s e argues t at 0a feminist t eor' t at starts from an ordinar' understanding of & at a &oman is+ namel' a person &it a female bod'+1 &ill be metap 'si!al or essentialist+ onl' & en 0sex and)or gender differen!es1 are seen as somet ing t at 0al&a's manifest t emselves in all !ultural and personal a!tivities+1 or & en it is assumed t at t e' are 0al&a's t e most important features of a person or a pra!ti!e.12$ E is is & at Aoi !alls 0t e pervasive pi!ture of sex.12% Aoi*s reason for arguing t at t e !on!ept &oman s ould be Pres!ued* from radi!al de!onstru!tion is t at is useful in !ertain !ir!umstan!es. >er primar' example is t at 0as long as te! nolog' as not made t e usual met ods of uman reprodu!tion obsolete+ t e biologi!al requirements of pregnan!'+ ! ildbirt and ! ild!are &ill ave to be a!!ommodated &it in an' so!ial stru!ture.129 E us Aoi finds it 0as oppressive and t eoreti!all' unsatisfa!tor' to redu!e &omen to t eir Pgeneral umanit'* as it is to redu!e t em to t eir femininit'.130 Aoi*s approa! is Ptransformative enoug * to be able to deal &it t e problem of ot ering. 5f !olle!tive identities are not vie&ed as pervasive+ t e' &ill not ne!essaril' produ!e un&anted group distin!tions. Lut t e question is & et er ra!e and)or et ni!it' are !ategories &ort res!uing.

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"econs&r+c&ion is base- on -og$a&ic i-eolog* an- h*%ocris* =la+&. 02 39teven+ =rofessor at t e Draduate 9! ool of t e Lusiness 2dministration at t e ?niversit' of >aifa+ 0E e Ge!onstru!tion of ;a!ques Gerrida1+ <rontpage Aagazine+ 10)11+ ttp:))&&&.frontpagemag.!om)read2rti!le.aspxR 26E5G,110304 Ge!onstru!tionism is a s allo& form of Con(E inking t at as gained popularit' among some of t e more simpleminded dis!iplines of t e a!ademi! &orld. Nssentiall' t e same as post(modernism 3 o& is t at for a true nonsense &ord+ somet ing no &ood! u!k !ould ! u!kR4+ Ge!onstru!tionism argues t at t ere do not exist an' su! t ings as fa!ts+ trut + logi!+ rationalit'+ nor s!ien!e. Cot ing in t e &orld exists be'ond sub/e!tive narratives+ ea! as legitimate as t e next. 8anguage is t e ultimate form of t'rann' and sour!e of !ontrol over us oppressed folks b' t ose evil elites. E ere are no false narratives+ /ust different sub/e!tivities. Ge!onstru!tionism &as defined ni!el' b' 6obert 8o!ke: I5t is also kno&n as poststru!turalism+ but donKt ask & at stru!turalism &as+ as it &as no better. 5t is based on t e proposition t at t e apparentl' real &orld is in fa!t a vast so!ial !onstru!t and t at t e &a' to kno&ledge lies in taking apart in oneKs mind t is t ing so!iet' as built. Eaken to its logi!al !on!lusion+ it supposes t at t ere is at t e end of t e da' no a!tual realit'+ /ust a series of appearan!es stit! ed toget er b' so!ial !onstru!ts into & at &e all agree to !all realit'. Lut not agree voluntaril'+ for so!iet' as 3t is is t e leftist bit4 an oppressive stru!ture+ so &e are pressured to agree to t at version of realit' & i! pleases t e people in ! arge.I 8eft(&ing a!ademi!s love substituting pol's'llable(invention for t inking and anal'sis. 2mong t e founders of t e 9! ool of Ge!onstru!tionism &as Xale professor =aul de Aan+ a !lose friend of ;a!ques GerridaKs+ & o ad publis ed pro(Cazi !ollaborationist and anti(9emiti! arti!les in t&o Lelgian ne&spapers in t e earl' <orties. E e ot er Ge!onstru!tionists ave al&a's tried to de!onstru!t t e Cazism of de Aan so t at it &ould not look too bad. Ge!onstru!tionism as long been linked &it Aarxism+ a rat er strange !ombination ( given t e insisten!e b' de!onstru!tionists t at t e' s ould never !laim to kno& an't ing. Aarxists !laim to kno& ever't ing+ based on ridi!ulous t eories b' Aarx disproved 1#0 'ears ago+ making t e Aarxist(Ge!onstru!tionist axis rat er queer. 5t also sometimes !alls itself post(!olonialism+ apparentl' be!ause some of its <ren! ie inventors !ame from 2lgeria+ alt oug 5 ave never understood o& it !an be !ertain t at an't ing or an'one &as ever !olonized or !olonizer. <or de!onstru!tionists+ proof and disproof are unimportant. E e' a!!ept as axiomati! t e !laim t at so!ial po&er stru!tures !ontrol ever't ing in t e &orld+ 5 guess in!luding all narratives+ and t at literature and art are not ing more t an refle!tions of or protests against su! po&er and oppression. Cever mind t at t e Ge!on !onmen ave no &a' of measuring nor assessing po&er+ !ontrol+ !lass+ nor privilegeF t e' are 9?6N t at t ese t ings are out t ere and !ontrol t e &orld+ /ust like in t e sort of giant !onspira!' promoted on some of t e &a!kier !onspira!ist &eb sites on t e &eb. 6obert 8o!ke as said t at Ge!onstru!tionism is t e opiate of an obsolete intelle!tual !lass. 5t is little more t an sop istr' and absolute moral relativism. Ge!onstru!tionists insist t at even &ords t emselves ave no meaning. >en!e &e all live in a meaningless universal in & i! &e are all no better t an nois' mutts+ making sill' barking sounds+ & i! of !ourse s ould alread' be obvious to an' of 'ou out t ere & o ave listened to !omparative literature !ourses from left' profs. 2s one !riti! pointed out+ all of Ge!onstru!tionism is founded on t e paradox of using language to !laim t at language !annot make unambiguous !laims 3;o n 9earle+ IE e Horld Eurned ?pside Go&n+I 8he !e- >or" ,evie-+ @!tober 2$+ 19%34. Ge!onstru!tionists oppose being /udgmental about an't ing+ ex!ept t e absolute evil of !apitalism and 2meri!a+ & i! is & ' it is popular t ese da's mainl' among 2meri!an tenured leftists 3t e <ren! berets ave b' and large moved on to ot er amusements4. E e' believe in an absolute /usti!e+ alt oug !annot tell 'ou & at and & ere it is+ nor o& to a! ieve it. E e' t ink it is somet ing &e all simpl' need to sit ba!k and a&ait+ like a Aessia on a de!onstru!ted donke'+ alt oug &e !an urr' it along b' /oining t e <ar 8eft. Ge!onstru!tionism attra!ts a !ertain sort of adoles!ent mind 3regardless of t e age of t e a!!ompan'ing bod'4 be!ause of its !'ni!ism and dismissal of rational t oug t and s!ien!e. 5n 8o!keKs &onderful &ords+ I5t raises to t e level of a p ilosop i!al s'stem t e intuition t at ever't ing gro&nups do is a fraud. 5t is t e metap 'si!s of >olden 7aulfield. 5t enables t e pra!titioner to tell imself t at e is among t e privileged group of insiders & o kno& t at t e Hizard of @z is be ind t e !urtain.I

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"econs&r+c&ion is so -isconnec&e- fro$ %oli&ical reali&* &ha& i& fails &o %ro-+ce change/ Wolin. 02 36i! ard+ L.2. from 6eed 7ollege((A.2. and = .G. from Xork ?niversit' in Eoronto((G.G. A!Aurtr' =rofessor of >istor' at 6eed 7ollege and 6i!e ?niversit'+ E e sedu!tion of unreason : t e intelle!tual roman!e &it fas!ism : from Cietzs! e to postmodernism+ p. 22"(22#4 2s anot er disillusioned !ontributor to t e same tome laments+ & en all is said and done+ GerridaKs et ereal metapoliti!al musings offer us Mar& E:ithout Mar&ismDa Aarxism so divested of so!ial+ e!onomi!+ and istori!al !ontent as to be politi!all' valueless. 2s Ai! ele 8amont remarked in I>o& to Le!ome a Gominant <ren! = ilosop er: E e 7ase of ;a!ques Gerrida+I & ereas GerridaKs influen!e as been strong in
9

!ountries la!king indigenous left(&ing traditions su! as t e ?nited 9tates+ !onversel'+ in areas &it a strong Aarxist eritage(Derman'+ 5tal'+ and 8atin 2meri!a( is impa!t as been negligible.10 5n t e

+ de!onstru!tionKs Irealit'(defi!itI(its endemi! met odologi!al aversion to extra G@HC LX 82H 22" textual !on!erns(returns to aunt it. H en all is said and done+ one suspe!ts t at GerridaKs virtuoso dismantlings of logo!entri! p ilosop i!al pre/udi!es ave left interpretation frozen in an originar' impoten!e in t e stead of originar' Ipresen!e.I 5n is re!ent essa's on Kbospitalit'+I I!osmopolitanism+I and Iforgiveness+I Gerrida+ sounding ver' mu! like a liberalKs liberal+ as spoken out for!efull' against a xenop obi! I<ortress NuropeI mentalit' and in favor of immigrantsK rig ts.11 Xet su! appeals+ & ile admirable+ remain !ou! ed at su! a pit! of meta(t eoreti!al abstra!tion t at it is diffi!ult to dis!ern & at !on!rete poli!' impli!ations+ if an'+ t e p ilosop er mig t ave in mind. Narlier in is !areer+ Gerrida suggested in a
realm of politi!al !ritique in parti!ular Cietzs! ean vein t at on!e &e ave been released from t e straig t/a!ket of Hestern metap X9i!s a Gion'sian I/o'ous &isdomI &ould supplant t e !laims of reasonF in !onsequen!e+ &e &ould presumabl' be!ome(again+ in a manner never !learl' spe!ified(!itizens of a better &orld.12 E roug out is !areer+ Gerrida as been keen on exposing t e integral relations ip bet&een Imetap 'si!sI and Iviolen!e+I leading one to believe(implausibl'(t at all in/usti!e and oppression !an be tra!ed ba!k to t e istor' of metap 'si!s. Xet in t e eig teent !entur' t e Irig ts of man and !itizenI evolved from t e eminentl' metap 'si!al idea of modern natural la&. @ne mig t reasonabl' !on!lude t at metap 'si!s+ in t e guise of t e Irig ts of man+I provided t e !on!eptual leverage ne!essar' to overt ro& t e an!ien regime. >egel arrived at t is verdi!t in is Lectures on the Chilosophy o' History & en+ referring to modern natural la&+ e made t e un!ontroversial assertion t at It e <ren! 6evolution re!eived its first impulse

8ike >eidegger and Cietzs! e before im+ Gerrida pla!es an explanator' burden on metap 'si!s t at t e !on!ept !annot bear. >o&+ for example+ &ould Gerrida explain t e prevalen!e of in/usti!e and oppression in t ose parts of t e &orld in & i! Hestern metap 'si!s as ad a negligible impa!tR H at role do nonmetap 'si!al sour!es of oppression t ose attributable+ sa'+ to indigenous !ultural fa!tors(pla' in t e de!onstru!tionist &orldvie&R 2nd & at about t e progressive influen!e of metap 'si!s for !ontemporar' ideas of uman rig ts ideas t at pla'ed su! a paramount role in t e /ustl' !elebrated Irevolutions of 19%9IR
from = ilosop '.I14

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"erri-a is ei&her $eaningless or links &o his o<n cri&iD+e of &he &r+&h/ Wolin. 02 36i! ard+ L.2. from 6eed 7ollege((A.2. and = .G. from Xork ?niversit' in Eoronto((G.G. A!Aurtr' =rofessor of >istor' at 6eed 7ollege and 6i!e ?niversit'+ E e sedu!tion of unreason : t e intelle!tual roman!e &it fas!ism : from Cietzs! e to postmodernism+ p. 222(2234 5roni!all'+ one dete!ts a let al self(!ontradi!tion at t e eart of t e de!onstru!tionist enterprise(GerridaKs attempt to out p ilosop ize t e istor' of p ilosop '. 8ike previous parti!ipants in t e language game of Hestern metap 'si!s+ e as de!reed t at his !on!epts 3or Inon!on!eptsI4(differan!e+ dissemination+ tra!e+ 'men+ grammatolog'(possess a status more primordial 3and en!e more ItrueI4 t an t ose t at ave been proposed b' is prede!essors+ from =lato to t e istori!al present. 2 p ilosop er !an+ for an' number of reasons one !an imagine+ !ease p ilosop izing &it out t e risk of falling into self(!ontradi!tion. Xet on!e p ilosop ers de!ide to !riti!ize t e tradition b' demonstrating its in erent inadequa!ies+ t e' ave+ as it &ere+ alread' taken t e bait: t e !laims to trut or adequa!' t e' raise !an be !riti!ized in turn. 9u! !laims !an not onl' be !riti!ized+ but b' proposing alternative a!!ounts !on!erning t e origins of trut and t e nature of representation+ as Gerrida imself does &it t e !on!ept of differan!e+ all p ilosop ' tends to&ards Irealism.I E e t inker in question is impli!itl' staking !laims about t e relations ip bet&een !ognition and t e external &orld. Gerrida a realistR =aradoxi!al as it ma' sound+ for t e aut or of anti(epistemologi!al !lassi!s su! as :riting and 9i Ference and ;' 4rammatology$ t ere is no getting around t is dilemma. L' seeking to provide an alternative a!!ount of t e relations ip bet&een representation and realit'+ Gerrida must argue(even if onl' impli!itl'(t at is a!!ount is more verisimilar vis(a(vis t e &a' t ings reall' are t an t e leading !ompeting a!!ounts. H en vie&ed from t is perspe!tive+ Gerrida+ & ose p ilosop ' seeks to unmask and eliminate t e last residues of Hestern metap 'si!s+ ma' in fa!t be its !onsummate pra!titioner(t e Ilast metap 'si!ian.I E e question as to & et er is o&n foundationalist !laims !on!erning t e ontologi!al ab'ss separating language and realit' !o ere trans!ends t e s!ope of t e present enquir' 3alt oug t e problem of de!onstru!tionKs in erent Iself(!ontradi!tionI raised above &ould seem to speak strongl' against a verdi!t in de!onstru!tionKs favor4. 5f de!onstru!tion is to su!!eed in !onvin!ing p ilosop ers t at its met ods and insig ts are superior to t eirs+ it must rel' on pra!ti!es and pro!edures t at suggest a greater standard of generalit'(and t us a ig er standard of Itrut I(t an metap 'si!s. Aust it not+ t en+ ultimatel' seek to outdo metap 'si!s on its o&n termsR 5n a nuts ell+ t e problem &it de!onstru!tion is t at if all previous trut ( !laims are vitiated b' !onsiderations of differan!e(t e t&ofold spatio(temporal dela' t at affli!ts all kno&ledge(t en de!ostru!tionKs !laims are similarl' vitiated. 2s one !ontemporar' p ilosop er as observed+ I5t is usuall' a good strateg' to ask & et er a general !laim about trut or meaning applies to itselfK.IJ H en /udged a!!ording to t is elementar' !riterion+ de!onstru!tion founders under t e &eig t of its o&n !leverness. Xet+ assuming for t e sake of argument t at de!onstru!tionKs radi!al skepti!ism
about meaning and moralit' old &ater+ & ere &ould t is leave usR n t e e'es of man' readers and !riti!s+ t e la!k of a satisfa!tor' response to t is question !onstitutes one of de!onstru!tionKs ma/or &eaknesses. ?nder t e sign of Iunde!idabilit'+I Gerrida as repeatedl' !elebrated t e indetermina!' of meaning. AeaningKs insurmountable &ill(oK(t e(&isp ! ara!ter represents an epistemi! bul&ark against t e temptations of Ilogo!entrismI(t e t'rann' of reason t at as been one of t e allmarks of Hestern t oug t. 2s Genida boldl' de!laims in ;' 4rammatology$ IHe &ant to rea! t e point of a !ertain exteriorit' &it respe!t to t e totalit' of t e logo!entri! period.Iz @n t e same grounds+ de!onstru!tion as demonstrated an almost p obi! aversion to formal logi! and propositional trut + t e sine qua non of dis!ursive t oug t. 5nstead+ Gerridean texts revel in r etori!al tours de for!e+ non sequiturs+ puns+ and abrupt linguisti! /olts(te! niques designed to upend t e de!eptive armonies of narrative

endemi! mistrust of positive trut (!laims seems to ave undermined GerridaKs o&n attempt to arti!ulate a !onstru!tive !riti!al standpoint. 2s <redri! ;ameson as noted+ de!onstru!tionKs status as a t'pe of Inegative ermeneuti!sI(one t at privileges dis!ontinuit' and semioti! slippage rat er t an+ like Dadamer+ t e I appening of traditionI in a positive sense( as not prevented it from !ongealing into merel' anot er a!ademi! &orldvie&+ &it a!ol'tes and devotees+ as &ell as t e institutional trappings appropriate to a veritable postmodern s! olarl' !ult.
!ontinuit'. Xet t is

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AT "#(( "A' ALT#(!AT 8# FA LS K @TO= A! Al& fails>>"econs&r+c&ion is +&o%ian an- +nachie)able 7rie)e>Earlson 04 3Dar'+ =rofessor of Nnglis + Gire!tor of Deneral Ndu!ation+ 8ebanon Balle' 7ollege+ 0Look 6evie&: 5s t e 6adi!al 8eft t e 7 ild of t e 6adi!al 6ig tR1+ 5nternational ;ournal of Laudrillard studies+ ;anuar'+ ttp:))&&&.ubis ops.!a)baudrillardstudies)vol3Y1)grieve. tm4 Holin*s antipat ' to&ard postmodernism !omes a!ross most !learl' in is ! apter on ;a!ques Gerrida+ titled 0Ge!onstru!tion and t e =roblem of ;usti!e+1 in & i! e briefl' re!apitulates some of t e arguments t at ave been leveled against Gerrida*s p ilosop ' of language and t en takes up is more re!ent &ork on politi!s and la&. Gerrida !laims t at de!onstru!tion+ pace its !riti!s+ is not apoliti!al but 0 'per(politi!al1 and aligned &it 0a !ertain spirit of Aarxism.1 >e as !riti!ized t e xenop obia of Nurope*s Ce& 6ig t and defended immigrants* rig ts in t e name of 0 ospitalit'1 and 0openness to&ard t e ot er.1 <or Holin+ o&ever+ Gerrida*s t inking is 0politi!all' valueless1 be!ause of & at e !alls its ex!essive+ et ereal abstra!tion and Gerrida*s refusal to get do&n to t e level of !on!rete poli!' and to &rite in t e idiom of normative politi!al t eor'. 5nstead e engages in an 0esoteri! appeal to a messiani! !ondition to !ome 3I venir4+1 & i! exists in sublime+ utopian !ontrast to t e 0perdition of t e istori!al present.1 E e most !ompelling part of Holin*s argument in t is ! apter is is dis!ussion of Gerrida*s essa' 0E e <or!e of 8a&+1 in & i! Gerrida dra&s a s arp distin!tion bet&een la& 3& i! is inevitabl' logo!entri!+ universalist+ and in!apable of re!ognizing differen!e or ot erness4 and /usti!e 3& i! operates al&a's at t e level of t e spe!ifi!+ t e individual+ and t e ex!eptional4. Holin !alls t is distin!tion 0a naeve binar' opposition+1 and suggests t at Gerrida*s dismissal of formal legal pro!edures and rationalit'+ and is emp asis on 0unde!idabilit'+1 leads im to a position almost identi!al &it 7arl 9! mitt*s de!isionism: &e must simpl' decide+ outside t e frame&ork of an' bod' of la& or appeal to legal pre!edent. 9u! a model+ suggests Holin+ is unlikel' to advan!e t e !ause of uman rig ts or t e interests of t e marginalized. <air enoug . but Gerrida is !orre!t & en e argues t at a real distin!tion bet&een la& and /usti!e exists+ and t at t e danger of la& is pre!isel' its blind+ programmati! appli!ation to individual !ases t at are enormousl' !omplex. Gerrida*s argument is a rea!tion against 0la&1 as expressed in su! rigid legislation as 7alifornia*s 0t ree(strikes(and('ou*re(out1 or ot er kinds of mandator' senten!ing.

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AT "#(( "A' ALT#(A!T 8# FA LS K !O SOE AL EFA!7# "econs&r+c&ion &oo aca-e$ic an- narro< &o s%+r social change/ Lear$on&h. 02 3Aark+ Gepartment of Aanagement 9tudies((?niversit' of Xork+ 0Gerrida 6eappraised: Ge!onstru!tion+ 7ritique and Nman!ipation in Aanagement 9tudies1+ ?niversit' of Xork+ Gepartment of Aanagement 9tudies+ Aar! + ttp:))eprints.& iterose.a!.uk)2""3)1)'msY&orkingpaper1.pdf4 H ilst t e &ork of ;a!ques Gerrida as a number of influential admirers amongst s! olars of management and organization 3;ones+ fort !oming4 t ere remains a signifi!ant degree of s!epti!ism about t e utilit' of is &ork+ espe!iall' per aps amongst t ose & o &is to ! ange t e &orld in &a's t e' !onsider to be eman!ipator' 3<eldman+ 199%4. 5ndeed+ for Dabriel+ de!onstru!tion is opposed to su! ambitions: ToUur t eories Ti.e. t ose of management s! olarsU ave mostl' given up on t e Aarxist ideal of ! anging t e &orld and even on t e more modest one of understanding and !ritiquing it. 5nstead t e' in!reasingl' seek to Pde!onstru!t* it t roug ironi! or i!oni! engagement+ endlessl' lost in narrative vorti!es Dabriel 32001+ p.234. Nven some s! olars & o are generall' read as s'mpat eti! to Gerrida*s &ork ave suggested t at eman!ipator' !ritique as to be added on to de!onstru!tion as a supplement to Gerrida*s o&n !on!erns. <or example+ Lo/e feels t at it is ne!essar' 0to marr' de!onstru!tion to t e !riti!al t eor' revival of Aarxist !ritique of ideolog' a Tot er&iseU de!onstru!tion be!ame 3sic4 /ust anot er formalism+ anti( istori!al+ politi!all' !onservative+ and a la!king a so!ial ! ange pro/e!t1 32001+ p.1%)194. Cevert eless+ Gerrida imself as said e believes t at t ere is an enormous amount to do toda' for eman!ipation+ in all domains and all t e areas of t e &orld and so!iet' a 5 must sa' t at 5 ave no toleran!e for t ose & o ( de!onstru!tionist or not ( are ironi!al &it regard to t e grand dis!ourse of eman!ipation Gerrida 3199#+ p.%24. E e prin!ipal aim of t is paper is to argue for a reappraisal of Gerrida*s potential to !ontribute to eman!ipator' !ritique in management and organization studies. 2 !ontribution t at 5 suggest !an be substantial. 5ndeed+ it is submitted t at eman!ipator' ambitions are not alien to de!onstru!tion as Lo/e 320014 seems to !laim ( rat er t e' are intrinsi! to it.

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"econs&r+c&ion is eli&is& an- fails &o %ro-+ce real change FeHfar 04 32nt on' ;+ L.2. = ilosop '+ Aagna 7um 8aude+ 7reig ton ?niversit'+ ;.G.+ Hit Gistin!tion+ ?niversit' of Cebraska 7ollege of 8a&+ 0Ge!onstru!ting Gerrida: Ge!onstru!ting a 7liff 2 Era!t Look Nssa' 2 9atiri!al 2llegor'1+ ttp:))&&&.s!ribd.!om)do!)9%0)Ge!onstru!ting(Ge!onstru!tion(Ge!onstru!ting(Gerrida4 8et us imagine t at a la& professor as gone up to >arvard and as sat in on a seminar dealing &it de!onstru!tion ala Gerrida. =rofessor ;ones !omes ba!k to Hidemount ?niversit' 9! ool of 8a& and begins a fa!ult' presentation about de!onstru!tion. ;ones begins b' arguing t at linguisti!s are t e basis for realit'. =ut anot er &a'+ linguisti! de!onstru!tion s o&s us & at realit' reall' is. ;ones t en takes t e example t at e learned at >arvard+ t at a 07liff1 !ould be linguisti!all' de!onstru!ted to s o& t e ultimate nature of t e 7liff. ;ones starts out &it a ni!e pi!ture of a !liff fa!e of ro!k at t e base of t e Drand 7an'on. >e points out t at t e &ord 07liff1 is !ulturall' sub/e!tive and in a sense does not reall' exist. ?ndoudtedl'+ 07liff1 &as a &ord & i! developed in a ra!ist+ patriar! al so!iet' and must be exposed b' de!onstru!tion for & at it reall' is+ t at is+ a 1 !ulturall' arbitrar' !ovention & i! lends a !ertain tra/e!tor' of meaning regarding a ro!k fa!e. ?nfortunatel' for =rofessor ;ones+ =rofessor <e/far+ a 7riti!al E omist at Hidemount ?niversit' 9! ool of 8a& raises a fe& a&kard questions. 0=rofessor ;ones+ aren*t 'ou taking a remarkabl' one sided idealist approa! to t is question. @ver 400 'ears ago 9 akespeare asked 0&ould a rose b' an' ot er name smell as s&eetR1 5n t is !ontext+ 5 &ould ask+ 0&ould a !liff b' an' ot er name stop being a steep ro!k &allR1 E e ans&er is no. =rofessor <e/far argues t at linguisti! de!onstru!tion does not reall' b' itself dis!lose t e nature of realit'. 5t ma' sa' somet ing useful+ but not enoug to persuade us t at de!onstru!ting t e &ord 07liff1 a!tuall' de!onstru!ts P7liff* itself. 9o+ for example let us sa' t at t ere are several different &ords for t e &ord 07liff+1 su! as !liff+ !liffo+ ro!ko+ et!. 5 suggest t at o&ever mu! &e de!onstru!t t e &ords+ !liff+ !liffo+ and ro!ko+ t at all ot er t ings being equal t e real !liff itself &ill be t ere t e next morning. 5f =rofessor ;ones insists upon de!onstru!ting 0!liff* rig t in front t e real !liff ro!k fa!e+ 5 t ink t at e &ill find t at if e &alks into t e !liff fa!e e &ill break is nose. 5n fa!t+ 5 &ould argue t at to prevent t is from appening over and over again+ =rofessor ;ones &ould ave to get into a ba!k oe or ot er ma! iner' and p 'si!all' dig out t e !liff fa!e until it no longer exists. E is is real p 'si!al de!onstru!tion as opposed to linguisti! de!onstru!tion. E ink about it.

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Moral i$%era&i)es are essen&ial,ci)il righ&s. <o$en9s $o)e$en&. ga* libera&ion. an- an&i><ar $o)e$en&s %ro)e Wolin 02 36i! ard+ L.2. from 6eed 7ollege((A.2. and = .G. from Xork ?niversit' in Eoronto((G.G. A!Aurtr' =rofessor of >istor' at 6eed 7ollege and 6i!e ?niversit'+ E e sedu!tion of unreason : t e intelle!tual roman!e &it fas!ism : from Cietzs! e to postmodernism+ p. 23"(23#4 Xet !ontrar' to GerridaKs ras supposition t at /usti!e and la& are in!ompatible+ one mig t alternativel' argue t at t e uneas' balan!e bet&een t ese t&o elements+ & i! remains t e !ornerstone of t e modern s'stem of rig t+ ma' be ad/udged a qualified su!!ess. 5n a number of !elebrated instan!es+ t e pre!arious equilibrium bet&een /usti!e and la& as prevented positive la& from !ongealing into somet ing positivisti!all' rigid+ impervious to reinterpretation and ! anging istori!al needs. >ere 5 am t inking of abe paramount relations ip bet&een !ivil disobedien!e and politi!al in/usti!e in re!ent 2meri!an istor'. E e !ases of t e !ivil rig ts+ &omenKs and ga' liberation+ and anti(&ar movements &ere at least partl' su!!essful in provoking a sea ! ange in politi!al understand ing. 9tressing t e moral imperatives of so!ial equalit'+ t ese protest movements effe!tivel' demonstrated t at+ in t e !ase of numerous so!ial groups+ !laims to demo!rati! in!lusion ad been dis onored. 5n t ese and ot er !ases+ t e existen!e of moral !laims deemed ig er t an positive la&+ along &it superordinate !onstitutional norms+ under&rote instan!es of popular protest t at soug t to expose individual la&s or poli!ies t at fell s ort of /usti!e quaet i!al ideal.40 9u! !onsiderations form t e !ore of t e tradition of modern natural la&: from t e era of 8o!ke and 6ousseau+ & o provided t e intelle!tual ammunition for t e age of demo!rati! revolutions+ to t e do!trines of 6onald G&orkin and;o n 6a&ls in our o&n da'. Xet Gerrida s'stemati!all' distrusts t e modern natural la& tradition insofar as it remains in!urabl' logo!entri!. 5n expressing t e egemon' of t e logos+ it fails to do /usti!e to t e !laims of ot erness and differen!e. Xet+ pace Gerrida+ as t e foregoing istori!al examples bear out+ in man' !ases t e diale!ti!al tension bet&een moralit' and la& as prevented so!iet' from su!!umbing to t e reign of an inflexible legal positivism(t e t'rann' of positive la&. 2s a !riti! of modern la&+ Gerrida fails to strike a proper balan!e bet&een t e universal and t e parti!ular. 2s a !riti! of logo!entrism and a p ilosop er of t e Iunde!idableI 38e.+ t e indetermina!' of all trut !laims4+ e glorifies t e moment of parti!ularit' in a manner t at is frankl' decisionistu: t at is+ in a &a' t at stresses t e arbitrariness and !ontingen!' of all /udgments and de!isions. 5t is far from a!!idental+ t erefore+ t at Gerrida !ites &it relis QierkegaardKs adage+ IE e moment of de!ision is madness.I IE is is parti!ularl' true+I Gerrida goes on to remark+ Iof t e instant of t e /ust de!ision t at must rend time and def' diale!ti!s.I41 <rom GerridaKs perspe!tive+ general la&s and maxims are do&ngraded as Ilogo!entri!I: t e' are representative of t e t'rann' of t e logos+ & i! + instead of remaining open to t e Iot erness of t e ot erI(GerridaKs 8evinasian approximation of /usti!e(are more !on!erned &it t e imperatives of logi!al !onsisten!' and !on!eptual !o eren!eX 2s Gerrida avo&s+ IE ere is no /usti!e ex!ept to t e degree t at some event is possible & i! ... ex!eeds !al!ulation+ rules+ programs+ anti!ipations+ and so fort . ;usti!e as t e experien!e of absolute alterit' is unpresentable. @ne suspe!ts t at given its marked aversion to I!al!ulation+ rules+ and programs+I GerridaKs ideal of /usti!e &ould be radi!all' anti(institutional. E is suspi!ion is borne out b' is ensuing dis!ussion of t e ontologi!al ! asm separating /usti!e and la&: <or Gerrida positive la& is intrinsi!all' indigent insofar as it is empiri!al+ institutional+ normative+ and embodied. E e idea of a I/ust la&+I e !laims+ &ould be a !ontradi!tion in terms. 5n is vie& t e defi!ien!ies of positive la& are !ounterbalan!ed neit er b' !onstitutional norms+ nor b' universalist maxims proper to modern natural rig t 3>obbes+ 8o!ke+ 6ousseau4+ nor b' !ontemporar' !on!eptions of uman rig ts. 5nstead+ for Gerrida t e !ounterpart to la& t at olds out prospe!ts of /usti!e is t e idea of t e mysticalDthus is essa'Ks subtitle+ IKE e A'sti!al <oundation of 2ut orit'+KI an allusion to Ai! el de Aontaigne.

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8ie<ing calc+la&i)e &ho+gh& as eD+i)alen& &o -o$ina&ion ens+res &o&al %oli&ical %aral*sis/ Bronner. 02 9tep en Nri! Lronner+ =rofessor of =oliti!al 9!ien!e at 6utgers ?niversit'+ 2004+ 6e!laiming t e Nnlig tenment: Eo&ard a =oliti!s of 6adi!al Nngagement+ p. 3(" 05nstrumental reason1 &as seen as merging &it & at Aarx termed t e 0!ommodit' form1 underpinning !apitalist so!ial relations. Nver't ing t ereb' be!ame sub/e!t to t e !al!ulation of !osts and benefits. Nven art and aest eti! tastes &ould be!ome
defined b' a 0!ulture industr'1-intent onl' upon maximizing profits b' seeking t e lo&est !ommon denominator for its produ!ts. 5nstrumental rationalit' &as t us seen as stripping t e supposedl' 0autonomous1 individual+ envisioned b' t e p ilosop es+ of bot t e means and t e &ill to resist manipulation b' totalitarian movements. Nnlig tenment no& re!eived t&o !onnotations: its istori!al epo! &as grounded in an ant ropologi!al understanding of !ivilization t at+ from t e first+ pro/e!ted t e opposite of progress. E is gave t e book its po&er: >ork eimer and 2dorno offered not simpl' t e !ritique of some prior istori!al moment in time+ but of all uman development. E is made it possible to identif' enlig tenment not &it progress+ as t e p ilistine bourgeois mig t like to believe+ but rat er-un&ittingl'-&it barbarism+ 2us! &itz+ and & at is still often !alled 0t e totall' administered so!iet'.1 9u! is t e pi!ture painted b' Giale!ti! of Nnlig tenment.. Lut it s ould not be forgotten t at its aut ors &ere !on!erned &it !riti!izing enlig tenment generall'+ and t e istori!al epo! kno&n as t e Nnlig tenment in parti!ular+ from t e standpoint of enlig tenment itself: t us t e title of t e &ork. E eir masterpie!e &as a!tuall' 0intended to prepare t e &a' for a positive notion of enlig tenment+ & i! &ill release it from entanglement in blind domination.14 8ater+ in fa!t+ >ork eimer and 2dorno even talked about &riting a sequel t at &ould ave !arried a title like 06es!uing t e Nnlig tenment1 36ettung der 2ufklarung4." E is re!lamation pro/e!t &as never !ompleted+

E e reason+ 5 believe+ is t at t e logi! of t eir argument ultimatel' left t em &it little positive to sa'. Bie&ing instrumental rationalit' as equivalent &it t e rationalit' of domination+ and t is rationalit' &it an in!reasingl' seamless bureau!rati! order+ no room existed an' longer for a !on!rete or effe!tive politi!al form of opposition: >ork eimer &ould t us ultimatel' embra!e a quasi(religious 0'earning for t e totall' ot er1 & ile 2dorno be!ame interested in a form of aest eti! resistan!e grounded in 0negative diale!ti!s.1 E eir great &ork initiated a radi!al ! ange in !riti!al t eor'+ but its metap 'si!al sub/e!tivism surrendered an' s'stemati! !on!ern &it so!ial movements and politi!al institutions. Ceit er of t em ever genuinel' appre!iated t e demo!rati! in eritan!e of t e Nnlig tenment and t us+ not onl' did
and mu! time as been spent spe!ulating about & ' it &asn*t. t e' render !ritique independent of its p ilosop i!al foundations+# but also of an' pra!ti!al interest it mig t serve. >ork eimer and 2dorno never reall' grasped t at+ in !ontrast to t e s'stem builder+ t e blinkered empiri!ist+ or t e fanati!+ t e p ilosop e al&a's eviden!ed a 0greater interest in t e t ings of t is &orld+ a greater !onfiden!e in man and is &orks and is reason+ t e gro&ing appetite of !uriosit' and t e gro&ing restlessness of t e unsatisfied mind-all t ese t ings form less a do!trine t an a spirit.1$ ;ust as Aontesquieu believed it &as t e spirit of t e la&s+ rat er t an an' s'stem of la&s+ t at manifested t e !ommitment to /usti!e+ t e spirit of Nnlig tenment pro/e!ted t e radi!al qualit' of t at !ommitment and a !ritique of t e istori!al limitations &it & i! even its best t inkers are al&a's tainted. Nmpiri!ists ma' den' t e existen!e of a 0spirit of t e times.1 Cevert eless+ istori!al epo! s !an generate an et os+ an existential stan!e to&ard realit'+ or & at mig t even be termed a 0pro/e!t1 uniting t e diverse parti!ipants in a broader intelle!tual trend or movement. E e Nnlig tenment eviden!ed su! an et os and a pe!uliar stan!e to&ard realit' &it respe!t to&ard its transformation. Aaking sense of t is+ o&ever+ is impossible &it out re!ognizing & at be!ame a general st'listi! !ommitment to !larit'+ !ommuni!abilit'+ and & at r etori!ians term 0plain spee! .1 <or t eir parts+ o&ever+ >ork eimer and 2dorno believed t at resistan!e against t e in!ursions of t e !ulture industr' /ustified t e extremel' diffi!ult+ if not often opaque+ &riting st'le for & i! t e' &ould be!ome famous-or+ better+ infamous. E eir esoteri! and a!ademi! st'le is a far !r' from t at of Nnlig tenment intelle!tuals & o debated first prin!iples in publi!+ & o introdu!ed freelan!e &riting+ & o emplo'ed satire and &it to demolis puffer' and dogma+ and & o &ere preo!!upied &it rea! ing a general audien!e of edu!ated readers: 8essing put t e matter in t e most radi!al form in & at be!ame a popular sa'ing-1Hrite /ust as 'ou speak and it &ill be beautiful1-& ile+ in a letter &ritten to G*2lembert in 2pril of 1$##+ Boltaire noted t at 0E&ent' folio volumes &ill never make a revolution: it*s t e small+ portable books at t irt' sous t at are dangerous. 5f t e Dospel ad !ost 1+200 sester!es+ t e 7 ristian religion &ould never ave been establis ed.19

2ppropriating t e Nnlig tenment for modernit' !alls for re!onne!ting &it t e verna!ular. E is does not impl' some endorsement of anti(intelle!tualism. Gebates in ig l' spe!ialized fields+ espe!iall' t ose of t e natural s!ien!es+ obviousl' demand expertise and insisting t at intelle!tuals must 0rea! t e masses1 as al&a's been a questionable strateg'. E e sub/e!t under dis!ussion s ould define t e language in & i! it is dis!ussed and t e terms emplo'ed are valid insofar as t e' illuminate & at !annot be said in a simpler &a'. >ork eimer and 2dorno+ o&ever+ sa& t e matter differentl'. E e' feared being integrated b' t e !ulture industr'+ avoided politi!al engagement+ and turned freedom into t e metap 'si!al(aest eti! preserve of t e !onnoisseur. E e' be!ame in!reasingl' in!apable of appre!iating t e egalitarian impulses generated b' t e Nnlig tenment and t e abilit' of its advo!ates-Len <ranklin+ E omas ;efferson+ ;ames Aadison+ E omas =aine+ and 6ousseau-to argue !learl' and &it a politi!al purpose.1* E us+ & et er or not t eir 0!riti!al1 enterprise &as 0diale!ti!all'1 in keeping &it t e impulses of t e past+ its assumptions prevented t em from arti!ulating an't ing positive for t e present or t e future.

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The al&erna&i)e e$braces inh+$ane for$s of %o%+la&ion con&rol,&his is an en-orse$en& of $ass $+r-er/ Qaren Warren an- Larbara Wells>Fo<e+ 92. =rofessor of = ilosop ' at Aa!alester 7ollege. 0N!ologi!al <eminism+1 p. 93+ Doogle 9! olar.

<rom a Geep N!ologi!al perspe!tive+ t inking umanel' is problemati! insofar as doing so is uman !entere d. @f !ourse+ if umaneness is merel' kindness and !ompassion+ it is not ant ropo!entri! to refle!t or a!t umanel'. Caess seems ere to !onflate umaneness &it uman(!enteredness+ as t oug appli!ation of t e et i!s of uman intera!tions &it ea! ot er 3su! as being kind4 is ant ropo!entri!. 5s t is merel' a matter of interpretationR 5s it true t at t e overall tone of Caess*s &ork eviden!es benevolent foundationsF is reader &ould find t at e &ould !ondone in umane met ods of population redu!tion. A' point is to identif' a vagueness+ or la!k of !larit' in Geep N!ologi!al t inking !on!erning uman intera!tions &it ea! ot er. Gespite Caess* apparent benevolent sensibilities+ t e &ritings and re!ommendations of a number of Geep N!ologists ave sometimes verged on t e in umane+ and ot ers ave put fort t e vie& t at p enomena su! as t e global 25G9 epidemi! and E ird Horld famine are 0ne!essar' solutions1 to t e 0population problem.1

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"ee% ecolog*9s foc+s on crea&ing a ne< %s*che aliena&es &he %+blic/ "e>Shali&+ 2000. =rofessor of =oliti!al E eor' at t e >ebre& ?niversit' of ;erusalem and 2sso!iate <ello& at t e @xford 7entre for Nnvironment+ Nt i!s+ and 9o!iet'+ Aansfield 7ollege+ @xford ?niversit'. 0E e Nnvironment: Let&een E eor' and =ra!ti!e+1 p. 49("0+ 2vner+ _uestia. @ne ma' ask: so & atR Goes it matter t at Geep N!olog' uses t e term KenvironmentK differentl' from s!ien!eR A' ans&er is: it ma' not matter+ as long as &e re!ognize t at t is is indeed t e !ase+ t at Geep N!olog' is a politi!al 3or ps'! ologi!al4 t eor' & ose goals do not al&a's seek to reform our attitudes about t e environment + but rat er seek to repla!e politi!s b' a non(politi!al s'stem. 5f+ o&ever+ Geep N!olog' !laims to respe!t t e environment and treat it Kas it isK+ t en t is !laim ma' be de!eptive be!ause environmental attitudes be!ome a means of ! anging t e Ks'stemK. E eir t eor'+ t en+ is not about t e moral grounds for respe!ting t e environment+ but about non(environmental goals . 19 5f &e understand t is+ it is !lear at least & ' Geep N!olog' as rarel*. if a& all. ser)e- as a ra&ionale for en)iron$en&al %olicies. E e general publi!+ in!luding a!tivists+ ma' ave sensed t at+ & en t e' &ant to /ustif' re!'!ling or t e treatment of se&age+ talks about t e ne& ps'! e &ill not do . E e deeper problem+ 5 fear+ is t at+ sin!e Geep N!olog' is rat er dominant in environmental p ilosop '+ man' people in t e general publi! !on!lude t at Kt is is environmental p ilosop 'K and t erefore t at Karguments taken from environmental p ilosop ' in general &ill not suffi!e in real !asesK.

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AT "#L#@?# A!" 7@ATTA( ' A@TFO( TA( A! SM T@(! "ele+Be an- 7+a&&ari9s al&erna&i)e fails an- lea-s &o a+&hori&arian o%%ression/ Barbrook 95 36i! ard+ !oordinator of t e >'permedia 6esear! 7entre at t e ?niversit' of Hestminster+ %)2$+ ttp:))amsterdam.nettime.org)8ists(2r! ives)nettime(l(9%0%)msg00091. tml4 Ee! no(nomad E;s are attra!ted b' t e un!ompromising t eoreti!al radi!alism expressed b' Geleuze and Duattari. >o&ever+ far from su!!umbing to an outside !onspira!'+ <requen!e 8ibre imploded be!ause of t e parti!ular Ce& 8eft politi!s & i! inspired 2 E ousand =lateaus and t e ot er sa!red texts. ?n&illing to !onne!t abstra!t t eor' &it its pra!ti!al appli!ation+ t e te! no(nomads !annot see o& Geleuze and DuattariKs !elebration of dire!t demo!ra!' &as simultaneousl' a /ustifi!ation for intelle!tual elitism. E is elitism &as no a!!ident. Le!ause of t eir ver' different life experien!es+ man' 'oung people in t e sixties experien!ed a pronoun!ed Kgeneration gapK bet&een t emselves and t eir parents. <eeling so isolated+ t e' believed t at so!iet' !ould onl' be ! anged b' a revolutionar' vanguard !omposed of t emselves and t eir !omrades. E is is & ' man' 'oung radi!als simultaneousl' believed in t&o !ontradi!tor' !on!epts. <irst+ t e revolution &ould !reate mass parti!ipation in running so!iet'. 9e!ond+ t e revolution !ould onl' be organised b' a !ommitted minorit'.l14m E e Ce& 8eft militants &ere reliving an old problem in a ne& form. La!k in t e 1$90s+ 6obespierre ad argued t at t e demo!rati! republi! !ould onl' be !reated b' a revolutionar' di!tators ip. Guring t e 191$ 6ussian revolution+ 8enin ad advo!ated dire!t demo!ra!' & ile simultaneousl' instituting t e totalitarian rule of t e Lols eviks. 2s t eir Kfree radioK experien!e s o&ed+ Geleuze and Duattari never es!aped from t is fundamental !ontradi!tion of revolutionar' politi!s. E e absen!e of t e 8eninist part' did not prevent t e !ontinuation of vanguard politi!s. 2s in ot er so!ial movements+ <r,N9quen!e 8ibre &as dominated b' a fe& ! arismati! individuals: t e ol' prop ets of t e anar! o(!ommunist revolution.l1"m 5n Geleuze and DuattariKs &ritings+ t is deep aut oritarianism found its t eoreti!al expression in t eir met odolog': semioti! stru!turalism. Gespite re/e!ting its K&ooden languageK+ t e t&o p ilosop ers never reall' abandoned 9talinism in t eor'. 2bove all+ t e' retained its most fundamental premise: t e minds of t e ma/orit' of t e population &ere !ontrolled b' bourgeois ideologies.l1#m Guring t e sixties+ t is elitist t eor' &as updated t roug t e addition of
8a!anian stru!turalism b' 8ouis 2lt usser+ t e ! ief p ilosop er of t e <ren! 7ommunist part'.l1$m <or Geleuze and Duattari+ 2lt usser ad explained & ' onl' a revolutionar' minorit' supported t e Ce& 8eft. Lrain&as ed b' t e semioti! Kma! ini! assemblagesK of t e famil'+ media+ language and ps'! oanal'sis+ most people supposedl' desired fas!ism rat er t an anar! o(!ommunism. E is aut oritarian met odolog' !learl' !ontradi!ted t e libertarian r etori! &it in Geleuze and DuattariKs &ritings. Xet+ as t e rappers & o &anted to make a s o& for <requen!e 8ibre dis!overed+ Geleuzoguattarian anar! o(!ommunism even in!luded t e !ensors ip of musi!. L' adopting an 2lt usserian anal'sis+ Geleuze and Duattari &ere ta!itl' privileging t eir o&n role as intelle!tuals: t e

. ;ust like t eir 9talinist elders+ t e t&o p ilosop ers believed t at onl' t e vanguard of intelle!tuals ad t e rig t to lead t e masses ( &it out an' formal !onsent from t em ( in t e fig t against !apitalism.
produ!ers of semioti! s'stems

"ele+Be an- 7+a&&ari9s ra-ical libera&ion %la*s o+& as a his&orical -isas&er,=ol =o& is an exa$%le of &he al&erna&i)e/ Barbrook 95 36i! ard+ !oordinator of t e >'permedia 6esear! 7entre at t e ?niversit' of Hestminster+ %)2$+ ttp:))amsterdam.nettime.org)8ists(2r! ives)nettime(l(9%0%)msg00091. tml4 Geleuze and Duattari ent usiasti!all' /oined t is atta!k against t e !on!ept of istori!al progress. <or t em+ t e KdeterritorialisationK of urban so!iet' &as t e solution to t e !ontradi!tion bet&een parti!ipator' demo!ra!' and revolutionar' elitism aunting t e Ce& 8eft. 5f t e !entralised !it' !ould be broken do&n into Kmole!ular r izomesK+ dire!t demo!ra!' and t e gift e!onom' &ould reappear as people formed t emselves into small nomadi! bands. 2!!ording to Geleuze and Duattari+ anar! o(!ommunism &as not t e Kend of istor'K: t e material result of a long epo! of so!ial development. @n t e !ontrar'+ t e liberation of desire from semioti! oppression &as a perpetual promise: an et i!al stan!e & i! !ould be equall' lived b' nomads in an!ient times or so!ial movements in t e present. Hit enoug intensit' of effort+ an'one !ould over!ome t eir ierar! i!al brain&as ing to be!ome a full'(liberated individual: t e ol' fool.l21m Xet+ as t e experien!e of <requen!e 8ibre proved+ t is r etori! of unlimited freedom !ontained a deep desire for ideologi!al !ontrol b' t e Ce& 8eft vanguard. H ile t e nomadi! fantasies of 2 E ousand =lateaus &ere being !omposed+ one revolutionar' movement a!tuall' did !arr' out Geleuze and DuattariKs dream of destro'ing t e !it'. 8ed b' a vanguard of =aris(edu!ated intelle!tuals+ t e Q mer 6ouge overt re& an oppressive regime installed b' t e 2meri!ans. 6e/e!ting t e Kgrand narrativeK of e!onomi! progress+ =ol =ot and is organisation instead tried to !onstru!t a rural utopia. >o&ever+ & en t e e!onom' subsequentl' imploded+ t e regime embarked on ever more fero!ious purges until t e !ountr' &as res!ued b' an invasion b' neig bouring Bietnam. Geleuze and Duattari ad !laimed t at t e destru!tion of t e !it' &ould !reate dire!t demo!ra!' and libidinal e!stas'. 5nstead+ t e appli!ation of su! anti(modernism in pra!ti!e resulted in t'rann' and geno!ide. E e Kline of flig tK from 9talin ad led to =ol =ot.

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AT "#L#@?# A!" 7@ATTA( ' A@TFO( TA( A! SM T@(! The al&erna&i)e& is eli&is& an- bo+n- &o en- in a &o&ali&arian s&a&e Barbrook 95 36i! ard+ !oordinator of t e >'permedia 6esear! 7entre at t e ?niversit' of Hestminster+ %)2$+ ttp:))amsterdam.nettime.org)8ists(2r! ives)nettime(l(9%0%)msg00091. tml4 E is elitism is a allo&ed tradition of t e Nuropean avant(garde. <or de!ades+ radi!al intelle!tuals ave adopted dissident politi!s+ aest eti!s and morals to separate t emselves from t e ma/orit' of K erd animalsK & ose minds &ere !ontrolled b' bourgeois ideologies. Gespite t eir revolutionar' r etori!+ avant(garde intelle!tuals fantasised about t emselves as an artisti! aristo!ra!' ruling t e p ilistine masses. <ollo&ing t is elitist !ustom+ t e Geleuzoguattarians ! ampion nomadi! minorities from t e Knon(guaranteedK so!ial movements against t e stupified ma/orit' from t e KguaranteedKse!tor. @n!e again+ t e revolution is t e et i!al(aest eti! illumination of a minorit' rat er t an t e so!ial liberation of all people. Narlier in t is !entur'+ t is dream of an artisti! aristo!ra!' sometimes evolved into fas!ism. Aore often+ t e avant(garde supported totalitarian tendan!ies &it in t e 8eft. Co&ada's+ !ultural elitism !an easil' turn into impli!it s'mpat ' &it neo( liberalism. E e Nuropean avant(garde ( and its imitators ( !ould never openl' support t e free market fundamentalism of t e 7alifornian ideolog'. Xet+ as E;s !ut KnK mix+ t e distin!tions bet&een rig t and left libertarianism are blurring. @n t e one and+ t e 7alifornian ideologues !laim t at a eroi! minorit' of !'ber(entrepreneurs is emerging from t e fier!e !ompetition of t e ele!troni! marketpla!e. @n t e ot er and+ t e Geleuzoguattarians believe t at t is ne& elite !onsists of !ool E;s and ip artists & o release subversive Kassemblages of enun!iationK into t e Cet. 5n bot t e 7alifornian ideolog' and Geleuzoguattarian dis!ourse+ primitivism and futurism are !ombined to produ!e t e apot eosis of individualism: t e !'borg Cietzs! ean 9uperman.

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AT "#L#@?# A!" 7@ATTA( ' ALT "O#S!9T ASS@M# T#EF!OLO7J "ele+Be an- 7+a&&ari9s %assion for anarcho>co$$+nis$ fails K &he &echnolog* &he* celebra&e <ill be con&rolle- b* eli&es/ Barbrook 95 36i! ard+ !oordinator of t e >'permedia 6esear! 7entre at t e ?niversit' of Hestminster+ %)2$+ ttp:))amsterdam.nettime.org)8ists(2r! ives)nettime(l(9%0%)msg00091. tml4 E e Ce& 8eft anti!ipated t e emergen!e of t e i(te! gift e!onom'. =eople !ould !ollaborate &it ea! ot er &it out needing eit er markets or states. >o&ever+ t e Ce& 8eft ad a purist vision of G5X !ulture. E ere !ould be no !ompromise bet&een t e aut enti!it' of t e potlat! and t e alienation of t e market. <r,N9quen!e 8ibre preserved its prin!iples to t e point of bankrupt!'. Lored &it t e emotional emptiness of post(modernism+ t e te! no(nomads are entran!ed b' t e un!ompromising fervour of Geleuze and Duattari. >o&ever+ as s o&n b' <requen!e 8ibre+ t e r etori! of mass parti!ipation often ides t e rule of t e enlig tened fe&. E e et i!al(aest eti! !ommittment of anar! o(!ommunism !an onl' be lived b' t e artisti! aristo!ra!'. Xet+ t e antinomies of t e avant(garde !an no longer be avoided. E e ideologi!al passion of anar! o(!ommunism is dulled b' t e banalit' of giving gifts &it in !'berspa!e. E e t eor' of t e artisti! aristo!ra!' !annot be based on t e ever'da' a!tivities of K erd animalsK. 2bove all+ anar! o(!ommunism exists in a !ompromised form on t e Cet. 7ontrar' to t e et i!al(aest eti! vision of t e Ce& 8eft+ t e boundaries bet&een t e different met ods of &orking are not morall' pre!ise. Hit in t e mixed e!onom' of t e Cet+ t e gift e!onom' and t e !ommer!ial se!tor !an onl' expand t roug mutual !ollaboration &it in !'berspa!e. E e free !ir!ulation of information bet&een users relies upon t e !apitalist produ!tion of !omputers+ soft&are and tele!ommuni!ations. E e profits of !ommer!ial net !ompanies depend upon in!reasing numbers of people parti!ipating &it in t e i(te! gift e!onom'. ?nder t reat from Ai!rosoft+ Cets!ape is no& tr'ing to realise t e opportunities opened up b' su! interdependen!e. 8a!king t e resour!es to beat its monopolisti! rival+ t e development of produ!ts for t e s are&are 8inux operating s'stem as be!ome a top priorit'. 2nar! o(!ommunism is no& sponsored b' !orporate !apital. E e purit' of t e digital G5X !ulture is also !ompromised b' t e politi!al s'stem. Le!ause t e dogmati! !ommunism of Geleuze and Duattari as dated badl'+ t eir dis!iples instead emp asise t eir un!ompromising anar! ism. >o&ever+ t e state isnKt /ust t e potential !ensor and regulator of t e Cet. Aan' people use t e Cet for politi!al purposes+ in!luding lobb'ing t eir politi!al representatives. 9tate intervention &ill be needed to ensure ever'one !an a!!ess t e Cet. E e !ult of Geleuze and Duattari is t reatened b' t e mis!egenation of t e i(te! gift e!onom' &it t e private and publi! se!tors. 2nar! o(!ommunism s'mbolised moral integrit': t e roman!e of artisti! KdeliriumK undermining t e Kma! ini! assemblagesK of bourgeois !onformit'. >o&ever+ as Cet a!!ess gro&s+ more and more ordinar' people are !ir!ulating free information a!ross t e Cet. <ar from aving an' belief in t e revolutionar' ideals of Aa' K#%+ t e over& elming ma/orit' of people parti!ipate &it in t e i(te! gift e!onom' for entirel' pragmati! reasons. 5n t e late nineties+ digital anar! o(!ommunism is being built b' a!kers like Nri! 6a'mond: Ia self(des!ribed neo(pagan Trig t(&ingU libertarian & o en/o's s ooting semi(automati! &eapons...I

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AT "#L#@?# A!" 7@ATTA( ' !OMA" ALT#(!AT 8# FA LS Al&erna&i)e fails,&rea&ing &he no$a- as a co$%le&e o+&si-er is narcissis&ic an- i$%ossible/ Mann. 93 3=rofessor of Nnglis at =omona+ =aul+ 09tupid ?ndergrounds+1 =ostAodern 7ulture ":3+ =ro/e!t A?9N4 5ntelle!tual e!onomi!s guarantees t at even t e most po&erful and ! allenging &ork !annot prote!t itself from t e order of fas ion. Le!oming(fas ion+ be!oming(!ommodit'+ be!oming(ruin. 9u! instant+ indeed retroa!tive ruins+ are t e virtual lands!ape of t e stupid underground. E e exits and lines of flig t pursued b' Geleuze and Duattari are being s ut do&n and rerouted b' t e ver' people & o &ould take t em most seriousl'. L' no&+ an' given &ork from t e stupid undergroundKs !riti!al apparatus is liable to be tri!ked out &it smoot spa!es+ &ar(ma! ines+ n ( 1s+ planes of !onsisten!'+ plateaus and deterritorializations+ stre&n about like tattoos on t e stupid bod' &it out organs. E e nomad is alread' su!!umbing to t e rousseauism and orientalism t at &ere al&a's invested in is figureF & atever Geleuze and Duattari intended for im+ e is redu!ed to being a romanti! outla&+ to a position opposite t e 9tate+ in t e sort of diale!ti!al operation Geleuze most despised. 2nd t e r izome is be!oming /ust anot er stupid subterranean figure. 5t is per aps true t at Geleuze and Duattari did not adequatel' prote!t t eir t oug t from t is diale!ti!al re!onfiguration 3one is reminded of LretonKs indi!tment against 6imbaud for not aving prevented+ in advan!e+ 7laudelKs re!uperation of im as a proper 7at oli!4+ but no vigilan!e &ould ave suffi!ed in an' !ase. E e &ork of Geleuze and Duattari is eviden!e t at+ in real time+ virtual models and maps !lose off t e ver' exits t e' indi!ate. E e problem is in part t at r izomes+ lines of flig t+ smoot spa!es+ L&@s+ et!.+ are at one and t e same time t eoreti!al(politi!al devi!es of t e ig est !riti!al order and merel' fantasmati!+ delirious+ nar!issisti! models for &riting+ and t us per aps an instan!e of t e all(too(proper blurring of t e distin!tion bet&een !riti!ism and fantas'. 5n Geleuze(speak+ t e stupid underground &ould be mapped not as a margin surrounding a fixed point+ not as a fixed site determined stri!tl' b' its relation or opposition to some more or less egemoni! formation+ but as an intensive+ n( dimensional interse!tion of r izomati! plateaus. Comadolog' and r izomati!s !on!eive su! a Ispa!eI 3if one onl' ad t e proverbial ni!kel for ever' time t at &ord is used as a !riti!al metap or+ &it out t e slig test refle!tion on & at mig t be involved in rendering t e !on!eptual in spatial terms4 as a liquid+ !olloidal suspension+ often retrievable b' one or anot er te! no(metap ori!al zoning 3e.g.+ I!'berspa!eI4. H at is at stake+ o&ever+ is not onl' t e topologi!al verisimilitude of t e model but t e fantasti! possibilit' of nonlinear passage+ of multiple simultaneous a!!esses and exits+ of infinite fra!tal lines o!!up'ing finite so!ial spa!e. 5n t e stri!test sense+ stupid p ilosop '. Comad t oug t is prost eti!+ t e experien!e of virtual ex ilaration in modalities alread' mapped and dominated b' nomad+ r izomati! !apital 3t e politi!al p ilosop ' of t e stupid underground: !apital is more radi!al t an an' of its !ritiques+ but one !an al&a's pretend ot er&ise4. 5t is t is ver' fantas'+ t is ver' nar!issisti! &is to see oneself pro/e!ted past t e frontier into ne& spa!es+ t at abandons one to t is e!onom'+ t at seals t ese spa!es &it in an order of !riti!al fantas' t at as long sin!e been overdeveloped+ entirel' reterritorialized in advan!e. Eo pursue nomadolog' or r izomati!s as su! is alread' to ave lost t e game. Cot ing is more !ru!ial to p ilosop ' t an es!aping t e diale!ti! and no pro/e!t is more opelessF t e stupid(!riti!al underground is t e !urved spa!e in & i! t is opposition turns ba!k on itself.

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AT #EO>F#M !S M' #L M !AT#S EA= TAL SM #co>fe$inis$ <o+l- reD+ire &he eli$ina&ion of ca%i&alis$/ Mellor 97 . 9enior 8e!turer in 9o!iolog'+ Ce&!astle upon E'ne =ol'te! ni! . 199$ 3Aar'+ <NA5C59A 2CG N7@8@DX+ p. 1#24 N!o(feminists in!orporate an impli!it or expli!it re/e!tion of !apitalism in t eir !ritique of &estern so!iet'+ alt oug ver' fe& adopt a so!ialist anal'sis in t e Aarxian sense. 7arol'n Aer! ant as argued t e !ase for a so!ialist anal'sis of t e e!ologi!al !risis !ou! ed in terms of so!ialist feminism: P9o!ialist feminism vie&s ! ange as d'nami!+ intera!tive and diale!ti!al+ rat er t an a me! anisti!+ linear and in!rementala2 so!ialist feminist environmental et i! involves developing sustainable+ non(dominating relations &it nature and suppl'ing all peoples &it a ig qualit' of life*31990:10"4. Aer! ant points out t at Pso!ialist feminism environmental t eor' gives bot reprodu!tion and produ!tion !entral pla!es*+ t us den'ing t e !entralit' of t e Aarxian anal'sis of produ!tion. 5n a later book Aer! ant advo!ates a Pradi!al e!olog'* as t e basis of a so!ialist position in & i! so!ial movements su! as bioregional movements+ grassroots struggle and mainstream environmental !ampaigning ave largel' repla!ed so!ial !lass as politi!al agents.

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#cofe$inis$ $arginaliBes <o$en b* e$bracing %a&riarchal essen&ialis$s/ Biehl+ 90. 9o!ial e!olog' a!tivist and t e aut or of 6et inking N!o(feminist =oliti!s. 06et inking N!ofeminist =oliti!s+1 p. 3(4+ ;anet. 2lt oug most politi!al movements mig t feel t e need to sort out t ese differen!es and t eir t eorists mig t argue for and against t em+ produ!ing a ealt ' debate+ e!ofeminists rarel' !onfront ea! ot er en t e differen!es in t ese &ritings. N!ofeminists & o even a!kno&ledge t e existen!e of serious !ontradi!tions tend+ in fa!t+ to pride t emselves on t e !ontradi!tions in t eir &orks as a ealt ' sign of Idiversit'I(presumabl' in !ontrast to Idogmati!+I fairl' !onsistent+ and presumabl' ImaleI or Imas!ulineI t eories. Lut dogmatism is !learl' not t e same t ing as !o eren!e+ !larit'+ and at least a minimum level of !onsisten!'. N!ofeminism+ far from being ealt il' diverse+ is so blatantl' self(!ontradi!tor' as to be in!o erent. 2s one mig t expe!t+ at least one e!ofeminist even re/e!ts t e ver'(notion of !o eren!e itself+ arguing t at !o eren!e is ItotalizingI and b' inferen!e oppressive. Aoreover+ be!ause
e!ofeminists rarel' debate ea! ot er+ it is nearl' impossible to glean from t eir &ritings t e extent to & i! t e' agree or disagree &it ea! ot er. E e reader of t is book s ould be &ar' of attributing t e

e!ofeministsK apparent aversion to sorting out t e differen!es among t emselves leaves t e !riti!al observer no ! oi!e but to generalize. E e self(!ontradi!tor' nature of e!ofeminism raises furt er problems as &ell. 9ome e!ofeminists literall' !elebrate t e identifi!ation of &omen &it nature as an ontologi!al realit'. E e' t ereb' spe!iousl' biologize t e personalit' traits t at patri!entri! so!iet' assigns to &omen. The i$%lica&ion of &his %osi&ion is &o confine <o$en &o &he sa$e regressi)e social -efini&ions fro$ <hich fe$inis&s ha)e fo+gh& long an- har- &o e$anci%a&e <o$en. @t er e!ofeminists re/e!t su! biologizations and rig tl' !onsider & at are virtuall' so!iobiologi!al definitions of &omen as regressive for &omen. Lut some of t e same e!ofeminists & o re/e!t t ese definitions nonet eless favor using t em to build a movement.
vie&s of an'one e!ofeminist+ as t e' are presented ere+ to all ot er e!ofeminists. Lut

#cofe$inis&s associa&ion of <o$en <i&h na&+re reinforces %a&riarch*,&his -es&ro*s &he al&erna&i)e9s %o&en&ial/ Biehl+ 90. ;anet+ 9o!ial e!olog' a!tivist and t e aut or of 6et inking N!o(feminist =oliti!s. 06et inking N!ofeminist =oliti!s+1 p. 1"(#. Gespite e!ofeminismKs allegedl' Irevolutionar'I potential+ some feminists 3& o are not e!ofeminists4 ave !riti!ized e!ofeminism and its !losel' asso!iated !ultural feminism for t eir rea!tionar' impli!ations. N!ofeminist images of &omen+ t ese !riti!s !orre!tl' &arn+ retain t e patriar! al stereot'pes of & at men expe!t &omen to be. E ese stereot'pes freeze &omen as merel' !aring and nurturing beings+ instead of expanding t e full range of &omenKs uman potentialities and abilities. Eo fo!us over& elmingl' on &omenKs I!aring natureI as t e sour!e of e!ologi!all' ne!essar' IvaluesI easil' leads to t e notion t at &omen are to remain intuitive and dis!ourages t em from expanding t eir uman orizons and !apa!ities.
5t is important to note t at de Leauvoir flatl' repudiated It e ne& femininit'I su! as e!ofeminism offers+ !riti!izing its return to an en an!ed status for traditional feminine values+ su! as &omen and er

E is rene&ed attempt to pin &omen do&n to t eir traditional role+ toget er &it a small effort to meet some of t e demands made b' &omen(t atKs t e formula used to tr' and keep &omen quiet. Nven &omen & o !all t emselves feminists donKt al&a's see t roug it. @n!e again+ &omen are being defined in terms of It e ot er+I on!e again t e' are being made into t e Ise!ond sex.I ... Nquating e!olog' &it feminism is somet ing t at irritates me. E e' are not automati!all' one and t e same t ing
rapport &it nature+ &oman and er maternal instin!t+ &oman and er p 'si!al being ... at all. 3emp asis added4I Ge LeauvoirKs &ell(pla!ed emp asis on t e Itraditional roleI assigned to &omen b' male(!reated !ultures is a !on!lusion t at !an onl' be ig l' dis!on!erting to e!ofeminism+ for it

. E at it is no& &omen(and not men(& o define &omen as Iot erI &it nature is a milestone in t e passage in re!ent de!ades from a struggle for &omenKs liberation to assertions of mere female ! auvinism in e!ofeminism. E e fa!t is t at Hestern asso!iations of &omen &it non uman nature(or as !loser to non uman nature t an
&as from t is pioneer in &omenKs liberation t at e!ofeminists borro&ed t eir basi! !on!ept of t e Iot ernessI of &omen and nature men(&ere enormousl' debasing to &omen. 2n!ient Dreek !ulture ex!luded &omen from politi!al life be!ause of t eir presumed intelle!tual inferiorit'F 2ristotle &rote t at t eir logos or reason Ila!ks aut orit'.I =lato believed t at in t e origin of t e t&o sexes+ &omen result & en men & o do not do &ell in t eir life on eart !ome ba!k t roug transmigration of t e soul as females.I Nuripides in a fragment sa's t at I&oman is a more terrible t ing t an t e violen!e of t e raging sea+ t an t e for!e of torrents+ t an t e s&eeping breat of fire.II 9emonides delivered a diatribe !omparing & at e sa& as various t'pes of &omen to various animals. 2n!ient 6oman la& regarded &omen as aving a Ilevit' of mind+I and in 7 ristian !ulture+ 2ugustine sa& &omen as I&eaker.I Nve !ame to be seen as a

E e asso!iation of &omen &it non uman nature or as beings !loser to non uman nature as t us been immensel' degrading for &omen+ !ontributing to untold miser' in t e lives of !ountless &omen in Hestern !ulture.
temptress for er role in t e <all(in t e &ords of t e 7 ristian fat er Eertullian+ It e gate&a' to ell.I 2quinas+ follo&ing 2ristotle+ regarded &omen as ImisbegottenI and defe!tive.

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AT #"#LMA!' ALT "O#S!9T SOL8# =AT( A(EFJ Al&erna&i)e -oesn9& sol)e %a&riarch* K #-el$an9s +se of D+eer &heor* can9& be +ni)ersaliBe-/ Sne-iker 04 3Ai! ael+ Bisiting 2ssistant =rofessor of 2meri!an 8iterature at Aount >ol'oke 7ollege+ =ostmoden 7ulture+ Bol 1#+ 0_ueer @ptimism1+ Aa'+ ttp:))muse./ u.edu.prox'.lib.umi! .edu)/ournals)postmodernY!ulture)v01#)1#.3snediker. tml4 NdelmanKs mig t be one &a' of refusing t e logi! of reprodu!tive futurism+ but not t e onl' one. E at t ere &ould be man' possible queer !ourses of a!tion mig t indeed seem to follo& from NdelmanKs invoking of 8a!anian trut 3IHuns! I4 as ! ara!terized b' not ing so mu! as its extravagant+ re!al!itrant parti!ularit'. IE e Huns! +I 8a!an &rites in a passage !ited in Co <utureKs introdu!tion+ Idoes not ave t e ! ara!ter of a universal la& but+ on t e !ontrar'+ of t e most parti!ular of la&s((even if it is universal t at t is parti!ularit' is to be found in ever' uman beingI 3#4. E is trut + & i! Ndelman aligns &it IqueernessI 3and ergo &it negativit'+ t e deat (drive+ /ouissan!e+ et!.4 Idoes not ave t e ! ara!ter of a universal la&.I Ndelman+ for all is attentiveness to t e 8a!anian Iletter of t e la&+I glosses 8a!anKs o&n argument &it a s'mptomati! liberalit'. IErut + like queerness+I Ndelman &rites+ Ifinds its
value not in a good sus!eptible to generalization+ but onl' in t e stubborn parti!ularit' t at voids ever' notion of a general good. E e embra!e of queer negativit'+ t en+ !an ave no /ustifi!ation if /ustifi!ation requires it to reinfor!e some positive so!ial valueI 3#4. 8a!an+ o&ever+ does not speak+ even in ;a!ques(2lain AillerKs translation+ of a Igeneral good.I >e speaks of a universal+ & i! mig t be

if t e onl' ! ara!teristi! universall' appli!able to t is Itrut + like queernessI is its parti!ularit'+ & at sort of parti!ularit' voids ever' notion of a general goodR Aig t so intransigent a parti!ularit' sometimes not void a universal+ good or badR A' line of inquir' mig t seem pett'+ but m' question+ in fa!t+ illuminates o& little NdelmanKs argument !an old onto t e parti!ularit' on & i! it is partl' premised. IE e queer+I
good or bad. <urt ermore+ Ndelman insists+ Iinsists t at politi!s is al&a's a politi!s of t e signifierI 3#4. Ndelman like&ise insists t at Iqueer t eor' must al&a's insist on its !onne!tion to t e vi!issitudes of t e signI 3$4. E e ubiquit' of Ial&a'sI and Iever'I in NdelmanKs argument is nearl' stunning+ and it seems to me indi!ative of Co <utureKs !oer!iveness+ as a different passage from Co <utureKs introdu!tion quite andil' demonstrates: 6at er t an re/e!ting+ &it liberal dis!ourse+ t is as!ription of negativit' to t e queer+ &e mig t+ as 5 argue+ do better to !onsider a!!epting and even embra!ing it. Cot in t e ope of forging t ereb' some more perfe!t so!ial order((su! a ope+ after all+ &ould onl' reprodu!!e t e !onstraining mandate of futurism+ /ust as an' su! order &ould equall' o!!asion t e negativit' of t e queer((but rat er to refuse t e insisten!e of ope itself as affirmation+ & i! is al&a's affirmation of an order & ose refusal &ill register as unt inkable+ irresponsible+ in umane. 2nd t e trump !ard of affirmationR 2l&a's t e question: 5f not t is+ & atR 2l&a's t e demand to translate t e insisten!e+ t e pulsive for!e+ of negativit' into some determinate stan!e or IpositionI & ose determination &ould negate it: al&a's t e imperative to immure it in some stable and positive form. 3442l&a's t is+ al&a's t is+ al&a's t at. E is absoluteness in NdelmanKs ! ara!terization of affirmation+ meant to rall' and provoke+ re!alls

I IH at !ould ave less to do+I 9edg&i!k rig tl' asks+ I&it istori!izing t an t e !ommanding+ atemporal adverb Kal&a'sKI 3I=aranoid 6eadingI 12"4R H at+ for t at matter+ !ould ave less to do &it parti!ularizationsR E e axiomati! t rust of NdelmanKs Ial&a'sI &ould seem to make t e &orld so irrevo!abl' one t ing t at response to t e &orld &ould amount to one t ing. Lut still: & ' &ould re/e!ting a primar' atta! ment to futurit' 3regardless of & at t is futurit' al&a's does or doesnKt do4 ne!essaril' require embod'ing negativit'R NdelmanKs queer pessimism positions itself as IourI onl' option &it out aving ex austed & at ot er options mig t glimmeringl' look like.
9edg&i!kKs in!redulous reading of <redri! ;amesonKs ukase+ I2l&a's istori!ize. E is glimmer doesnKt !on/ure t e sort of orizon Ndelman &ould be so qui!k to dismantle. 6at er+ it suggests t at not all optimisms are a priori equivalent to ea! ot er. 2nd as importantl'+ t at not all queer t eories need look like NdelmanKs. I2s a parti!ular stor' . . . of & ' stor'telling fails+I Ndelman &rites+ Iqueer t eor'+ as 5 !onstrue it+ marks t e Kot erK side of politi!s . . . t e KsideK outside all politi!al sides+

E is a!!ount of queer t eor'+ even as !onstrued b' one t eorist+ ardl' seems like a Iparti!ularI stor'+ not at least parti!ular enoug . _ueer t eor'+ on t is a!!ount+ doesnKt seem like an es!ape from t e politi!alKs !laustrop obi!all' refra!ted unavailing sides+ but a !laustrop obia unto itself.
!ommitted as t e' are+ on ever' side+ to futurismKs unquestioned goodI 3$4.

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#-el$an9s al&erna&i)e %er%e&+a&es essen&ialis$ an- -oes no& a--ress $a&erial o%%ression/ #-<ar-s 04 3Eim+ 9enior 8e!turer of 9o!iolog' at t e ?niversit' of 8ei!ester+ 6outledge+ 07ultures of Aas!ulinit'1 p%"+ ttp:))books.google.!om)booksRid,/iGisAipzNs7:sour!e,gbsYnavlinksYs4 Da' liberation is problemati! not least be!ause liberation per se is problemati!+ bot t eoreti!all' and politi!all'. 5n t eoreti!al terms+ t e notion of liberation tends to impl' essentialism and+ in relation to sexualit'+ t is is !ompounded b' its !onflation &it t e !on!ept of repression and t e assertion of some ot er&ise !ontained or !onstrained sexual desire. E e diffi!ult' ere is not so mu! t e ! arge of essentialism+ & i! must remain in some senses merel' a des!riptive term+ but rat er t e sense of !onfusion invoked !on!erning & at exa!tl' is being liberated: a sexual desire+ a sexual identit'+ a sexual !ommunit'+ or all t reeR E is is not to den' in t e least t at ga' men still !onstitute a marginalized+ stigmatized+ and on o!!asions+ even demonized group+ 'et su! an experien!e is per aps more a!!uratel' understood as a problem of subordination+ eman!ipation or indeed oppression. E e term liberation t erefore remains rat er inadequate in t eoreti!al terms. E is sense of ambiguit' or even
ambivalen!e !on!erning ga' liberation &as+ o&ever+ also illustrated more a!ademi!all'. 9ome of t e earliest &orks on ga' politi!s+ parti!ularl' t ose of >o!queng eim and Aieli+ attributed a liberator' for!e to ga' desire in !elebrating promis!uit'+ pus ing t e boundaries of de!en!' and more generall' going against t e mores of mainstream eterosexual so!iet'F & ile ot ers+ parti!ularl' t ose of 2ltman and Heeks+ sa& ga' politi!s as a !ulturall' spe!ifi! p enomenon !ontingent on istories of movements to&ards reform and slo&l' s ifting morals and values 32ltman+ 19$1F >o!queng em+ 19$2F Aieli+ 19%0F Heeks+ 19$$4. 5t &as per aps not surprising+ t en+ t at mu! of t is ambivalen!e s ould also be pla'ed out t roug a series of a!ademi! debates t at follo&ed t e onset of ga' liberation. E ese more t eoreti!al debates &ere in t emselves often founded on t e politi!al involvements of 'oung &riters and a!ademi!s making t eir !areers in !olleges and universities. Aost of t ese !ontroversies !entred on various+ and often violentl' opposed+ perspe!tives of t e development of !ommer!ial ga' !ulture and t e pra!ti!es and attitudes of ga' men+ most notoriousl' t ose of t e overtl' sexualised and 'permas!uline !lone.

The al&erna&i)e %er%e&+a&es &he con&ro)ersial ga* clone. $aking +nifie- %rogress i$%ossible/ #-<ar-s 04 3Eim+ 9enior 8e!turer of 9o!iolog' at t e ?niversit' of 8ei!ester+ 6outledge+ 07ultures of Aas!ulinit'1 p%"( %#+ ttp:))books.google.!om)booksRid,/iGisAipzNs7:sour!e,gbsYnavlinksYs4 E e ga' !lone as no& be!ome somet ing of paria + bot &it in a!ademi! !ir!les and more popular !ulture+ pumped and inflated into near m't i! status and the i!oni! s'mbol of ga' liberation. Hit is sexualit' blatantl' displa'ed + literall' bulging out of is plaid s irts+ leat er /a!kets and button(fl' /eans+ and publi!l' paraded do&n t e streets of man' of t e &orld*s ma/or !ities in !elebration of is un!onstrained promis!uous desire for more and more of pre!isel' t e same t ing+ namel' t ose like imself+ e be!ame t e emblem of t e Psex* in omosexualit'+ or & at Ai! ael Lronski on!e !alled Psex in!arnate* 3Lronski+ 19%4: 1914. =ro!laimed b' some as t e epitome of t e guilt(free lifest'le of sexual liberation and !astigated b' ot ers as t e nadir of misog'nist self(loat ing+ t e !ruising ga' !lone !ame+ per aps mistakenl'+ to represent ga' sexualit' in its entiret' and to divide politi!all' motivated a!ademia like an axe t roug an apple. Aore pre!isel'+ as 5 ave demonstrated else& ere+ & at t is entire uproar often !entred on &as t e per!eived relations ip of t e omosexual to t e mas!uline 3Nd&ards+ 1994+ 199%4.

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AT #"#LMA!' 7!O(#S EFA!7#S ! (#=(O"@ET O! #-el$an o)ersi$%lifies an- ignores recen& changes in re%ro-+c&ion an- %aren&hooBalaso%o+los 04 32ntonis+ 2ssistant =rofessor in Nnglis 9tudies at t e ?niversit' of 7'prus+ ;ournal of 2meri!an 9tudies+ 0Nvolution and Pt e 9ex =roblem*: 2meri!an Carratives during t e N!lipse of Gar&inism1+ proquest4 Ndelman*s book takes obvious pleasure in provo!ation+ st'listi!all' indulging in t e ironi! ermeneuti!s it met odologi!all' advo!ates &it at times infeli!itous results 3an ex!ess of largel' gratuitous verbal punning and a partialit' for ig l' !onvoluted s'ntax are !ases in point4. Aore dis!on!ertingl'+ Co <uture involves a vision of queer sub/e!tivit' t at is so strongl' invested in transvaluating t e omop obi! linkage of omosexualit' &it a PP !ulture of deat ** t at it ends up ignoring t e !omplexit' and diversit' of & at as istori!all' !onstituted queer 3lesbian and transgender as &ell as ga'4 politi!s. Aissing+ for instan!e+ is a serious and sustained attempt to engage &it t e multiple transformations t e !on!epts of reprodu!tion and parent ood ave undergone in t e last t&o de!ades+ partl' as a result of t e interventions of queer t eor' itself. Nquall' absent is an' anal'ti!al !on!ern &it t e !ultural and representational resonan!es of t e queer ! ild . a ngure t at !ertainl' !ompli!ates t e book*s one(dimensional treatment of t e image of besieged ! ild ood+ & ile making apparent t e unreoe!tivel' e!le!ti! and istori!all' unt eorized nature of Ndelman*s ! oi!e of primar' texts. E e effe!t of su! ex!lusions . a ig l' repetitive a!!ount of texts t at are treated as virtuall' inter! angeable . is parti!ularl' troubling from a t eoreti!al standpoint. <or t oug Ndelman*s argument largel' rests on a t eoreti!al distin!tion bet&een an ideologi!all' normative and a radi!all' destabilizing kind of repetition !ompulsion+ is anal'ti!al pra!ti!e makes t e differen!e bet&een t em less t an obvious. =a'ing t e reader diminis ing dividends &it ea! page+ Co <uture bulldozes its &a' from =lato to t e Bi!torians and from >it! !o!k to ;udit Lutler b' un&averingl' lo!ating t e same Aani! ean !onoi!t bet&een reprodu!tive ideolog' and its queer negation+ a struggle to t e deat bet&een monolit i! and un! anging absolutes. Eo de!lare Co <uture a timel' &ork is en!e not an unambiguous !omplimentF for its timeliness !omes at t e !ost of intelle!tual surrender to t e in!reasingl' polarized and dis!on!ertingl' fundamentalist !limate of 2meri!an politi!s in t e present.

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AT #"#LMA!' FOMOS#X@AL !#7AT 8 TJ BA" #-el$an9s &heor* of choice regar-ing orien&a&ion gi)es $oralis&s an o%ening &o a&&ack/ S+lli)an 01 3Cikki+ 2sso!iate =rofessor of 7ultural 9tudies at Aa!quarie ?niversit'+ CX?+ 02 !riti!al introdu!tion to queer t eor'1+ p30(31+ ttp:))books.google.!om)booksRid,0b9"f9#qd%k7:sour!e,gbsYnavlinksYs4 8iberationists also attempted to repla!e t e understanding of omosexualit' as !ongenital &it t e notion of ! oi!e. E e reasoning be ind t is s ift is t at t e biologi!al or Pno(! oi!e* model of omosexualit' allo&s ga's and lesbians Pto be a!!epted onl' b' representing ourselves as vi!timsaof desires over & i! &e ave no !ontrol* 39artelle 1994:#4. 2sso!iated &it t is is+ of !ourse+ t e impli!ation t at if one !ould ! oose to be ot er&ise+ to be straig t+ t en one &ould. 9u! a position+ argues 9artelle+ !onstitutes bot t e abdi!ation of responsibilit' for one*s o&n feelings and a!tions+ and a !apitulation to egemoni! eteronormative dis!ourses and dis!ursive pra!ti!e & i! ultimatel' fun!tion to destro' 3and)or to !ure4 differen!e. 2gain+ one !an see t e importan!e of t is s ift+ but at t e same time t e !laim t at one*s sexual orientation is freel' ! ose as a number of dra&ba!ks. 2s >arris notes+ in man' instan!es+ t e fo!us on ! oi!e fuelled anti( ga' propaganda+ giving omop obes and Preligious moralists t e ideologi!al loop oles t e' needed to atta!k a segment of t e population on!e prote!ted b' t e ma&kis + if effe!tive+ r etori! of po&erlessness* 3199$: 242(34. 5f sexual orientation &as a ! oi!e+ t e' argued+ t en it &as possible for omosexuals to make t e Prig t* ! oi!e and to pra!ti!e eterosexualit'.
>o&ever+ one !ould argue t at t e distin!tion t at >arris makes ere bet&een t e prote!tion supposedl' offered t e Pr etori! of po&erlessness* and t e inevitable ba!klas against t e positing of omosexualit' as one possible ! osen sexual Plifest'le* amongst man' ot ers+ is some& at tenuous. E is is be!ause+ as 9artelle points out+ t e determinist argument fails to a!kno&ledge t e distin!tion bet&een desire and a!tion & i! is !entral to t e !laim 3made b' t e !onservative 6ig t+ and at times b' more progressive groups su! as feminists4 t at t e fa!t t at one experien!es parti!ular desires does not automati!all' give one t e rig t to a!t on t em. 14

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A+eer &heor* is &oo %ersonal an- -i)isi)e,+n-er$ines real libera&ion $o)e$en&s/ Kirsch 00 3Aax >.+ 2sso!iate =rofessor and Gire!tor of t e = .G. =rogram in 7omparative 9tudies: E e =ubli! 5ntelle!tuals =rogram at t e <lorida 2tlanti! ?niversit'+ 6outledge+ 0_ueer t eor' and so!ial ! ange1+ p114(11"+ ttp:))books.google.!om)booksRid,9fd%2bNEpt?7:sour!e,gbsYnavlinksYs4 _ueer t eor'+ as !urrentl' fo!used+ is embedded in t e !ontext of !lass oppositions+ and+ paradoxi!all'+ t e !onsequen!es of t e t eor' are not & at it appears to avo& or & at it !ontends it is. 5nstead of a for!e t at opposes t e dominan!e of po&er b' t ose t at !ontrol !apital+ it &orks as a part of t e ideologi!al me! anism t at t ose in po&er seek to furt er. Hit t e language of part radi!al movements+ _ueer t eor' &orks against t e struggle it !laims to engage+ and as reified self( involvement it militates against t e !onstru!tion and building of !ommunities. 5t disengages t e energeti! level of allian!es and interpersonal relations+ onl' to refo!us efforts on t e redu!tionisti! de!onstru!tion of texts interpreted onl' for personal use. E e presen!e of !onfli!t among peoples is tied to t e struggle to maintain !ommunit' and identit'. H at presents as senseless bigotr'+ sometimes resulting in geno!ide+ is rooted in t e anxious fig t to maintain families+ !ommunities+ and ensure survival. E ese are not individual fun!tions. E eir strategies+ mis!on!eived and misdire!ted+ are a dire!t !onsequen!e of t e loss of self(empo&erment and !ontrol over ever'da' life. 7apitalism+ in t is &a'+ gives rise to ps'! ologi!al as &ell as so!ial !onsequen!es. A+eer &heor*9s foc+s on &he in-i)i-+al -es&ro*s co$$+ni&ies &ha& co+l- s+s&ain libera&ion/ Kirsch 00 3Aax >.+ 2sso!iate =rofessor and Gire!tor of t e = .G. =rogram in 7omparative 9tudies: E e =ubli! 5ntelle!tuals =rogram at t e <lorida 2tlanti! ?niversit'+ 6outledge+ 0_ueer t eor' and so!ial ! ange1+ p121(123+ ttp:))books.google.!om)booksRid,9fd%2bNEpt?7:sour!e,gbsYnavlinksYs4 _ueer t eor' as developed along a pat t at questions t e basi! tenets of past resistan!e movements & ile ! ampioning t e rig t of in!lusion. Lut despite !alls for t e re!ognition of diversit'+ it as done little to furt er a true in!lusiveness t at &ould ave t e abilit' to form !ommunities of resistan!e. 2gain+ t is is primaril' due to t e insisten!e on t e uniqueness of t e individual and t e relativit' of experien!e. E e !all made b' _ueer t eor' is familiar to t ose & o ave parti!ipated in resistan!e movements: t e assertion of independen!e from oppressive aut orit' & ile !laiming t e rig t to envision and !reate ne& forms of being. Lut instead of fo!using on t e !reation of a so!iet' t at guarantees freedom and expression for all+ it as instead fo!used on t e individual as a site of ! ange. 5ndeed+ t is fear of !onne!tion+ as argued in 7 apter "+ as real possibilities for generating self( arm. E e a!tions of t ose &it po&er exert dominan!e in bot !ons!ious and un!ons!ious &a's+ redire!ting energ' to&ards ob/e!tive oppression and sub/e!tive self( ate in t e pro!ess. H ile t e belief t at eterosexualit' is
t e norm is purve'ed+ violen!e+ bot ps'! ologi!al and p 'si!al+ is ena!ted on t ose outside of t at pro/e!ted norm+ and experien!ed b' t em as being 0outside1 t e fa!ets of dail' so!ial life. Le'ond making

0E e rig t to be oneself1 t us be!omes a me! anism for self( prote!tion rat er t an a !all for equalit'. 7urrent _ueer t eor'*s engagement of t is fear and !on!entration on t e de!onstru!tion of identit' are results of su! a rea!tion to po&er+
it more diffi!ult to identif' &it ot ers+ su! alienation !auses a rea!tion to even t e attempt to do so. a redu!tionisti! vie& of t e possibilities for ! ange generated b' t e politi!s of t e 19#0s and 19$0s. E e rea!tion as taken pla!e most prominentl' in t e a!adem'+ & ere t e purve'ors of t is t eor' are in positions t at pose real danger to t ose opposing t em. E e' ave be!ome t e ne& a!ademi! elite+ !ompletel' &it editors ips of /ournals+ t e po&er to ire+ to de!ide & o publis es+ to den' tenure+ and t e abilit' to appl' pressure &it regard to & i! t eor' is &ell re!eived and & i! disregarded. 8et t ere be no mistake: t e' do a!t on t eir privileges. E e' are self(prote!tive in mu! t e same &a' t at t e

. H ile _ueer t eor' does not !all for t e destru!tion of !ommunities+ at least b' name+ its !onsequen!es are t e same: !ommunities must be de!onstru!ted to free t e individual for self(expression." 2s t e individual be!omes t e !enter of anal'sis in all aspe!ts of so!ial life+ and as late !apitalism emp asizes individualism on a global s!ale+ resistan!e t eor' as !losel' follo&ed t e dominant streams. 2t best+ &is ful t inking and t e !onsolidation of position
managers of !apitalist enterprises !ontrol t e organization of &ork. 5t is not in t eir interest to furt er !ommunities of dissiden!e+ parti!ularl' against t emselves underpins t is dire!tion+ t e ope t at t e mind !an reframe t e signifi!an!e of arm & ile one*s /ob is not t reatened. 2t &orst+ su! a stan!e is in operative support of !urrent stru!tures of !apitalist

. 9o!ial and emotional ealt are promoted b' a!tive parti!ipation &it ot ers in !ommunit'. E e !ommunit' is & ere 0safe spa!e1 is !reated. =o&er in numbers as been t e !all of resistan!e movements &orld(&ide+ from anti(!olonial struggles to fig ts for better &orking !onditions. 9u! struggles ave larger out!omes. E e !ommunit' is a forum for debate for t e !onstru!tion of strateg'. 7ommunities exist &it varied needs t at are part of t e !omplexit' of so!iet'. 5t is in !ommunities t at so!ial ! ange begins in embr'oni! form. 9eparatist movements ave proven unprodu!tive as t e !ommunit' be!omes isolated and involutes &it disagreement. 2ssimilationist movements !annot &ork to&ard sustained so!ial ! ange be!ause t ere is no !onfrontation &it t e basis of oppression. E e !all for individualit' is t e most armful strateg' of all+ for it separates ever' person from an' !on!rete sense of identit' and !olle!tive opposition.
relations of being. 7ommunit'+ identit'+ and self(a!tualization are indeed !omplementar'

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AT #!8 (O!M#!T KS' E#"# TF# =OL T EAL #cological +&o%ianis$ %re)en&s +s fro$ for$ing %rac&ical coali&ions an- risks -is&o%ian ex&re$es/ Le<is 92 . =rofessor+ 9! ool of t e Nnvironment+ Guke ?niversit' . 1992 3Aartin+ D6NNC GN895@C9+ p. 2"04 Lut for all of its attra!tions+ utopia remains+ and &ill al&a's remain+ 0no pla!e.1 2lt oug t e vision is eas' to !on/ure+ t e realit' is elusive. 5n fa!t+ t ose politi!al regimes t at ave struggled ardest to realize utopian plans ave !reated some of t e &orld*s most d'stopian realities. ?nfortunatel'+ 2meri!an as a people seem uniquel' dra&n to su! fantasies+ and a rig t(&ing variant of utopianism as even guided our re!ent
national administrationsF as 6obert Quttner 31991:"+ 1"$4 s o&s+ laissez(faire itself is an ideologi!all' driven utopian s! eme t at as dire !onsequen!es for t e eart *s e!onom' and e!olog'. 2s Ai! ael =ollan 31991:1%%4 eloquentl' demonstrates+ e!o(radi!alism and rig t .&ing e!onomi! t eor' are more !losel' allied t an one mig t suspe!t: 05ndeed+ t e &ilderness et i! and laissez(faire e!onomi!s+ as antit eti!al as t e' mig t first appear+ are reall' mirror images of one anot er+ ea! proposes a quasi(divine for!e . Cature+ t e Aarket . t at+ left to its o&n devi!es+ some o& kno&s & at*s best for a pla!e+ Cature and t e Aarket are bot self(regulating+ guided b' an invisible and. Hors ippers of eit er s are a deep+ =uritan distrust of man+ taking it on fait t at uman tinkering &it t e natural or e!onomi!

politi!al extremists of all stripes offer utopian visions+ & i! !redulous idealists find remarkabl' attra!tive+ but !onsidering e disparit' of t e vision offered . t e perfe!t market of laissez(faire+ t e perfe!t so!iet' of so!ialism+ or t e perfe!tl' armonious environment of e!o(radi!alism . it is not surprising t at t e utopians in t e end onl' in!reases our so!ial and intelle!tual rifts+ steadil' diminis ing our ! an!es of avoiding an e!ologi!al olo!aust.
order !an onl' pervert it. 9o

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AT #!8 (O!M#!T KS' "#ST(OJ E=A TAL SM #n)iron$en&al ra-icalis$ is inheren&l* an&i>ca%i&alis&/ Le<is 92 . =rofessor+ 9! ool of t e Nnvironment+ Guke ?niversit' . 1992 3Aartin+ D6NNC GN8?95@C9+ p. 9(104 ?ltimatel'+ green extremism is rooted in a single+ po&erful !onvi!tion: t at !ontinued e!onomi! gro&t is absolutel' impossible+ given limits of a finite planet. @nl' if t is notion is dis!redited !an t e edifi!e of e!o(radi!al p ilosop ' be s aken. 5t !an logi!all' be s o&n t at t e supposed ne!essit' of devising a stead'(state e!onom' is severel' mis!onstrued. N!onomi! gro&t + stri!tl' speaking+ is defined as an in!rease in t e value of goods and servi!es produ!ed. Xet as noted almost t&ent' 'ears ago b' Aan!ur @lson 319$3:44+ radi!al greens ave a signifi!antl' different !on!eption+ one t at largel' ignores servi!es and t at substitutes for mass value. Eo read some of t eir tra!ts+ one !ould onl' !on!lude t at e!onomi! gro&t requires produ!ing ever larger quantities of steel+ & eat+ and similar material goods 3for example+ @rnstein and N rli! 19%9:22$4.

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AT #!8 (O!M#!T KS' #!8 (O!M#!TAL =(A7MAT SM =rag$a&ic flexibili&* is ke* &o %ro&ec&ing &he en)iron$en&/ Farber 99 . =rofessor of 8a&+ ?niversit' of Ainnesota . 1999 3Ganiel+ N7@(=62DA2E59A+ p. 19%4 2s &e ave seen+ one of t e greatest ! allenges of environmental la& is t e pervasive un!ertaint' t at surrounds environmental issues. 9ometimes all &e !an do is to make t e best de!ision &e !an &it & atever information &e ave at and. H en ard numbers are unavailable+ t is ma' mean taking reasonable safe(guards against serious+ but unquantifiable+ risks+ per aps pla!ing t e burden of proof on t e polluter. H en &e do ave better information+ &e !an use t e environmental baseline of ! apter 4+ taking all feasible measures against signifi!ant risks unless t e !osts are !learl' disproportionate to possible benefits. Lut in t e long run+ t e stru!ture of de!ision making ma' be more important t an & at test is applied in individual !ases. He need to !reate stru!tures of de!ision making t at allo& us to take advantage of in!reased kno&ledge over time. 9u! stru!tures ma' in!lude various forms of de!entralization+ administrative strategies t at allo& options to be kept open+ and deregulator' aut orit' to eliminate outmoded regulator' requirements. E ese t'pes of flexibilit' s ould not be seen as ostile to environmentalism. 5nstead+ t e' are &a's of maintaining t e vitalit' of environmental prote!tion. 6at er t an being a strengt + ex!essive rigidit' !ould lead to !ollapse under pressure of !onstant ! ange. 2 more flexible regulator' s'stem+ in t e long run+ ma' provide a ig er level of environmental qualit'. =rag$a&is$ is ke* &o craf&ing la<s &ha& can gen+inel* %ro&ec& &he en)iron$en&/ Farber 99 . =rofessor of 8a&+ ?niversit' of Ainnesota . 1999 3Ganiel+ N7@(=62DA2E59A+ p. 1994 E e premise of t is book is t at environmental la& is ere to sta'. 2dmittedl'+ predi!tion is a azardous enterprise. Aa'be environmental la& &ill vanis in some politi!al !onflagration. 9o far+ o&ever+ it as s o&n strong sta'ing po&er+ aving survived t e 6eagan 6evolution 3as &ell as t e 0Dingri! 2fters o!k14 virtuall' uns!at ed. 5t &ould be tragi! if &e did lose our national !ommitment to t e environment+ but !urrentl' t is out!ome seems unlikel'. 5t is no& time to !onsider o& to s ape our regulator' s'stem to implement t is !ommitment most effe!tivel' for t e indefinite future. 5n mapping out t e future of environmental la&+ &e need to !onsider not onl' o& to make t e best environmental de!isions at an' given time+ but also o& to !reate a sustainable environmental la& t at !an endure over t e long aul. Eo be sustainable+ environmental la& must a!!ommodate not /ust environmentalism+ but also ot er ke' values. @t er&ise+ it &ill slo&l' erode. 5n t is book+ 5 ave advo!ated a pragmati! approa! to environmental regulation+ but one grounded in environmentalism. E e ke' norm is t at &e all presumptivel' entitled to a safe environment and to t e preservation of nature. E is norm is no& firml' embedded in our politi!al !ulture. Lut t e norm is tempered b' an a&areness of !ompeting goals.

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AT #!8 (O!M#!T KS' #!8 (O!M#!TAL =(A7MAT SM Sa)ing &he en)iron$en& reD+ires effec&i)e %oli&ical engage$en&,en)iron$en&al %hiloso%hers $+s& aban-on abs&rac& &heoriBing in or-er &o b+il- &he %+blic/ "e>Shali&+ 2000. =rofessor of =oliti!al E eor' at t e >ebre& ?niversit' of ;erusalem and 2sso!iate <ello& at t e @xford 7entre for Nnvironment+ Nt i!s+ and 9o!iet'+ Aansfield 7ollege+ @xford ?niversit'. 0E e Nnvironment: Let&een E eor' and =ra!ti!e+1 2vner p. 4(#+ _uestia.

istor' is full of examples of t eorists and p ilosop ers & o abandoned all ope of persuading ot ers t roug deliberation+ and be!ame impatient and en!e more radi!al in t eir ideas . E is explains & ' t e s ift from umanisti! to misant ropi! attitudes as been rapid. =er aps t e KeasiestK &a' to solve a problem is to lose fait in a form of gradual ! ange t at !an still remain respe!tful of umans. 9u! an attitude+ 5 believe+ onl* brings abo+& a ne< series of %roble$s enco$%assing -ic&a&orshi%. &o&ali&arianis$. an- lack of %ersonal free-o$ . 5n t is book 5 seek to maintain t e p ilosop i!al impetus+ not
>o&ever+ it &ould be &rong+ if not dangerous+ to blame t e Kot erK. <rom t e prop ets in bibli!al times to t e <ren! revolutionaries and t e earl' <abians+ to point t e finger at t e politi!ians or t e a!tivists. 6at er+ 5 &is to examine ourselves-t e p ilosop ers & o engage in dis!ussing t e environment-to dis!over o& &e mig t !onstru!t a t eor' t at is mu! more a!!essible to t e a!tivists and t e general publi! 3&it out relinquis ing an' of our goals4+ and & i! !an be arnessed to t e aims of politi!al p ilosop '. >ere+ t e !ounter(argument &ould go somet ing like t is: K@Q+ so t e argumentation supplied b' environmental p ilosop ers is so removed from t at used b' a!tivists and governments. 9o & atR E e onl' out!ome of t is is t at more arguments+ or+ if 'ou like+ a pluralisti! set of arguments+ &ill emerge. 9ome arguments are relevant to a!ademia aloneF ot ers !an be used in politi!s. E us+ for example+ in t e universit' &e !ould maintain an e!o!entri! environmental p ilosop '+ $ & ereas in politi!s ant ropo!entri! % arguments &ould dominate.K 5n response to t is+ it !ould be argued t at pluralit' of argument is indeed &el!ome. Aoreover+ as &e sa&

t e divergen!e bet&een+ sa'+ e!o!entri! environmental p ilosop ' and ant ropo!entri! environmental p ilosop ' is not so vast in terms of t e poli!ies t e' re!ommend. 5n fa!t+ as ;o n Larr' argues+ Kreformed naturalisti! umanismK is !apable of supporting a ste&ards ip et i!s /ust as &ell 3;. Larr' 1999 : ! . 34. Lut m' point is t at sa)ing &he en)iron$en& is no& H+s& a $a&&er of &heor*' i& is an +rgen& %oli&ical $ission . 5n a demo!rati! s'stem+ o&ever+ one !annot expe!t poli!ies to be de!ided &it out giving an' t oug t to ho< &hese %olicies sho+l- be ex%laine- &o &he %+blic+ and t ereb' gain legitima!'. 5n ot er &ords+ t e rationale of a poli!' is an in!reasingl' important+ if not inseparable+ part of t e poli!'F in parti!ular+ t e openness and transparen!' of t e demo!rati! regime makes t e rationale a !ru!ial aspe!t of t e poli!' . 2 poli!' & ose rationale is not open to t e publi!+ or one t at is believed to be arrived at t roug a pro!ess not open to t e publi!+ is !onsidered a(demo!rati! 3!f. Nzra i 19904. 7onsequentl'+ a poli!'Ks legitima!' is o&ed not onl' to its effe!tiveness+ but also to t e degree of moral persuasion and !onvi!tion it generates &it in t e publi! arena. 9o+ & en !onstru!ting environmental poli!ies in demo!rati! regimes+ t ere is a need for a t eor' t at !an be used not onl' b' a!ademi!s+ but also b' politi!ians and a!tivists.
earlier+
>en!e t e first question in t is book is+ H ' as t e ma/or part of environmental p ilosop ' failed to penetrate environmental poli!' and serve as its rationaleR E e first part of t is book+ t en+ dis!usses t is question and offers t&o explanations in response. E ese explanations are based on t e premiss t at environmental et i!s and politi!al t eor' s ould be differentiated and &ell defined so t at later on t e' ma' /oin ands+ rat er t an t at t e' s ould be united in a single t eor'. 5t is assumed t at t e' ans&er t&o questions. Nnvironmental et i!s is about t e moral grounds for an environment(friendl' attitude. =oliti!al t eor' &it regard to t e environment relates to t e institutions needed to implement and support environmental poli!ies. E us+ t e failure to

environmental p ilosop ers ave moved too rapidl' a&a' from ant ropo!entrism-mainstream et i!al dis!ourses-to&ards bio!entrism and e!o!entrism. 9 A' argument is t at &he %+blic on &he <hole is no& rea-* for &his+ and t erefore man' a!tivists and potential supporters of t e environmental movement be!ome alienated from t e p ilosop i!al dis!ourse on t e environment. 5n addition+ 5 suggest t at t e reason for t e gap bet&een on t e one and environmental p ilosop ers and on t e ot er
distinguis properl' bet&een environmental et i!s and politi!al t eor' underlies t e failure of t e ma/or part of environmental p ilosop ' to penetrate environmental poli!' and provide its rationale. 5n 7 apter 1 it is !laimed t at in a &a'

a!tivists and politi!ians is t at environmental p ilosop ers ave applied t e &rong approa! to politi!al p ilosop '. 5 !laim t at all moral reasoning involves a pro!ess of refle!tive equilibrium bet&een intuitions and t eor'. 5 distinguis bet&een KprivateK+ K!ontextualK+ and Kpubli!K modes of refle!tive equilibrium+ arguing t at environmental p ilosop ers use eit er t e first or se!ond mode of reasoning+ & ereas politi!al p ilosop ' requires t e t ird: t e publi! mode of refle!tive equilibrium. E e latter differs from t e ot er t&o models in t at it &eig s bot t e intuitions and t e t eories put for&ard b' a!tivists and t e general publi! 3and not /ust t ose of professional p ilosop ers4. E e argument for t is being so is t at reasoning about t e environment needs to in!lude politi!al and demo!rati! p ilosop '. 2nd 'et+ most of environmental p ilosop ersK efforts so far ave fo!used on su! questions of meta(et i!s as Kintrinsi! value t eoriesK and Kbio!entrismK. Nnvironmental p ilosop ers ave been pus ed in t is

en)iron$en&al %hiloso%hers s ould not limit t emselves to dis!ussing t e moral grounds for attitudes+ or to tr'ing to reveal t e good and t e trut + alt oug t ese are important and fas!inating questions. 2t least some of t em sho+l- ins&ea- go be*on- &his an- a--ress &he $a&&er of &he necessar* ins&i&+&ions for i$%le$en&ing %olicies. an- finall*. an- of no less i$%or&ance. fin- a <a* &o %ers+a-e o&hers &o ac& on behalf of &he en)iron$en&. 5n ot er &ords+ & ile t ere is a pla!e for meta(et i!s+ it s ould not be t e onl' approa! to p ilosop izing about t e environmentF it s ould not repla!e politi!al p ilosop '.
dire!tion out of a genuine desire to seek out t e KgoodK and t e trut + in an effort to as!ertain t e moral grounds for an environment(friendl' attitude. 5 suggest t at

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AT #!8 (O!M#!T KS' #!8 (O!M#!TAL =(A7MAT SM #n)iron$en&al %hiloso%h* $+s& be orien&e- &o<ar-s cons&r+c&ing %olicies/ "e>Shali&+ 2000. =rofessor of =oliti!al E eor' at t e >ebre& ?niversit' of ;erusalem and 2sso!iate <ello& at t e @xford 7entre for Nnvironment+ Nt i!s+ and 9o!iet'+ Aansfield 7ollege+ @xford ?niversit'. 0E e Nnvironment: Let&een E eor' and =ra!ti!e+1 p. 21(2+ 2vner _uestia. @ne mig t still ask+ H atKs &rong &it !laiming-p ilosop i!all'-t at animals ave rig tsR 5ndeed+ one !an !laim t at animal rig ts arguments+ per aps p ilosop ' in general+ is first and foremost meant to ave an impa!t on t e elite t at is+ ot er p ilosop ers and ma'be ot er s! olars+ intelle!tuals+ and artists. @nl' later &ill t e idea penetrate to t e

de!ision(makers+ and later still to t e general publi!. E e publi! in general is important+ but not t at important+ be!ause it is not t e publi! t at

as to be !onvin!ed+ but t e p ilosop ers and de!ision(makers. 5 &ill t erefore raise t e question of o& politi!al p ilosop '+ su! as environmental p ilosop '+ s ould be !ondu!ted. <irst+ t&o !larifi!ations are in order. 5 am not dismissing t e !laim t at p ilosop ' in general is an elite pra!ti!e+ one less about !onvin!ing people and more about finding t e trut or even about !onstru!ting aest eti! t eories about t e &orld. E is !ould be argued. E ose & o see p ilosop ' in t is &a' mig t regard politi!al+ or applied+ p ilosop ' as inferior bran! es of p ilosop '. @t ers mig t t ink t at p ilosop ' is onl' about ! anging t e &orld+ and t at ever't ing else is a &aste of time+ a petit bourgeois preo!!upation. 5 !annot devote too mu! spa!e to debate eit er of t ese positions. 9uffi!e it to sa' t at 5 tend to find t at

t ere is room and need-bot s!ientifi! and so!ial need-for bot : t ere is a time for KpureK p ilosop '+ and t ere is a time for Kpoliti!alK p ilosop '. E ere is a time-and a need-to sear! for t e trut + to be engaged in debates for t e sake of t e debate+ and t ere is a time to ! ange t e &orld. 11 >o&ever+ & at is important+ 5 t ink+ is to remember t at environmental p ilosop ' gre& out of a desperate need to suppl' sound p ilosop i!al+ normative arguments against t e !ontinuation of several poli!ies t at &ere !ausing damage to t e environment + putting
peopleKs lives at serious risks+ ignoring t e &ell(being of future generations+ and arming ot er spe!ies. 5n t at sense+ at least+ &he nee- for en)iron$en&al %hiloso%h* <as a nee- for %oli&ical %hiloso%h* . Co& some people distinguis bet&een politi!al+
applied and pra!ti!al p ilosop '. 9ome !laim t at environmental p ilosop ' s ould be pra!ti!alF ot ers ma' !all it KpragmatismK 38ig t and Qatz 199#4. =ra!ti!al p ilosop ' is distinguis ed from applied p ilosop ' &it regard to t e question of & at !omes first-t e !ase or t e t eor'. =oliti!al and applied p ilosop ' usuall' start &it t e assumption t at t eories are t ere to be applied to !asesF t e t eor' is+ so to speak+ KgivenK. E e question is o& to solve t e !ase &it t e elp of t e t eor'. =ra!ti!al p ilosop ' begins &it t e !ase and seeks a proper t eor' to solve it. E is distin!tion is sound. >o&ever+ in

5 use t e term Kpoliti!al p ilosop 'K to mean+ in general+ p ilosop ' t at is poli!'(oriented . 5 t ink t at &here is a s&rong nee- for a R%oli&icalR <a* of %hiloso%hiBing abo+& &he en)iron$en& + in!luding umans relations &it animals. 9u! p ilosop izing+ & ile !onstru!ting t e t eor'+ &ill take into a!!ount t&o !onditions: first+ t at &he &heor* $+s& rela&e &o real life cases and+ se!ond+ t at t e t eor' $+s& rela&e &o &he exis&ing -elibera&ion about t e !ase+ en!e to t e ac&+al arg+$en&s &ha& ha)e alrea-* been %+& for<ar-.
t is book

Abs&rac& %hiloso%h* canno& sa)e &he en)iron$en&,h+$an>cen&ere- H+s&ifica&ions can $o&i)a&e %eo%le &o s+%%or& %rag$a&ic %ro&ec&ions/ Ligh&+ 02. 2sso!iate professor of p ilosop ' and environmental poli!'+ and dire!tor of t e 7enter for Dlobal Nt i!s at Deorge Aason ?niversit'. 07ontemporar' Nnvironmental Nt i!s <rom Aetaet i!s to =ubli! = ilosop '+1 Aetap ilosop ' 2ndre& ;ul' 33.4+ Nbs!o. Nven &it t e ample development in t e field of various t eories designed to ans&er t ese questions+ 5 believe t at environmental et i!s is+ for t e most part+ not su!!eeding as an area of applied p ilosop '. <or & ile t e dominant

goal of most &ork in t e field+ to find a p ilosop i!all' sound basis for t e dire!t moral !onsideration of nature+ is !ommendable+ it as tended to engender t&o unfortunate results: 314 debates about t e value of nature as su! ave largel' excl+-e- -isc+ssion of &he beneficial <a*s in <hich arg+$en&s for en)iron$en&al %ro&ec&ion can be base- on h+$an in&eres&s+ and relatedl' 324 t e fo!us on some& at abstra!t !on!epts of value t eor' as pus ed environmental et i!s a<a* fro$ -isc+ssion of <hich arg+$en&s $orall* $o&i)a&e %eo%le &o e$brace $ore s+%%or&i)e en)iron$en&al )ie<s . 2s a !onsequen!e+ t ose agents of ! ange & o &ill effe!t efforts at environmental prote!tion . namel'+ umans . ave oddl' been left out of dis!ussions about t e moral value of nature. 2s a result+ environmental et i!s as been less able to !ontribute to !ross(dis!iplinar' dis!ussions &it ot er environmental professionals 3su! as environmen( tal so!iologists or la&'ers4 on t e resolution of environmental problems+ espe!iall' t ose professionals & o also ave an interest in issues !on!ern( ing uman &elfare in relation to t e equal distribution of environmental goods. Lut !an environmental
p ilosop ' afford to be quies!ent about t e publi! re!eption of et i!al arguments over t e value of natureR E e original motivations for environmental p ilosop ers to turn t eir p ilosop i!al insig ts to t e

. Nnvironmental p ilosop ' evolved out of a !on!ern about t e state of t e gro&ing environmental !risis and a !onvi!tion t at a p ilosop i!al !ontribution !ould be made to t e resolution of t is !risis. 5f environmental p ilosop ers spend most of t eir time debating non( uman(!entered forms of value t eor'+ &he* <ill arg+abl* ne)er be able &o $ake s+ch a con&rib+&ion.
environment belie su! a position

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AT #!8 (O!M#!T KS' #!8 (O!M#!TAL =(A7MAT SM #n)iron$en&al %rag$a&is$ is &he onl* <a* &o %re)en& ecological ca&as&ro%he/ Ligh& an- Ka&B+ 94. Gire!tor of t e 9!ien!e+ Ee! nolog' and 9o!iet' =rogram at t e Ce& ;erse' 5nstitute of Ee! nolog'+ tea! es environmental p ilosop '+ engineering et i!s and t e p ilosop ' of te! nolog'+ and a resear! fello& in t e Nnvironmental >ealt =rogram and 2d/un!t =rofessor of = ilosop ' at t e ?niversit' of 2lberta. 0Nnvironmental =ragmatism+1 p. 1(2+ 2ndre& and Nri!+ Doogle Looks. E e problemati! situation of environmental et i!s greatl' troubles us+ bot as p ilosop ers and as !itizens. He are deepl'

!on!erned about t e pre!arious state of t e natural &orld+ t e environmental azards t at t reaten umans+ and t e maintenan!e of long(term sustainable life on t is planet . E e environmental !risis t at surrounds us is a fa!t of experien!e. 5t is t us imperative t at environmental p ilosop '+ as a dis!ipline+ address t is !risis . its meaning+ its !auses and its possible resolution. 7an p ilosop ers !ontribute an't ing to an investigation of environmental problemsR Go t e traditions+ istor' and skills of p ilosop i!al t oug t ave an' relevan!e to t e development of environmental poli!'R He believe t at t e ans&er is 'es. Gespite t e problemati! 3and+ eretofore+ ineffe!tual4 status of environmental et i!s as a pra!ti!al dis!ipline+ t e field as mu! to offer. Lut t e fruits of t is p ilosop i!al enterprise $+s& be -irec&e- &o<ar-s &he %rac&ical resol+&ion of en)iron$en&al %roble$s . environmental et i!s !annot remain mired in long(running t eoreti!al debates in an attempt to a! ieve p ilosop i!al !ertaint'. 2s Aark 9agoff as &ritten: THUe ave to get along &it !ertaint'F &e ave to solve pra!ti!al+ not t eoreti!al+ problemsF and &e must ad/ust t e ends &e pursue to t e means available to a!!omplis t em. @t er&ise+ met od be!omes an obsta!le to moralit'+ dogma t e foe of deliberation+ and &he i-eal socie&* <e as%ire &o in &heor* <ill beco$e a for$i-able ene$* of &he goo- socie&* <e can achie)e in fac& . 5n s ort+ environmental et i!s must develop for itself a met odolog' of environmental pragmatism . fueled b' a re!ognition t at t eoreti!al debates are problemati! for t e development of environmental poli!' . E is !olle!tion is an attempt to bring toget er in one pla!e t e broad range of positions en!ompassed b' !alls for an environmental pragmatism. <or us+ environmental pragmatism is t e open(ended inquir' into t e spe!ifi! real(life problems of umanit'*s relations ip &it t e environment . E e
ne& position ranges from arguments for an environmental p ilosop ' informed b' t e lega!' of !lassi!al 2meri!an pragmatist p ilosop '+ to t e formulation of a ne& basis for t e reassessment of our pra!ti!e t roug a more general pragmatist met odolog'.

Onl* a %rag$a&ic a%%roach can sol)e real <orl- en)iron$en&al %roble$s/ !or&on+ 03. = .G. =rofessor of = ilosop ' at Deorgia Ee! + 5van 2llen 7ollege 9! ool of =ubli! =oli!'. 09ustainabilit': 2 = ilosop ' of 2daptive N!os'stem Aanagement+1 p. 4%(49+ Doogle Looks. @ne of t e defining features of t e pragmatist outlook on t ings is taking a problem(oriented approa! to intelle!tual as &ell as pra!ti!al dilemmas. >istori!all'+ of !ourse+ p ilosop ers ave addressed questions of great abstra!tion and

generalit'+ believing t at if one gets first prin!iples rig t+ solutions to parti!ular problems &ill fall out as !orollaries of t e general prin!iples. Aan' p ilosop ers believe t at t e' !onfront spe!ial problems &it spe!ial tools and t at p ilosop ' o!!upies a spe!ial intelle!tual spa!e+
&it a form of a!!ess to trut not asso!iated &it t e empiri!al met ods of t e ot er s!ien!es. 5ndeed+ in Hestern p ilosop ' t ere is a venerable tradition+ tra!eable ba!k at least as far as =lato+ t at

. =ragmatists+ b' !ontrast+ doubt t at p ilosop ' as+ or needs+ a met od t at is independent of experien!e . =ragmatists aspire to an ideal of a unified !on!eption of inquir' in & i! p ilosop ers are one kind of &orkers in a larger enterprise . =ragmatists seek a unified met od of
p ilosop ' as a rational met od t at &ill allo& penetration be'ond t e veil of language and experien!e+ appre ending realit' itself inquir' . a met od t at is self(!orre!ting+ based in experien!e+ but also involving interpretation and t eor'(building. = ilosop '+ on t is vie&+ differs onl' in degree from ot er s!ien!es+ all of & i! ave trut as t eir idealF p ilosop ' ma' o!!up' t e more abstra!t end of t e !ontinuum of kno&ledge+ but it is a !ontinuum+ &it all kno&ledge and &isdom . in!luding definitions . ultimatel' ans&ering to

. =ragmatists t erefore re/e!t 0 ig er intuitions1 and prefer to deal &it spe!ifi! problems & enever possible. H at unifies inquir'+ a!!ording to pragmatists+ is a !ommunit'*s s ared fo!us on a real(&orld problem .
experien!e

2side from !reating a ealt ' urgen!'+ a problem orientation !an go a long &a' to&ard setting a !ontext+ !larif'ing & at values and interests are at stake in an' question+ and s aping disagreements as testable 'pot eses. 9o & at exa!tl' is t e problem to & i! t is book offers t e beginnings of a solutionR E e !entral problem+ as &e sa& in 7 apter 1+ is t at t ere is a nearl' !omplete breakdo&n in !ommuni!ation regarding environmental poli!' rig t at t e !ru!ial nexus & ere t e parti!ular s!ien!es are integrated &it so!ial values and translated into publi! poli!' . E is is & ere s!ientifi! data(gat ering+ model( building+ and p 'si!al observations of s!ientists from man' spe!ialized dis!iplines . e!olog'+ toxi!olog'+ e!onomi!s+ so!iolog'+ and so on . are broug t toget er in t e !ontext of poli!' de!isions. 2t t is !ru!ial point of unifi!ation+ values are also broug t into t e pro!ess of poli!' stud' and formation+ and t is is pre!isel' t e lo!us . as &e sa& in our brief visit to t e N=2 building in 7 apter 1 . of t e deepest !onfusion and t e most ab'smal la!k of adequate vo!abular' for !ommuni!ating about environmental problems+ values+ and goals.

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AT #!8 (O!M#!T KS' #!8 (O!M#!TAL =(A7MAT SM #n)iron$en&al sol+&ions $+s& be s+s&ainable,ignoring h+$an nee-s $eans &here <ill be an ine)i&able backlash &ha& -is$an&les &he al&erna&i)e/ Farber+ 99. Ganiel+ =rofessor of 8a& at t e ?niversit' of Ainnesota. N!o(=ragmatism+ =g. 12(3.

E e ultimate ! allenge for environmental la& is so!ial sustainabilit'. 5t &ill do little good to save t e planet toda'+ onl' to lose it tomorro&. E us+ &e need an approa! t at not onl' embodies our firm !ommitment to t e environment+ but also re!ognizes !ompeting goals and t e need to keep up &it ! anging s!ientifi! kno&ledge . @t er&ise+ &e &ill ave a regulator' stru!ture t at is too dra!onian for us to live &it in t e long run. 2mong t e !omponents of t e global e!o(s'stem are t e !lever+ idealisti!+ aggressive+ a!quisitive !reatures kno&n as omo sapiens. Nnvironmental la& must !reate a ospitable environment for t em as &ell as for ot er organisms . Nnvironmental la& must be pluralisti! and flexible if it is to endure. N!o(pragmatism is a roug and read' approa! to environmental poli!'+ per aps la!king in elegan!e+ but durable enoug for ard &ear. E e need to make environmental
la& 0sustainable1 is a t eme t at runs t roug mu! of t e book. 5t elps drive arguments on a &ide range of topi!s. <or instan!e+ ! apter 2 argues t at &e s ould re/e!t t e premise t at e!onomi! interests are mere 0preferen!es+1 entitled to little or no !onsideration !ompared &it environmental values. ?nderl'ing t e argument+ in part+ is a !on!ern about sustainabilit'. Diven t e nature of uman be avior in modern so!ieties+ it is unrealisti! to expe!t environmental programs base on su! an austere premise to endure long. 5n ! apter 4+ for similar reasons+ 5 argue t at &e s ould be prepared to modif' environmental regulations & enever t eir !osts are grossl' disproportionate to an' possible benefits. 7 apter " dis!usses t e extent to & i! !urrent generations !an realisti!all' be expe!ted to make sa!rifi!es on be alf of distant des!endants+ and among ot er topi!s+ ! apter # !onsiders o& &e !an prevent outmoded regulations from eroding t e overall !redibilit' of environmental la&. 5n taking t ese positions+ m' goal is not to undermine environmental

values+ but to implement t em in a &a' t at &e !an expe!t to endure+ as opposed to eroi! efforts t at are likel' to fade after a fe& 'ears. Nnvironmental prote!tion is a marat on+ not a sprint .

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AT #!8 (O!M#!T KS' #!8 (O!M#!TAL =(A7MAT SM (a-ical al&erna&i)es %re)en& %rag$a&ic refor$ an- <orsen en)iron$en&al -egra-a&ion/ Le<is+ 92. Aartin+ 8e!turer in istor' and dire!tor of t e 5nternational 6elations program at 9tanford. Dreen Gelusions+ p. $+ Doogle Looks.

Aore frig tening+ and more immediate+ is t e spe!ter of a fe& radi!als a!tuall' opposing ne!essar' environmental reforms. 9u! individuals !on!lude t at 0reform environmentalism1 is 0&orse t an useless be!ause b' !orre!ting s ort(term s'mptoms it postpones t e ne!essar' re!onstru!tion of t e entire uman relations ip &it t e natural &orld1 3Cas 19%9:1"04. <rom ere it is a s ort step to argue t at reform &ould onl' forestall an e!ologi!al
apo!al'pse . & i! some evidentl' believe is a ne!essar' pre!ondition for t e !onstru!tion of an environmentall' benign so!ial order. E e insanit' of pus ing t e planet even !loser to destru!tion in order to save it in t e future s ould be readil' apparent. H ile su! are t e fantasies onl' of t e most moonstru!k extremists+ even moderate radi!als 3if one ma' be permitted t e ox'moron4 espouse an ideolog' t at &ould pre!lude t e development of an e!ologi!all' sustainable e!onom'. Aost environmentalists+ for instan!e+ aver t at a sustainable e!onom' must be based on solar po&er. Xet t e radi!als* agenda+ !alling for total de!entralization+ deurbanization+ e!onomi! autark'+ a ban on

most forms of ig te! nolog'+ and t e !omplete dismantling of !apitalism+ &ould not onl' prevent future improvements in solar po&er but &ould a!tuall' destro' t e gains t at ave alread' been made . H ile most radi!al greens embra!e 0appropriate te! nologies1 3/ust as anti(environmentalists denoun!e 0pollution14+ t eir program &ould+ if ena!ted+ under!ut t e foundations of all te! nologi!al resear! and development. 2ppropriate te! nolog'+ in fa!t+ often turns out to mean little more t an &ell(engineered medieval apparatuses : &e ma' expe!t !rude me! ani!al po&er from t e &ind+ but !ertainl' not ele!tri!it' from t e sun. Nquall' important+ t e s'stemati! dismantling of large e!onomi! organizations in favor of small ones &ould likel' result in a substantial in!rease in pollution+ sin!e fe& small(s!ale firms are able to devise+ or afford+ adequate pollution abatement equipment .

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AT #!8 (O!M#!T KS' #!8 (O!M#!TAL =(A7MAT SM !a&ional>le)el coor-ina&ion is ke* &o sol)e en)iron$en&al %roble$s/ Ear&er+ 07. Ceil+ 9enior 8e!turer in =oliti!s M ?niversit' of Xork. 0E e =oliti!s of t e Nnvironment+1 p. "9(#0.

2not er diffi!ult' &it de!entralization is t at man' environmental problems are best dealt &it at t e national or international level. Dlobal !ommons problems do not respe!t t e politi!al boundaries bet&een existing nation states+ let alone small bioregions. =roblems su! as !limate ! ange and ozone depletion require !oordinated a!tion a!ross !ommunities and nations+ & i! implies international !ooperation bet&een !entralized nation states 3see 7 apter 94. E e green slogan KE ink global+ a!t lo!alK ma' t erefore provide an inadequate strateg' for dealing &it problems of t e global !ommons. 6el'ing on lo!al !ommunities alone to prote!t t e environment assumes t at t e lo!al !ommunit' as full kno&ledge about t e !auses+ impa!t and solutions to a parti!ular problemF even t en+ it Kmakes sense onl' & en t e lo!als possess an appropriate so!ial and e!ologi!al !ons!iousnessK
3N!kersle' 1992: 1$34. Local sol+&ions backfire beca+se &he* are &oo in<ar-l* foc+se-,onl* na&ional le)el %olicies can crea&e ecological s+s&ainabili&*/ Ear&er+ 07. Ceil+ 9enior 8e!turer in =oliti!s M ?niversit' of Xork. 0E e =oliti!s of t e Nnvironment+1 p. "9(#0. E ere are man' reasons & ' t is response is fla&ed. H at if t e !ommunities are un&illing to a!tR 7ooperation &it in a

!ommunit' ma' not result in a benevolent attitude to&ards t e outside &orld. 9mall paro! ial !ommunities often define t emselves b' referen!e to t ose outside+ so t e' ma' be quite averse to !onsidering &ider questions+ su! as t e possibilit' of environmental damage else& ere . E e' ma' even tr' to free(ride on ot er !ommunities b' produ!ing pollution t at damages t ose living do&nstream or do&n&ind. >ostilit' or indifferen!e bet&een !ommunities ma' be a!!entuated b' t e existen!e of e!onomi! inequalities bet&een t emF
per aps a poor !ommunit' mig t feel less !ooperative to&ards a ri! er neig bour+ 5t is not diffi!ult to imagine a !ommunit' being ig l' sensitive to&ards its o&n lo!al environment but un!on!erned b' damage furt er afield. 5t ma'+ t erefore+ require a !entral agen!' 3t e stateR4 to persuade lo!alities to ! ange t eir be aviour . Nven if all

!ommunities &ere &illing to a!t !olle!tivel' to prote!t t e environment+ t ere &ould still be a role for a !entral agen!' to !oordinate t eir a!tions. Xet+ resolute in its re/e!tion of su! a !entral agen!'+ t e green anar! ist model gives no adequate explanation of o& t e ne!essar' !oordination mig t take pla!e 3Doodin 1992F Aartell
19944.

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(a-ical en)iron$en&al $o)e$en&s f+el co+n&er>$o)e$en&s &ha& -es&ro* al&erna&i)e sol)enc*/ Le<is+ 92. 8e!turer in istor' and dire!tor of t e 5nternational 6elations program at 9tanford. Dreen Gelusions+ p. #($+ Doogle Looks+ Aartin. E e most dire!t &a' in & i! e!o(extremists t reaten t e environment is simpl' b' fueling t e anti(environmental !ountermovement. H en green radi!als like 7 ristop er Aanes 319904 !all for t e total destru!tion of !ivilization+

man' begin to listen to t e voi!es of rea!tion. 5ndeed+ t e mere linking of environmental initiatives to radi!al groups su! as Nart <irstJ often severel' dampens & at &ould ot er&ise be &idespread publi! support 3see Dabriel 1990:#44. 2s radi!alism depends &it in t e environmental movement+ t e oppositional anti(e!ologi!al for!es a!!ordingl' gain strengt . E e 7enter for t e Gefense of <ree Nnterprise+ a t ink tank for t e so(!alled &ise use
movement+ as+ for example+ re!entl' publis ed a manifesto !alling for su! outrages as t e opening of all national parks to mineral produ!tion+ t e logging of all old(gro&t forests+ and t e gutting of t e endangered spe!ies a!t. E is group*s ideologues !ontend t at !ertain environmental p ilosop ies represent not ing less t an mental illnesses+ a t eor' anon'mousl' propounded in t e 0intelle!tual ammunition department1 of t eir Hise ?se Aemo 37enter for t e Gefense of <ree Nnterprise 1990:24. Nven more &orrisome is t e fa!t t at a former ig (ranking 752 agent is no& spreading rumors t at environmental s!ientists are presentl' attempting to !on!o!t a virus t at !ould destro' umankind 39ee 0Eale of a =lot to 6id Nart of >umankind+1 9an <ran!is!o Nxaminer+ 2pril 14+ 1991: 2(24. A' fear is t at if green extremism !aptures

t e environmental movement*s upper and+ t e publi! &ould be mu! less likel' to re!ognize su! a !laim as paranoid fantas'F & ile a andful of e!oradi!als &ould be app' to destro' umanit'+ su! individuals also re/e!t s!ien!e and t us &ould never be able to a!t on su! !onvi!tions.

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The al&erna&i)e fails,i-ealis$ canno& sa)e &he en)iron$en&. onl* s%ecific refor$s/ Le<is+ 92. Aartin+ 8e!turer in istor' and dire!tor of t e 5nternational 6elations program at 9tanford. Dreen Gelusions+ p. 12(3+ Doogle Looks. 5t is !ertainl' not m' belief t at ideas are insignifi!ant or t at attempting to ! ange ot ers* opinions is a futile endeavor. 5f t at &ere true 5 &ould ardl' feel !ompelled to &rite a polemi! &ork of t is kind. Lut 5 am also !onvin!ed t at ! anging ideals alone is ins+fficien&. Hidespread ideologi!al !onversion+ even if it &ere to o!!ur+ &ould ardl' be

adequate for genuine so!ial transformation. 9pe!ifi! poli!ies must still be formulated+ and spe!ifi! politi!al plans must be devised if t ose poli!ies are ever to be realized. Aan' of t e more sop isti!ated e!o(radi!als &ould agree &it t is notion. Lut even t e politi!al moves advo!ated b' t e more savv' among t em remain !ommitted to a radi!alism t at t e great ma/orit' of t e 2meri!an publi! finds unpalatable . 6adi!al green strategists ma' !all for allian!es &it ne& so!ial movements or &it radi!al politi!al parties+ but even a !on!erted !oalition of t e disaffe!ted &ould be unable to approa! t e !riti!al mass needed to gain effe!tive po&er . 2nd several radi!al t inkers ave proposed t at mu! narro&er
!onstituen!ies form potentiall' e!o(revolutionar' groups t at mig t lead so!iet' as a & ole to its ne!essar' transformation. 2!!ording to one t eor'+ onl' t e unemplo'ed !an seek real ! ange+ rat er t an /ust a redistribution of spoils+ be!ause onl' t e' do no parti!ipate in t e &i!ked s'stem 3Gobson 1990:1#34. 2lt oug t is represents a fringe vie&+ t e general pro!ess of seeking ever more radi!al foundations for so!ial reinvention leads e!oextremists to redu!e t eir o&n potential bases for politi!al po&er to ever more minus!ule+ and po&erless+ groups. 2t t e same time most green extremists overtl'

Since co$%ro$ise. in one form or anot er+ is necessar* for an* kin- of effec&i)e %oli&ical ac&ion. &he D+es& for %+ri&* <ill in &he en- onl* +n-erc+& &he %ros%ec&s for change. Nven moderate environmentalists often adopt an unne!essaril' ex!lusive politi!al strateg'. 6obert =ae lke+ & ose Nnvironmentalism and t e <uture of
denoun!e more moderate environmentalists & o are &illing to seek !ompromises &it individuals or groups of opposing politi!al p ilosop ies. =rogressive =oliti!s stands as a monument to reason &it in t e field+ insists on atta! ing t e movement firml' to t e traditional left+ urging environmentalists to appeal primaril' to 0industrial &orkers+ publi! servants+ and t ose emplo'ed in ealt + edu!ation+ and t e arts1 319%9: 2$#+ 2#34. 9in!e in t e ?nited 9tates t is traditional liberal !onstituen!' b' itself as no immediate ! an!e of gaining national

2t t e same time+ &he %ernicio+s fear of co$%ro$ise serio+sl* -i$inishes &he %ossibili&* of crea&ing a broa-er coali&ion for en)iron$en&al ac&ion . Larr' 7ommoner+ for example+ &arns environmentalists t at if t e' !ompromise &it !orporations t e' ma' be !ome 0 ostages1 and eventuall' even assume 0t e ideolog' of Tt eirU !aptors1 31990: 1$$4. E e end result of t is kind of t inking . to & i! &e are painfull' !lose in t e ?nited 9tates . is an ideologi!al stalemate in & i! opposed !amps are in!reasingl' unable even to !ommuni!ate. 5n su! a politi!al environment+ t e !reation of an e!ologi!all' sustainable so!iet' be!omes little more t an an impossible dream.
po&er+ su! a ta!ti! &ould again onl' diminis t e prospe!ts for mu! needed reform.

=er$+&a&ion sol)es bes&,e)en if o+r clai$s sho+l- be cri&icall* exa$ine-. &he* sho+l- s&ill be +se- as &he s&ar&ing %oin& for %hiloso%h*/ "e>Shali&+ 2000. 2vener+ =rofessor of =oliti!al E eor' at t e >ebre& ?niversit' of ;erusalem and 2sso!iate <ello& at t e @xford 7entre for Nnvironment+ Nt i!s+ and 9o!iet'+ Aansfield 7ollege+ @xford ?niversit'. 0E e Nnvironment: Let&een E eor' and =ra!ti!e+1 p. 29(30+ _uestia.

2 t eor' in politi!al p ilosop ' s ould la!k Kexternal tensionsK: it s ould relate to real !ases and s ould be relevant to real life. Eo do t is+ it s ould also arise from t e !ases in question. E e best &a' to a! ieve t is &ould be to start &it t e a!tivists and t eir dilemmas. >en!e an environmental p ilosop ' t eor' s ould derive from extended sour!es+ i.e. not onl' from t e laid(ba!k p ilosop er or ant ropologi!al explorer+ but from t e general publi! as &ell. 5t is t erefore a t eor' t at refle!ts t e a!tual p ilosop i!al needs of t e a!tivist seeking &o con)ince b* a%%ealing &o %rac&ical iss+es+ and not ne!essaril' t e p ilosop i!al needs of t e p ilosop er+ & o !onvin!es ot ers b' appealing to !onsisten!' and simpli!it' 3despite t e fa!t t at t e more !o erent+ !onsistent+ et!.+ t e environmental t eor' is+ besides being relevant+ t e better it is4. Caturall'+ t e p ilosop er s ould not take t e value of t e a!tivistsK !laims for grantedF t eir intuitions+ arguments+ !laims+ and t eories s ould also be s!rutinized . 1# >o&ever+ &he fac& &ha& &he* nee- &o be cri&icall* exa$ine- -oes no& affec& &he $ain %oin&' &ha& &he ac&i)is&sR in&+i&ions. clai$s. an- &heories o+gh& &o be &he s&ar&ing %oin& for a %hiloso%h* ai$e- a& %olic* change .

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Broa- coali&ions ke*,ref+sal b* ra-icals &o co$%ro$ise. &he al&erna&i)e canno& crea&e en)iron$en&al s+s&ainabili&*/ Le<is+ 92. Aartin+ 8e!turer in istor' and dire!tor of t e 5nternational 6elations program at 9tanford. Dreen Gelusions+ p. 22(3+ Doogle Looks.

5f &e are to preserve t e eart + environmentalists must forge t e broadest possible !oalition. Aa/or ! anges need to be made in publi! poli!'+ ! anges t at &ill require massive publi! support. E at support !an onl' be obtained b' appealing to a !entrist !oalition. Xet at present+ t e large !enter ground of 2meri!an voters+ t ose & o find merit in appeals bot to e!onomi! effi!ien!' and to so!ial /usti!e and environmental prote!tion+ is largel' &it out an arti!ulated platform. =art' stal&arts+ let alone radi!als+ often regard moderates &it !ontempt + vie&ing t em as ideologi!al &eaklings un&illing to take a stand. 5 &ould argue t e opposite. 5f &e are to take seriousl' t e task of devising a sustainable future+ it is essential to admit t at &ort & ile ideas ma' be found on bot sides of t is overdra&n politi!al divide. 2s N. ;. Gionne 31991:2$4 so brilliantl' argues+ & at is ne!essar' is t e !reation of a ne& politi!al !enter t at avoids 0bland
!entrism1 and instead seeks to build a genuine 0!oalition for so!ial reform.1 9in!e !riti!al t eorists rig tl' point out t at all &riting is informed b' a politi!al perspe!tive+ it is desirable to spe!if' pre!isel' t e politi!al stan!e from & i! t is &ork is !omposed. 5n simplest terms+ 5 &ould identif' m'self as a liberal moderate. E e modifier 0liberal1 is apposite be!ause t e great ma/orit' of t e positions taken ere+ bot expli!itl' and impli!itl'+ &ould be !ommonl' !lassified as left of !enter. Aoreover+ 5 full' !on!ur &it Gavid Laras 319924 t at t e fundamental need is to umanize !apitalism+ a pro/e!t t at e defines as t e !ore of !ontemporar' liberalism. Lut t e essential term remains 0moderate1 be!ause of m' insisten!e t at dialogue and negotiation must be !arried out a!ross t e !entral divide of 2meri!an

5n order to build an adequatel' broad environmental !onsensus+ &e s ould endeavor to make t at divide as permeable to ideas as &e possibl' !an. 5t is espe!iall' important t at environmentalists &ork &it t e leaders of t e
ideolog'.

largest !orporations. Hit out !orporate !onsent+ a far(rea! ing environmental reform program &ill prove ! imeri!al. 2s &ill be dis!ussed in ! apter four+ some !ompanies ave alread' made signifi!ant environmental groups+ a pro!ess t at as great potential if it is not undermined b' e!o(extremists. Eo be sure+ !ontemporar' 2meri!an leftist radi!alism+ in all of its varied forms+ exerts strong intelle!tual !laims . Aan' of t e t inkers &it & om 5 !ontend ave !ome to a profound understanding of spe!ifi! problems and pro!esses. 9imilarl'+ t e visions t e' old for a more /ust future are ri! and important. E ese t inkers must be taken seriousl'+ and 5 &ould not impugn t e sin!erit' of t eir beliefs and a!tions. Lut one must take equal !are to avoid !onfusing moral outrage and sop isti!ated diale!ti!s &it a

legitimate !laim to politi!al po&er or &it a desirable 3let alone possible4 vision for umanit'*s future.
(a-ical ecolog* aliena&es &he %+blic,onl* co$%ro$ise allo<s +s &o %re)en& en)iron$en&al ca&as&ro%he/ Le<is+ 92. Aartin+ 8e!turer in istor' and dire!tor of t e 5nternational 6elations program at 9tanford. Dreen Gelusions+ p. 2"0(1+ Doogle Looks.

E e best ope 5 see is t roug a ne& allian!e of moderates from bot t e left and t e rig t . a !oalition in & i! moderate !onservatives !ontinue to insist on effi!ien!' and pruden!e+ and & ere liberals for&ard an agenda aimed at so!ial progress and environmental prote!tion+ b+& in <hich bo&h con&ingen&s are <illing &o co$%ro$ise in t e interests of a !ommon nation and+ ultimatel'+ a !ommon umanit'. The en)iron$en&al refor$s necessar* &o ens+re %lane&ar* s+r)i)al <ill reD+ire &he forging of s+ch a broa->ranging %oli&ical consens+s. L' t &arting its development+ e!o(radi!alism undermines our best ! an!e of salvaging t e eart .
offering instead onl' t e pea!e of mind t at !omes from kno&ing t at one*s o&n ideolog' is e!ologi!all' and politi!all' pure. 5t is time for t e environmental movement to re!ognize su! t inking for t e fantas' t at it is. He must first relinquis our opes for utopia if &e reall' &is to save t e eart . =romet ean environmentalism is not simpl' a &atered do&n+ !ompromised form of t e radi!al do!trine. 2lt oug its !on!rete proposals and its p ilosop i!al positions are !onsistentl' at odds &it t ose of e!oradi!alism 3see t e appendix4+ its ultimate purpose is in fa!t t e same: to return t e surfa!e of t e eart

for t e foreseeable future &e must a!tivel' manage t e planet to ensure t e survival of as mu! biologi!al diversit' as possible . Co less is ne!essar' if &e are to begin atoning for our ver' real environmental sins . for our fall from gra!e t at began at t e end of t e =leisto!ene epo! . N!o( radi!alism tells us t at &e must dismantle our te! nolgo!ial and e!onomi! s'stem+ and ultimatel' our entire !ivilization. @n!e &e do so+ t e rifts bet&een umanit' and nature &ill purportedl' eal automati!all'. 5 disagree. H at 5 believe &e must do is disengage umanit' from nature b' !leaving to+ but !arefull' guiding+ t e pat of te! nologi!al progress. 5t is for t e environmental !ommunit' to de!ide & i! alternative offers t e best
to life+ to life in all its abundan!e+ diversit'+ and evolutionar' potential. =romet eans maintain+ o&ever+ t at

ope for e!ologi!al salvation.

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Theore&ical D+es&ions can be -isc+sse- b+& &he* canno& replace %rag$a&is$ %oli&ical &heor* abo+& &he en)iron$en&, &he co$bina&ion is bes&/ "e>Shali&+ 2000. 2vner+ =rofessor of =oliti!al E eor' at t e >ebre& ?niversit' of ;erusalem and 2sso!iate <ello& at t e @xford 7entre for Nnvironment+ Nt i!s+ and 9o!iet'+ Aansfield 7ollege+ @xford ?niversit'. 0E e Nnvironment: Let&een E eor' and =ra!ti!e+1 p. 3#+ _uestia. Lefore !ontinuing+ 5 &ould like point out a possible ! allenge to m' argument so far. 5 ave !laimed t at environmental p ilosop ers s ould de!ide o& to persuade t e publi! of t e need for environmental poli!ies . 5t !ould+ o&ever+

be argued t at man' of t ese p ilosop ers are !onvin!ed t at animals

ave rig ts+ or t at t ere is intrinsi! value in nature 35 dis!uss t is idea in dept in t e next ! apter4+

donKt &ant to Ksell outK /ust in order to persuade. 5t seems 3t e argument &ould !ontinue4 t at 5 mig t expe!t t ese p ilosop ers to suppress t eir ideas and feelings. >o&ever+ p ilosop ers s ould be lo'al to t eir ideas and
and t e' ma' feel t e' ave to dis!uss t is+ as a mission. E e' donKt &ant to give up persuading people about animal rig ts or intrinsi! value+ and t e' t oug ts as &ell: t e' s ould be aut enti!F t eir role is not merel' to persuade for t e sake of forming a ma/orit' of &ell(informed !itizens. 5 need of !ourse to emp asize t at t is is not & at 5 expe!t

a pla!e does exist for environmental et i!s and meta(et i!s and t at t ere is also a time to dis!uss issues bearing no relation to poli!ies. >o&ever+ en)iron$en&al %hiloso%hers canno& esca%e &he nee&o engage in real>life %+blic -elibera&ion be!ause & at t e' dis!uss is not & oll' Ka!ademi!K. 1% E e issues at stake are !ru!ial bot to uman beings and t eir &elfare+ and to e!os'stems and t e state of t e environment. E e e!ologi!al !risis is not a question t at !an be dis!ussed in tranquillit' + and one !annot experiment &it t inking about it for too long. There is a s&rong an- +rgen& nee- for so$e &ho+gh&s an- &heories &ha& are orien&e&o<ar-s ins&i&+&ions an- %olicies. 9o+ & ile a!!epting t at environmental et i!s and meta(et i!s refle!t sin!ere and aut enti! !on!erns+ and t at t ese !on!erns s ould be voi!ed + as an important part of t is debate+ 5 &ould stress t at t ese canno& re%lace %oli&ical &heor* concerning &he en)iron$en& . 9u! t eor' is vital for obvious reasons.
p ilosop ers to do. 5ndeed+ 5 t ink t at

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To&al reHec&ion of an&hro%ocen&ris$ fails,+n-ers&an-ing h+$ans as %ar& of &he en)iron$en& allo<s en)iron$en&al %ro&ec&ion/ 7re*+ 91. Hilliam+ 6eader in = ilosop ' at t e ?niversit' of _ueensland. 02nt ropo!entrism and Geep N!olog'+1 2ustralasian ;ournal of = ilosop ' $1.4+ pages 4#3(4$"+ ttp:))&&&.uq.edu.au)ppd&gre')pubs)ant ropo!entrism. tml. E ere is an obvious tension & i! arises & en attempting to re!tif' t e first t&o &orries at t e same time. <or extolling

t e virtues of t e natural+ & ile at t e same time vilif'ing t e man(made or artifi!ial+ depends on a distin!tion bet&een t e natural and t e artifi!ial & i! t e stress on a !ontinuit' bet&een uman and non uman 3t e fo!us of t e se!ond &orr'4 undermines. @n t e one side t ere is emp asis on !ontinuit' and dependen!'+ and on t e ot er on
distin!tness and separation. 5t seems t at+ & ile &e are a part of nature+ our a!tions are nevert eless unnatural. E is is one of t e points & ere deep e!ologists often risk lapsing into an in!o eren!e+ from & i! t e' are able to save t emselves 3as 5 &ill illustrate4 &it t e elp of a little !overt ant ropo!entrism. @r putting t e point anot er &a'+ a suitabl' enri! ed 3non(atomisti!4 !on!eption of umans as an integral part of larger s'stems -t at is+ !orre!ting t e mis!on!eption of umanit' as distin!t and separate from t e natural &orld -means t at ant ropo!entri! !on!ern for our o&n &ell(being na&+rall* flo<s on &o concern for &he nonh+$an <orl-/ 5f &e value ourselves and our pro/e!ts+ and part of us is !onstituted b' t e natural &orld+ t en t ese evaluations &ill be transmitted to t e &orld. E at &e abituall' assume ! ara!teristi!all' ant ropo!entri! perspe!tives and values is !laimed b' deep e!ologists to be a defe!t. 2nd as a !orre!tive to t is paro! ialism+ &e are invited to assume an Ie!o!entri!I 36olston 19%#+ 7alli!ott 19%94 or Ibio!entri!I 3Ea'lor 19%#4 perspe!tive. 5 am not persuaded+ o&ever+ t at it is intelligible to abandon our

ant ropo!entri! perspe!tive in favour of one & i! is more in!lusive or expansive. He s ould !ertainl' abandon a !rude !on!eption of uman needs & i! equates t em 3roug l'4 &it t e sort of needs & i! are satisfied b' extravagant resour!e use. Lut t e problem &it so(!alled Is allo&I vie&s lies not in t eir ant ropo!entrism+ but rat er &it t e fa!t t at t e' are ! ara!teristi!all' s ort(term+ se!tional+ and self(regarding. 2 suitabl' enri! ed and enlig tened ant ropo!entrism provides t e & ere&it al for a satisfa!tor' et i! of obligation and !on!ern for t e non uman &orld. 2nd a genuinel' non(ant ropo!entri! vie& delivers onl' !onfusion .

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=er$+&a&ion sol)es bes&,+n-ers&an-ing &ha& na&+re has bo&h in&rinsic an- ins&r+$en&al )al+e crea&es %rag$a&ic conser)a&ion/ Min&eer+ 04. Len 2.+ 2ssistant =rofessor in t e >uman Gimensions of Liolog' <a!ult' in t e 9! ool of 8ife 9!ien!es at 2rizona 9tate ?niversit'. 0E e 8ands!ape of 6eform: 7ivi! =ragmatism and Nnvironmental E oug t in 2meri!a+1 p. 3+ Doogle Looks. 2lt oug 5 des!ribe it more full' in t e individual ! apters+ one of t e note&ort ' features of t e t ird &a' tradition

in environmental t oug t is its embra!e of a pluralisti! mode of environmental value and a!tion t at a!!ommodates bot t e prudent use and t e preservation of nature+ rat er t an demanding t at &e must al&a's ! oose bet&een t ese !ommitments. 5t is a &a' of t inking+ in ot er &ords+ t at a!!epts t e interpenetrating ! ara!ter of intrinsi! and instrumental values in experien!e + t e basi! !ontinuit' of means and ends in environmental t oug t and pra!ti!e. 2s su! + t e t ird &a' tradition is a strand &it in environmentalism t at !annot be a!!uratel' ! ara!terized as eit er narro&l' ant ropo!entri! or e!o!entri!. 6at er+ it in!orporates !riti!al elements of bot sensibilities in a more olisti!+ balan!ed+ and pra!ti!al vision of uman environmental experien!e . <urt ermore+ &his %rag$a&ic s&rain in en)iron$en&al &ho+gh& )ie<s h+$ans as &horo+ghl* e$be--e- in na&+ral s*s&e$s. Xet t is re!ognition does not lead to t e !on!lusion t at umans ave !arte blan! e &it respe!t to t e natural &orld+ or t at t ere is no moral limit to t e domination of uman &ill over t e lands!ape. 5nstead+ t e t ird &a' vie& supports a &ider and more integrative perspe!tive in & i! uman ideals and interests 3in!luding e!onomi! interests+ but also ot er nonmaterial so!ial+ !ultural+ and politi!al values4 are understood to be &rapped up in t e natural and built environment+ and are se!ured and promoted t roug deliberate and broad(based planning and !onservation efforts. H ile respe!tful of &ilderness geograp ies and values+ t is tradition nevert eless represents a retreat from pure preservationist forms of environmentalism to vie&s t at a!!ommodate e!ologi!all' benign and adaptive forms of te! nologi!al enterprise and sustainable !ommunit' development on t e lands!ape.
=er$+&a&ion sol)es bes&,%+re an&hro%ocen&ris$ or ecocen&ris$ aliena&es &he %+blic,onl* a %rag$a&ic $i--le gro+n- can ge& &he$ on boarMin&eer+ 04. Len 2. + 2ssistant =rofessor in t e >uman Gimensions of Liolog' <a!ult' in t e 9! ool of 8ife 9!ien!es at 2rizona 9tate ?niversit'. 0E e 8ands!ape of 6eform: 7ivi! =ragmatism and Nnvironmental E oug t in 2meri!a+1 p. #($+ Doogle Looks. =er aps t e most salient feature of pragmatism is its instrumentalist ! ara!ter and t e emp asis it pla!es on t e realm of pra!ti!e 32s opposed to t e sp ere of t e ideal4. =ragmatism is not a mirroring p ilosop ' t at seeks to refle!t ideas said to exist outside of
uman !ulture+ nor does it !laim to register an ob/e!tive+ preexperiential understanding of nature. 5t is rat er an a!tive !onstru!tive 3or re!onstru!tive4 p ilosop '+ one t at

arises from

pra!ti!al experien!e and takes s ape as individuals . and !ommunities . !onfront problems+ learn about t eir 3and
ot ers*4 values and beliefs+ and ad/ust and progressivel' improve t eir natural and built environments. Eo parap rase 5an >a!king+ pragmatism suggests less t e image of t e p ilosop er*s arm! air t an it does t e !raftsman*s &orkben! . 5deas+ as &ell as values and moral prin!iples+ are not abstra!tionsF t e' are tools for so!ial

experimentation &it t e goal of bettering t e uman !ondition and en an!ing our !ultural adaptation to t e environment. 2mong ot er t ings+ t is emp asis on instrumental a!tion and so!ial pra!ti!e suggests t at ne& kno&ledge and novel values !an emerge from refle!tive and &ell(planned uman
a!tivit' on t e lands!ape. 5ndeed+ su! a!tivities ave t e potential to expand uman experien!e and generate !ultural &isdom in a manner t at !an improve our abilit' to a! ieve valued so!ial goals+ as &ell as deepen our appre!iation of our natural and built environments. =ragmatism is also kno&n for it*s a!!eptan!e+ if not eart' embra!e+ of t e !ondition of pluralismF i.e.+ t at individuals are differentl'

2n' !laim to a universal or singular 0good1 is t us illusor' to most pragmatists. E is !ommitment to pluralism 3in!luding bot its metap 'si!al and et i!al varieties4 prompts in turn t e a!kno&ledgement of t e fallibilit' of our beliefs and moral !ommitments. 5t requires an openness to revision and ! ange as &e !ome into !onta!t &it t e vie&s of ot ers and a!!ept t at ne& eviden!e and furt er dis!ussion ma' s o& our beliefs to be mistaken and our values to be ill( !onsidered or to ave una!!eptable impli!ations. 5n t e environmental !ase+ a gro&ing bod' of so!ial s!ientifi! resear! on publi! opinion as s o&n t at !itizens embra!e a range of moral stan!es to&ard t e environment+ in!luding bot ant ropo!entri! and e!o!entri! positions. 5n lig t of t is eviden!e+ t e notion t at &e s ould be sear! ing for a final and universal et i!al prin!iple 3or even a small set of ultimate prin!iples4 to govern all of our problemati! environmental situations seems misguided to pragmatists. 9u! a vie& not onl' s&eeps aside real moral diversit'+ it also fails to a!kno&ledge t at
situated and are s aped to a signifi!ant degree b' dissimilar traditions and experien!es. values !an and do ! ange in t e !ontext of publi! debate and deliberation over environmental programs and poli!ies.

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7o)ern$en&al ac&ion enco+rages %ri)a&e ac&ion,&he* aren9& $+&+all* excl+si)e/ Bo<$an+ 92. Aargaret+ Gire!tor+ Nnvironmental =rogram for 7entral and Nastern Nurope. 0E e 6ole of t e 7itizen in Nnvironmental Nnfor!ement+1 Nnvironmental 8a& 5nstitute+ ttp:))&&&.ine!e.org)2ndvol1)roberts. tm.

E e d'nami! bet&een !itizens and t e government agen!ies offi!iall' ! arged &it enfor!ing environmental la&s adds to t e potential effe!t of !itizen parti!ipation in t is area. 5n t e !ontext of environmental enfor!ement+ !itizens and government are presumed to s are a goal (( t at of maximizing !omplian!e for t e good of all. E is
presumption of a !ommon interest is refle!ted in t e dual meaning of t e ad/e!tive Ipubli!+I & en used in !on/un!tion &it t e operation of a demo!rati! s'stem of government. 5n t is !ontext+ Ipubli!I refers bot to t e !itizenr' at large (( & i! engages in Ipubli! parti!ipationI (( and to t e government (( & i! formulates and implements Ipubli! poli!'.I 7itizens+ on t e ot er and+ often suspe!t government agen!ies of not properl' fulfilling t eir enfor!ement responsibilities.

7itizens ma' vie& government emplo'ees as overl' sus!eptible to t e influen!e of t e business interests t e' regulate. 344 @r t e' ma' attribute government ina!tion to bureau!rati! inertia. Nit er &a'+ agen!' enfor!ers often are seen as overlooking or impeding environmental prote!tion goals. 3"4 E is tension bet&een government and !itizens !an result in improved environmental enfor!ement . E e governmentKs desire to prevent !itizen a!tion it vie&s as disruptive !an en!ourage agen!ies to take t eir o&n regulator' or enfor!ement steps . E e publi!Ks suspi!ion t at government ma' not vigorousl' implement !ertain la&s ma' prompt t e legislature to grant !itizens a statutor' rig t to bring a la&suit to require t e government to perform its assigned regulator' duties . 2nd in instan!es & en
t e government insists on ina!tion+ !itizen parti!ipation !an repla!e government enfor!ement. Cot onl' ma' !omplian!e be a! ieved+ but t e government !an be for!ed to a!!ount publi!l' for its o&n ina!tion. 3#4

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AT #!8 (O!M#!T KS' =#(M@TAT O!," SEO@(S# The %er$+&a&ion sol)es bes&,i& crea&es a share- -isco+rse &ha& allo<s %hiloso%hers &o infl+ence %olic*/ !or&on+ 03. = .G. =rofessor of = ilosop ' at Deorgia Ee! + 5van 2llen 7ollege 9! ool of =ubli! =oli!'. 09ustainabilit': 2 = ilosop ' of 2daptive N!os'stem Aanagement+1 p. "0+ Doogle Looks+ Lr'an D.. 9peaking generall'+ t e problem featured in t is book is t e la!k of !ommon language or s ared dis!ourse in & i!

s!ientists and t e publi! !an dis!uss environmental problems+ environmental goals+ and possible environmental a!tions. 9till speaking generall'+ our !urrent language is inadequate be!ause . as noted in t e prefa!e . it leads to t e polarization over environmental values and to ideologi!al environmentalism . 9peaking generall'+ o&ever+ is /ust t atF a pragmatist is !ommitted to looking at real !ases . 9peaking more spe!ifi!all'+ la!k of effe!tive !ommuni!ation pervades and !orrupts most !ontexts in & i! uman !ommunities are struggling to live &it in t eir environmental limits. 2nd 'et <e canno& sol)e &his %roble$ on &he $os& general scale +n&il <e ha)e so$e i-ea of i&s $anifes&a&ions a& local le)els an- in real %olic* con&ex&s . He must surve' a number of spe!ifi! environmental problems+ looking for general features from our surve'. Eo get t e !ards on t e table+ o&ever+
let me state at t e outset a general 'pot esis: at all levels of so!iet'+ and in all kinds of pla!es a!ross our !ountr'+ t ere are failures of !ommuni!ation in dis!ussions of environmental problems . E ese failures are most basi!all' due to t e la!k of an adequate language for integrating environmental s!ien!e and environmental values + and as a result little true !ommuni!ation o!!urs in t e pro!ess of formulating and dis!ussing environmental poli!ies. Eo be more spe!ifi!+ 5 &ill argue t at in publi! poli!' debate regarding environmental ! oi!es+ &e la!k a !ru!ial t'pe of term t at !an 314

en!apsulate a great deal of information and 324 present t is information in su! a &a' t at t e its importan!e for &idel' eld so!ial values is transparent.

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AT #!8 (O!M#!T KS' :BAEK TO TF# #A(TF; BA",#!8 (O!M#!T The <orl- of &he al&erna&i)e <o+l- be co$%ara&i)el* <orse,re&+rning &o na&+re <o+l- %+& &oo $+ch %ress+re on &he en)iron$en&. has&ening ex&inc&ion/ Le<is. 92/ Aartin 8e!turer in istor' and dire!tor of t e 5nternational 6elations program at 9tanford. Dreen Gelusions+ p. %+ Doogle Looks. <inall'+ t e radi!al green movement t reatens nature b' advo!ating a return to t e land+ seeking to immerse t e

uman !ommunit' even more full' &it in t e intri!ate &ebs of t e natural &orld. Diven t e present uman population+ t is is ardl' possible+ and even if it &ere to o!!ur it &ould result onl' in a!!elerated destru!tion .
N!ologi!al p ilosop ers ma' argue t at &e !ould follo& t e pat s of t e primal peoples & o live in intrinsi! armon' &it nature+ but t e' are mistaken. Eribal groups usuall' do live lig tl' on t e eart + but often onl' be!ause t eir population densities are lo&. Eo return to preindustrial 0 armon'1 &ould ne!essaril' entail mu! more t an merel' de!imating t e uman population. Xet unless our numbers !ould be redu!ed to a small fra!tion of present levels+ an' return to nature &ould be an environmental !atastrop e. E e more t e uman presen!e is pla!ed dire!tl' on t e land

and t e more immediatel' it is provisioned from nature+ t e fe&er resour!es &ill be available for non( uman spe!ies. 5f all 2meri!ans &ere to flee from metropolitan areas+ rural populations &ould soar and &ildlife abitat &ould ne!essaril' diminis . 2n instru!tive example of t e deadl' impli!ations of returning to nature ma' be found
& en one !onsiders t e issue of fuel. 2lt oug more !ommon in t e 19$0s t an t e 1990s+ 0split &ood not atoms1 is still one of t e green radi!als* favored !redos. Eo old su! a vie& one must remain oblivious to t e !learl' devastating !onsequen!es of &ood burning+ in!luding suffo!ating &inter air pollution in t e en!losed basins of t e 2meri!an Hest+ &idespread indoor !arbon monoxide poisoning+ and t e ongoing destru!tion of t e oak &oodlands and savanna s of 7alifornia. 5f &e &ere all to split &ood+ t e ?nited 9tates &ould be a deforested+ soot(! oked &asteland &it in a fe& de!ades. Eo be sure+ t e pollution t reat of &ood stoves !an be mitigated b' t e use of !atal'ti! !onverters+ but note t at t ese are te! nologi!all' sop isti!ated devi!es developed b' !apitalist firms. 5f t e most extreme version of t e radi!al

green agenda &ere to be full' ena!ted &it out a trul' massive uman die(off first+ forests &ould be stripped !lean of &ood and all large animals &ould be unted to extin!tion b' ordes of neo(primitives desperate for food and &armt . 5f+ on t e ot er and+ e!o(extremeists &ere to su!!eed onl' in paral'zing t e e!onom'*s !apa!it' for furt er resear! + development+ and expansion+ our future !ould turn out to be reminis!ent of t e environmental nig tmare of =oland in t e 19%0s+ &it a stagnant e!onom' !ontinuing to rel' on outmoded+ pollution(bel! ing industries. 2 t rottled stead'(state e!onom' &ould simpl' la!k t e resour!es ne!essar' to !reate an
environmentall' benign te! nologi!al base for a popula!e t at s o&s ever' sign of !ontinuing to demand ele!tri!it'+ ot &ater+ and ot er !onvenien!es. Nastern Nurope s o&s &ell t e environmental devastation t at o!!urs & en

e!onomi! gro&t stalls out in an alread' industrialized so!iet'.

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AT #!8 (O!M#!T KS' AT' (OL# OF BALLOT S !T#LL#ET@AL Abs&rac& in&ellec&+alis$ is +seless,en)iron$en&al %hiloso%hers sho+l- orien& &he$sel)es &o<ar-s %roble$ sol)ing/ "e>Shali&+ 2000. =rofessor of =oliti!al E eor' at t e >ebre& ?niversit' of ;erusalem and 2sso!iate <ello& at t e @xford 7entre for Nnvironment+ Nt i!s+ and 9o!iet'+ Aansfield 7ollege+ @xford ?niversit'. 0E e Nnvironment: Let&een E eor' and =ra!ti!e+1 p. 20+ 2vner+ _uestia. 9o animal rig ts p ilosop ers ave been missing t e ! an!e to find a &a' to man' peopleKs earts . Lut & ' is t is so !ru!ialR 5 t ink it is !ru!ial be!ause it is t e &rong &a' of pra!tising politi!al p ilosop ' . Eo see & '+ let us re!all a !lassi!al book b' Aax Heber 319#%4. 5n =oliti!s als Leruf+ Heber presented an important distin!tion bet&een t&o approa! es to moral reasoning. @ne is t e Ket i!s of !onvi!tionK+ & i! often follo&s deontolog' + or a set of rules of !ondu!tF t e ot er is t e et i!s of responsibilit'+ a!!ording to & i! it &ould be irresponsible to a!t

a!!ording to oneKs prin!iples alone: rat er+ one s ould also !onsider & at ot ers &ill do as a result of oneKs a!tions. 5t seems to me t at politi!al p ilosop ' as t is approa! in mind. =oli&ical %hiloso%h* sho+l- orien& i&self &o<ar-s real>life %roble$s. incl+-ing &he %roble$ of %+blic goo- an- collec&i)e ac&ion. <here %eo%le &en&o reac& in cer&ain +n-esirable <a*s &o <ha& o&hers -o. 5n su! !ases t ere must be a &a' of taking into a!!ount t e
effe!t t at m' a!tions ave 3&e in!lude ere bot & at 5 !laim to be doing and t e reasons 5 give for doing it4 on ot ersK be aviour and a!tions. =oliti!al reasoning &ould t en ave t&o stages: first+ a dis!ussion of prin!iples+ but se!ond+ a !onsideration of t eir a!tual appli!ation and t eir effe!t on ot ersK be aviour . >o&ever+ man' environmental p ilosop ers+ & ile as!ribing rig ts to animals+ ignore t e &a' ot ers ma' rea!t. 5 believe t at man' people & o mig t ave been persuaded of t e importan!e of treating animals fairl' 3using t e argument of & at !ruelt' !an do to t e uman soul4 &ill regard t e notion of animal rig ts as so obs!ure or absurd t at t e' dismiss as mad p ilosop ers & o suggest t is idea+ and s!orn all su! !laims as nonsense .

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AT #!8 (O!M#!T KS' A!TF(O=OE#!T( SM 7OO",SOL8#S #!8 (O!M#!T (eHec&ion of an&hro%ocen&ris$ +n-er$ines %rag$a&ic a&&e$%&s a& en)iron$en&al %ro&ec&ion/ 2ndre& Ligh&+ ;ul' 2002. 2sso!iate professor of p ilosop ' and environmental poli!'+ and dire!tor of t e 7enter for Dlobal Nt i!s at Deorge Aason ?niversit'. 07ontemporar' Nnvironmental Nt i!s <rom Aetaet i!s to =ubli! = ilosop '+1 Aetap ilosop ' 33.4+ Nbs!o.
Hit t is variet' of vie&s in t e field+ o& s ould environmental et i!s pro!eedR @ne ans&er &ould be t at it &ill simpl' pro!eed+ & et er it s ould or not+ as a ne& set of debates bet&een t e more traditional non ant ropo!entri! vie&s and t e bio!entri!+ ant ropo!entri!+ or ot er alternative vie&s briefl' mentioned at t e end of t e previous se!tion. Aan' ant ropo!entri! environmental et i!ists seem

: in addition to !ontinuing t e tradition of most environmental et i!s as p ilosop i!al sparring among p ilosop ers+ &e !ould turn our attention to t e question of o& t e &ork of environmental et i!ists !ould be made more useful in taking on t e environmental problems to & i! environmental et i!s is addressed as t ose problems are undertaken in poli!' terms. E e problems &it !ontemporar' environmental et i!s are arguabl' more pra!ti!al t an p ilosop i!al+ or at least t eir resolution in more pra!ti!al terms is more important t an t eir resolution in p ilosop i!al terms at t e present time . <or even
determined to do /ust t at 3see Corton 199" and 7alli!ott 199#4. E ere is+ o&ever+ an alternative

t oug t ere are several dissenters from t e dominant traditions in environmental et i!s+ t e more important !onsideration is t e fa!t t at t e &orld of natural(resour!e management 3in & i! environmental et i!ists s ould ope to ave some influen!e+ in t e same &a' t at medi!al et i!ists ave &orked for influen!e over t e medi!al professions4 takes a predominantl' ant ropo!entri! approa! to assessing natural value+ as do most ot er umans 3more on t is point in t e next se!tion4. Nnvironmental et i!s appears more !on!erned &it over!oming uman interests t an redire!ting t em to&ard environmental !on!erns. 2s a !onsequen!e+ a nonant ropo!entri! form of et i!s as limited appeal to su! an audien!e+ even if it &ere true t at t is literature provides t e best reasons for & ' nature as value 3de(9 alit 20004.9 2nd no& &o a%%eal &o s+ch an a+-ience arg+abl* $eans &ha& <e are no& ha)ing an

effec& ei&her on &he for$a&ion of be&&er en)iron$en&al %olices or on &he %roHec& of engen-ering %+blic s+%%or& for &he$. 2s su! + 5 &ould argue+ environmental et i!s is not living up to its promise as a field of p ilosop ' attempting to elp resolve environmental problems. 5t is instead evolving mostl' as a field of intramural p ilosop i!al debate. Eo demonstrate better o& t e dominant frame&ork of environmental et i!s is indering our abilit' to elp address environmental problems+ let us examine a more spe!ifi! !ase & ere t e narro& re/e!tion of ant ropo!entrism as indered a more effe!tive p ilosop i!al !ontribution to debates in environmental poli!'.

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AT #!8 (O!M#!T KS' A!TF(O=OE#!T( SM 7OO",SOL8#S #!8 (O!M#!T The en)iron$en&al co$$+ni&* f+nc&ions in an an&hro%ocen&ric fra$e<ork,acce%&ing &his is cri&ical for %hiloso%hers &o $ake real con&rib+&ions &o en)iron$en&al %olic*/ Ligh&+ 02. 2ndre&+ ;ul'+ 2sso!iate professor of p ilosop ' and environmental poli!'+ and dire!tor of t e 7enter for Dlobal Nt i!s at Deorge Aason ?niversit'. 07ontemporar' Nnvironmental Nt i!s <rom Aetaet i!s to =ubli! = ilosop '+1 Aetap ilosop ' 33.4+ Nbs!o. 5n addition to t e reasons offered above+ t ere are at least t&o pra!ti!al reasons for re!onsidering t e re/e!tion of ant ropo!entrism to !onsider as &ell. <irst+ !onsider t at t e fo!us in environmental et i!s on t e sear! for a

des!ription of t e nonant ropo!entri! value of nature also separates it from ot er forms of environmental inquir'. Aost ot er environmental professionals look at environmental problems in a uman !ontext rat er t an tr' to define an abstra!t sense of natural value outside t e uman appre!iation of intera!tion &it nature . <ields
like environmental so!iol( og' and environmental ealt + for example+ are !on!erned not &it t e environment per se but &it t e environment as t e lo!ation of uman !ommunit'. E is is not to sa' t at t ese fields redu!e t e value of

nature to a !rude resour!e instrumentalism. 5t is to sa' instead t at t e' realize t at a dis!ussion of nature outside t e uman !ontext impedes our abilit' to dis!uss &a's in & i! ant ropogeni! impa!ts on nature !an be under( stood and ameliorated. 5f environmental p ilosop ers !ontinue to pursue t eir &ork onl' as a !ontribution to value t eor'+ t e' !ut t emselves off from t e rest of t e environmental !ommunit'+ & i! seeks to provide pra!ti!al solutions to environmental problems + solutions t at it is almost trite t ese da's to suggest must be interdis!iplinar'. @ne ma' fairl'
&onder o& environmental p ilosop ers !an make a !ontribution to somet ing ot er t an value t eor'. 2fter all+ & at else are t e' trained to do as p ilosop ersR A' !laim is t at if p ilosop ers !ould elp to arti!ulate moral reasons for environmental poli!ies in a &a' t at is translatable to t e general ant ropo!entri! intuitions of t e publi!+ t e' &ill ave made a !ontribution to t e resolution of environmental problems !ommensurate &it t eir talents. Lut making su! a !ontribution ma' require doing environmental p ilosop ' in some different &a's. 2t a mini( mum it requires a more publi! p ilosop '+ as t e 2meri!an pragmatist p ilosop er ;o n Ge&e' envisioned+ t oug one more fo!used on making t e kind of arguments t at resonate &it t e moral intuitions t at most people !arr' around &it t em on an ever'da' basis.

The %+blic f+nc&ions in an&hro%ocen&ric fra$e<ork,&he* %re)en& &he al&erna&i)e fro$ gaining necessar* %+blic s+%%or&/ Ligh&+ 02. 2ndre&+ ;ul'+ 2sso!iate professor of p ilosop ' and environmental poli!'+ and dire!tor of t e 7enter for Dlobal Nt i!s at Deorge Aason ?niversit'. 07ontemporar' Nnvironmental Nt i!s <rom Aetaet i!s to =ubli! = ilosop '+1 Aetap ilosop ' 33.4+ Nbs!o. 5t is t e empiri!all' demonstrable prevalen!e of ant ropo!entri! vie&s on environmental issues t at is t e se!ond pra!ti!al reason for re!onsidering t e & olesale re/e!tion of ant ropo!entrism . 5n a surve' b' Len Ainteer and 6obert Aanning about t e sour!es of positive attitudes to&ard environmental prote!tion in Bermont+ respondents

over& elmingl' indi!ated t at t e reason t e' most t oug t t e environment s ould be prote!ted is t at t e' t ink &e ave positive obligations to prote!t nature for future uman generations 3Ainteer and Aanning 19994. Aore ex austive surve's of 2meri!an attitudes to&ard environmental prote!tion ave also found su! results . 5n
t e preparator' &ork for t eir landmark stud' of environmental attitudes in t e ?nited 9tates+ Hillett Qempton and is !olleagues found t at obligations to future generations &as so po&erfull' intuitive a reason for most people to favor environmental prote!tion t at t e' &ould volunteer t is vie& before t e' &ere asked. 5n a series of inter( vie&s t at elped determine t e fo!us of t eir questions for t e

2lt oug our initial set of questions never asked about ! ildren+ seventeen of t e t&ent' la' informants t emselves broug t up ! ildren or future generations as a /ustifi!ation for environmental prote!tion . 9u! a ig proportion of respondents mentioning t e same topi! is unusual in ans&ering an
surve'+ t e aut ors remarked: He found t at our informants* des!endants loom large in t eir t inking about environmental issues. open(ended question. 5n fa!t+ !on!ern for t e future of ! ildren and des!endants emerged as one of t e strongest values in t e intervie&s. 3Qempton et al. 199$+ 9"4 E e larger surve' !ondu!ted b' Qempton+

E erefore+ a publi! environmental p ilosop ' t at took as one of its tasks t e translation of t e !onverged ends of environmental et i!ists to arguments t at &ould morall' motivate umans &ould ave to take seriousl' t e prospe!ts of making t ese arguments in terms of obligations to future generations. We are e$%iricall* $ore likel* &o $o&i)a&e h+$ans &o %ro&ec& so$e %ar& of na&+re if &he* consi-er i& %ar& of &heir generaliBable obliga&ions &o &he f+&+re . @t er ant ropo!entri! !laims &ill no doubt
& i! in!luded questions about obligations to t e future+ !onfirmed t ese findings.

also be &arranted as targets for t is translation exer!ise+ but t is one &ill be !ertain.

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AT #!8 (O!M#!T KS' A!TF(O=OE#!T( SM 7OO",SOL8#S #!8 (O!M#!T F+$an>cen&ere- e&hics necessi&a&e %ro&ec&ing &he en)iron$en&,change is %ossible <i&ho+& a-o%&ing a bio>cen&ris$/ F<ang+ 01. Q'ung(sig+ =rofessor in t e Gepartment of = ilosop ' at 9eoul Cational ?niversit'. 02polog' for Nnvironmental 2nt ropo!entrism+1 2sian Lioet i!s in t e 21st 7entur'+ ttp:))eubios.info)2L74)ab!4304. tm. E e t ird vie&+ & i! &ill be defended ere+ is t at t ere is no need for a spe!ifi!all' e!ologi!al et i! to explain our obligations to&ard nature+ t at our moral rig ts and duties can sa&isfac&oril* be ex%laine- in &er$s of &ra-i&ional. h+$an>cen&ere- e&hical &heor*.T4U 5n terms of t is vie&+ e!olog' bears on et i!s and moralit' in t at it brings out t e far(rea! ing+ extremel' important effe!ts of manKs a!tions+ t at mu! t at seemed simpl' to appen( extin!tion of spe!ies+ depletion of resour!es+ pollution+ over rapid gro&t of population+ undesirable+ armful+ dangerous+ and damaging uses of te! nolog' and s!ien!e ( is due to uman a!tions t at are !ontrollable+ preventable+ b' men and en!e su! t at men !an be eld a!!ountable for & at o!!urs. N!olog' brings out t at+ often a!ting from t e best motives+ o&ever+ simpl' from s ort(sig ted self(interest &it out regard for ot ers living toda' and for t ose 'et to be born+ brings about ver' damaging and often irreversible ! anges in t e environment + ! anges su! as t e extin!tion of plant and animal spe!ies+ destru!tion of &ilderness and valuable natural p enomena su! as forests+ lakes+ rivers+ seas. Aan' reprodu!e at a rate &it & i! t eir environment !annot !ope+ so t at damage is done+ to and at t e same time+ t ose & o are born are ill(fed+ ill(!lad+ ill(s eltered+ ill(edu!ated. Aoralists !on!erned &it t e environment ave pressed t e need for a basi! ret inking of t e nature of our moral obligations in t e lig t of t e kno&ledge provided b' e!olog' on t e basis of personal+ so!ial+ and spe!ies pruden!e+ as &ell as on general moral

grounds in terms of it erto unre!ognized and negle!ted duties in respe!t of ot er people+ people no& living and persons 'et to be born+ t ose of t e t ird &orld+ and t ose of future generation + and also in respe!t of preservation of natural spe!ies+ &ilderness+ and valuable natural p enomena. >en!e &e find e!ologi!al moralists & o
adopt t is t ird approa! + &riting to t e effe!t t at !on!ern for our duties entail !on!ern for our environment and t e e!os'stems it !ontains. Nnvironmental et i!s is !on!erned &it t e moral relation t at olds bet&een umans and

t e natural &orld+ t e et i!al prin!iples governing t ose relations determine our duties+ obligations+ and responsibilities &it regard to t e eart Ks natural environment and all t e animals and plants in abit it. 2 h+$an> cen&ere- &heor* of en)iron$en&al e&hics olds t at our moral duties &it respe!t to t e natural &orld are all +l&i$a&el* -eri)e- fro$ &he -+&ies <e o<e &o one ano&her as h+$an beings . 5t is be!ause &e s ould respe!t t e uman rig ts+ or s ould prote!t and promote t e &ell being of umans+ t at &e must pla!e !ertain !onstraints on our treatment of t e eart Ks environment and its non( uman abitants.T"U

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AT #!8 (O!M#!T KS' A!TF(O=OE#!T( SM 7OO",SOL8#S #!8 (O!M#!T An&hro%ocen&ris$ is cri&ical &o %ro&ec& &he en)iron$en&,i& ge&s &he %+blic on boar-/ Wa&son+ 07. =rofessor at t e Gepartment of =s'! olog' in t e ?niversit' of 5o&a. I7onservative ant ropo!entrism provides t e best basis and frame&ork for an environmental et i!+I Gavid+ ttp:))p ilosop '.!nu.edu)t esisYpapers)GavidHatson9pring0$>EA8. tm.

@pponents of a !onservative ant ropo!entri! environmental et i! &ill ob/e!t to t e priorit' of uman survival in an environmental et i!. E ose & o oppose an' ant ropo!entri! et i! &ould look to t e !on!ept of value to support t eir argument. E e' &ould !laim t at ot er members of t e biosp ere possess intrinsi! value and t at t eir value !annot be !onsidered less t an t at of a uman. E us+ ot er members of t e biosp ere !annot be sa!rifi!ed for t e
betterment of umanit'. 2!!ording to su! arguments+ t e intrinsi! value of t ese ot er members pro ibits an' ant ropo!entri! environmental et i!. Nmotionall' t e arguments of t e non(ant ropo!entrists ave great appeal. = ilosop i!all' /ustified+ moral and et i!al t eorists often gravitate to non(ant ropo!entri! environmental et i!s. >o&ever+ t ere are several problems &it t e !on!epts t e' assert. Con(ant ropo!entrists !laim t at ot er

members of t e biosp ere ave intrinsi! value+ and t is pro ibits an' ant ropo!entri! environmental et i! .
7ompelling examples along t ese lines are often !ited to /ustif' non(ant ropo!entrism. E e Pslaug tering* of animals su! as !o&s+ deer+ or ! i!kens for uman use is &rong be!ause t e ! i!kens and !o&s possess as mu! value as umans. >o&ever+ & et er or not t ese arguments are valid and /ustified is not t e onl' !onsideration ne!essar'. E e

dis!ussions of p ilosop ers and intelle!tuals are not t e end of environmental et i!s. The %eo%le of Wes&ern socie&ies+ as !onsumers of vast amounts of resour!es+ $+s& realiBe &he i$%or&ance of &he o&her $e$bers of &he bios%here if &his iss+e is &o be a--resse-. >umans are part of nature+ or t e biosp ere+ as are all ot er living and
non(living entities on t e eart . E oug umanit' often seems separate and distin!t from nature+ umans emerged from t e alread' t riving biosp ere. E is eart as been t e onl' ome to umanit'. Hit out t e eart and its parts+ t e

ne!essar' !onditions for t e existen!e and survival of umanit' are la!king. #n)iron$en&al an&hro%ocen&ris$ -oes no& necessi&a&e an a-)ersarial rela&ionshi% be&<een h+$ans an- &he res& of na&+re + !ontrar' to popular opinion. 5n fa!t+ umanit' as a great interest in t e &elfare of t e biosp ere : E ere is ver' good reason for t inking
e!ologi!all'+ and for en!ouraging uman beings to a!t in su! a &a' as to preserve a ri! and balan!ed planetar' e!olog': uman survival depends on it. 3Aassanari 4"4 Nnvironmental et i!s need to embra!e ant ropo!entrism and t e insig ts of !onservation et i!s. >uman self(interest+ regardless of its moral status+ is present in uman nature and !ulturall' around t e &orld. >o&ever+ t is self(interest and t e dire!t relation it s ould ave &it t e &elfare of t e bioti! !ommunit' is often overlooked. 5nstead of !ontinuing t e debate of & et er to ! ampion all members of t e biosp ere or to

promote t e advan!ement of umanit'+ &e need to embra!e all members of t e biosp ere in order to promote t e advan!ement of umanit'. E ere are man' different fa!tors t at allo& for life on eart + parti!ularl' uman life. E e Presour!es+* as t e' are often !alled+ ne!essar' for t e
survival of umanit' are limited. 5f t e finite resour!es ne!essar' for uman life are gone+ t en t e existen!e of umanit' &ill no longer be viable on Nart . E e re!ent trend of uman attitude to&ard and intera!tion &it t e environment is frig teningl' s ortsig ted. @nl' a se!tor of t e s!ientifi! !ommunit' attempts to address t e potential environmental problems fa!ing umanit' in t e near and distant future. E ose t at do+ o&ever+ often express & at seems like elpless !on!ern: 2 great ! ange in our ste&ards ip of t e eart and t e life on it+ is required+ if vast uman miser' is to be avoided and our global ome on t is planet is not to be irretrievabl' mutilated. 30Harning to >umanit'1 $%34 8ooking onl' as far as t&ent'(five to fift' 'ears into t e future of t e environment is !ommonl' !onsidered long(

E e future viabilit' of life on t e planet is ne!essar' for uman survival+ and umanit' !an 'et ave a sa' in t is future . >umans !ame about among a
term t inking. Aore t an likel'+ t is &ill onl' be an intermediate point in t e environmental ! ange umans ave !aused.

preexisting &orld of living and non(living agents. He are /ust one of man' spe!ies t at ave in abited+ or do in abit t e eart . E ese various spe!ies serve different fun!tions in t e biosp ere and are interdependent upon one anot er for t e survival of t emselves and t e biosp ere.

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AT #!8 (O!M#!T KS' A!TF(O=OE#!T( SM 7OO",#XT !ET O! An&hro%ocen&ris$ ke* &o s+r)i)al,+n-ers&an-ing &he i$%or&ance of ecos*s&e$s &o f+&+re genera&ions sol)es en)iron$en&al -es&r+c&ion b+& ra-ical biocen&ris$ ca+ses ex&inc&ion/ F<ang+ 01. Q'ung(sig+ =rofessor in t e Gepartment of = ilosop ' at 9eoul Cational ?niversit'. 02polog' for Nnvironmental 2nt ropo!entrism+1 2sian Lioet i!s in t e 21st 7entur'+ ttp:))eubios.info)2L74)ab!4304. tm.

H ile our abilit' to affe!t t e future is immense+ our abilit' to foresee t e results of our environmental interventions is not. 5 t ink t at our moral responsibilit' gro&s &it foresig t. 2nd 'et+ paradoxi!all' in some !ases grave
moral responsibilit' is entailed b' t e fa!t of oneKs ignoran!e. 5f t e planetar' life(support s'stem appears to be !omplex and m'sterious+ umble ignoran!e s ould indi!ate respe!t and restraint. >o&ever+ as man' life s!ientists ave !omplained+ t ese virtues ave not been apparent in t ese generations. 5nstead t e' point out+ &e ave boldl' mar! ed a ead+ s redding deli!ate e!os'stems and obliterating !ountless spe!ies + and &it t em t e unique geneti! !odes t at evolved t roug millions of 'earsF &e ave altered t e !limate and even t e ! emistr' of t e atmosp ere+ and as a result of all t is(& atRT1%U 2 fe& results are immediatel' to our benefitF more energ'+ more mineral resour!es+ more !ropland+ !onvenient &aste disposal. 5ndeed+ t ese s ort(term pa'offs motivated us to alter our natural environment . Lut b' far t e larger and more signifi!ant results+ t e permanent results+ are unkno&n and per aps unkno&able. Cature+ sa's poet+ Can!' Ce& all+ I olds ans&ers to more questions t an &e kno& o& to ask.I 2nd &e ave s!ar!el' bot ered to ask.T19U Xear and 'ear+ t e natural abitants diminis and t e spe!ies disappear+ and t us our planetar' e!os'stem 3our ouse old4 is forever impoveris ed. 5t is a&areness of e!ologi!al !risis t at as led to t e no& !ommon !laim t at &e need transvaluation of value+ ne& values+ a ne& et i!+ and an et i! t at is essentiall' and not simpl' !ontingentl' ne& and e!ologi!al. 7loser inspe!tion usuall' reveals t at t e &riter & o states t is does not reall' mean to advan!e su! a radi!al t esis+ t at all e is arguing for is t e appli!ation of old+ re!ognized+ et i!al values of t e kind noted under t e ! ara!terization of respe!t for persons+ /usti!e+ onest'+ promotion of good+ & ere pleasure and appiness are seen as goods. E us+ alt oug H. E. Lla!kstone &ritesF I&e do not need t e kind of transvaluation t at Cietzs! e &anted+ but &e do need t at for & i! e!ologists are !alling+ t at is+ basi! ! anges in manKs attitude to&ard nature and manKs pla!e in nature+ to&ard population gro&t + to&ard t e use of te! nolog'+ and to&ard t e produ!tion and distribution of goods and servi!es.I He need to develop & at 5 !all t e e!ologi!al attitude. E e transvaluation of values+ & i! is needed+ &ill require fundamental ! anges in t e so!ial+ legal+ politi!al and e!onomi! institutions t at embod' our values. >e !on!ludes is arti!le b' expli!itl' noting t at e does not reall' demand a ne& et i!+ or a transvaluation of values. 2 uman being is a ierar! i!al s'stem and a !omponent of super(individual+ ierar! i!al s'stem of sets. H at is needed is no& &he -enial of an&hro%ocen&ris$+ t e pla!ing of t e ig est value on umans and t eir ends and t e !on!eiving of t e rest of t e nature as an instrument for t ose ends. 6at er & at is needed is t e expli!it re!ognition of t ese ierar! i!al

s'stems and an e!ologi!al approa! to s!ien!e and t e a!!umulation of s!ientifi! kno&ledge in & i! t e m'riad !asual relations ips bet&een different ierar! i!al s'stems are re!ognized and put to t e use of umanit'. E e freedom to use t e environment must be restri!ted to rational and uman use. 5f t ere is irrational use ( pollution+ overpopulation+ !ro&ding+ a gro&t in povert'+ and so on ( people ma' &ipe out ierar! ies of life related to t eir o&n survival and to t e qualit' of t eir o&n lives . E is sort of an&hro%ocen&ris$ is essen&ial e)en &o h+$an s+r)i)al an- a ra-ical bio&ic egali&arianis$ <o+l- +n-er$ine con-i&ions for &ha& s+r)i)al.T20U 6ational ant ropo!entrism+ one t at re!ognizes t e value of uman life Itrans!ends our individual lifeI and
one in & i! &e form a !olle!tive bond of identit' &it t e future generations is essential is t e pro!ess of uman evolution.

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AT #!8 (O!M#!T KS' A!TF(O=OE#!T( SM 7OO",#XT !ET O! An&hro%ocen&ris$ is cri&ical &o h+$an s+r)i)al b+& s&ill forces en)iron$en&al %ro&ec&ion in or-er &o %reser)e f+&+re genera&ions/ Wa&son+ 07. Gavid+ =rofessor at t e Gepartment of =s'! olog' in t e ?niversit' of 5o&a. I7onservative ant ropo!entrism provides t e best basis and frame&ork for an environmental et i!+I ttp:))p ilosop '.!nu.edu)t esisYpapers)GavidHatson9pring0$>EA8. tm.

E e most important !onsideration in an environmental et i! s ould be t e survival of umanit' . 9urvival is t e

most important fun!tion of umans instin!tivel' and biologi!all'. D.D. 9impson eld t is vie& and stated it !on!isel': a.even if e &ere t e lo&est animal+ t e ant ropo!entri! point of vie& &ould still be manifestl' t e onl' one to adopt for !onsideration of is pla!e in t e s! eme of t ings and & en seeking a guide on & i! to base is a!tions and evaluations of t em. 3Corton 1444 9!ien!e !onsiders self(interest to be a driving for!e in nature. 9impson explains t at umans !an onl' evaluate t eir a!tions as t e' relate to t emselves+ and t at ant ropo!entrism is natural. D.>. Aurd' simplifies t e !on!ept b' sa'ing+ 0it is proper for men to be ant ropo!entri! and for spiders to be ara! no!entri!1 3Corton 1444. 2ll living t ings are p 'siologi!all' !onstru!ted for survival and pro!reation. 2ll issues related to environmental et i!s !annot be dis!ussed &it out !onsideration of umans. E ere is one !ommon trait eld b' all living t ings+ and t at is reprodu!tion. 2ll living t ings ave t e abilit' to pro!reate. 9!ientists believe t at individual survival is not t e onl' goal of living t ings+ but also t e reprodu!tion of t eir GC2. E is importan!e pla!ed on t e future of t e GC2 is analogous to t e importan!e of t e future of umanit'. 2s mu! as individuals fun!tion to ensure t eir survival+ t e' also fun!tion to

ensure t e ! an!es of survival of t eir spe!ies. 8ike&ise+ an environmental et i! s ould fun!tion to ensure survival in t e present+ as &ell as fun!tioning to in!rease t e ! an!es for future survival and umanit'*s longevit'. E e t eor' of natural sele!tion revolutionized biologi!al dis!ussions. E is t eor' olds t at t e members of
ea! spe!ies 0must and s ould a!t to in!rease t e survival ! an!es of t eir spe!ies1 3Corton 14"4. 9imilar to ot er spe!ies in!luded in t is t eor'+ umans s ould a!t to in!rease t e ! an!es of t e survival of t eir spe!ies . 2!!ording to t e la&s of nature &e s ould and must a!t to in!rease t e ! an!es of present uman survival as &ell as t e future of umanit'.

@ne of t e main issues of environmental treatment is t at of t e eart *s !ondition & en in erited b' future generations. Dillespie asserts: a.t ere is t e et i!al argument t at t e future is barel' represented in most !ontemporar'
de!ision making. Xet+ b' t e time future generations are living &it t e environmental problems t at t is generation as left t em+ t is generation &ill ave gone+ aving taken t e benefits of su! de!isions+ but leaving t e !osts be ind. 3Dillespie 111(1124 Aaking de!isions t at are fair to future generations of umanit' ma' require sa!rifi!e. 9u! sa!rifi!e

mig t be signifi!ant+ but &ould pale in !omparison to t e miser' future generations ma' fa!e on an ex austed and devastated eart . E oug a!ting in t e interests of t e present ma' be easier+ umanit' as a & ole s ould a!t to in!rease t e ! an!es for future umans. @ne of t e most basi! needs of future generations is to ave a ealt ' biosp ere in & i! to live+ and t is must be addressed before time runs out.

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AT #!8 (O!M#!T KS' A! MALS "O!9T "#S#(8# ( 7FTS Ani$als can9& ha)e righ&s,&he* aren9& $oral agen&s/ Feinberg+ 72. ;oel+ 2meri!an politi!al and so!ial p ilosop er & o taug t at institutions in!luding Lro&n ?niversit'+ ?782+ =rin!eton+ retired as 6egents =rofessor of = ilosop ' and 8a& at t e ?niversit' of 2rizona. 0E e 6ig ts of 2nimals and <uture Denerations+1 = ilosop ' and Nnvironmental 7risis+ ttp:))&&&.animal(rig ts(librar'.!om)texts( m)feinberg01. tm.

Nven if &e allo&+ as 5 t ink &e must+ t at animals are t e dire!tl' intended benefi!iaries of legislation forbidding !ruelt' to animals+ it does not follo& dire!tl' t at animals ave legal rig ts F and Dra' imself+ for one+ refused to dra& t is furt er inferen!e. 2nimals !annot ave rig ts+ e t oug t+ for t e same reason t e' !annot ave duties+ namel'+ t at t e' are not genuine Imoral agents.I Co&+ it is relativel' eas' to see & ' animals !annot ave duties+ and t is matter is largel' be'ond !ontrovers'. 2nimals !annot be Ireasoned &it I or instru!ted in t eir responsibilitiesF t e' are inflexible and unadaptable to future !ontingen!iesF t e' are in!apable of !ontrolling instin!tive impulses. >en!e+ t e' !annot enter into !ontra!tual agreements+ or make promises F t e' !annot be trustedF and t e' !annot 3ex!ept &it in ver' narro& limits and for purposes of !onditioning4 be blamed for & at &ould be !alled Imoral failuresI in a uman being. E e' are t erefore in!apable of being moral sub/e!ts+ of a!ting rig tl' or &rongl' in t e moral senses+ of aving+ dis! arging+ or brea! ing duties and obligations. Lut & at is t ere about t e
intelle!tual in!ompeten!e of animals 3& i! admittedl' disqualifies t em for duties4 t at makes t em logi!all' unsuitable for rig tsR E e most !ommon repl' to t is question is t at animals are in!apable of !laiming rig ts on t eir o&n. E e' !annot make motion+ on t eir o&n+ to !ourts to ave t eir !laims re!ognized or enfor!ed F t e' !annot initiate+ on t eir o&n+ an' kind of legal pro!eedingsF nor are t e' !apable of even understanding & en t eir rig ts are being violated+ or distinguis ing arm from &rongful in/ur'+ and responding &it indignation and an outraged sense of /usti!e instead of mere anger or fear.

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AT #XT#(!AL ?AT O!' BOB#(T? EO!EL@"#S AFF Bober&B concl+-es aff K &heir car-s are &aken o+& of con&ex& Bober&B. 94 3Lrad Lobertz+ ?niversit' of Cebraska 7ollege of 8a&. 7orresponden!e &it 6obert A!7o&n+ Nmor' debater. 08imits of t e P9!apegoating* E esis1 9(24(9#. ttp:))&&&.!s./ u.edu)p/onat an)debate)!eda(l)ar! ive)7NG2(8( 9ep(199#)msg003%2. tml4 5Km &riting to !larif' some of t e ideas in m' arti!le+ I8egitimizing =ollution E roug =ollution 7ontrol 8a&s: 6efle!tions on 9!apegoating E eor'+I publis ed in vol. $3+ no. 4 of t e Eexas 8a& 6evie& 3Aar. 199"4. 5 do C@E believe t at all affirmative environmental regulation is suspe!t eit er be!ause it diverts attention from t e real problems or be!ause it alleviates personal responsibilit' for t ese problems. 7ertainl' some environmental la&s ave t ese effe!ts 3and 5 dis!uss some spe!ifi! examples as &ell as t e general Is!apegoatingI p enomenon in m' arti!le4. Lut t is does not mean t at 288 environmental la&s ex ibit t ese tenden!ies. A' t oug ts about t e effi!a!' of an' environmental la& depends on t e nature of t e problem in question and on t e o& la& responds to t at problem. 8et me give 'ou an example from t e arti!le. 5n =art B+ 5 dis!uss
t e saga of t e Ievil spra' !an.I 5n essen!e+ resear! indi!ating t at 7<7s !ould destro' stratosp eri! ozone evolved into a simpler stor' in t e mid to late 19$0s: spra' !ans t at used 7<7s as propellants &ere bad for t e environment+ and N=2Ks 19$% ban on 7<7s in aerosol produ!ts IsolvedI t e problem b' banis ing t ese environmental &rongdoers from t e s!ene. 2s 5 noted in t e arti!le+ t e problem &it t is stor' &as t at it &as in!omplete. E e N=2 ban+ & ile a good t ing+ affe!ted onl' one sour!e of 7<7 emissions 3ignoring refigerators and !ar air !onditioners+ for example4 and+ be!ause it applied onl' in t e ?.9.+ did not address t e international dimensions of t e problem. 9o 5 used N=2Ks 19$% ban on 7<7s in spra' !ans+ as &ell as rea!tions to t is ban b' t e press and publi!+ as examples of t e Is!apegoatingI p enomenon in a!tion. Lut t is &asnKt t e end of t e stor'. 5n 19%$ t e ?nited 9tates signed 3and in 19%% ratified4 an extraordinar' treat' !alled t e IAontreal =roto!ol on 9ubstan!es E at Geplete t e @zone 8a'er.I E e Aontreal =roto!ol froze produ!tion and !onsumption of 7<7s and ot er ozone depleters at 19%# levels+ follo&ed b' a "0 per!ent redu!tion in 7<7 use b' industrialized !ountries over a ten('ear period. 2s s!ientists began to dis!over t at ozone depletion posed an even more serious and immediate t reat+ t e =roto!ol members met in 8ondon to !onsider measures to stregt en t e a!!ord. ?ltimatel'+ t e parties agreed on a E@E28 elimination of 7<7 produ!tion and use b' 2000. 9eparate redu!tion and p aseout s! edules &ere establis ed for alons and ot er ozone( depleting ! emi!als. <ive mont s after t e 8ondon agreement+ t e ?.9. 7ongress ena!ted a number of additional measures to a!!elerate t e elimination of ozone(depleting substan!es in Eitle B5 of t e 7lean 2ir 2!t 2mendments of 1990. E e Nuropean 7ommunit' a!!elerated t eir o&n 7<7 p aseout+ s ortening t e deadline b' t ree 'ears to 199$. E e ?nited 9tates N=2 t en announ!ed it &ould beat t e N7Ks ne& timetable b' a 'ear. Dovernmental and nongovernmental organizations+ as &ell as industr'+ /oined t is remarkable ra!e to speed up t e ban on ozone depleters. 8ast Ge!ember+ & en t e 9event Aeeting of t e =arties to t e Aontreal =roto!ol !onvened in Bienna+ It e developed &orld &as &it in &eeks of alting all produ!tion of most ozone(depleting substan!es t at t e =roto!ol initiall' ad onl' required be !ut in alf b' t e 'ear 2000.I 6obert =er!ival+ et al.+ INnvironmental 6egulation+I p. 12%4 3Loston: 8ittle+ Lro&n : 7o. 199#4. 3<or ot er sour!es on t e Aontreal =roto!ol+ see

E e Aontreal =roto!ol and t e unilateral and multilateral la&s t at follo&ed it strike me as an enornmous su!!ess stor'. @bviousl'+ it &ould ave been better if t e =roto!ol ad been signed ten 'ears earlier+ but all t e eviden!e &asnKt in 'et. 2s it &as+ t e =roto!ol fa!ed and over!ame man' obsta!les 3& i! time prevents me from re!ounting in detail4. 2lt oug N=2Ks 19$% ban+ in m' vie&+ illustrates t e Is!apegoatingI t esis+ t e Aontreal =roto!ol /ust as strongl' demonstrates t at affirmative environmental measures !an be effe!tive+ even in t e !umbersome and unpredi!table arena of international affairs. Eo sum up+ 5 did not &rite m' Is!apegoatingI arti!le to advan!e t e idea t at 288 environmental la&s are &rong eaded+ &asteful+ or !ounterprodu!tive be!ause t e' s ift IblameI from t e individual !onsumer 3or from t e IrealI sour!e of a problem4 to some ot er target of regulation. 5 believed and !ontinue to believe t at man' la&s+ environmental or ot er&ise+ ex ibit aspe!ts of t e s!apegoating p enomenon t at 5 &rote about. E is does not mean+ o&ever+ t at all la&s do so. 2s 5 said before+ it all depends on t e problem at and and o& t e la& responds to t e problem. 5 &rote t e arti!le oping to en!ourage LNEEN6 la&making+ not to suggest t at t e la&making enterprise itself is doomed b' our tenden!ies to oversimplif' diffi!ult problems and to transfer blame to s'mboli! Is!apegoats.I S+ch a nihilis&ic an- -e%ressing )ie<%oin&. sincerel* ho%e. is no& s+%%or&e- b* a f+ll an- fair rea-ing of $* ar&icle/ 5f 5Km &rong about t is+ t en 5 a!!omplis ed exac&l* &he o%%osi&e of <ha& in&en-e-/ 5 realize t at quotations from t e arti!le+ removed from t e !ontext of t e entire pie!e+ !an be used to support a variet' of positions. 5 ope t is note elps !larif' & at 5 a!tuall' intended t e arti!le to sa'.
footnotes 140 to 149 of m' arti!le4.

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Nnvironmental guilt is inevitable Bober&B 93 3Lradel' 7. Lobertz( assistant professor of la&+ ?niversit' of Cebraska 7ollege of 8a&+ Eexas 8a& 6evie&+ 08egitimizing =ollution E roug =ollution 7ontrol 8a&s: 6efle!tions on 9!apegoating E eor'+1 8exis Cexis4 5n addition+ sixt' pnr!ent of 2meri!ans identif' t emselves as Ienvironmentalists+I and anot er t irt' per!ent lean in t at dire!tion. 2t various times+ polls indi!ate t at people rank environmental issues at or near t e top of t e list of problems fa!ing t e !ountr'. Xet !onforming oneKs personal be avior to an espoused !on!ern for environmental qualit' takes t e kind of energ'+ time+ and diligen!e t at fe& people !an !onsistentl' muster. 2lternatives to t is guilt(produ!ing predi!ament old little appeal. E e' in!lude: !'ni!all' den'ing eit er t at environmental problems exist or t at personal a!tion mattersF engaging in various forms of 8udditismF or resigning oneself to some degree of personal 'po!ris'. Nnvironmental guilt (( endemi! in some people+ negligible or absent in ot ers (( seems an inevitable !onsequen!e of en/o'ing t e benefits of life in an industrialized nation t at simultaneousl' as an insatiable appetite for !risis(driven environmental /ournalism.

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Ealls &o ac&ion -on9& s%+r refor$ K in-i)i-+als <ill res%on- <i&h %assi)i&* (*lan2000 3Nlisabet 6'land+ Ge!ember 2000+ IDaia 6ising: 2 ;ungian 8ook at Nnvironmental 7ons!iousness and 9ustainable @rganizations+I ttp:))oae.sagepub.!om)!gi)reprint)13)4)3%14 5n spite of &orld&ide popularit' and &ell(reasoned !alls to a!tion+ t e environmental movement as failed to stem t e rising tide of environmental destru!tion. 6esear! reveals a &idespread la!k of sustainable a!tivit'+ even among professed environmentalists. E e 1990 6oper @rganization surve' revealed a !lear dis!onne!t bet&een environmental attitudes and be avior+ as &ell as an over& elming sense of individual elplessness and loss of !ontrol. E is large gap bet&een attitude and be avior exists bot in t e ?nited 9tates and abroad 3Ge @liver+ 1999F Gunlap: Aertig+ 1992F <inger+ 1994F Dardner : 9tern+ 199#F >allin+ 199"F 9!ott :Hillits+ 1994F ?usitalo+ 1990FHidegren+ 199%4. 5n t e presen!e of gro&ing environmental dangers+ people t'pi!all' respond &it passivit' & ile being pre' to anxiet'+ fear+ pessimism+ and elplessness.

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AT #XT#(!AL ?AT O!' ALT#(!AT 8# FA LS,7@ LT BA" =ersonal en)iron$en&al g+il& fos&ers inac&ion,onl* s&a&e ac&ion can %ro)i-e a %osi&i)e o+&le& for sol)ing en)iron$en&al %roble$s/ E+rrier+ 92. 4)2$)+ =eter+ 9o!ial &orker. 09tepping a&a' from Kgreen guiltK E>N NCB56@CANCEIHe !anKt es!ape individual responsibilit' for pollution but itKs vital t at+ & en fa!ed &it reams of bad ne&s about !ar!inogens+ ozone depletion and pesti!ides+ &e donKt begin to feel t at t ings are opeless and /ust give up t e fig t+1 E e Dlobe and Aail+ 8exis.
E@ live life &it out leaving a stain is be!oming a daunting task. <ear for t e Nart is epidemi!+ and man' blame t emselves for t eir part in turning a green &orld gre'. <or me+ t e most ever'da' t ings ave taken on an ominous !ast. 5 plu!k a Qleenex and ear t e ollo& I! o!kI of an axe biting &ood. E e fridge goes on+ and t e slui!ing of freon t roug !old steel guts blemis es t e ome' burble of perking !offee. =ounds of !arbon sull' t e air &it ever' gallon of gas m' !ar burns. Lut 5 t ink itKs t e sk' t at affe!ts me most ( t e aze t at lies on t e sunn' side of all t at blueness. 5s t at !loud+ or t e as en pallor of a &orld in t e grip of a tropi!al feverR 7onservation seemed so eas' 'ears ago+ or per aps t e &orld &as a simpler pla!e ba!k t en. IGonKt 8itterI signs. 9moke' t e Lear. E e 22(in! bass t at m' dad made me t ro& ba!k be!ause it &as four da's out of season. E e past &as so quaint and simple+ and &e took t e Nart so mu! for granted. 7lean air+ pure &ater and dump sites aplent'. 5n t ose da's+ pollution &as an i!k' substan!e &it out a name+ not a deadl' pro!ess t at involves us all. <rom t e Lla!k Geat to t e t reat of nu!lear anni ilation+ istor' as given ample !ause for fear. Lut t ose t reats seemed to !ome from t e outside+ !aused b' for!es be'ond our !ontrol. Lut &it pollution+ t e It emI is Ius.I 7ar drivers. =lasti! baggers. Gisinfe!tors. 5ndeed+ al t ose & o manufa!ture+ pa!kage+ sell+ bu' or use t ings t at damage t e Nart . E e greening of !ons!ien!e is probabl' not ne&. H en t e !edars of 8ebanon &ere e&n into s ipsK timbers+ itKs ard to imagine t at no one mourned t e loss. E e !esspool t at 8ondon on!e made of t e E ames must ave repelled man'. Lut no&R Ee! nolog' as trul' made t e times ! ange. Cever as so mu! inno!en!e been lost b' so man'. E e terms are familiar to us all: e!olog'+ t e t ree 6Ks+ !lear(!ut+ !ar!inogeni!+ mutageni!+ p osp ates+ green ouse effe!t+ emission standards ( t e list &ill gro& endless &it time. 2nd if green guilt ( t at pervasive feeling t at &e are personall' responsible for tras ing t e Nart ( is !osting us pea!e of mind and das ed opes no&+ t en & at of t e futureR 5Km familiar enoug &it guilt to kno& t at no

relations ip !an sustain boundless doses of it. E at in!ludes our relations ip &it t e Nart . ?nless &e offer Aot er Cature more t an palliative !are+ er stare &ill gro& ever sterner and &e &ill start to feel ever more oppressed . !'ni!al and opeless about t is Nart &e live &it . Nventuall'+ <e $a* H+s& gi)e +%/ Feal&h* o+&le&s for &he nee- &o conser)e $+s& be crea&e- or <e. for <ho$ &o li)e is &o %oll+&e. <ill resign o+rsel)es &o self>-es&r+c&ion and abandon our efforts to save t e Nart . He need to feel t at &e !an !onfront t e !ompli!ations of toda'Ks litter &it somet ing better t an a sti!k &it a spike on t e end. @t er&ise+ as t e pollution !ount and ultraviolet index ammer ome our failures+ and as a!id rain dampens our spirits and !orrodes our !onfiden!e+ t e stress of living &it e!ologi!al demands t at &e !anKt meet &ill be!ome unendurable. Dreen guilt !an be
dire!ted !onstru!tivel'. H en m' famil' visited m' sister in 9e! elt+ L.7.+ in 1990+ &e found t at pro!essing refuse &as mealtime routine. 2ll t at &as ing+ label(stripping+ !omposting and paper(sorting seemed like a bag lad'Ks sordid obsession until &e sa& a &eekKs garbage it t e !urb in a single+ &ell(used paper lun! bag. 8ater+ & en 5 drove a trunkful of re!'!lables to t e 9e! elt depot and sa& all t ose bins &it t eir different labels+ 5 kne& m' sister &asnKt alone in er e!!entri!it'. E e glass+ paper and metal t ere &as all eaded ba!k onto t e s elves. 2nd in( ome pro!essing ad !ut mu! of t e !olle!ting and sorting !osts. E ere+ even if re!'!ling &as driving t e pri!e of ra& materials do&n+ affordabilit' &asnKt t e issue. =aper re!'!led meant a tree saved. 9o mu! for resour!e glutton'. 9o mu! for landfill. 9o mu! for green guilt. E e re!'ling issue ig lig ts a more general need to !larif' t e mudd' &aters of !urrent e!olog': >o& t in is t e ozone la'erR 2re disposable diapers t at badR 5s 9t'rofoam reall' &orse t an paper in fast(food pa!kagingR 5s !otton produ!tion an environmental azardR >o& safe is tap &aterR E ere are ex!ellent &ritten referen!es for man' su! questions+ but in a mer!urial environment+ ans&ers are !omplex and qui!kl' dated. 2 !redible and visible environmental !oalition t at addresses e!ologi!al

issues !learl'+ ob/e!tivel' and aut oritativel' &ould ground green !ons!ien!e and give dire!tion to t e in!reasing numbers of t ose & o are possessed of it. E e state !an do more as &ell. Aore and better legislation on polluting emissions+ pa!kaging+ resour!e management and re!'!ling is !alled for. 5f bad ne&s triggers green guilt+ t en &e need to make good ne&s. Aore initiatives like t e one in 9e! elt &ould allo& t e media more eartening reportage and give us effe!tive in( ome options for survival.
7 anging t e image of green &ork so t at itKs sexier &ould elp+ too+ despite t e diffi!ulties involved. E e best !ures for green guilt often get 'our ands dirt': sorting garbage+ using !lot s instead of paper to&els+ using reusable diapers+ and so on. 7ompulsor' !ourses in environmental studies s ould start in primar' s! ool and involve more field trips for students so t e' kno& first( and & at &e ave alread' lost and & at &e stand to lose. E ese t ings &ill prevent t e lega!' of our e!ologi!al sins from being visited not /ust upon our ! ildrenKs &orld+ but upon t eir sense of self(&ort + and t eir sense of ope.

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AT F#A( OF "#ATF' MOB L ?#S =#O=L#PEOM=ASS O! Fear s%+rs co$%assion. $obiliBing %eo%le &o %ro&ec& each o&her an- gi)ing $eaning &o life/ 7reens%an. 01 3Airiam Dreenspan . =ioneer in t e 2rea of Homen*s =s'! olog' . 2003 302n Nx!erpt from >ealing t roug t e Gark Nmotions: E e Hisdom of Drief+ <ear+ and Gespair b' Airiam Dreenspan+1 &&&.spiritualit' ealt .!om)ne&s )ex!erpts)bookrevie&)ex!pY""13. tml4 I<ear is a ver' po&erful emotion. H en 'ou feel fear in 'our bod'+ itKs elpful to relate to it as an energ' t at !an be mobilized for life. 5t ma' feel like a !onstri!tion in 'our ! est+ t roat+ or abdomen. Lreat e t roug it &it out /udgment and allo& 'ourself to feel it as a ver' strong for!e. 5f 'ou pra' for elp+ 'ou !an begin to expand t is energ' &e !all KfearK and use it for ealing and transformation. I5n t is regard+ &e !an take our model from t e eroes of <lig t 93 & o. realizing t at t e' &ere bound for deat + stormed t e plane and broug t it do&n &it out itting a !ivilian target. @ne !annot even imagine being able to do t is &it out fear. <ear for t e lives of ot ers &as t e energ' t at mobilized t em to do somet ing meaningful &it t eir last moments of life. 9ome of t ese people said good(b'e to t eir usbands and &ives and &is ed t em appiness before t e' left t is eart . E e' ad found some pea!e in t eir last moments+ pea!e in t e midst of turbulen!e. 2nd t e' found it t roug t eir last &is + & i! t e' eroi!all' put into a!tion: to elp ot ers live. I=er aps t ere is not ing t at !an redeem t e dead but our o&n a!tions for t e good. E is is a time to find out & at &e &ant to do for t e &orld and do it. 2nd+ as ever' trauma survivor kno&s+ t is is t e &a' to make meaning out of pain+ per aps t e most effe!tive &a': to dra& somet ing good out of evil. E e eroes of 9eptember 11 point us to t e ! oi!e &e ea! ave: to elp !reate a state of global pea!e and /usti!e t at &e+ like t e'+ &ill not see before &e die. 5t is in giving ourselves to t is vision+ out of love for t is &orld t at &e in abit toget er+ t at &e stand a ! an!e of trans!ending t e uman pro!livit' to damage life. 2nd t at &e onor t ose &e ave broug t into t is &orld and & o must in erit it. . . . I@ur onl' prote!tion is in our inter!onne!tedness. E is as al&a's been t e message of t e dark emotions & en t e' are experien!ed most deepl' and &idel'. Drief is not /ust Im'I griefF it is t e grief of ever' mot erless ! ild+ ever' &itness to orror in t e &orld. Gespair is not /ust Im'I despairF it is ever'oneKs despair about life in t e t&ent'first !entur'. <ear is not /ust Km'K fearF it is ever'oneKs fear - of ant rax+ of nu!lear &ar+ of tru!k bombs+ of airplane i/a!kings+ of t ings falling apart+ blo&ing up+ si!kening and d'ing. I5f fear is onl' telling 'ou to save 'our o&n skin+ t ereKs not mu! ope for us. Lut t e fa!t is t at in !ons!ious fear+ t ere is a potentiall' revolutionar' po&er of !ompassion and !onne!tion t at !an be mobilized en masse. E is is t e po&er of fear. @ur !olle!tive fear+ & i! is intelligent+ is telling us no&: <ind ne& &a's to keep t is global village safe. <ind ne& forms of international !ooperation t at &ill root out evil in &a's t at donKt !reate more vi!tims and more evil. 8eap out of t e !onfines of national egos. 8earn t e &a's of pea!e. <ind a !eremon' of safet' so t at not /ust 'ou and 5 but all of us !an live toget er &it out fear.I

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AT F#A( OF "#ATF' F#A( K#J TO 8AL@# TO L F# Fear of -ea&h is ke* &o )al+e &o life K recogniBing -ea&h is ine)i&able allo<s +s &o crea&e a <orl- of lo)e/ Kelsang 99 3Des e+ internationall' reno&ned tea! er of Ludd ism 3+ ttp:))&&&.t arpa.!om)ba!kground)fear(of( deat . tm4 2 ealt ' fear of deat &ould be t e fear of d'ing unprepared+ as t is is a fear &e !an do somet ing about+ a danger &e !an avert. 5f &e ave t is realisti! fear+ t is sense of danger+ &e are en!ouraged to prepare for a pea!eful and su!!essful deat and are also inspired to make t e most of our ver' pre!ious uman life instead of &asting it. E is Isense of dangerI inspires us to make preparations so t at &e are no longer in t e danger &e are in no&+ for example b' pra!ti!ing moral dis!ipline+ purif'ing our negative karma+ and a!!umulating as mu! merit+ or good karma+ as possible. He put on a seat belt out of a sense of danger of t e unseen dangers of traffi! on t e road+ and t at seat belt prote!ts us from going t roug t e &inds ield. He !an do not ing about ot er traffi!+ but &e !an do somet ing about & et er or not &e go t roug t e &inds!reen if someone !ras es into us. 9imilarl'+ &e !an do not ing about t e fa!t of deat + but &e !an seize !ontrol over o& &e prepare for deat and o& &e die. Nventuall'+ t roug Eantri! spiritual pra!ti!e+ &e !an even attain a deat less bod'. 5n 8iving Aeaningfull'+ G'ing ;o'full'+ Des e Qelsang sa's: G'ing &it regrets is not at all unusual. Eo avoid a sad and meaningless end to our life &e need to remember !ontinuall' t at &e too must die. 7ontemplating our o&n deat &ill inspire us to use our life &isel' b' developing t e inner refuge of spiritual realizationsF ot er&ise &e s all ave no abilit' to prote!t ourself from t e sufferings of deat and & at lies be'ond. Aoreover+ & en someone !lose to us is d'ing+ su! as a parent or friend+ &e s all be po&erless to elp t em be!ause &e s all not kno& o&F and &e s all experien!e sadness and frustration at our inabilit' to be of genuine elp. =reparing for deat is one of t e kindest and &isest t ings &e !an do bot for ourself and ot ers. E e fa!t of t e matter is t at t is &orld is not our ome. He are travelers+ passing t roug . He !ame from our previous life+ and in a fe& 'ears+ or a fe& da's+ &e s all move on to our next life. He entered t is &orld empt'( anded and alone+ and &e s all leave empt'( anded and alone. Nver't ing &e ave a!!umulated in t is life+ in!luding our ver' bod'+ &ill be left be ind. 2ll t at &e !an take &it us from one life to t e next are t e imprints of t e positive and negative a!tions &e ave !reated. 5f &e ignore deat &e s all &aste our life &orking for t ings t at &e s all onl' ave to leave be ind+ !reating man' negative a!tions in t e pro!ess+ and aving to travel on to our next life &it not ing but a eav' burden of negative karma. @n t e ot er and+ if &e base our life on a realisti! a&areness of our mortalit'+ &e s all regard our spiritual development as far more important t an t e attainments of t is &orld+ and &e s all vie& our time in t is &orld prin!ipall' as an opportunit' to !ultivate positive minds su! as patien!e+ love+ !ompassion+ and &isdom. Aotivated b' t ese virtuous minds &e s all perform man' positive a!tions+ t ereb' !reating t e !ause for future appiness.

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Fear of "ea&h is ke* &o h+$an s+r)i)al K confron&ing -ea&h is ke* &o s&a&e an- in-i)i-+al exis&ence/ Beres 94 38ouis 6ene+ =rofessor of =oliti!al 9!ien!e and 5nternational 8a& at =urdue ?niversit'+ <eb.+ ttp:))&&&.freeman.org)mYonline) feb9#) beresn. tm4. <ear of deat + t e ultimate sour!e of anxiet'+ is essential to uman survival. E is is true not onl' for individuals+ but also for states. Hit out su! fear+ states &ill ex ibit an in!apa!it' to !onfront nonbeing t at !an asten t eir disappearan!e. 9o it is toda' &it t e 9tate of 5srael. 5srael suffers a!utel' from insuffi!ient existential dread. 6efusing to tremble before t e gro&ing prospe!t of !olle!tive disintegration ( a forseeable prospe!t !onne!ted &it bot geno!ide and &ar ( t is state is no& unable to take t e ne!essar' steps to&ard !olle!tive survival. H at is more+ be!ause deat is t e one fa!t of life & i! is not relative but absolute+ 5sraelKs blit e una&areness of its national mortalit' deprives its still living da's of essential absoluteness and gro&t . <or states+ /ust as for individuals+ !onfronting deat !an give t e most positive realit' to life itself. 5n t is respe!t+ a !ultivated a&areness of nonbeing is !entral to ea! stateKs pattern of potentialities as &ell as to its ver' existen!e. H en a state ! ooses to blo!k off su! an a&areness+ a ! oi!e !urrentl' made b' t e 9tate of 5srael+ it loses+ possibl' forever+ t e altoget er !riti!al benefits of Ianxiet'.I Fear is ke* &o )al+e &o life. s+r)i)al an- &ranscen-ing e)il/ 7reens%an 01 3Airiam+ =ioneer in t e 2rea of Homen*s =s'! olog'+ >ealing E roug t e Gark Nmotions: E e Hisdom of Drief+ <ear+ and Gespair+ Nx!erpt of 7 apter E ree ( >o& Gark Nmotions Le!ome Eoxi!+ ttp:))&&&.miriamgreenspan.!om)ex!erpts)! apterE reeNx. tml4 Drief+ fear+ and despair are primar' uman emotions. Hit out t em+ &e &ould be less t an uman+ and less likel' to survive. Drief arises be!ause &e are not alone+ and & at !onne!ts us to ot ers and to t e &orld also breaks our earts. Drieving our losses allo&s us to eal and rene& our spirits. <ear alerts us to prote!t our survival+ extending be'ond our instin!t for self(preservation to our !on!ern for ot ers. Gespair asks us to find meaning in t e midst of apparent ! aos or meaninglessness. Aaking meaning out of suffering is t e basis of t e uman !apa!it' to survive evil and trans!end it. E e purposefulness of t ese dark emotions is evident & en &e !an experien!e t em mindfull'+ tolerate t eir intense energies+ and let t em be.

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Fear of n+clear <ea%ons has %re)en&e- &heir +se K -e&errence has checke- conflic&/ (aHara$an 02 3=rofessor of E eoreti!al = 'si!s at ;C?+ 2002 T6.+ 0Lan battlefield nu!lear &eapons+1 4)22)2+ 8he Hindu+ ttp:))&&&. induonnet.!om)t e indu)2002)04)22)stories)2002042200431000. tmT E ere &ere a variet' of different reasons be ind ea! of t ese examples of abstinen!e from using nu!lear &eapons. Lut one ma/or !ommon fa!tor !ontributing to all of t em as been an ingrained terror of nu!lear devastation. E e &ell do!umented images of >iros ima and Cagasaki+ t e a&esome p otograp s of giant mus room !louds emerging from nu!lear tests in t e =a!ifi! and t e numerous movies based on nu!lear 2rmageddon s!enarios ave all !ontributed to building up a deep rooted fear of nu!lear &eapons. E is is not limited /ust to t e ab orren!e felt b' anti(nu!lear a!tivists. 5t permeates to one extent or anot er t e ps'! e of all but t e most pat ologi!al of fanati!s. 5t !olours t e !al!ulations+ even if not de!isivel'+ of t e most ardened of militar' strategists. E e una!!eptabilit' of nu!lear devastation is t e ba!kbone of all deterren!e strategies. E ere is not /ust a fear of being atta!ked oneself+ but also a strong mental barrier against a!tuall' initiating nu!lear atta!ks on enem' populations+ no matter o& mu! t e' ma' be !ontemplated in &ar games and strategies. 2s a result a taboo as ta!itl' evolved over t e de!ades preventing nations+ at least so far+ from a!tuall' pressing t e nu!lear button even in t e fa!e of serious militar' !rises.

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AT F#A( OF !@K#S' F#A( K#J TO =#AE# A!" S@(8 8AL Fear of n+clear <ar is ke* &o s&o%%ing WM" +se an- %re)en&s $ili&ar* a-)en&+ris$/ F+&&er$an. 90 3;2>+ 8ivermore lab resear! er+ 199"+ Aediation of t e Lomb+ online+ ttp:))&&&.dog! ur! .org)s!riptorium)nuke0 5 !ould sa' t at if 5 didnKt do it+ someone else &ould+ but t at ans&er &as re/e!ted at Curemberg. 35tKs also a better reason to leave t e &eapons program t an to sta'.4 5 !ontinue to support t e u business &it m' effort for man' reasons+ & i! 5 dis!uss t roug out t is pie!e. Lut mostl'+ 5 do it be!ause t e fear of nu!lear olo!aust is t e onl' aut orit' m' o&n !ountr' or an' ot er as respe!ted so far & en it !omes to nationalisti! urges to make unlimited &ar. 2s Hilliam 8. 9 irer states in is prefa!e to 8he ,ise and 5all o' the 8hird ,eich 3Eou! stone Looks+ Ce& Xork+ 19904+ I2dolf >itler is probabl' t e last of t e great adventurer(!onquerors in t e tradition of 2lexander+ 7aesar+ and Capoleon+ and t e E ird 6ei! t e last of t e empires & i! set out on t e pat taken earlier b' <ran!e+ 6ome and Aa!edonia. E e !urtain &as rung do&n on t at p ase of istor'+ at least+ b' t e sudden invention of t e 'drogen bomb+ of t e ballisti! missile+ and of ro!kets & i! !an be aimed to it t e moon.I Co& t is !ontrasts &it t e argument of t ose & o &ould Ireinvent governmentI b' putting up bureau!rati! roadblo!ks to maintaining t e reliabilit' of t e ?9 nu!lear arsenal t roug resear! and testing. E e' reason t at if t e reliabilit' of ever'oneKs nu!lear arsenals de!lines+ ever'one &ill be less likel' to tr' using t em. E e problem is t at some Iadventurer(!onquerorI ma' arise and use ever'oneKs doubt about t eir arsenals to risk massive !onventional &ar instead. 2n expansionist di!tators ip mig t even risk nu!lear &ar &it &eapons t at are simpler+ !ruder+ less po&erful+ mu! riskier 3in terms of t e possibilit' of a!!idental detonation4 but mu! more reliable t an our o&n ma' eventuall' be!ome &it out adequate Isto!kpile ste&ards ip.IT14U Lut t e in ibitor' effe!t of reliable nu!lear &eapons goes deeper t an 9 irerKs deterren!e of adventurer(!onquerors. 5t ! anges t e &a' &e t ink individuall' and !ulturall'+ preparing us for a future &e !annot no& imagine. ;ungian ps'! iatrist 2nt on' ;. 9tevens states+ T1"U I>istor' &ould indi!ate t at people !annot rise above t eir narro& se!tarian !on!erns &it out some over& elming parox'sm. 5t took t e Har of 5ndependen!e and t e 7ivil Har to forge t e ?nited 9tates+ Horld Har 5 to !reate t e 8eague of Cations+ Horld Har 55 to !reate t e ?nited Cations @rganization and t e Nuropean N!onomi! 7ommunit'. @nl' !atastrop e+ it seems+ for!es people to take t e &ider vie&. @r & at about fearR 7an t e orror & i! &e all experien!e & en &e !ontemplate t e possibilit' of nu!lear extin!tion mobilize in us suffi!ient libidinal energ' to resist t e ar! et'pes of &arR 7ertainl'+ t e moment &e be!ome blas\ about t e possibilit' of olo!aust &e are lost. 2s long as orror of nu!lear ex! ange remains uppermost &e !an re!ognize t at not ing is &ort it. Har be!omes t e impossible option. =er aps orror+ t e experien!e of orror+ t e !ons!iousness of orror+ is our onl' ope. =er aps orror alone &ill enable us to over!ome t e ot er&ise invin!ible attra!tion of &ar.I E us 5 also !ontinue engaging in nu!lear &eapons &ork to elp fire t at &orld( istori!al &arning s ot 5 mentioned above+ namel'+ t at as our benefi!ial te! nologies be!ome more po&erful+ so &ill our &eapons te! nologies+ unless genuine pea!e pre!ludes it. He must build a future more pea!eful t an our past+ if &e are to ave a future at all+ &it or &it out nu!lear &eapons - a fa!t &e ad better learn before &orse t ings t an nu!lear &eapons are invented. 5f 'ouKre a p ilosop er+ t is means t at 5 regard t e nature of umankind as mutable rat er t an fixed+ but t at 5 t ink most people &el!ome ! ange in t eir personalities and !ultures &it all t e ent usiasm t at t e' &el!ome deat - t us+ t e fear of nu!lear anni ilation of ourselves and all our values ma' be & at &e require in order to be!ome pea!eful enoug to survive our future te! nologi!al breakt roug s.

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Fear $o&i)a&es %eo%le &o %+rs+e cons&r+c&i)e $eans &o s+s&ain %eace an- %re)en& large>scale ca&as&ro%he/ Lif&on 00 36obert ;a'+ Gistinguis ed =rofessor of =s'! iatr' and =s'! olog' at ;o n ;a' 7ollege+ 5llusions of t e se!ond nu!lear age+ Horld =oli!' ;ournal. Ce& Xork: 9pring 2001. Bol. 1%+ 5ss. 1F pg. 2"+ # pgs4 E e trouble is t at in ot er &a's t e dangers asso!iated &it nu!lear &eapons are greater t an ever: t e !ontinuing &eapons(( !entered poli!ies in t e ?nited 9tates and else& ereF t e diffi!ulties in !ontrolling nu!lear &eapons t at exist under unstable !onditions 3espe!iall' in 6ussia and ot er areas of t e former 9oviet ?nion4F2 and t e eagerness and potential !apa!it' of !ertain nations and IprivateI groups to a!quire and possibl' use t e &eapons. 5n t at sense+ t e nu!lear quietism is perilous. @r+ to put t e matter anot er &a'+ &e no longer manifest an appropriate degree of fear in relation to a!tual nu!lear danger. H ile fear in itself is ardl' to be re!ommended as a guiding uman emotion+ its absen!e in t e fa!e of danger !an lead to !atastrop e. He uman animals ave built(in fear rea!tions in response to t reat. E ese rea!tions elp us to prote!t ourselves(to step ba!k from t e pat of a speeding automobile+ or in t e !ase of our an!estors+ from t e pat of a &ild animal. <ear !an be transmuted into !onstru!tive planning and poli!ies: & et er for minimizing vulnerabilit' to atta!ks b' &ild animals+ or for more !omplex !ontemporar' t reats. E roug fear+ ordinar' people !an be motivated to pursue !onstru!tive means for sustaining pea!e+ or at least for limiting t e s!ope of violen!e. 9imilarl'+ in ex! anges bet&een &orld leaders on be alf of preventing large(s!ale !onfli!t+ a tinge of fear(sometimes more t an a tinge( !an enable ea! to feel t e potential bloods ed and suffering t at &ould result from failure. Lut &it nu!lear &eapons+ our ps'! ologi!al !ir!uits are impaired. He kno& t at t e &eapons are around(and &e ear talk about nu!lear dangers some& ere Iout t ereI (but our minds no longer !onne!t &it t e dangers or &it t e &eapons t emselves. E at blunting of feeling extends into ot er areas. @ne of t e man' sins for & i! advo!ates of large nu!lear sto!kpiles must ans&er is t e prevalen!e of ps'! i! numbing to enormous potential suffering+ t e blunting of our et i!al standards as uman beings. 5n t e absen!e of t e sort of t reatening nu!lear r etori! t e ?nited 9tates and 6ussia indulged in during t e 19%0s+ &e !an all too readil' numb ourselves to ever't ing nu!lear+ and t ereb' live as t oug t e &eapons pose no danger+ or as t oug t e' donKt exist.

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AT F#A( OF !@K#S' K#J TO =(#8#!T #XT !ET O! Fearing n+clear <ea%ons is &he onl* <a* &o %re)en& ex&inc&ion/ F+&&er$an+ 93. = G and &orks at 8a&ren!e 8ivermore 8aborator'. ;2>+ Aediation of t e Lomb+ ttp:))&&&.dog! ur! .org)s!riptorium)nuke. tml. Lut t e in ibitor' effe!t of reliable nu!lear &eapons goes deeper t an 9 irerKs deterren!e of adventurer(!onquerors. 5t ! anges t e &a' &e t ink individuall' and !ulturall'+ preparing us for a future &e !annot no& imagine. ;ungian ps'! iatrist 2nt on' ;. 9tevens states+ T1"U I>istor' &ould indi!ate t at people !annot rise above t eir narro& se!tarian !on!erns &it out some over& elming parox'sm. 5t took t e Har of 5ndependen!e and t e 7ivil Har to forge t e ?nited 9tates+ Horld Har 5 to !reate t e 8eague of Cations+ Horld Har 55 to !reate t e ?nited Cations @rganization and t e Nuropean N!onomi! 7ommunit'. @nl' !atastrop e+ it seems+ for!es people to take t e &ider vie&. @r & at about fearR 7an t e orror & i! &e all experien!e & en &e !ontemplate t e possibilit' of nu!lear extin!tion mobilize in us suffi!ient libidinal energ' to resist t e ar! et'pes of &arR 7ertainl'+ &he $o$en& <e beco$e blasV abo+& &he %ossibili&* of holoca+s& <e are los&. 2s long as orror of nu!lear ex! ange remains uppermost &e !an re!ognize t at not ing is &ort it. Har be!omes t e impossible option. =er aps orror+ t e experien!e of orror+ t e !ons!iousness of orror+ is our onl' ope. =er aps orror alone &ill enable us to over!ome t e ot er&ise invin!ible attra!tion of &ar.I E us 5 also !ontinue engaging in nu!lear &eapons &ork to elp fire t at &orld( istori!al &arning s ot 5 mentioned above+ namel'+ t at as our benefi!ial te! nologies be!ome more po&erful+ so &ill our &eapons te! nologies+ unless genuine pea!e pre!ludes it. He must build a future more pea!eful t an our past+ if &e are to ave a future at all+ &it or &it out nu!lear &eapons - a fa!t &e ad better learn before &orse t ings t an nu!lear &eapons are invented. 5f 'ouKre a p ilosop er+ t is means t at 5 regard t e nature of umankind as mutable rat er t an fixed+ but t at 5 t ink most people &el!ome ! ange in t eir personalities and !ultures &it all t e ent usiasm t at t e' &el!ome deat - t us+ t e fear of nu!lear anni ilation of ourselves and all our values ma' be & at &e require in order to be!ome pea!eful enoug to survive our future te! nologi!al breakt roug s.T1#U Fearing n+clear <ea%ons is &he onl* <a* &o %re)en& n+clear o$nici-e/ Far)ar- !+clear S&+-* 7ro+%+ 51 308iving Hit Cu!lear Heapons+1 p. 4$4 E e question is grisl'+ but nonet eless it must be asked. Cu!lear &ar Tsi!U !anno& be a)oi-e- si$%l* b* ref+sing &o &hink abo+& i&. 5ndeed t e task of redu!ing t e likeli ood of nu!lear &ar s ould begin &it an effort to +n-ers&an- ho< i& $igh& s&ar&. H en strategists in Has ington or Aos!o& stud' t e possible origins of nu!lear &ar+ t e' dis!uss 0s!enarios+1 imagined sequen!es of future events t at !ould trigger t e use of nu!lear &eaponr'. 9!enarios are+ of !ourse+ spe!ulative exer!ises. E e' often leave out t e politi!al developments t at mig t lead to t e use of for!e in order to fo!us on militar' dangers. E at nu!lear &ar s!enarios are even more spe!ulative t an most is somet ing for & i! &e !an be t ankful+ for it refle!ts umanit'*s fortunate la!k of experien!e &it atomi! &arfare sin!e 194". Lut imaginar' as t e' are+ nu!lear s!enarios !an elp identif' problems not understood or dangers not 'et prevented be!ause t e' ave not been foreseen. Absen& fear of n+clear <ar. +se of n+clear <ea%ons beco$es ine)i&able/ Beres+ 95. =rofessor of =oliti!al 9!ien!e at =urdue ?niversit'. 8ouis 6ene+ 2meri!an ?niversit' 5nternational 8a& 6evie&+ lexis. <ear and realit' go toget er naturall'. ?nless bot 5ndian and =akistani de!ision(makers !ome to a!kno&ledge t e mutuall' intolerable !onsequen!es of a nu!lear &ar in 9out 2sia+ t e' ma' begin to t ink of nu!lear &eapons not as instruments of deterren!e+ but as Iordinar'I implements of &arfig ting. 40 Hit su! an erroneous vie&+ reinfor!ed b' underl'ing !ommitments to 6ealpolitik 41 and nationalisti! fervor+ 42 t e' mig t even begin to take steps to&ard t e atomi! brink from & i! retreat &ould no longer be possible. I5n a dark time+I sa's t e poet E eodore 6oet ke+ It e e'e begins to see.I 43 Nmbedded in t is ironi! observation is an important mes T*"1"U sage for 5ndia and =akistan. 8ook !losel' at t e expe!ted !onsequen!es of a nu!lear &ar. 8ook !losel' at t e available IarsenalI of international legal measures+ at available treaties+ !ustoms+ and general prin!iples. 44 Go not be lulled into !ompla!en!e b' anest etized and sanitized a!!ounts of nu!lear &arfig ting. 2!kno&ledge t e mutuall' benefi!ial expe!tations of &orld order. 4"

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A&&e$%&s &o eli$ina&e &he sec+ri&* %ara-ox fail,h+$an na&+re $akes realis$ ine)i&able/ Morgen&ha++ 95. Hinter+ >ans+ =rofessor of =oliti!al 9!ien!e and Gire!tor of t e 7enter for t e 9tud' of 2meri!an <oreign =oli!' at t e ?niversit' of 7 i!ago. Caval Har 7ollege 6evie& "1.1+ p. 1#+ ebs!o.
E is is anot er example of t e belief t at t e diffi!ulties & i! !onfront us+ t e risks & i! t reaten us+ t e liabilities & i! &e must fa!e in international affairs are t e result of some kind of ep emeral+

it is t e ver' essen!e of istori! experien!e t at & enever 'ou ave disposed of one danger in foreign poli!' anot er one is going to raise its ead. @n!e &e ad disposed of t e 2xis as a t reat to 2meri!an se!urit'+ &e &ere rig t a&a' !onfronted &it a ne& t reat: t e t reat of t e 9oviet ?nion. 5 daresa' if &e !ould+ b' some kind of mira!le+ do a&a'
unique !onfigurationF t at if 'ou do a&a' &it t e latter 'ou &ill ave done a&a' &it t e liabilities+ t e risks+ and t e diffi!ulties as &ell. E is belief is mistakenF for

tomorro& &it t e t reat & i! emanates from t e 9oviet ?nion+ &e &ould ver' soon be !onfronted again &it a ne& t reat((and per aps from a ver' unexpe!ted quarter. 2t t e foundation of t e realistKs approa! to foreign poli!' t ere is t e !onvi!tion t at t e struggle for po&er on t e international s!ene ((as t e struggle for po&er on all levels of so!ial intera!tion((is not t e result of some istori! a!!ident + of some passing so!ial+ !onstitutional+ legal+ or e!onomi! !onfiguration 3t ink+ for instan!e+ of t e utopian expe!tations of Aarxism4+ but t at it is part and par!el of h+$an

na&+re i&selfF t at t e aspirations for po&er are innate in uman natureF t at it is futile to sear! for a me! ani!al devi!e &it & i! to eliminate t ose aspirationsF t at t e &ise approa! to politi!al problems lies in taking t e perennial ! ara!ter of t ose aspirations for granted((in tr'ing to live &it t em+ to redire!t t em into so!iall' valuable and benefi!ial ! annels+ to transform t em+ to !ivilize t em . E is is as mu! as a man !an do &it t is ps'! ologi!al and so!ial eritage+ & i! e !annot es!ape. 5n ot er &ords+ a realisti! approa! to foreign poli!' starts &it t e assumption t at international politi!s is of ne!essit' a struggle for po&er F t at t e balan!e of po&er+
for instan!e+ is not t e invention of some misguided diplomats but is t e inevitable result of a multipli!it' of nations living &it ea! ot er+ !ompeting &it ea! ot er for po&er+ and tr'ing to maintain t eir autonom'. Co& let me turn to some pra!ti!al problems & i! illustrate t e ! ara!teristi!s of realism in foreign poli!' as over against t e utopian or idealisti! approa! . Eake+ again+ t e balan!e of po&er. E e balan!e of po&er+ 'ou ma' sa'+ is for foreign poli!' & at t e la& of gravit' is for natureF t at is+ it is t e ver' essen!e of foreign poli!'. 5 remember ver' &ell t at & en 5 used t e term 0balan!e of po&er1 at t e beginning of m' a!ademi! !areer in t e earl'
30Ks 5 met &it an unfavorable rea!tion. 0Lalan!e of po&er1 &as t en a kind of dirt' &ord((somet ing & i! respe!table s! olars &ould not use+ at least not in an affirmative sense. 5t &as somet ing not to be investigated+ not to be pra!ti!edF it &as somet ing to be abolis ed. 5 remember again ver' &ell a le!ture 5 gave in Ail&aukee 35 t ink it &as in 19444 in & i! 5 made t e point 5 /ust made: t at & en t e &ar &as over t ere &ould of ne!essit' be a ne& balan!e of po&er+ a ne& set of problems & i! &e &ould ave to solve((and t at more likel' t an not it &ould be t e 9oviet ?nion & i! &ould raise t e problems. Aan' in t e audien!e seemed to believe t at 5 &as a kind of <as!ist agent & o &as tr'ing to perpetuate an evil t at t e' &ere /ust in t e pro!ess of getting rid of.

T+rn,an* $o)e a<a* fro$ realis$ relies on a lea% of fai&h &ha& <o+l- lea- &o $ore )iolence/ M+rra*+ 97. 2lastair+ =rofessor of 5nternational 6elations. 6e!onstru!ting 6ealism: Let&een =o&er =oliti!s and 7osmopolitan Nt i!s. E is ig lig ts t e !entral diffi!ult' &it Hendt*s !onstru!tivism. 5t is not an' form of unfounded idealism about t e possibilit' of effe!tive a ! ange in international politi!s. Hendt a!!epts t at t e intersub/e!tive ! ara!ter of international institutions su! as self( elp render t em relativel' ard so!ial fa!ts. 6at er+ & at is problemati! is is fait t at su! ! ange+ if it !ould be a! ieved+ implies progress. Wen-&9s en&ire a%%roach is go)erne- b* &he belief &ha& &he %roble$a&ic ele$en&s of in&erna&ional %oli&ics can be &ranscen-e- + t at t e !ompetitive identities & i! !reate t ese elements !an be re!onditioned+ and t at t e predator' poli!ies & i! underlie t ese identities !an be eliminated. Nver't ing+ in is a!!ount+ is up for grabs: t ere is no !ore of re!al!itran!e to uman !ondu!t & i! !annot be reformed+ unlearnt+ disposed of. E is generates a stan!e t at so privileges t e possibilit' of a s'stemi!

transformation t at it simpl' %+&s asi-e &he -iffic+l&ies <hich i& recognises &o be inheren& in i&s achie)e$en& .
E us+ even t oug Hendt a!kno&ledges t at t e intersub/e!tive basis of t e self( elp s'stem makes it reform diffi!ult+ t is does not dissuade im. >e simpl' demands t at states adopt a strateg' of

Hendt*s position effe!tivel' !ulminates in a demand t at t e state undertake not ing less t an a gian& lea% of fai&h. E e fa!t t at its opponent mig t not take its overtures seriousl'+ mig t not be interested in reformulating its o&n !onstru!tion of t e &orld+ or mig t simpl' see su! an opening as a &eakness to be exploited+ are !ompletel' dis!ounted. E e prospe!t of a! ieving a s'stem transformation simpl' out&eig s an' adverse !onsequen!es & i! mig t
Palter!asting*+ a strateg' & i! Ptries to indu!e alter to take on a ne& identit' 3and t ereb' enlist alter in ego*s effort to ! ange itself4 b' treating alter as i' it alread' ad t at identit'*.

arise from t e effort to a! ieve it. Hendt ultimatel' appears+ in t e final anal'sis+ to ave overdosed on PDorbimania*.

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A-)oca&ing a %lan &o a--ress har$s of n+clear <ar o)erco$es i$%ac& of n+$bing/ San-$an an- 8alen&i 54 3=eter and ;o2nn+ =rofessor of >uman N!olog' at 6utgers and =reeminent 6isk 7ommuni!ations Nxpert publis ed over %0 arti!les and books on various aspe!ts of risk !ommuni!ation+ 9!ared stiff - or s!ared into a!tion+ + Lulletin of t e 2tomi! 9!ientists+ ;anuar' 19%#+ pp. 12.1#+ ttp:))&&&.psandman.!om)arti!les)s!arstif. tm4 H>NC E>N A@BNANCE against nu!lear &eapons !elebrates its eroes+ a pla!e of onor is reserved for >elen 7aldi!ott+ t e 2ustralian pediatri!ian & o revived = 'si!ians for 9o!ial 6esponsibilit' 3=964 in 19$% and made it t e ve i!le for er impassioned antinu!lear !rusade. 5n !ountless !ommunities sin!e t en+ 7aldi!ott as briskl' narrated t e devastation t at &ould result if a small nu!lear &ar ead exploded rig t ere and no&. E ousands of a!tivists tra!e t eir movement beginnings to a >elen 7aldi!ott spee! + &ondering if it &ouldnKt elp reverse t e arms ra!e /ust to make ever'one sit t roug t at spee! - and ea! &eek undreds of a!tivists do t eir best to give t e spee! t emselves. Conet eless+ =96 Nxe!utive Gire!tor ;ane Hales+ & ile a!kno&ledging a uge debt to 7aldi!ott+ said in 19%4 t at t e time for t e 0bombing runs1 3as insiders !all t e spee! 4 &as past. 0He kne& it &as past & en someone interrupted t e spee! one evening+ a!tuall' interrupted it+ and said+ *He kno& all t at+ but & at !an &e doR*1 5n a 19%" ne&sletter+ similarl'+ 9anford Dottlieb of ?nited 7ampuses to =revent Cu!lear Har &arned t at man' students &ere 0being numbed b' t e emp asis on nu!lear blast+ fire and radiation1 in !ourses on nu!lear &ar and &ere t erefore 0feeling more impotent and depressed t an before t e !lass began.1314 =er aps t e first broad a&areness t at s o!k t erap' ma' not be t e best t erap' !ame+ ironi!all'+ in 19%3 in t e &eeks pre!eding t e broad!ast of t e television film E e Ga' 2fter+ & en Ndu!ators for 9o!ial 6esponsibilit' and ot ers &orried t at t e program mig t do ! ildren more arm t an good. E e Ga' 2fter turned out to be less frig tening t an expe!ted+ but ot er films 3E reads+ Eestament+ and 7aldi!ott*s o&n E e 8ast Npidemi!4 raise t e same &orr' - and not /ust for ! ildren. 5n t e follo&ing anal'sis of t e fear of nu!lear 2rmageddon and its impli!ations for antinu!lear advo!a!'+ &e &ill argue t at most people are neit er apat eti! about nu!lear &ar nor a!tivel' terrified of it but rat er+ in 6obert ;a' 8ifton*s evo!ative p rase+ 0ps'! i!all' numbed1F t at it is ineffe!tive to frig ten audien!es & o ave found a refuge from t eir fears in numbnessF and t at t ere exist more effe!tive ke's to unlo!king su! paral'sis. E>N 7NCE628 NC5DA2 of antinu!lear a!tivism is & ' ever'one is not &orking to prevent nu!lear &ar. 2!tivists & o !an understand t ose & o disagree about & at s ould be done are be&ildered and frustrated b' t ose & o do not ing. 9u! ina!tion is ob/e!tivel' irrationalF as 7aldi!ott asked in a 19%2 !over arti!le in <amil' Heekl'+ 0H ' make sure kids !lean t eir teet and eat ealt ' food if t e'*re not going to surviveR1324 2dvo!ates of all !auses ! afe at t eir neig bors* la!k of interest. H en t e issue is somet ing like saving & ales or & eel! air a!!ess to publi! buildings+ t e problem is usuall' diagnosed as apat '. =s'! iatrist 6obert Hiner argues t at t e same is true of t e nu!lear t reat+ & i! most of us experien!e as remote+ impersonal+ and vague. <or Hiner+ 0one of t e genuinel' tragi! aspe!ts of t e nu!lear situation is t at immedia!' ma' be given to us onl' on!e and t en it &ill be too late to learn.1334 E ere is obviousl' some trut to t is vie&. H en asked to des!ribe t eir images of nu!lear &ar+ people do tend to !ome up &it abstra!tions - and t ose &it more !on!rete+ immediate images are likel' to be antinu!lear a!tivists.344

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=o<er is no& inheren&l* e)il,i& is onl* a %roble$ <hen i& &+rns in&o -o$ina&ion/ Fo+ca+l&. D+o&e- in an in&er)ie< %+blishe- in 97 3Ai! el+ p ilosop er+ professor and ! airman of t e >istor' of 9'stems of E oug t M t e 7ollege de <ran!e+ Nt i!s 9ub/e!tivit' and Erut + Nssential Horks of <ou!ault 19"4(19%4+ Bol. 1+ Nd. =aul 6abino&+ 199$+ p. 29%(2994 =o&er is not evil. =o&er is games of strateg'. He all kno& t at po&er is not evilJ <or example+ let us take sexual or amorous relations ips: to &ield po&er over t e ot er in a sort of open(ended strategi! game & ere t e situation ma' be reversed is not evilF it*s a part of love+ of passion and sexual pleasure. 2nd let us take+ as anot er example+ somet ing t at as often been rig tl' !riti!ized-t e pedagogi!al institution. 5 see not ing &rong in t e pra!ti!e of a person & o+ kno&ing more t an ot ers in a spe!ifi! game of trut + tells t ose ot ers & at to do+ tea! es t em+ and transmits kno&ledge and te! niques to t em. E e problem in su! pra!ti!es & ere po&er- & i! is not in itself a bad t ing- must inevitabl' !ome into pla' in kno&ing o& to avoid t e kind of domination effe!ts & ere a kid is sub/e!ted to t e arbitrar' and unne!essar' aut orit' of a tea! er+ or a student put under t e t umb of a professor & o abuses Tt eirU aut orit'. 5 believe t at t is problem must be framed in terms of rules of la&+ rational te! niques of government and ethos$ pra!ti!es of t e self and of freedom. All %olicies are no& &he sa$e,bio%o<er <i&hin a -e$ocra&ic con&ex& are ra-icall* -ifferen& &han &heir fascis$ exa$%les/ "ickinson 02 ( 2sso!iate =rofessor+ >istor' = .G.+ ?.7. Lerkele' ( 2004 3Nd&ard 6oss+ 0Liopoliti!s+ <as!ism+ Gemo!ra!': 9ome 6efle!tions on @ur Gis!ourse 2bout 0Aodernit'+1 7entral Nuropean >istor'+ vol. 3$+ no. 1+ 1.4%4 5n t e Heimar model+ t en+ t e rig ts of t e individual+ guaranteed formall' b' t e !onstitution and substantivel' b' t e &elfare s'stem+ &ere t e !entral element of t e dominant program for t e management of so!ial problems. 2lmost no one in t is period advo!ated expanding so!ial provision out of t e goodness of t eir earts. E is &as a strateg' of so!ial management+ of so!ial engineering. E e mainstream of so!ial reform in Derman' believed t at guaranteeing basi! so!ial rig ts- t e substantive or positive freedom of all !itizens - &as t e best &a' to turn people into po&er+ prosperit'+ and profit. 5n t at sense+ t e demo!rati! &elfare state &as- and is - demo!rati! not despite of its pursuit of biopo&er+ but be!ause of it. E e !ontrast &it t e Cazi state is !lear. Cational 9o!ialism aimed to !onstru!t a s'stem of so!ial and population poli!' founded on t e !on!ept of individual duties+ on t e ubiquitous and total po&er of t e state+ and on t e s'stemati!
absorption of ever' !itizen b' organizations t at !ould implant t at po&er at ever' level of t eir lives - in politi!al and asso!iational life+ in t e famil'+ in t e &orkpla!e+ and in leisure a!tivities. 5n t e &elfarist vision of Heimar progressives+ t e task of t e state &as to !reate an institutional frame&ork t at &ould give individuals t e & ere&it al to integrate t emselves su!!essfull' into t e national so!iet'+ e!onom'+ and polit'. E e Cazis aimed+ instead+ to give t e state t e & ere&it al to do &it ever' !itizen & at it &illed. 2nd & ere Heimar &elfare advo!ates understood t emselves to be !onstru!ting a s'stem of kno&ledge and institutions t at &ould manage so!ial problems+ t e Cazis fundamentall' soug t to abolis /ust t at s'stem b' eradi!ating - b' finding a 0final solution1 to - so!ial

F t e rig t to ealt !ould easil' be redefined as primaril' a dut' to be ealt '+ for example. Lut t e differen!e bet&een a strateg' of so!ial management built on t e rig ts of t e !itizen and a s'stem of ra!ial poli!' built on t e total po&er of t e state is not merel' a semanti! oneF su! differen!es ad ver' profound politi!al impli!ations+ and establis ed quite different !onstraints. E e rig ts(based strateg' &as a!tuall' not ver' !ompatible &it ex!lusionar' and !oer!ive poli!iesF it relied too eavil' on t e !ooperation of its targets and of armies of volunteers+ it &as too embedded in a demo!rati! institutional stru!ture and !ivil so!iet'+ it la!ked po&erful legal and institutional instruments of !oer!ion+ and its r etori!al stru!ture &as too eavil' slanted to&ard in!lusion and toleran!e.
problems. 2gain+ as =eukert pointed out+ man' advo!ates of a rig ts(based &elfare stru!ture &ere open to t e idea t at 0stubborn1 !ases mig t be legitimate targets for sterilization

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#)en if &he* are righ& &ha& o+r %olic* is bio%oli&ical. &he fac& &ha& i& is carrie- o+& b* a -e$ocra&ic s&a&e $akes i& %rofo+n-l* -ifferen&/ "ickinson 02 ( 2sso!iate =rofessor+ >istor' = .G.+ ?.7. Lerkele' ( 2004 3Nd&ard 6oss+ 0Liopoliti!s+ <as!ism+ Gemo!ra!': 9ome 6efle!tions on @ur Gis!ourse 2bout 0Aodernit'+1 7entral Nuropean >istor'+ vol. 3$+ no. 1+ 1.4%4 5n s ort+ t e !ontinuities bet&een earl' t&entiet (!entur' biopoliti!al dis!ourse and t e pra!ti!es of t e &elfare state in our o&n time are unmistakable. Lot are instan!es of t e 0dis!iplinar' so!iet'1 and of biopoliti!al+ regulator'+ so!ial( engineering modernit'+ and t e' s are t at genealog' &it more aut oritarian states+ in!luding t e Cational 9o!ialist state+ but also fas!ist 5tal'+ for example. 2nd it is !ertainl' fruitful to vie& t em from t is ver' broad perspe!tive. Lut t at anal'sis !an easil' be!ome superfi!ial and misleading+ be!ause it obfus!ates t e profoundl' different strategi! and lo!al d'nami!s of po&er in t e t&o kinds of regimes. 7learl' t e demo!rati! &elfare state is not onl' formall' but also substantivel' quite different from totalitarianism. 2bove all+ again+ it as no& ere developed t e fateful+ radi!alizing d'nami! t at ! ara!terized Cational 9o!ialism 3or for t at matter 9talinism4+ t e ps'! oti! logi! t at leads from e!onomisti! population management to mass murder. 2gain+ t ere is al&a's t e potential for su! a dis!ursive regime to generate !oer!ive poli!ies. 5n t ose !ases in & i! t e regime of rig ts does not su!!essfull' produ!e 0 ealt +1 su! a s'stem !an -and istori!all' does- !reate !ompulsor' programs to enfor!e it. Lut again+ t ere are politi!al and poli!' potentials and !onstraints in su! a stru!turing of biopoliti!s t at are ver' different from t ose of Cational 9o!ialist Derman'. Gemo!rati! biopoliti!al regimes require+ enable+ and in!ite a degree of self(dire!tion and parti!ipation t at is fun!tionall' in!ompatible &it aut oritarian or totalitarian stru!tures. 2nd t is pursuit of biopoliti!al ends t roug a regime of demo!rati! !itizens ip does appear+ istori!all'+ to ave imposed in!reasingl' narro& limits on !oer!ive poli!ies+ and to ave generated a 0logi!1 or imperative of in!reasing liberalization. Gespite limitations imposed b' politi!al !ontext and t e slo& pa!e of dis!ursive ! ange+ 5 t ink t is is t e unmistakable message of t e reall' ver' impressive &aves of legislative and &elfare reforms in t e 1920s or t e 19$0s in Derman'.90 @f !ourse it is not 'et !lear & et er t is is an irreversible d'nami! of su! s'stems. Cevert eless+ su! regimes are ! ara!terized b' suffi!ient degrees of autonom' 3and of t e potential for its expansion4 for suffi!ient numbers of people t at 5 t ink it be!omes useful to !on!eive of t em as produ!tive of a strategi! !onfiguration of po&er relations t at mig t fruitfull' be anal'zed as a !ondition of 0libert'+1 /ust as mu! as t e' are produ!tive of !onstraint+ oppression+ or manipulation. 2t t e ver' least+ totalitarianism !annot be t e sole orientation point for our understanding of biopoliti!s+ t e onl' end point of t e logi! of so!ial engineering.

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Bio%o<er is a -escri%&ion of o+r era,i& is nei&her inheren&l* goo-. nor ba-/ O+r s%ecific con&ex& is $ore i$%or&an& &han &heir s<ee%ing generaliBa&ion/ "ickinson 02 ( 2sso!iate =rofessor+ >istor' = .G.+ ?.7. Lerkele' ( 2004 3Nd&ard 6oss+ 0Liopoliti!s+ <as!ism+ Gemo!ra!': 9ome 6efle!tions on @ur Gis!ourse 2bout 0Aodernit'+1 7entral Nuropean >istor'+ vol. 3$+ no. 1+ 1.4%4 E is notion is not at all at odds &it t e !ore of <ou!auldian 3and =eukertian4 t eor'. Gemo!rati! &elfare states are regimes of po&er)kno&ledge no less t an earl' t&entiet (!entur' totalitarian statesF t ese s'stems are not 0opposites+1 in t e sense t at t e' are t&o alternative &a's of organizing t e same t ing. Lut t e' are t&o ver' di''erent &a's of organizing it. E e !on!ept 0po&er1 s ould not be read as a universal stifling nig t of oppression+ manipulation+ and entrapment+ in & i! all politi!al and so!ial orders are gre'+ are essentiall' or effe!tivel' 0t e same.1 =o&er is a set of so!ial relations+ in & i! individuals and groups ave var'ing degrees of autonom' and effe!tive sub/e!tivit'. 2nd dis!ourse is+ as <ou!ault argued+ 0ta!ti!all' pol'valent.1 Gis!ursive elements 3like t e various elements of biopoliti!s4 !an be !ombined in different &a's to form parts of quite different strategies 3like totalitarianism or t e demo!rati! &elfare state4F t e' !annot be assigned to one pla!e in a stru!ture+ but rat er !ir!ulate. E e var'ing possible !onstellations of po&er in modern so!ieties !reate 0multiple modernities+1 modern so!ieties &it quite radi!all' differing potentials.91 Bio%o<er is no& genoci-al <hen i& is -e%lo*e- b* a go)ern$en& <hich also res%ec&s righ&s/ "ickinson 02 ( 2sso!iate =rofessor+ >istor' = .G.+ ?.7. Lerkele' ( 2004 3Nd&ard 6oss+ 0Liopoliti!s+ <as!ism+ Gemo!ra!': 9ome 6efle!tions on @ur Gis!ourse 2bout 0Aodernit'+1 7entral Nuropean >istor'+ vol. 3$+ no. 1+ 1.4%4 2t its simplest+ t is vie& of t e politi!s of expertise and professionalization is !ertainl' plausible. >istori!all' speaking+ o&ever+ t e furt er !on/e!ture t at t is 0mi!ropoliti!al1 d'nami! !reates aut oritarian+ totalitarian+ or omi!idal potentials at t e level of t e state does not seem ver' tenable. >istori!all'+ it appears t at t e greatest advo!ates of politi!al demo!ra!' -in Derman' left liberals and 9o!ial Gemo!rats - ave been also t e greatest advo!ates of ever' kind of biopoliti!al so!ial engineering+ from publi! ealt and &elfare programs t roug so!ial insuran!e to !it' planning and+ 'es+ even eugeni!s.102 E e state t e' built as intervened in so!ial relations to an 3until re!entl'4 ever(gro&ing degreeF professionalization as run ever more rampant in Hestern so!ietiesF t e produ!tion of s!ientisti! and te! no!rati! expert kno&ledge as pro!eeded at an ever more freneti! pa!e. 2nd 'et+ from t e perspe!tive of t e first 'ears of t e millennium+ t e se!ond alf of t e t&entiet !entur' appears to be t e great age of demo!ra!' in pre!isel' t ose so!ieties & ere t ese pro!esses ave been most in eviden!e. H at is more+ t e interventionist state as steadil' expanded bot t e rig ts and t e resour!es of virtuall' ever' !itizen - in!luding t ose & o &ere stigmatized and perse!uted as biologi!all' defe!tive under Cational 9o!ialism. =er aps t ese pro!esses ave !reated an ever more restri!tive 0iron !age1 of rationalit' in Nuropean so!ieties. Lut if so+ it seems !lear t at t ere is no ne!essar' !orrelation bet&een rationalization and aut oritarian politi!sF t e opposite seems in fa!t to be at least equall' true.

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Bio%o<er -oes no& $ake $assacres )i&al,a s%ecific for$ of )iolen& so)ereign&* is also reD+ire-/ OHakangas. 03 ( = G in 9o!ial 9!ien!e and 2!adem' resear! fello& M t e >elsinki 7ollegium for 2dvan!ed 9tudies M ?niversit' of >elsinki . 200" 3Aika+ 0E e 5mpossible Gialogue on Liopo&er: <ou!ault and 2gamben+1 Aa' 200"+ <ou!ault 9tudies+ Co. 2+ ttp:))&&&.fou!ault(studies.!om)no2)o/akangas1.pdf4 2dmittedl'+ in t e era of biopoliti!s+ as <ou!ault &rites+ even 0massa!res ave be!ome vital.1 E is is not t e !ase+ o&ever+ be!ause violen!e is idden in t e foundation of biopoliti!s+ as 2gamben believes. 2lt oug t e t&entiet !entur' t anatopoliti!s is t e 0reverse of biopoliti!s1+ it s ould not be understood+ a!!ording to <ou!ault+ as 0t e effe!t+ t e result+ or t e logi!al !onsequen!e1 of biopoliti!al rationalit'. 6at er+ it s ould be understood+ as e suggests+ as an out!ome of t e 0demoni! !ombination1 of t e sovereign po&er and biopo&er+ of 0t e !it'( !itizen game and t e s ep erd(flo!k game1 or as 5 &ould like to put it+ of patria potestas 3fat er*s un!onditional po&er of life and deat over is son4 and cura maternal 3mot er*s un!onditional dut' to take !are of er ! ildren4. 2lt oug massa!res !an be !arried out in the name o' care+ t e' do not follo& from t e logi! of biopo&er for & i! deat is t e 0ob/e!t of taboo1. E e' follo& from t e logi! of sovereign po&er+ & i! legitimates killing b' & atever arguments it ! ooses+ be it Dod+ Cature+ or life. Bio%o<er -oes no& ca+se racis$ or $assacres,i& is onl* <hen i& is in &he con&ex& of a )iolen& or racis& go)ern$en& &ha& i& is -angero+s/ OHakangas. 03 ( = G in 9o!ial 9!ien!e and 2!adem' resear! fello& M t e >elsinki 7ollegium for 2dvan!ed 9tudies M ?niversit' of >elsinki . 200" 3Aika+ 0E e 5mpossible Gialogue on Liopo&er: <ou!ault and 2gamben+1 Aa' 200"+ <ou!ault 9tudies+ Co. 2+ ttp:))&lt(studies.!om)no2)o/akangas1.pdf4 5t is t e logi! of ra!ism+ a!!ording to <ou!ault+ t at makes killing a!!eptable in modern biopoliti!al so!ieties. E is is not to sa'+ o&ever+ t at biopoliti!al so!ieties are ne!essaril' more ra!ist t an ot er so!ieties. 5t is to sa' t at in t e era of biopoliti!s+ onl' ra!ism+ be!ause it is a determination immanent to life+ !an 0/ustif' t e murderous fun!tion of t e 9tate1.%9 >o&ever+ ra!ism !an onl' /ustif' killing . killing t at does not follo& from t e logi! of biopo&er but from t e logi! of t e sovereign po&er. 6a!ism is+ in ot er &ords+ t e onl' &a' t e sovereign po&er+ t e rig t to kill+
!an be maintained in biopoliti!al so!ieties: 06a!ism is bound up &it &orkings of a 9tate t at is obliged to use ra!e+ t e elimination of ra!es and t e purifi!ation of t e ra!e+ to exer!ise its sovereign po&er.190 6a!ism is+ in ot er &ords+ a dis!ourse . 0quite !ompatible191 &it biopoliti!s . t roug & i! biopo&er !an be most smoot l' transformed into t e form of sovereign po&er. 9u! transformation+ o&ever+ ! anges ever't ing. 2 biopoliti!al so!iet' t at &is es to 0exer!ise t e old sovereign rig t to kill1+ even in t e name of ra!e+ !eases to be a mere biopoliti!al so!iet'+ pra!ti!ing merel' biopoliti!s. 5t be!omes a 0demoni! !ombination1 of sovereign po&er and biopo&er+ exer!ising sovereign means for biopoliti!al ends. 5n its most monstrous form+ it be!omes t e E ird 6ei! . <or t is reason+ 5 !annot subs!ribe to 2gamben*s t esis+ a!!ording to & i! biopoliti!s is absolutized in t e E ird 6ei! .93 Eo be sure+ t e E ird 6ei! used biopoliti!al means . it &as a state in & i! 0insuran!e and reassuran!e &ere universal194 . and aimed for biopoliti!al ends in order to improve t e living !onditions of

H at distinguis es t e E ird 6ei! from t ose ot er nations is t e fa!t t at+ alongside its biopoliti!al apparatus+ it ere!ted a massive ma! iner' of deat . 5t be!ame a so!iet' t at 0unleas ed murderous po&er+ or in ot er &ords+ t e old sovereign rig t to take life1 t roug out t e 0entire so!ial bod'1+ as <ou!ault puts it.9" 5t is not+ t erefore+ biopoliti!s t at &as absolutized in t e E ird 6ei! . as a matter of fa!t+ biopoliti!al measures in t e Cazi Derman' &ere+ alt oug ars + relativel' modest in s!ale !ompared to some present da' &elfare states . but rat er t e sovereign po&er: 0E is po&er to kill+ & i! ran t roug t e entire so!ial bod' of Cazi so!iet'+ &as first manifested & en t e po&er to take life+ t e po&er of life and deat + &as granted not onl' to t e 9tate but to a & ole series of individuals+ to a !onsiderable number of people 3su! as t e 92+ t e 99+ and so on4. ?ltimatel'+ ever'one in t e Cazi 9tate ad t e po&er of life and deat over is or er neig bours+ if onl' be!ause of t e pra!ti!e of informing+ & i! effe!tivel' meant doing a&a' &it t e people next door+ or aving t em done a&a' &it .9#1 E e onl' t ing t at t e E ird 6ei! a!tuall' absolutizes is+ in ot er &ords+ t e sovereignt' of po&er and t erefore+ t e nakedness of bare life . at least if sovereignt' is defined in t e 2gambenian manner: 0E e sovereign is t e one &it respe!t to & om all men are potentiall' omines sa!ri+ and omo sa!er is t e one &it respe!t to & om all men a!t as sovereigns.19$
t e Derman people (( but so did man' ot er nations in t e 1930s.

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!aBi bio%oli&ics <ere +niD+e/ "ickinson 02 ( 2sso!iate =rofessor+ >istor' = .G.+ ?.7. Lerkele' ( 2004 3Nd&ard 6oss+ 0Liopoliti!s+ <as!ism+ Gemo!ra!': 9ome 6efle!tions on @ur Gis!ourse 2bout 0Aodernit'+1 7entral Nuropean >istor'+ vol. 3$+ no. 1+ 1.4%4 2gain+ =eukert &as ver' a&are t at e &as &riting t e istor' of onl' one kind of modernit'+ and t at t e most destru!tive potentials of modern so!ial engineering dis!ourse &ere onl' to be realized in a ver' spe!ifi! istori!al !ontext. E e 0<inal 9olution1 &as+ as e remarked+ 0one among ot er possible out!omes of t e !risis of modern !ivilization+1 and one possible onl' in t e !ontext of t e !on!atenation of e!onomi!+ so!ial+ and politi!al disasters t roug & i! Derman' passed in t e t&o de!ades before 1933. E e fa!t t at Cazism &as 0one of t e pat ologi!al developmental forms of modernit' does not impl' t at barbarism is t e inevitable logi!al out!ome of modernization+1 & i! also !reated 0opportunities for uman eman!ipation.1 2nd 'et+ again+ t e istor' t at =eukert a!tuall' &rote &as t e istor' of disaster- a disaster t at+ frequentl'+ does seem at least ig l' likel'. E e 0fatal ra!ist d'nami! in t e uman and so!ial s!ien!es+1 & i! !onsists in t eir assignment of greater or lesser value to uman ! ara!teristi!s+ does 0inevitabl' be!ome fixated on t e utopian dream of t e gradual elimination of deat +1 & i! is 0unfailingl'1 frustrated b' lived realit'. 5n periods of fis!al !risis t e frustration of t ese 0fantasies of omnipoten!e1 generates a !on!ern &it 0identif'ing+ segregating+ and disposing of 1 t ose /udged less valuable.#% 5n t e most detailed exposition of is anal'sis+ Drenzen der 9ozialdisziplinierung+ =eukert argues t at+ given t e 0totalitarian !laim to validit'1 of bourgeois norms+ onl' t e t&o 0strategies of pedagogi!al normalization or eugeni! ex!lusion1 &ere open to middle(!lass so!ial reformersF & en t e one failed onl' t e ot er remained. Xet t e failure of pedagogi!al normalization &as preprogrammed into t e !ollision bet&een middle(!lass 0utopias of order1 and t e 0life( &orlds1 of t e &orking !lass+ & i! &ere rendered disorderl' b' t e logi! of industrial !apitalism.#9 2gain+ in =eukert*s model it seems to me t at it is reall' onl' a matter of time and !ir!umstan!e before t e fundamentall' and ne!essaril' murderous potential of modernit' is unleas ed.

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Bio%o<er is also %osi&i)e,s+ch as &he -ra$a&ic -ecrease in infan& $or&ali&*/ "ickinson 02 ( 2sso!iate =rofessor+ >istor' = .G.+ ?.7. Lerkele' ( 2004 3Nd&ard 6oss+ 0Liopoliti!s+ <as!ism+ Gemo!ra!': 9ome 6efle!tions on @ur Gis!ourse 2bout 0Aodernit'+1 7entral Nuropean >istor'+ vol. 3$+ no. 1+ 1.4%4 @f !ourse+ at t e most simple(minded level+ it seems to me t at an assessment of t e potentials of modernit' t at ignores t e &a's in & i! biopoliti!s as made life tangibl' better is some o& deepl' fla&ed. Eo give /ust one example+ infant mortalit' in Derman' in 1900 &as /ust over 20 per!entF or+ in ot er &ords+ one in five ! ildren died before rea! ing t e age of one 'ear. L' 1913+ it &as 1" per!entF and b' 1929 3& en average real pur! asing po&er &as not signifi!antl' ig er t an in 19134 it &as onl' 9.$ per!ent.93 E e expansion of infant ealt programs- an enormousl' ambitious+ bureau!rati!+ medi!alizing+ and sometimes intrusive+ so!ial engineering pro/e!t- ad a great deal to do &it t at ! ange. 5t &ould be bizarre to &rite a istor' of biopoliti!al modernit' t at ruled out an appre!iation for o& absolutel' &onderful and astonis ing t is a! ievement- and an' number of ot ers like it - reall' &as. E ere &as a reason for t e 0Aa! barkeits&a n1 of t e earl' t&entiet !entur': man' marvelous t ings &ere in fa!t be!oming ma! bar. 5n t at sense+ it is not reall' a!!urate to !all it a 0Ha n1 3delusion+ !raziness4 at allF nor is it a!!urate to fo!us onl' on t e 0inevitable1 frustration of 0delusions1 of po&er. Nven in t e late 1920s+ man' so!ial engineers !ould and did look &it great satisfa!tion on t e ! anges t e' genuinel' ad t e po&er to a!!omplis .

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#)en if &he* <in &ha& o+r %olic* &+rns &o &he -ark si-e of bio%oli&ics. &heir i$%ac& <ill s&ill be %re)en&e- b* localiBeresis&ance/ "ickinson 02 ( 2sso!iate =rofessor+ >istor' = .G.+ ?.7. Lerkele' ( 2004 3Nd&ard 6oss+ 0Liopoliti!s+ <as!ism+ Gemo!ra!': 9ome 6efle!tions on @ur Gis!ourse 2bout 0Aodernit'+1 7entral Nuropean >istor'+ vol. 3$+ no. 1+ 1.4%4 5n t e !urrent literature+ it seems t at biopoliti!s is almost al&a's a!ting on 3or attempting to a!t on4 peopleF it is almost never somet ing t e' do. E is kind of model is not ver' realisti!. E is is not o& so!ieties &ork. E e example of t e attempt to !reate a eugeni! !ounseling s'stem in =russia s ould be instru!tive in t is respe!t. >ere publi! ealt and eugeni!s experts- te! no!rats- tried to impart t eir sense of eugeni! !risis and t eir optimism about t e possibilit' of !reating a better 0ra!e1 to t e publi!F and t e' su!!essfull' mobilized t e resour!es of t e state in support of t eir vision. 2nd 'et+ & at emerged quite qui!kl' from t is effort &as in fa!t a s'stem of publi! !ontra!eptive advi!e - or famil' planning. 5t is not so eas' to impose te! no!rati! ambitions on t e publi!+ parti!ularl' in a demo!rati! stateF and 0on t e ground+1 at t e level of intera!tions &it a!tual persons and so!ial groups+ publi! poli!' often takes on a life of its o&n+ at least partiall' independent of t e fantasies of te! no!rats. E is is of !ourse a point t at <ou!ault makes &it parti!ular !larit'. E e po&er of dis!ourse is not t e po&er of manipulative elites+ & i! !ontrol it and impose it from above. Aanipulative elites al&a's fa!e resistan!e+ often effe!tive+ resistan!e. Aore important+ t e po&er of dis!ourse lies pre!isel' in its abilit' to set t e terms for su! struggles+ to define & at t e' are about+ as mu! as & at t eir out!omes are. 2s <ou!ault put it+ po&er- in!luding t e po&er to manage life -0!omes from ever'& ere.110" Liomedi!al kno&ledge &as not t e propert' onl' of te! no!rats+ and it !ould be used to a! ieve ends t at ad little to do &it t eir so!ial(engineering s! emes.10# Aodern biopoliti!s is a multifa!eted &orld of dis!ourse and pra!ti!e elaborated and put into pra!ti!e at multiple levels t roug out modern so!ieties. =o<er is fl+i-,bio%o<er has crea&e- ne< free-o$s as <ell as ne< o%%ressions,con&ex& is ke*/ "ickinson 02 ( 2sso!iate =rofessor+ >istor' = .G.+ ?.7. Lerkele' ( 2004 3Nd&ard 6oss+ 0Liopoliti!s+ <as!ism+ Gemo!ra!': 9ome 6efle!tions on @ur Gis!ourse 2bout 0Aodernit'+1 7entral Nuropean >istor'+ vol. 3$+ no. 1+ 1.4%4 ?n!oupling 0te! no!ra!'1 from 0dis!ourse1 is not 'et enoug + o&ever. He s ould also be alive to t e &a's in & i! ne& so!ial pra!ti!es+ institutions+ and kno&ledge generated ne& ! oi!es - a limited range of t em+ !onstrained b' all kinds of dis!ursive and so!ial frame&orks+ but nonet eless istori!all' ne& and signifi!ant. Aodern biopoliti!s did !reate+ in a real sense+ not onl' ne& !onstraints but also ne& degrees of freedom- ne& levers t at in!reased people*s po&er to move t eir o&n &orlds+ to s ape t eir o&n lives. @ur understanding of modern biopoliti!s &ill be more realisti! and more fruitful if &e re!on!eptualize its development as a !omplex pro!ess in & i! t e impli!ations of t ose ne& ! oi!es &ere negotiated out in t e so!ial and dis!ursive !ontext. 2gain+ in t e earl' t&entiet !entur' man' more !onservative biopoliti!al 0experts1 devoted mu! of t eir energ' pre!isel' to tr'ing- &it out an' dis!ernable su!!ess- to !ontrol t ose ne& degrees of freedom. <or most so!ial liberals and 9o!ial Gemo!rats+ o&ever+ t ose ne& ! oi!es &ere a potential sour!e of greater so!ial effi!ien!' and so!ial d'namism. 9tate poli!' refle!ted t e !onstant negotiation and tension bet&een t ese perspe!tives. Cor s ould &e stop at a reexamination of kno&ledge and te! nolog'. 5t mig t make sense+ too+ to reexamine t e pro!ess of institution(building+ t e elaboration of t e pra!ti!es and institutions of biopoliti!s. Co doubt t e !reation of publi! and private so!ial &elfare institutions !reated instruments for t e stud'+ manipulation+ or !ontrol of individuals and groups. Lut it also generated opportunities for self(organization and parti!ipation b' so!ial groups of all kinds.

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Their K o)ersi$%lifies,bio%o<er is no& a one><a* s&ree&,i& %ro-+ces eD+i)alen& resis&ances &ha& check &he i$%ac&/ Ea$%bell. 95 ( professor of international politi!s at t e ?niversit' of Ce&!astle ( 199% 3Gavid+ 0Hriting 9e!urit': ?nited 9tates <oreign =oli!' and t e =oliti!s of 5dentit'+1 pg. 204(20"4 E e politi!al possibilities enabled b' t is permanent provo!ation of po&er and freedom !an be spe!ified in more detail b' t inking in terms of t e predominan!e of t e 0bio(po&er1 dis!ussed above. 5n t is sense+ be!ause t e governmental pra!ti!es of biopoliti!s in Hestern nations ave been in!reasingl' dire!ted to&ard modes of being and forms of life - su! t at sexual !ondu!t as be!ome an ob/e!t of !on!ern+ individual ealt as been figured as a domain of dis!ipline+ and t e famil' as been transformed into an instrument of government- t e ongoing agonism bet&een t ose pra!ti!es and t e freedom t e' seek to !ontain means t at individuals ave arti!ulated a series of !ounterdemands dra&n from t ose ne& fields of !on!ern. <or example+ as t e state !ontinues to prose!ute people a!!ording to sexual orientation+ uman rig ts a!tivists ave pro!laimed t e rig t of ga's to enter into formal marriages+ adopt ! ildren+ and re!eive t e same ealt and insuran!e benefits granted to t eir straig t !ounterparts. E ese !laims are a !onsequen!e of t e permanent provo!ation of po&er and freedom in biopoliti!s+ and stand as testament to t e 0strategi! reversibilit'1 of po&er relations: if t e terms of governmental pra!ti!es !an be made into fo!al points for resistan!es+ t en t e 0 istor' of government as t e P!ondu!t of !ondu!t* is inter&oven &it t e istor' of dissenting P!ounter!ondu!ts.1*39 5ndeed+ t e emergen!e of t e state as t e ma/or arti!ulation of 0t e politi!al1 as involved an un!easing agonism bet&een t ose in offi!e and t ose t e' rule. 9tate intervention in ever'da' life as long in!ited popular !olle!tive a!tion+ t e result of & i! as been bot resistan!e to t e state and ne& !laims upon t e state. 5n parti!ular+ 0t e !ore of & at &e no& !all P!itizens ip* !onsists of multiple bargains ammered out b' rulers and ruled in t e !ourse of t eir struggles over t e means of state a!tion+ espe!iall' t e making of &ar.1 5n more re!ent times+ !onstituen!ies asso!iated &it &omen*s+ 'out + e!ologi!al+ and pea!e movements 3among ot ers4 ave also issued !laims on so!iet'. E ese resistan!es are eviden!e t at t e break &it t e dis!ursive)nondis!ursive di! otom' !entral to t e logi! of interpretation undergirding t is anal'sis is 3to put it in !onventional terms4 not onl' t eoreti!all' li!ensedF it is empiri!all' &arranted. 5ndeed+ expanding t e interpretive imagination so as to enlarge t e !ategories t roug & i! &e understand t e !onstitution of 0t e politi!al1 as been a ne!essar' pre!ondition for making sense of <oreign =oli!'*s !on!ern for t e et i!al borders of identit' in 2meri!a. 2!!ordingl'+ t ere are manifest politi!al impli!ations t at flo& from t eorizing identit'. 2s ;udit Lutler !on!luded: 0E e de!onstru!tion of identit' is not t e de!onstru!tion of politi!sF rat er+ it establis es as politi!al t e ver' terms t roug & i! identit' is arti!ulated.1

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Fo+ca+l&9s conce%& of resis&ance is onl* %ossible in a <orl- <i&ho+& )iolence,&he aff is a %re>reD+isi&e for &he al&erna&i)e/ Be)ir. 99 . Gepartment of =oliti!al 9!ien!e M ?niversit' of Ce&!astle . 1999 3Aark+ 0<ou!ault and 7ritique: Geplo'ing 2gen!' against 2utonom'+ =oliti!al E eor'+ Bolume 2$ Co. 1+ =age #" <ebruar' 1999+ ;9E@64 =er aps &e mig t sa'+ t erefore+ t at po&er or pastoral(po&er re!ognizes t e value of t e sub/e!t as an agent+ & ereas violen!e or dis!ipline attempts to extinguis t e !apa!it' of t e sub/e!t for agen!'. 2lt oug <ou!ault+ of !ourse+ never des!ribes t ings in quite t ese terms+ e does !ome remarkabl' !lose to doing so. 5n parti!ular+ e defines violen!e+ in !ontrast to po&er+ as aiming at domination or as a p 'si!al !onstraint t at denies t e abilit' of t e ot er to a!t: 0& ere t e determining fa!tors saturate t e & ole t ere is no relations ip of po&er+1 rat er 0it is a question of a p 'si!al relations ip of !onstraint.12$ 9imilarl'+ e defines po&er+ in !ontrast to violen!e+ as able to !ome into pla' onl' & ere people ave a !apa!it' to a!t+ per aps even a !apa!it' to a!t freel': 0po&er is exer!ised over free sub/e!ts+ and onl' insofar as t e' are free+1 b' & i! 0&e mean individual or !olle!tive sub/e!ts & o are fa!ed &it a field of possibilities in & i! several &a's of be aving+ several rea!tions and diverse !omportments ma' be realized.12% 5f &e t us a!!ept t at po&er al&a's treats t e sub/e!t as an agent+ & ereas violen!e al&a's attempts to extinguis t e !apa!it' of t e sub/e!t for agen!'+ &e !an see & ' <ou!ault*s later &ork on po&er emp asises t at po&er+ unlike violen!e+ ne!essaril' entails a !apa!it' for resistan!e. Eo treat someone as an agent+ one as to re!ognise t at t e' !an do ot er t an one &is es-t e' !an resist. =o&er !an exist onl' & ere people ave a !apa!it' to a!t freel'+ and so onl' & ere t e' !an resist t at po&er. =er aps+ t erefore+ &e s ould define as violent an' relations ip-& et er overtl' violent or not-in & i! an individual as is a!tion determined for im. Biolen!e manifests itself in an' relations ip bet&een individuals+ groups+ or so!ieties in & i! one denies t e agen!' of t e ot ers b' seeking to define for t em a!tions t e' must perform. =o&er+ in !ontrast+ appears in an' relations ipalt oug no overtl' violent relations ip !ould meet t e follo&ing requirement-in & i! an individual does not ave is a!tion determined for im. =o&er manifests itself & enever individuals+ groups+ or so!ieties a!t as influen!es on t e agen!' of t e sub/e!t &it out attempting to determine t e parti!ular a!tions t e sub/e!t performs. >ere a re/e!tion of autonom' implies t at po&er is ineliminable+ & ile a defen!e of agen!' implies t at po&er need not degenerate into violen!e. <ou!ault*s final &ork on t e nature of governmentalit' suggests+ t erefore+ t at so!iet' need not !onsist solel' of t e forms of dis!ipline e ad anal'sed earlier. 9o!iet' mig t in!lude an arena in & i! free individuals attempt onl' to influen!e one anot er. 5 ope m' dis!ussion of <ou!ault*s t eor' of governmentalit' as pointed to t e &a' in & i! a distin!tion bet&een violen!e and po&er mig t provide us &it normative resour!es for so!ial !riti!ism absent from is earlier &ork. =rovided &e are &illing to grant t at t e !apa!it' for agen!' as et i!al value-and t is seems reasonable enoug -&e &ill denoun!e violent so!ial relations and ! ampion instead a so!iet' based on a more benign po&er.

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#n-less in)es&iga&ion of %o<er $akes real s&r+ggles agains& o%%ression i$%ossible/ Ficks+ 01> =rofessor and ! air of p ilosop ' at _ueens 7ollege of t e 7?CX 39teven B.+ 0Cietzs! e+ >eidegger+ and <ou!ault: Ci ilism and Le'ond+1 <ou!ault and >eidegger: 7riti!al Nn!ounters+ Nd. 2lan Ail! man and 2lan 6osenberg+ p. 109+ _uestia4 >en!e+ t e onl' 0et i!o(politi!al ! oi!e1 &e ave+ one t at <ou!ault t inks &e must make ever' da'+ is simpl' to determine & i! of t e man' insidious forms of po&er is 0t e main danger1 and t en to engage in an a!tivit' of resistan!e in t e 0nexus1 of opposing for!es. $2 0?nending a!tion is required to !ombat ubiquitous peril.1 $3 Lut t is !easeless <ou!auldian 0re!oil1 from t e ubiquitous po&er perils of 0normalization1 pre!ludes+ or so it &ould seem+ formulating an' defensible alternative position or su!!essor ideals. 2nd if Cietzs! e is !orre!t in !laiming t at t e onl' prevailing uman ideal to date as been t e as!eti! ideal+ t en even <ou!auldian resistan!e &ill !ontinue to &ork in servi!e of t is ideal+ at least under one of its guises+ viz.+ t e ni ilism of negativit'. 7ertainl' <ou!aultKs distan!ing of imself from all ideologi!al !ommitments+ is re!oiling from all traditional values b' & i! &e kno& and /udge+ is olding at ba' all !onventional ans&ers t at press t emselves upon us+ and is keeping in pla' t e 0t&ists1 and 0re!oils1 t at question our usual !on!epts and abitual patterns of be avior+ all seem a !lose approximation+ in t e et i!opoliti!al sp ere+ to t e idealization of as!eti!ism. Eri&iD+es of %o<er are so localiBe- &ha& &he* %re)en& coali&ion fro$ for$ing &ha& co+l- gen+inel* figh& o%%ression/ Eook+ 92> 2sso!iate =rofessor at Deorgeto&n 8a& 9! ool 32nt on' N.+ 02 Giversit' of 5nfluen!e: 6efle!tions on =ostmodernism+ 9pring+ 2# Ce& Nng.8. 6ev. $"1+ 8exis4 9everal t ings trouble me about <ou!aultKs approa! . <irst+ e nurtures in man' &a's an un ealt ' insularit' t at fails to !onne!t lo!alized struggle to ot er lo!alized struggles and to modes of oppression like !lassism+ ra!ism+ sexism+ and omop obia t at trans!end t eir lo!alized arti!ulation &it in t is parti!ular la& s! ool+ t at parti!ular la& firm+ &it in t is parti!ular ! ur! or t at parti!ular fa!tor'. 5 note among some follo&ers of <ou!ault an un ealt ' propensit' to rel' on ri! + t i!k+ et nograp i! t'pe des!riptions of po&er relations pla'ing t emselves out in t ese lo!alized laboratories of so!ial !onfli!t. E is relian!e on detailed des!ription and its !on!omitant deemp asis of explanation begins+ ironi!all'+ to look like a regressive positivism & i! purports to sever t e des!riptive from t e normative+ t e is from t e oug t and la& from moralit' and politi!s. ?nless &e are to be trapped in t is <ou!aultian moment of postmodern insularit'+ &e must resist t e temptation to sever des!ription from explanation. 5nstead+ our ob/e!tive s ould be to explain & at &e des!ribe in lig t of a vision embra!ing values t at &e make expli!it in struggle. E ese values s ould a!t as magnets t at link our parti!ularized struggles to ot er struggles and more global !ritiques of po&er. 5n ot er &ords+ &e must not+ as <ou!ault seems all too &illing to do+ forsake t e possibilit' of more universal narratives t at+ & ile tempered b' postmodern insig ts+ attempt to sa' and do somet ing about t e oppressive &orld in & i! &e live. 9e!ond+ <ou!aultKs emp asis on t e te! niques and dis!ourses of kno&ledge t at !onstitute t e uman sub/e!t often diminis es+ if not abrogates+ t e role of uman agen!'. 2gen!' is of tremendous importan!e in an' t eor' of oppression+ be!ause individuals are not simpl' !onstituted b' s'stems of kno&ledge but also !onstitute egemoni! and !ounter( egemoni! s'stems of kno&ledge as &ell. 7riti!al t eor' must pa' attention to t e &a's in & i! oppressed people not onl' are vi!timized b' ideologies of oppression but t e &a's t e' !raft from t ese ideologies and dis!ourses !ounter( egemoni! &eapons of liberation.

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7enealog* is &ra%%e- in a -o+ble bin-' i&s ex&re$e rela&i)is$ ei&her +n-erc+&s i&s %oli&ical +sef+lness or a ne< $as&er -isco+rse is %ro-+ce-/ Faber$as. 57> =ermanent Bisiting =rofessor at Cort &estern 3;qrgen+ E e = ilosop i!al Gis!ourse of Aodernit'+ p. 2$94 <ou!aultKs istoriograp ' !an evade relativism as little as it !an t is a!ute presentism. >is investigations are !aug t ex a!tl' in t e self(referentialit' t at &as supposed to be ex!luded b' a naturalisti! treatment of t e problemati! of validit'. De( nealogi!al istoriograp ' is supposed to make t e pra!ti!es of po&er+ pre!isel' in t eir dis!ourse(!onstituting a! ievement+ a!!essible to an empiri!al anal'sis. <rom t is perspe!tive+ not onl' are trut !laims !onfined to t e dis!ourses &it in & i! t e' ariseF t e' ex aust t eir entire signifi!an!e in t e fun!tional !ontribution t e' make to t e self(maintenan!e of a given totalit' of dis!ourse. E at is to sa'+ t e meaning of validit' !laims !onsists in t e po&er effe!ts t e' ave. @n t e ot er and+ t is basi! assumption of t e t eor' of po&er is self(referentialF if it is !orre!t+ it must destro' t e foundations of t e resear! inspired b' it as &ell. Lut if t e trut !laims t at <ou!ault imself raises for is genealog' of kno&ledge &ere in fa!t illusor' and amounted to no more t an t e effe!ts t at t is t eor' is !apable of releasing &it in t e !ir!le of its ad( erents+ t en t e entire undertaking of a !riti!al unmasking of t e uman s!ien!es &ould lose its point. <ou!ault pursues ge( nealogi!al istoriograp ' &it t e serious intent of getting a s!ien!e under&a' t at is superior to t e mismanaged uman s!ien!es. 5f+ t en+ its superiorit' !annot be expressed in t e fa!t t at somet ing more !onvin!ing enters in pla!e of t e !onvi!ted pseudo(s!ien!es+ if its superiorit' &ere onl' to be expressed in t e effe!t of its suppressing t e it erto dominant s!ientifi! dis!ourse in 'act$ <ou!aultKs t eor' &ould ex aust itself in t e politi!s of t eor'+ and indeed in setting t eoreti!al( politi!al goals t at &ould overburden t e !apa!ities of even so eroi! a one(man enterprise. <ou!ault is a&are of t is. 7on( sequentl'+ e &ould like to single out is genealog' from all t e rest of t e uman s!ien!es in a manner t at is re!on!ilable &it t e fundamental assumptions of is o&n t eor'. Eo t is end+ e turns genealogi!al istoriograp ' upon itselfF t e dif( feren!e t at !an establis its preeminen!e above all t e ot er uman s!ien!es is to be demonstrated in t e istor' of its o&n emergen!e.

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Eri&iD+es of gen-er rela&ions &ha& -o no& %ose concre&e al&erna&i)es are -es&ine- &o fail/ Ea%rioli. 02 30<eminist 56 E eor' and _uantitative Aet odolog': 2 7riti!al 2nal'sis1 Aar' 7aprioli+ Gept. of =oliti!al 9!ien!e+ ?niversit' of Eennessee. 5nternational 9tudies 6evie&. Bolume 42 5ssue 1 =age 193(19$+ Aar! 2004. ttp:))&&&.bla!k&ell(s'nerg'.!om)links)doi)10.1111)0020(%%33.000$#4. 5f resear! ers !annot add gender to an anal'sis+ t en t e' must ne!essaril' use a purel' female(!entered anal'sis+ even t oug t e utilit' of using a purel' female !entered anal'sis seems equall' biased. 9u! resear! &ould merel' be gender!entri! based on &omen rat er t an men+ and it &ould t ereb' provide an equall' biased a!!ount of international relations as t ose t at are male(!entri!. 2lt oug one mig t spe!ulate t at aving resear! done from t e t&o opposing &orldvie&s mig t more full' explain international relations+ surel' an integrated approa! &ould offer a more !ompre ensive anal'sis of &orld affairs. Le'ond a female(!entri! anal'sis+ some s! olars 3for example+ 7arver 20024 argue t at feminist resear! must offer a !ritique of gender as a set of po&er relations. Dender !ategories+ o&ever+ do exist and ave ver' real impli!ations for individuals+ so!ial relations+ and international affairs. 7ritiquing t e so!ial !onstru!tion of gender is important+ but it fails to provide ne& t eories of international relations or to address t e impli!ations of gender for & at appens in t e &orld.

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( fe$inis&s )as&l* o)er si$%lif* &he -i)erse fiel- of in&erna&ional rela&ions li&era&+re,&he* nee- a s%ecific link o+r aff/ Ea%rioli. 02 30<eminist 56 E eor' and _uantitative Aet odolog': 2 7riti!al 2nal'sis1 Aar' 7aprioli+ Gept. of =oliti!al 9!ien!e+ ?niversit' of Eennessee. 5nternational 9tudies 6evie&. Bolume 42 5ssue 1 =age 193(19$+ Aar! 2004. ttp:))&&&.bla!k&ell(s'nerg'.!om)links)doi)10.1111)0020(%%33.000$#4. 7onventional feminist 56 s! olars misrepresent t e field of international relations in arguing t at 56 s! olars ip as popularl' a!!epted ex!ludes alternative explanations of state be avior+ in!luding feminist inquir'+ t at go be'ond stru!tural+ state(fo!used models. <eminist 56 t eorists+ among ot ers+ !ritique t e 56 field for its state(!entri! approa! and argue t at PPa &orld of states situated in an anar! i!al international s'stem leaves little room for anal'ses of so!ial relations+ in!luding gender relations** 3Ei!kner 2001:14#4. 2s a result+ t e' appear to set up a stra& man b' refusing to re!ognize t e variet' &it in PP!onventional** 56 resear! . 5ndeed+ as ;a!k 8ev' 320004 as observed+ a signifi!ant s ift to so!ietal(level variables as o!!urred+ partl' in response to t e de!line in t e s'stemi! imperatives of t e bipolar era. 7ertainl' t e demo!rati! pea!e literature+ parti!ularl' its normative explanation 3Aaoz and 6ussett 1993F Gixon 19944+ among ot er lines of inquir'+ re!ognizes t e role of so!ial relations in explaining state be avior. E e normative explanation for t e demo!rati! pea!e t esis emp asizes t e so!ietal level values of uman rig ts+ support for t e rule of la&+ and pea!eful !onfli!t resolution in explaining t e likeli ood of interstate !onfli!t. <urt ermore+ d'adi! tests of t e demo!rati! pea!e t esis rel' PPon an emerging t eoreti!al frame&ork t at ma' prove !apable of in!orporating t e strengt s of t e !urrentl' predominant realist or neorealist resear! program+ and moving be'ond it** 36a' 2000:3114. 5n addition+ t eorizing and resear! in t e field of et nonationalism as ig lig ted !onne!tions t at domesti! et ni! dis!rimination and violen!e ave &it state be avior at t e international level 3Durr and >arff 1994F Ban Nvera 199$F 7aprioli and Erumbore 2003a+ 2003b4. Arg+ing &ha& an* ( &heor* o)er<hel$s &he s%ecifics of &he si&+a&ion is an o)er si$%lifica&ion &ha& re>crea&es &he hierarchies &he* cri&iD+e/ Ea%rioli. 02 0<eminist 56 E eor' and _uantitative Aet odolog': 2 7riti!al 2nal'sis1 Aar' 7aprioli+ Gept. of =oliti!al 9!ien!e+ ?niversit' of Eennessee. 5nternational 9tudies 6evie&. Bolume 42 5ssue 1 =age 193(19$+ Aar! 2004. ttp:))&&&.bla!k&ell(s'nerg'.!om)links)doi)10.1111)0020(%%33.000$#4. E ere is little utilit' in !onstru!ting a divide if none exists. 2s E omas Qu n 319#24 argues+ !ommon measures do exist a!ross paradigms t at provide a s ared basis for t eor'. 5t seems overl' pessimisti! to a!!ept Qarl =opper*s PPA't of <rame&ork+** & i! postulates t at PP&e are prisoners !aug t in t e frame&ork of our t eories+ our expe!tations+ our past experien!es+ our language+ and t at as a !onsequen!e+ &e !annot !ommuni!ate &it or /udge t ose &orking in terms of a different paradigm** 3Ceufeld 199":444. 9ome feminists 3for example+ Ei!kner 199#+ 2001F =eterson 2002F 9teans 20034 appear to embra!e t is PPA't of <rame&ork** b' a!!entuating t e differen!es bet&een t e perspe!tives of feminist and 56 t eorists based on t eir past experien!es and languages and !riti!ize 56 t eorists for t eir la!k of !ommuni!ation &it feminist 56 s! olars. 5roni!all'+ t e PPA't of <rame&ork** s ares a number of assumptions &it >obbes*s des!ription of t e state of nature t at feminists routinel' re/e!t. E e PPA't of <rame&ork** assumes no middle ground s! olars are presumabl' entren! ed in t eir o&n &orldvie&s &it out ope of !ompromise or t e abilit' to understand ot ers* &orldvie&s. 5f t is is t e !ase+ s! olars are doomed to dis!ussions &it likeminded individuals rat er t an aving a produ!tive dialogue &it t ose outside t eir o&n &orldvie&. 9! olars & o a!!ept t e PPA't of <rame&ork** ave essentiall' !reated a Eo&er of Label in & i! t e' ! oose not to understand ea! ot er*s language. E e a!!eptan!e of su! a m't !reates !onfli!t and establis es a ierar! ' &it in international relations s! olars ip even t oug !onventional feminists t eoreti!all' seek to identif' and eradi!ate !onfli!t and ierar! ' &it in so!iet' as a & ole.

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The %er$ sol)es bes&' ( cri&icis$ is onl* effec&i)e <hen i& is co$bine- <i&h %rac&ical %olic* $aking/ Keohane. 95 L0Le'ond Gi! otom': 7onversations Let&een 5nternational 6elations and <eminist E eor'1 6obert @. Qeo ane+ Guke ?niversit'. 5nternational 9tudies _uarterl' 42+ 193(19%. ttp:))&&&.bla!k&ell( s'nerg'.!om)a!tion)s o&=dfRsubmit=G<,<ullcEextc=G<c`2%%9cQL`29:doi,10.1111`2<0020(%%33.000$# E e problem &it Ei!kner*s di! otomies+ o&ever+ goes mu! deeper. E e di! otomies s ould be repla!ed b' !ontinua+ &it t e di! otomous ! ara!terizations at t e poles. Na! anal'st of &orld politi!s as to lo!ate erself or imself some& ere along t e dimensions bet&een !riti!al and problem(solving t eor'+ nomot eti! and narrative epistemolog'+ and a so!ial or stru!tural !on!eption of international relations. 5n m' vie&+ none of t e ends of t ese !ontinua are t e optimal pla!es to rest one*s perspe!tive. 7riti!ism of t e &orld+ b' itself+ be!omes a /eremiad+ often resting impli!itl' on a utopian vie& of uman potential. Hit out anal'sis+ furt ermore+ it !onstitutes merel' t e opinion of one or a number of people. @n t e ot er and+ impli!it or !ompla!ent a!!eptan!e of t e &orld as it is &ould rob t e stud' of international relations of mu! of its meaning. >o& !ould one identif' 0problems1 &it out !riti!ism at some levelR E e issue is not problem(solving vs. !riti!al t eor'( a !onvenient devi!e for dis!arding &ork t at one does not &is to a!!ept( but o& deepl' t e !riti!ism s ould go. <or example+ most students of &ar stud' it be!ause t e' ope to expose its evils or to !ontrol it in some &a': fe& do so to glorif' &ar as su! . Lut t e dept of t eir !ritique varies. Goes t e aut or re/e!t !ertain a!ts of &arfare+ all &arfare+ all !oer!ion+ or t e s'stem of states itselfR E e deeper t e !riti!ism+ t e more &ide(ranging t e questions. Carro&l' problem(solving &ork+ as in mu! poli!' anal'sis+ often ignores t e most important !ausal fa!tors in a situation be!ause t e' are not manipulable in t e s ort run. >o&ever+ t e more !riti!al and &ide(ranging an aut or*s perspe!tive+ t e more diffi!ult it is to do !omparative empiri!al anal'sis. 2n opponent of some t'pes of &ar !an !ompare t e !auses of different &ars+ as a &a' to elp to eliminate t ose t at are regarded as perni!iousF but t e opponent of t e s'stem of states as to imagine t e !ounterfa!tual situation of a s'stem &it out states.

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Fe$inis$ &ha& %riori&iBes &heor* o)er $a&erial ex%erience excl+-es &he )oices of &hir- <orl- fe$inis&s/ Oloka>On*ango an- Ta$ale. 93 0E e =ersonal is =oliti!al1 or H ' Homens 6ig ts are 5ndeed >uman 6ig ts. ;. @loka( @n'ango and 9l'via Eamale. >uman 6ig ts _uarterl' 1$.4+ #91($31 . ;oe @loka(@n'ango is a 9enior 8e!turer at t e <a!ult' of 8a&+ Aakerere ?niversit'+ ?ganda+ and spent t e 1994(199" a!ademi! 'ear as a Bisiting =rofessor at t e ?niversit' of Ainnesota.9'lvia Eamale olds la& degrees from Aakerere ?niversit' 3?ganda4 and >arvard 8a& 9! ool. 9 e is !urrentl' a do!toral student in 9o!iolog' and <eminist 9tudies at t e ?niversit' of Ainnesota+ =ro/est Ause4. 5n tandem &it su! an approa! + feminists in t ird &orld !ontexts must be &ar' of !ooptation and exploitation((a trait of &estern so!ieties t at appears to not respe!t boundaries of sex((parti!ularl' be!ause t e dominant mode of international feminism refle!ts t e dominant ! ara!ter and !olor of international relations+ Lourgeois)& ite+ often predator'+ and paternalisti!. 2# 2s Aaivrn 8rm as re!entl' pointed out in an arti!le aptl' entitled+ 5eeling 5oreign in 5eminism+ t e agenda of Hestern feminism appears not onl' to be off target+ but also Ifilmi!.I 2$ 2!!ording to 8rm+ Hestern feminism is Itoo !leanl' and deta! edl' representational+ &it little !onne!tion to t e ongoing lives of &omen & o ave experien!ed ra!ial or !olonial dis!rimination. . . .I 2% Basuki Cesia is even more !riti!al of t e transposition of Hestern feminism onto t e international s!ene be!ause it ignores Iglobal !ontradi!tionsI 29 by emphasizing the commonality of women's

experience. Instead, she urges theorists to look at gender identities as being "continually reconstituted through social processes."
Fe$inis&s &ha& %riori&iBe &heor* o)er refor$ $arginaliBe &hir- <orl- <o$en/ Oloka>On*ango an- Ta$ale. 93 0E e =ersonal is =oliti!al1 or H ' Homens 6ig ts are 5ndeed >uman 6ig ts. ;. @loka( @n'ango and 9l'via Eamale. >uman 6ig ts _uarterl' 1$.4+ #91($31 . ;oe @loka(@n'ango is a 9enior 8e!turer at t e <a!ult' of 8a&+ Aakerere ?niversit'+ ?ganda+ and spent t e 1994(199" a!ademi! 'ear as a Bisiting =rofessor at t e ?niversit' of Ainnesota.9'lvia Eamale olds la& degrees from Aakerere ?niversit' 3?ganda4 and >arvard 8a& 9! ool. 9 e is !urrentl' a do!toral student in 9o!iolog' and <eminist 9tudies at t e ?niversit' of Ainnesota+ =ro/est Ause4. 5n a su!!in!t treatment of t e issue else& ere+ >ilar' 7 arles&ort points out t at feminists Is ould aim not for respe!tabilit' and a!!eptan!e t roug developing a spe!ialized bran! of &omenKs international la& be!ause t is &ould leave t e international legal s'stem un! anged. He must &ork to ! ange the heartland o' international la- and its institutions.I "1 >o&ever+ in er essa' in HomenKs 6ig ts+ 7 arles&ort devotes a s!ant paragrap to t e issue of t ird &orld feminism and even t en+ onl' in its relations ip to first &orld feminism. "2 2 more in!lusive examination &ould ave in!orporated t e vie&s of 9out ern feminists on t e international legal and politi!al regime. "3 E ird &orld dis!ourse must be integrated dire!tl' into t e !ritique of dominant stru!tures of kno&ledge and po&er in a!ademia+ rat er t an Iadded in and stirredI as an aftert oug t. E is is parti!ularl' ne!essar' in lig t of t e assault on sout ern institutions of advan!ed learning and intelle!tual !ulture b' t e 5nternational Aonetar' <und 35A<4 and Horld Lank stru!tural ad/ustment poli!ies 392=s4. "4 @f !ourse+ internationalist &orks t at in!lude and are sensitive to t e !on!erns of t ird &orld s! olars are far better t an t ose & i! presume to speak to and for t em. ?nfortunatel'+ t e latter are in far greater abundan!e. 9u! imbalan!e imports a spe!ial dut' among t ose & o experien!e similar !onditions of ex!lusion in a!ademia to allo& for t e expression of marginalized voi!es be'ond t e Iparti!ularitiesI of t eir geograp i!al !ontexts. "" 5n s ort+ t e IgatesI must be opened even &ider to ensure t at international feminist t eor' is trul' de!olonized and t emati!all' internationalized. @t er&ise+ &e remain &it t e same problem as t e deba!le of H5G((nominal parti!ipation and !ontinuing marginalization((or /ust lip(servi!e to multi!ulturalism and universal uman rig ts.

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Local resis&ance $+s& be co$bine- <i&h larger s&r+ggles &o be effec&i)e/ 7ills K 02 TLarr' Q+ 7 air of t e Horld >istori!al 9'stems t eor' group of t e 5nternational 9tudies 2sso!iation and a fa!ult' affiliate of t e Dlobalization 6esear! 7enter of t e ?niversit' of >a&aii+ 0Gemo!ratizing Dlobalization and Dlobalizing Gemo!ra!'+ Aa'+ 2nnals of t e 2meri!an 2!adem' of =oliti!al and 9o!ial 9!ien!e+ Aa'U 5n t is sense+ &e ma' !on!lude t at &e are living t roug t e 3gradual or suddenR4 demise of t e old &orld order and t e 3slo& or suddenR4 birt of a ne& one. N!onomi!all'+ t is ne& order is based on an in!reased level of global e!onomi! integration and unison. =oliti!all'+ o&ever+ it is premised on t e need to translate grassroots parti!ipator' politi!al a!tion into in!reasingl' popular demo!rati! forms of governan!e at lo!al+ national+ regional+ and global levels 3Dills 2000!F 20014. Aoreover+ it is also based on a real need to !ombine t e peoples and so!ial for!es of Cort and 9out in ne& &a's+ bringing toget er ne& !oalitions dra&n from movements around t e &orld. E e governments and t e !orporations of t e &orld must no& listen to and a!!ommodate t e demands of t e peoples of t e & ole &orld+ & o represent t e voi!e of t e governed. E is ne& realit'+ & i! in m' vie& is an ob/e!tive one and not mere idealism+ t erefore requires a ne& T*1#9U paradigm. E is ne& paradigm of &orld order must be based profoundl' on multi!ivilizational dialogue and universal in!lusion. 6at er t an a politi!al order based on one nation+ &e are moving to&ard t e need for a politi!al order based on one umanit'+ and onl' demo!rati! norms !an a!!ommodate su! a form of governan!e. Local s&r+ggles are no& eno+gh,global i$%ac&s reD+ire large>scale res%onses &oo/ Bes& an- Kellner. 00 ( 2sso!. =rof = il. and >uman. ? Eexas and = il. @f Nd. 7 air . 2001 39teven and Gouglas+ 0=ostmodern =oliti!s and t e Lattle for t e <uture+1 5lluminations+ ttp:))&&&.uta.edu) uma)illuminations)kell2%. tm4 E e emp asis on lo!al struggles and mi!ropo&er+ !ultural politi!s & i! redefine t e politi!al+ and attempts to develop politi!al forms relevant to t e problems and developments of t e !ontemporar' age is extremel' valuable+ but t ere are also !ertain limitations to t e dominant forms of postmodern politi!s. H ile an emp asis on mi!ropoliti!s and lo!al struggles !an be a ealt ' substitute for ex!essivel' utopian and ambitious politi!al pro/e!ts+ one s ould not lose sig t t at ke' sour!es of politi!al po&er and oppression are pre!isel' t e big targets aimed at b' modern t eor'+ in!luding !apital+ t e state+ imperialism+ and patriar! '. Eaking on su! ma/or targets involves !oalitions and multi(front struggle+ often requiring a politi!s of allian!e and solidarit' t at !uts a!ross group identifi!ations to mobilize suffi!ient po&er to struggle against+ sa'+ t e evils of !apitalism or t e state. E us+ & ile toda' &e need t e expansion of lo!alized !ultural pra!ti!es+ t e' attain t eir real signifi!an!e onl' &it in t e struggle for t e transformation of so!iet' as a & ole. Hit out t is s'stemi! emp asis+ !ultural and identit' politi!s remain !onfined to t e margins of so!iet' and are in danger of degenerating into nar!issism+ edonism+ aest eti!ism+ or personal t erap'+ & ere t e' pose no danger and are immediatel' !oopted b' t e !ulture industries. 7lobal resis&ance nee-e- &o crea&e broa- coali&ions/

7ills K 02 3Larr' Q+ 7

air of t e Horld >istori!al 9'stems t eor' group of t e 5nternational 9tudies 2sso!iation and a fa!ult' affiliate of t e Dlobalization 6esear! 7enter of t e ?niversit' of >a&aii+ 0Gemo!ratizing Dlobalization and Dlobalizing Gemo!ra!'+ Aa'+ 2nnals of t e 2meri!an 2!adem' of =oliti!al and 9o!ial 9!ien!e+ Aa'4 5n t is sense+ &e ma' !on!lude t at &e are living t roug t e 3gradual or suddenR4 demise of t e old &orld order and t e 3slo& or suddenR4 birt of a ne& one. N!onomi!all'+ t is ne& order is based on an in!reased level of global e!onomi! integration and unison. =oliti!all'+ o&ever+ it is premised on

t e need to translate grassroots parti!ipator' politi!al a!tion into in!reasingl' popular demo!rati! forms of governan!e at lo!al+ national+ regional+ and global levels 3Dills 2000!F 20014. Aoreover+ it is also based on a real need to !ombine t e peoples and so!ial for!es of Cort and 9out in ne& &a's+ bringing toget er ne& !oalitions dra&n from movements around t e &orld. E e governments and t e !orporations of t e &orld must no& listen to and a!!ommodate t e demands of t e peoples of t e & ole &orld+ & o represent t e voi!e of t e governed. E is ne& realit'+ & i! in m' vie& is an ob/e!tive one and not mere idealism+
t erefore requires a ne& T*1#9U paradigm. E is ne& paradigm of &orld order must be based profoundl' on multi!ivilizational dialogue and universal in!lusion. 6at er t an a politi!al order based on one nation+ &e are moving to&ard t e need for a politi!al order based on one umanit'+ and onl' demo!rati! norms !an a!!ommodate su! a form of governan!e.

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=er$ K -o bo&h K a coor-ina&ion of local an- global ac&ion a)oi-s &he -isa-)an&ages of solel* local ac&ion (e&Binger. 99 . =rofessor at t e ?niversit' of 7alifornia Lerkle' 3;ean =. 0Aaking 7onne!tions: Nxamining Dlobal and 8o!al 2!tivism in t
9! olars ip of Qevin Ai! ael Ge8u!a and Earla 6ai =eterson1+ ttp:))&&&.esf.edu)e!n)do&nloads)e!d02Yretzinger.pdf4

E e se!ond task Ge8u!a identifies for !riti!al r etori!ians is to 0make !onne!tions among lo!al struggles1 31"34. Ge8u!a again is engaged ere in a debate &it 0s'mpat eti! !riti!s1 3%14 like >arve' and ;ameson & o ! allenge t e effe!tiveness of lo!al a!tivism. >arve'+ for example+ per!eives !ommunit'(based a!tivism as vulnerable to 0paro! ialism+ m'opia+ and self(referentialit'1 and in & i! 0respe!t for ot ers gets mutilated in t e fires of !ompetition bet&een t e fragments1 3>arve' 3"14. Ge8u!a !ites ;ameson*s !laim t at 0*t e !ru!ial issue in t e politi!s of t e postmodern* is t e inabilit' to !oordinate lo!al and global struggles1 3%24. Xet rat er t an questioning t e ver' !on!ept of a 0global struggle1 or ;ameson*s assertion t at su! local an- global coor-ina&ion is ei&her %ossible necessar*+ Ge8u!a edges a&a' from !elebrating pla!e(based+ lo!al a!tivism to&ards privileging 0larger(t an(lo!al dis!ourses1 3%24.

or

The al&erna&i)e fails K i& lea-s &o a -ena&+ring of con&ex& an- ser)es &o obli&era&e gro+%s (e&Binger. 99 . =rofessor at t e ?niversit' of 7alifornia Lerkle' 3;ean =. 0Aaking 7onne!tions: Nxamining Dlobal and 8o!al 2!tivism in t
9! olars ip of Qevin Ai! ael Ge8u!a and Earla 6ai =eterson1+ ttp:))&&&.esf.edu)e!n)do&nloads)e!d02Yretzinger.pdf4 )) AG=

Ge8u!a spe!ifi!all' ! allenges >arve'*s !on!erns about t e !onsequen!es of postmodernism for politi!s or so!ial movements. 5n !ontrast to >arve'*s !ontention t at 0fetis izing lo!alit' and pla!e lead to an in!o erent politi!s t at isolates and disempo&ers lo!al resistan!es & ile aiding global !orporate !apitalism+1 Ge8u!a instead &onders if t e !ondition of postmodernit' !ould instead 0offer ope for a radi!al demo!rati! politi!s1 3#44.7on!urring t at t e re(!on!eptualization of spa!e and time is a defining ! ara!teristi! of postmodernism + Ge8u!a argues t at t e 0postmodern so!ial field1 in & i! radi!al environmental groups operate offers signifi!ant advantages + most notabl' a 0distrust of grand narratives like progress and t e valorization of t e lo!al1 31"24. Lut t ese advantages are /eopardized b' t e 0denaturing of !ontext+1 or+ as Qat erine >a'les puts it+ a state in & i! 0!ontemporar' 2meri!ans live P&it in t e !ontext of no !ontext1 3quoted in Ge8u!a 1"2("34. Ge8u!a imself points to t e fa!t t at 0t e postmodern !ompression of spa!e . . . leads us to metap ori!all' !on!eive of our &orld as a Pglobal village* or Pspa!es ip eart *1 & i! serves to 0obliterate parti!ular pla!es1 31"24. 2nd t e r etori! of t e global+ Ge8u!a !ontinues+ 0puts radi!al environmental groups at a distin!t disadvantage1 31"2("34. Lut to support t is point+ e !ites >arve'*s !ontention t at environmental groups are 0generall' better at organizing in and dominating pla!e t an t e' are at !ommanding spa!e1 3>arve' quoted in Ge8u!a 1"2("34. 9ome& at surprisingl'+ rat er t an dire!tl' questioning t e merit of t e goal impli!it in t is statement((or even !ritiquing t e 0enlig tenment1 language >arve' emplo's ere-Ge8u!a repeats t is statement t&i!e on a single page before identif'ing 0t e needs to learn from istor' and to make !onne!tions among lo!al struggles1 31"34 as t e vital tasks for !riti!al r etori!ians.

This recrea&es %as& faile- $o)e$en&s #s&e)a an- =rakash. 95 . =resident of t e "t

Horld 7ongress on 6ural 9o!iolog' and =rofessor of Ndu!ational E eor' at t e ?niversit' of =enns'lvania 9tate 3Dustavo and Aad u 9uri+ 0Drassroots =ost(Aodernism . 6emaking t e 9oil of 7ultures1+ =age 204))AG=

?ntil no&+ o&ever+ it appears as if most of t e so!ial movements or !ampaigns tr'ing to resist t e ne& IglobalI p enomena ave proven to be ig l' ineffe!tive. 9ome of t em are even !ounterprodu!tive+ getting t e opposite of & at t e' are looking forF rooting and
deepening in people and so!iet' t e ver' evils against & i! t e' are struggling. Erue+ man' &orkersK strikes do su!!eed in prote!ting ;obs or pension plans. 2t t e same time+ o&ever+ t e' also legitimize and !onsolidate t e poli!ies and orientations !reating unemplo'ment or dismantling t e &elfare state. 2mongst t e people struggling for some se!urit' in t eir lives+ man' assume t at t e' ave no more t an one politi!al option: t at t e best t e' !an do is to prote!t t eir o&n situationF get some !ompensation for & at t e' are losingF and ope t at t e promises offered in ex! ange for t eir sa!rifi!es &ill one da' be fulfilled. 9u! beliefs reinfor!e t e IDlobal =ro/e!t.I

Michigan 7 Week Seniors 2009 AT 7LOBAL LOEAL' #M= (# T@(!

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The i$%erial $achine o%era&es beca+se of f+&ile local resis&ance Far-& an- !ergi. 2000 ( =oliti!al = ilosop er Lased at Guke ?niversit' and Aarxist =
32ntonio and Ai! ael+ 0Nmpire1+ >arvard ?niversit' =ress4 )) AG=

ilosop er

E is ne& frame&ork of legitima!' in!ludes ne& forms and ne& arti!ulations of t e exer!ise of legitimate for!e . Guring its formation+ t e ne& po&er must demonstrate t e effe!tiveness of its for!e at t e same time t at t e bases of its legitimation are being !onstru!ted. 5n fa!t+ t e legitima!' of t e ne& po&er is in part based dire!tl' on t e effe!tiveness of its use of for!e . E e &a' t e effe!tiveness of t e ne& po&er is demonstrated as not ing to do &it t e old international order t at is slo&l' d'ing a&a'F nor as it mu! use for t e instruments t e old order left be ind. E e deplo'ments of t e imperial ma! ine are defined b' a & ole series of ne& ! ara!teristi!s+ su! as t e unbounded terrain of its a!tivities+ t e singularization and s'mboli! localiBa&ion of its a!tions+ and t e !onne!tion of repressive a!tion to all t e aspe!ts of t e biopoliti!al stru!ture of so!iet' . <or la!k of a better term &e !ontinue to !all t ese Iinterventions.I E is is merel' a terminologi!al and not a !on!eptual defi!ien!'+ for t ese are
not reall' interventions into independent /uridi!al territories but rat er a!tions &it in a unified &orld b' t e ruling stru!ture of produ!tion and !ommuni!ation. 5n effe!t+ intervention as been internalized and universalized .

#$%ire can onl* be confron&e- on a global scale K localiBe- ac&ion ine)i&abl* fails Far-& an- !ergi. 2000 ( =oliti!al = ilosop er Lased at Guke ?niversit' and Aarxist = ilosop er
32ntonio and Ai! ael+ 0Nmpire1+ >arvard ?niversit' =ress4 )) AG= @ur stud' set out from t e 'pot esis t at t e po&er of Nmpire

and t e me! anisms of imperial sovereignt' !an be understood onl' & en !onfronted on t e most general s!ale+ in t eir globalit'. He believe t at to&ard t e end of ! allenging and resisting Nmpire and its &orld market+ it is ne!essar' to pose an' alternative at an equall' global level . 2n' proposition of a parti!ular !ommunit' in isolation+ defined in ra!ial+ religious+ or regional terms+ IdelinkedI from Nmpire+ s ielded from its po&ers b' fixed boundaries+ is destined to end up as a kind of g etto. Nmpire !annot be resisted b' a pro/e!t aimed at a limited+ lo!al autonom'. He !annot move ba!k to an' previous so!ial form+ nor move for&ard in isolation. 6at er+ &e must pus t roug Nmpire to !ome out t e ot er side. Geleuze and Duattari argued t at rat er t an resist !apitalKs globalization+ &e ave to
a!!elerate t e pro!ess. ILut & i! +I t e' ask+ Iis t e revolutionar' pat R 5s t ere oneR(Eo &it dra& from t e &orld market . . R @r mig t it be to go in t e opposite dire!tionR Eo go still furt er+ t at is+ in t e movement of t e market+ of de!oding and deterritorializationRIT1U Nmpire !an be effe!tivel' !ontested onl' on its o&n level of generalit' and b' pus ing t e pro!esses t at it offers past t eir present limitations . He ave to a!!ept t at ! allenge and learn to t ink globall' and a!t globall'. Dlobalization must be met &it a !ounter(

globalization+ Nmpire &it a !ounter(Nmpire.

Michigan 7 Week Seniors 2009 AT 7LOBAL LOEAL' EA= TAL SM T@(! LocaliBe- ac&ion %ro%s +% a global ca%i&alis& hierarch*/ Far-& an- !ergi. 2000( =oliti!al = ilosop er Lased at Guke ?niversit' and Aarxist =
32ntonio and Ai! ael+ 0Nmpire1+ >arvard ?niversit' =ress4 )) AG=

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ilosop er

8eft t at as follo&ed t e 19#0s+ a large portion of !riti!al t oug t+ bot in t e dominant !ountries of !apitalist development and in t e subordinated ones+ as soug t to re!ompose sites of resistan!e t at are founded on t e identities of so!ial sub/e!ts or national and regional groups+ often grounding politi!al anal'sis on t e lo!alization of struggles. 9u! arguments are sometimes !onstru!ted in terms of
Ipla!e(basedI movements or politi!s+ in & i! t e boundaries of pla!e 3!on!eived eit er as identit' or as territor'4 are posed against t e undifferentiated and omogeneous spa!e of global net&orks.T2U 2t ot er times su! politi!al arguments dra& on t e long tradition of 8eftist nationalism in & i! 3in t e best !ases4 t e nation is !on!eived as t e primar' me! anism of def ense against t e domination of

8eftist strateg' seems to be entirel' rea!tive: 5f !apitalist domination is be!oming ever more global+ t en our resistan!es to it must defend t e lo!al and !onstru!t barriers to !apitalKs a!!elerating flo&s. <rom t is perspe!tive+ t e real globalization of !apital and t e !onstitution of Nmpire must be !onsidered signs of dispossession and defeat . He maintain+ o&ever+ t at toda' t is lo!alist position+ alt oug &e admire and respe!t t e spirit of some of its proponents+ is bo&h false an- -a$aging. 5t is false first of all be!ause t e problem is poorl' posed. 5n man' ! ara!terizations t e problem rests on a false di! otom' bet&een t e global and t e lo!al+ assuming t at t e global entails omogenization and undifferentiated identit' & ereas t e lo!al preserves eterogeneit' and differen!e . @ften
foreign and)or global !apital. T3U Eoda' t e operative s'llogism at t e eart of t e various forms of Ilo!alI

impli!it in su! arguments is t e assumption t at t e differen!es of t e lo!al are in some sense natural+ or at least t at t eir origin remains be'ond question. 8o!al differen!es preexist t e present s!ene and must be defended or prote!ted against t e intrusion of

globalization. 5t s ould !ome as no surprise+ given su! assumptions+ t at man' defenses of t e lo!al adopt t e terminolog' of traditional e!olog' or even identif' t is Ilo!alI politi!al pro/e!t &it t e defense of nature and biodiversit' . E is vie& !an easil' devolve into a kind of primordialism t at fixes and romanti!izes so!ial relations and identities. H at needs to be addressed+
instead+ is pre!isel' t e produ!tion of lo!alit'+ t at is+ t e so!ial ma! ines t at !reate and re!reate t e identities and differen!es t at are understood as t e lo!al.T4U E e differen!es of lo!alit' are neit er preexisting nor natural but rat er effe!ts of a regime of produ!tion. Dlobalit' similarl' s ould not be understood in terms of !ultural+ politi!al+ or e!onomi! omogenization. Dlobalization+ like lo!alization+

E e better frame&ork+ t en+ to designate t e distin!tion bet&een t e global and t e lo!al mig t refer to different net&orks of flo&s and obsta!les in & i! t e lo!al moment or perspe!tive gives priorit' to t e reterritorializing barriers or boundaries and t e global moment privileges t e mobilit' of deterritorializing flo&s. 5t is false+ in an' !ase+ to !laim t at &e !an 3re4establis lo!al identities t at are in some sense outside and prote!ted against t e global flo&s of !apital and Nmpire.
s ould be understood instead as a regime of t e produ!tion of identit' and differen!e+ or reall' of omogenization and eterogenization.

LocaliBa&ion can be co$e )ehicle for i$%erial o%%ression,&he* &*%e of %olic*. no& &he &*%e of a-$inis&ra&ion $a&&ers/ Far-& an- !ergi. 2000 ( =oliti!al = ilosop er Lased at Guke ?niversit' and Aarxist = ilosop er
32ntonio and Ai! ael+ 0Nmpire1+ >arvard ?niversit' =ress4 )) AG=

E is 8eftist strateg' of resistan!e to globalization and defense of lo!alit' is also damaging be!ause in man' !ases & at appear as lo!al identities are not autonomous or self(determining but a!tuall' feed into and support t e development of t e !apitalist imperial ma! ine. E e globalization or deterritorialization operated b' t e imperial ma! ine is not in fa!t opposed to lo!alization or reterritorialization+ but rat er sets in pla' mobile and modulating !ir!uits of differentiation and identifi!ation. E e strateg' of lo!al resistan!e misidentifies and t us masks t e enem' . He are b' no means opposed to t e globalization of relations ips as su! (in fa!t+ as &e said+ t e strongest for!es of 8eftist internationalism ave effe!tivel' led t is pro!ess. E e enem'+ rat er+ is a spe!ifi! regime of global relations t at &e !all Nmpire . Aore important+ t is strateg' of defending t e lo!al is damaging be!ause it obs!ures and even negates t e real alternatives and t e potentials for liberation t at exist &it in Nmpire. He s ould be done on!e and for all &it t e sear! for an outside+ a standpoint t at imagines a purit' for our politi!s. 5t is better bot t eoreti!all' and pra!ti!all' to enter t e terrain of Nmpire and !onfront its omogenizing and eterogenizing flo&s in all t eir !omplexit'+ grounding our anal'sis in t e po&er of t e global multitude.

Michigan 7 Week Seniors 2009 AT 7LOBAL LOEAL' MO(AL TJ T@(!

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We ha)e a $oral obliga&ion &o &he global co$$+ni&*. <here <e <ere born an- <here <e li)e are all H+s& acci-en&s/

!+ssba+$. 92 . =rofessor of 8a& and Nt

3Aart a+ 0=atriotism and 7osmopolitanism+1 E e Loston 6evie&+

i!s at ?niversit' of 7 i!ago 8a& 9! ool &&&.so!i.niu.edu)pp ildept)Qapitan )nussbaum1. tml 4

l2sked & ere e !ame from+ t e an!ient Dreek 7'ni! p ilosop er Giogenes replied+ I5 am a !itizen of t e &orld.I >e meant b' t is+ it appears+ t at e refused to be defined b' is lo!al origins and lo!al group members ips+ so !entral to t e self(image of a !onventional Dreek maleF e insisted on defining imself in terms of more universal aspirations and !on!erns . E e 9toi!s & o follo&ed is lead developed is image of t e kosmou politss or &orld !itizen more full'+ arguing t at ea! of us d&ells+ in effe!t+ in t&o !ommunities (( t e lo!al !ommunit' of our birt + and t e !ommunit' of uman argument and aspiration t at Iis trul' great and trul' !ommon+ in & i! &e look neit er to t is !orner nor to t at+ but measure t e boundaries of our nation b' t e sunI 39ene!a+ Ge @tio4. 5t is t is !ommunit' t at is+ most fundamentall'+ t e sour!e of our moral obligations. Hit respe!t to t e most basi! moral values su! as /usti!e+ I&e s ould regard all uman beings as our fello& !itizens and neig borsI 3=lutar! + @n t e <ortunes of 2lexander4. He s ould regard our deliberations as+ first and foremost+ deliberations about uman problems of people in parti!ular !on!rete situations+ not problems gro&ing out of a national identit' t at is altoget er unlike t at of ot ers. Giogenes kne& t at t e invitation to t ink as a &orld !itizen &as+ in a sense+ an invitation to be an exile from t e !omfort of patriotism and its eas' sentiments+ to see our o&n &a's of life from t e point of vie& of /usti!e and t e good. E e a!!ident of & ere one is born is /ust t at+ an a!!identF an' uman being mig t ave been born in an' nation. 6e!ognizing t is + is 9toi! su!!essors eld+ &e s ould not allo& differen!es of nationalit' or !lass or et ni! members ip or even gender to ere!t barriers bet&een us and our fello& uman beings. He s ould re!ognize umanit' & erever it o!!urs+ and give its fundamental ingredients+ reason and moral !apa!it'+ our first allegian!e and respe!t. m

Working global allo<s +s &o ha)e self>kno<le-ge. sol)e o+r %roble$s be&&er. an- allo<s +s &o recogniBe &he )al+e of each an- e)er* %erson

!+ssba+$. 92 . =rofessor of 8a& and Nt

3Aart a+ 0=atriotism and 7osmopolitanism+1 E e Loston 6evie&+

i!s at ?niversit' of 7 i!ago 8a& 9! ool &&&.so!i.niu.edu)pp ildept)Qapitan )nussbaum1. tml 4

l9toi!s & o old t at good !ivi! edu!ation is edu!ation for &orld !itizens ip re!ommend t is attitude on t ree grounds. <irst+ t e' old t at t e stud' of umanit' as it is realized in t e & ole &orld is valuable for self(kno&ledge: &e see ourselves more !learl' & en &e see our &a's in relation to t ose of ot er reasonable people. 9e!ond+ t e' argue+ as does Eagore+ t at &e &ill be better able to solve our problems if &e fa!e t em in t is &a'. Co t eme is deeper in 9toi!ism t an t e damage done b' fa!tion and lo!al allegian!es to t e politi!al life of a group. =oliti!al deliberation+ t e' argue+ is sabotaged again and again b' partisan lo'alties+ & et er to oneKs team at t e 7ir!us or to oneKs nation. @nl' b' making our fundamental allegian!e t at to t e &orld !ommunit' of /usti!e and reason do &e avoid t ese dangers. <inall'+ t e' insist t at t e stan!e of t e kosmou politss is intrinsi!all' valuable. <or it re!ognizes in persons & at is espe!iall' fundamental about t em+ most &ort ' of respe!t and a!kno&ledgment: t eir aspirations to /usti!e and goodness and t eir !apa!ities for reasoning in t is !onne!tion. E is aspe!t ma' be less !olorful t an lo!al or
national traditions and identities (( and it is on t is basis t at t e 'oung &ife in EagoreKs novel spurns it in favor of qualities in t e nationalist orator 9andip t at s e later !omes to see as superfi!ialF it is+ t e 9toi!s argue+ bot lasting and deep.m

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(efor$ $+s& co$e fro$ <i&hin &he s*s&e$ K &he go)ern$en& is nee-e- for s+bs&an&i)e change
Ta*lor. 2K . @s
7ertainl' t kos <oundation =rofessor of 6eligion and 9o!ial Nt i!s+ and Gire!tor of Nnvironmental 9tudies at t e ?niversit' of His!onsin 3Lron+ Leneat t e 9urfa!e+ 2000+ pg. 2%24))C>>

e resistan!e of !ivil so!iet' to globalization and its destru!tive inertia is onorable and important+ even a part of a &ider sustainabilit' strateg'. Lut t ere &ill be no vi!tories over globalization and !orporate !apitalism+ and no signifi!ant progress to&ard sustainabilit'+ &it out ne& forms of interna tional+ enfor!eable+ global environmental governan!e. 5ndeed+ &it out ne& restraints on po&er+ bot &it in nations and internationall'+ t e most beautiful bioregional experiments and models &ill be over& elmed and futile. Nven bioregional deep e!ologists deepl' !ommitted to t is ne& Dreen ideolog' sometimes realize t at lasting vi!tories must be gained t roug legislation or se!ured in t e !ourts. E e istor' of environmental politi!s ill t e ?nited 9tates !ertainl' demonstrates t at+ !ontrar' to bioregional ideolog'+ it is often people far a&a' & o !are more for spe!ifi! pla!es t an t ose near t em. E is d'nami! is apparent in federal legislation and /udi!ial rulingsF t e' ave repeatedl' provided &ildlands greater prote!tion from lo!al extra!tive interests t an &ould ave been t e !ase &ere su! pla!es left ex!lusivel' under lo!al /urisdi!tion.I 5t is !urious to me t at so fe& bioregional deep e!ologists noti!e t e iron' & en t eir adversaries in t e I&ise useI movement parrot t eir primar' political ob/e!tive+ de!entralization and lo!al !ontrol.I 9u! realities provide ample reason for skepti!ism t at de!entralization along bioregional lines &ill bring t e desired transformations +
at least in t e foreseeable future.

7lobal %lanning an- global kno<le-ge are ke* &o s+r)i)al/

!+ssba+$. 92 . =rofessor of 8a& and Nt

3Aart a+ 0=atriotism and 7osmopolitanism+1 E e Loston 6evie&+

i!s at ?niversit' of 7 i!ago 8a& 9! ool &&&.so!i.niu.edu)pp ildept)Qapitan )nussbaum1. tml 4

lHe make ead&a' solving problems t at require international !ooperation. E e air does not obe' national boundaries. E is simple fa!t !an be+ for ! ildren+ t e beginning of t e re!ognition t at+ like it or not+ &e live in a &orld in & i! t e destinies of nations are !losel' intert&ined

&it respe!t to basi! goods and survival itself. E e pollution of t ird(&orld nations & o are attempting to attain our ig standard of living &ill+ in some !ases+ end up in our air. Co matter & at a!!ount of t ese matters &e &ill finall' adopt+ an' intelligent deliberation about e!olog' (( as+ also+ about t e food suppl' and population (( requires global planning+ global kno&ledge+ and t e re!ognition of a s ared future. m

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Local ac&ion fails K b+siness an- go)ern$en&s <ill %re)en& s+ccessf+l en)iron$en&al sol+&ions Fel-. 05 . Nditor of t e Nnvironmental 2!tivism Duide
3Eamilla >eld is t e editor of t e Nnvironmental 2!tivism Duide. 0Nnvironmental 2!tivism guide1 ;une 1"+ 200%4 ttp:))uk.one&orld.net)guides)environmentala!tivism))GA9 9o!ial /usti!e issues !ome to t e fore in lo!al !ampaigning. @ver

re!ent 'ears lo!al !ommunities ave be!ome in!reasingl' a!tive in finding t eir o&n solutions to t eir immediate environmental and so!ial problems. >o&ever+ t'pi!all' la!king finan!ial mus!le and a&areness of t eir rig ts+ lo!al a!tivists all too often fa!e prose!ution b' !orrupt governments and businesses.
E e fig t for t e environment+ espe!iall' at grassroots level+ is inseparable from t e fig t for t e uman rig ts. E e e!o(/usti!e movement links t e goal of environmental prote!tion to t e goals of so!ial /usti!e+ pea!e+ and t e re!ognition of t e rig ts of all marginalized and underprivileged people. Nnvironmental a!tion as to be driven b' a strong understanding of & at is /ust and fair+ and be delivered t roug demo!rati! institutions+ su! as representative grassroots organizations & i! ave an immediate stake in t e lo!al environment. E ere are too man' examples of solutions & i! merel' drive t e problem a&a' from ri! to poor !ommunities. <ailures of e!o(/usti!e are also to be found at international level+ in t e abuse

of t e developing &orld b' ri! !ountries. <rom toxi! &aste dumped on t e bea! es of 9omalia+ a !ountr' &it no government+ to t e attempted de!ommissioning of an asbestos(ridden <ren! &ars ip in an 5ndian do!k'ard+ developing !ountries find t emselves treated as se!ond !lass environmental !itizens. 7limate ! ange+ t e footprint of t e ri! on t e poor+ is t e ultimate expression of environmental in/usti!e.

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7rassroo&s ac&i)is$ fails K i& is %oorl* s&r+c&+re- an- canno& f+ll* infor$ %eo%le. -es&ro*ing $o)e$en&s/ S&oker. 04 . =rofessor of =oliti!s+ ?niversit' of Aan! ester 3Derr'+ 0H>X =@85E579 A2EEN69: A2Q5CD GNA@7627X H@6Q1+ 200#+ =g. 114(11"4 E ere !an be little doubt t at t e demo!rati! &orld &ould be less ri! and less open &it out t e impa!t of t is a!tivism. >o&ever+ t ere are a number of limitations to bot its nature and s!ale. 2lt oug t ere is eviden!e of a!tivistsK influen!e and !apa!it' to old governments and business to a!!ount+ t e s!ale of a!tivistsK a!tivities s ould not be overpla'edF t e' are too fe& in number and restri!ted in members ip to ave t e resour!es to a! ieve all t eir ob/e!tives. E&o !riti!isms ma' also be made of t e &a' t e' bring !itizens into t e politi!al pro!ess. <irst+ as ;an 2art 9! olte argues+ !ivil so!iet' institutionsK often fall s ort on demo!rati! !redentials in t eir o&n be aviourK and some K ave been run &it top(do&n managerial aut oritarianism t at stifles internal debate dissentK :3% 9ome advo!ates & o ave !laimed to speak for t e grass roots ave a!tuall' rarel' ventured into t e field. @n t e !ontrar'+ a number of /et(setting staff ave lost tou! &it t eir notional benefi!iaries as t e' fl' from one global !onferen!e to t e next.39 9ome of t e organizations involved are fronts for governments+ or !orporations+ families+ politi!al parties and foundations. Nven t ose & i! are properl' autonomous are often not !lear about o& t eir leaders emerged and & ere t eir poli!' positions !ame from: t e demo!rati! !redentials of t ese !ivil so!iet' organizations or net&orks !annot al&a's be taken for granted. Dlobal !ivil so!iet' in parti!ular is often t e preserve of professional a!tivists. 9e!ond+ t ese organizations rel' on t e mass media ( EB+ radio and t e press ( to get t eir message out into t e &ider politi!al &orld+ and are prone to offer a rat er simplisti! understanding of politi!al issues. 2s protest as got more global so t e media appears to pla' a bigger and bigger part in getting t e protesters out on t e street and keeping t e protest going. =rotest as su! as be!ome as mu! a part of t e &orld of spin and media manipulation as t e more traditional pra!ti!es of politi!s. E e priorities of mobilization demand simple+ eas' messages+ not an in(dept understanding of !omplex issues. 2s Aartin 9 a& points out+ t e argument over t e 5raq Har in 2003 s o&ed o& millions !ould respond in support of t e simple demand to K9top t e HarK + but ad little to sa' about & at todo in t e aftermat or & et er leaving 9addam in po&er &ould ave been better. He !an dra& t e !on!lusion t at T2U mass demonstration is a blunt instrument. 5n an intense !risis+ & i! poses one seemingl' simple question above all ot ers+ su! a movement allo&s large numbers of people to offer an ans&er and influen!e t e more !onventional politi!al pro!ess ... but & en issues be!ome more !omplex ... t is kind of movement be!omes less relevant. E e mass mobilization runs out of steam+ and a more spe!ialized politi!s takes over on!e t e energ' and !ommitment of protesters !an no longer be sustained. E e problem &it t is kind of engagement is t at it offers onl' an Kover(simplified politi!sK:40 t e engagement stops pre!isel' at t e moment t at politi!s is designed to deal &it + & en !onfli!ts are not !lear !ut and solutions are not obvious. =rotest movement politi!s !an degenerate into a form of identity politics. =eople protest as a lifest'le statement be!ause it tells us somet ing about t em rat er t an making an' sustained !ontribution to t e politi!al pro!ess. Aaril'n Ea'lor is rig t to argue t at K&earing t e ItI s irt and identif'ing &it !ampaigning organizations !an still be an important form of politi!al Kexpression and identit'K + but it is a limited and !onstrained form of engagement. =rotest politi!s as an important pla!e+ and for a small group of a!tivists it !an provide an intense and extensive base for engagement. <or most !itizens+ o&ever+ it provides /ust anot er opportunit' to sa' & at t e' !are about and reinfor!e a sense of identit' ( one t at t e' !an take up or leave as t e' please.

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Local $o)e$en&s bree- inac&ion an- corr+%&ion beca+se of &he ref+sal &o &ie &he$sel)es &o a na&ional agen-a/ 7rossberg. 92 38a&ren!e+ Aorris Gavis =rofessor of 7ommuni!ation 9tudies at t e ?niversit' of Cort 7arolina at 7 apel >ill+ 0He Dotta Det @ut of t is =la!e: =opular 7onservatism and =ostmodern 7ulture1+ page 2"%4 E is is pre!isel' t e paradox at t e eart of !ontemporar' ?.9. politi!s and of t e ne& !onservatismKs su!!esses. 2 large proportion of t e population is outraged b' at least some of & at is going on+ 'et(&it t e ex!eption of t ose a!tive on t e 6ig t(t e' remain largel' ina!tive and un!ommitted. E ere is a feeling of elplessness: & at !an an'one doR Nven if 'ou !ould get enoug people involved+ &ould it do an'K goodR 2nd if it did+ t en t e & ole t ing &ould no doubt be qui!kl' !orrupted b' its o&n su!!ess. H en people do protest or struggle+ it is often so spe!ifi! and lo!al t at it !annot be mobilized into a larger national allian!e. E e depoliti!ization of t e population+ its disinvestment from a!tive politi!al issues and struggles(its apat '+ as it &ere(is ver' real and 5 believe t at it as to be !onstantl' produ!ed. E is is at least one !ru!ial element &it in t e !ontemporar' egemoni! struggle. Local $o)e$en&s ge& co>o%&e- b* a conser)a&i)e agen-a,#ar&h "a* %ro)es/ 7rossberg. 92 38a&ren!e+ Aorris Gavis =rofessor of 7ommuni!ation 9tudies at t e ?niversit' of Cort 7arolina at 7 apel >ill+ 0He Dotta Det @ut of t is =la!e: =opular 7onservatism and =ostmodern 7ulture1+ pages 2$%(2$94 E e ne& !onservatism embodies+ not a politi!al rebellion but a rebellion against politi!s. 5t makes politi!s into an ot er+ lo!ated on t e ot er side of t e frontier. 2n'one & o a!tuall' talks about serious problems and t eir solutions is a dreamerF an'one & o !elebrates t e mood in & i! t e problem is at on!e terrif'ing and boring is a realist. 5t is no longer believing too strongl' t at is dangerous+ but a!tuall' t inking t at one is supposed to make oneKs dreams !ome true. E e failure of Nart Ga' !annot be explained b' merel' pointing to its status as a feel(good media event+ nor b' pointing out t e in!reasingl' 'po!riti!al appropriation of Igreen politi!sI b' !orporate polluters. 5t is rat er t at e!olog'+ like an' Ipoliti!s+I as be!ome a question of attitude and investment+ as if investing in t e I!orre!tI ideologi!al beliefs+ even demonstrating it+ &as an adequate !onstru!tion of t e politi!al. Hit in t e ne& !onservative arti!ulation of t e frontier+ politi!al positions onl' exist as entirel' affe!tive investments+ separated from an' abilit' to a!t.

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The ref+sal &o engage in %oli&ics backfires,in&ellec&+als beco$e -ise$%o<ere- beca+se &he* ref+se &o &ake ac&ion be*on- local re)ol+&ions/ 7rossberg. 92 38a&ren!e+ Aorris Gavis =rofessor of 7ommuni!ation 9tudies at t e ?niversit' of Cort 7arolina at 7 apel >ill+ 0He Dotta Det @ut of t is =la!e: =opular 7onservatism and =ostmodern 7ulture1+ pages 3#1(3#34 5t is a question of t e strategi! deplo'ment of t e postmodern sensibilit' into ever'da' life+ of t e arti!ulation of t e ver' stru!tures of ever'da' empo&erment into larger stru!tures of politi!al disempo&erment. L' erasing an't ing but lo!al antagonisms+ people are disempo&ered b' t eir sear! for empo&erment+ demobilized b' t eir ver' mobilit'. 5ntelle!tuals ave allo&ed t eor' to dire!t t eir &ork even & en it !ontradi!ts t e real demands of istori!al domination and oppression+ as in t e follo&ing double transformation of Ipo&erI: Cot t e overt po&er of armies and governments+ but t e more subtle po&ers en!oded in t e so!ial order of modernism & i! as positioned t e experien!es of being female+ male+ bla!k and & ite+ an artist+ reader+ &riter+ from <irst or E ird Horld+ as aving an immovable and !onstitutive ! ara!ter. 2gainst t ese orders and po&ers+ postmodernism as proposed a more multiplex+ s ifting+ eterogeneous set of !ultural relations t at ave persistentl' evaded stable and parti!ular readings and meanings+ ave evaded t e snares of grand s'stemati! narratives+ ave ! allenged t e egemon' of totalising do!trine and istori!all'(rooted t eor'. 5n t eir desire to renoun!e vanguardism+ ierar! ' and aut oritarianism+ too man' intelle!tuals ave also renoun!ed t e value of intelle!tual and politi!al aut orit'. E is renun!iation of aut orit' is predi!ated on a t eoreti!al !risis of representation in & i! t e aut orit' of an' kno&ledge is suspe!t+ sin!e all kno&ledge is istori!all' determined and impli!ated in ierar! i!al relations of po&er. E e politi!al refle!tion of t is suspi!ion is t at stru!tures and ierar! ' are equated &it domination. 5ntelle!tuals !annot !laim to speak t e Itrut I of t e &orld+ and t e' !annot speak for or in t e name of ot er people. E ere are onl' t&o strategies available to t e !riti!. <irst+ t e abilit' to des!ribe t e realit' of peopleKs experien!e or position in t e &orld !an be given over entirel' to t e people & o are t e sub/e!ts of t e anal'sis. E e' are Iallo&edI to speak for t emselves &it in t e intelle!tualKs dis!ourse. E e !riti! merel' ins!ribes t e ot erKs o&n sense of t eir pla!e &it in and relations ip to spe!ifi! experien!es and pra!ti!es. 11 9e!ond+ t e !riti! anal'zes is or er o&n position self(reflexivel'+ and its !onsequen!es for is or er stud' 3i. e.+ m' istor' and position ave determined t e inevitable failure of m' aut orit'4 but &it out privileging t at position. 12 5n eit er !ase+ t ere is little room for t e !riti!Ks o&n aut orit'. H ile su! a moment of intelle!tual suspi!ion is ne!essar'+ it goes too far & en it assumes t at all kno&ledge !laims are equall' un/ustified and un/ustifiable+ leaving t e !riti! to !elebrate differen!e and a radi!al and pluralist relativism. E e fa!t of !ontextual determination does not b' itself mean t at all kno&ledge !laims are false+ nor does it mean t at all su! !laims are equall' invalid or useless responses to a parti!ular !ontext. 5t need not entail relativism. E e fa!t t at spe!ifi! dis!ourses are arti!ulated into relations of po&er does not mean t at t ese relations are ne!essar' or guaranteed+ nor t at all kno&ledges are equall' bad(and to be opposed(for even if t e' are impli!ated &it parti!ular stru!tures of po&er+ t ere is no reason to assume t at all stru!tures of po&er are equall' bad. 9u! an assumption &ould entail t e futilit' of politi!al struggle and t e end of istor' . E is is t e !onundrum of t e intelle!tual 8eft+ for 'ou !anKt ave kno&ledge &it out standards and aut orit'. 9imilarl'+ alt oug all stru!tures of !ommonalit'+ normalit' and t e sa!red ma' be suspe!t+ so!ial existen!e itself is impossible &it out at least t e imagination of su! possibilities.

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AT FA("TP!#7( ' ALT#(!AT 8# T#((O( SM Far-& an- !egri9s al&erna&i)e is an en-orse$en& of &erroris$ K &he $+l&i&+-e9s re)ol& agains& ca%i&alis$ is e$%iricall* )iolen&/ Balakrishnan. 2000 3=oliti!al 9!ien!e =rofessor at ?niversit' of 7 i!ago and member of t e editorial board of Ce& 8eft 6evie& + Dopal+ 0>ardt and Cegri*s Nmpire1+ Ce& 8eft 6evie&+ 9eptember(@!tober+ ttp:))ne&leftrevie&.org)222$"4 5n addition to aving a !areer as an influential politi!al p ilosop er+ &it &idel'.translated books on 9pinoza and Aarx to is !redit+ Cegri is a !onvi!ted terrorist. 5n 19$9+ t e 5talian government arrested Cegri+ at t e time a politi!al s!ien!e professor at t e ?niversit' of =adua+ and a!!used im of
being t e se!ret brains be ind t e 6ed Lrigades+ t e 5talian version of t e Heat ermen in t e ?.9. or t e Laader.Aein off Dang in Hest Derman'-left.&ing groups t at during t e 19$0s soug t to overt ro& !apitalism t roug !ampaigns of terrorist violen!e. 5talian aut orities believed t at Cegri imself planned t e infamous 19$9 kidnapping and murder of 2ldo Aoro+ t e leader of 5tal'*s 7 ristian Gemo!rati! =art'. ;ust before 2ldo*s exe!ution+ is distraug t &ife got a taunting p one !all+ telling er t at er usband &as about to die. E e voi!e &as allegedl' Cegri*s. ?nable to build a strong enoug

Cegri*s t eoreti!al &ork &as in keeping &it is terrorist a!tivities. >e ad be!ome t e leading voi!e of 5tal'*s ultra.8eft b' advan!ing an inventive reinterpretation of Aarx*s Drundrisse t at lo!ated t e agent of so!ial revolution not among t e industrial proletariat+ largel' !o.opted as it &as b' !apitalist &ealt and bourgeois demo!rati! freedoms+ but among t ose marginalized from e!onomi! and politi!al life: t e !riminal+ t e part.time &orker+ t e unemplo'ed. E ese dispossessed souls+ Cegri felt+ &ould be far qui!ker to unleas t e riotous !onfrontations &it t e state t at e sa& as ne!essar' to destro'ing !apitalism
!ase to tr' t e p ilosop er for murder+ 5talian aut orities !onvi!ted im on lesser ! arges of 0armed insurre!tion against t e state.1

Far-& an- !egri9s al&erna&i)e H+s&ifies &erroris& a&&acks/ Wolfe. 00 32lan+ dire!tor of t e Loisi 7enter for 6eligion and 2meri!an =ubli! 8ife at Loston 7ollege+ 0E e 9nake1+ E e Ce& 6epubli! @nline+ @!tober 4t + ttp:))&&&.po&ells.!om)revie&)2001Y10Y044 He !annot kno&+ of !ourse+ & et er >ardt and Cegri+ in t e lig t of t e re!ent atro!ities at t e Horld Erade 7enter and t e =entagon+ &ill &ant to ! ange t eir minds about t e progressive potential of 5slami! fundamentalism. Lut t eir book gives no grounds on & i! su! atta!ks !an be !ondemned. <or if being against t e Hest is t e sine qua non of good and effe!tive protest+ &ell+ no one !ould a!!use t e murderers in Ce& Xork and Has ington of not being against Hestern egemon'. 2nd if it is true+ as >ardt and Cegri blit el' !laim+ t at efforts to find legitimate reasons for intervening in &orld affairs are onl' a smokes!reen for t e exer!ise of egemoni! po&er+ t en t e &a' is !leared for ea! and ever' illegitimate a!t of global intervention+ sin!e in t e postmodern &orld of t is book no /ustifiable distin!tions bet&een good and evil a!ts !an ever be made.

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AT FA("TP!#7( ' ALT#(!AT 8# T#((O( SM Far-& an- !egri are so eager &o o%%ose ca%i&alis$ &ha& &heir al&erna&i)e e$braces &erroris$ an- $isog*n* Wolfe. 00 32lan+ dire!tor of t e Loisi 7enter for 6eligion and 2meri!an =ubli! 8ife at Loston 7ollege+ 0E e 9nake1+ E e Ce& 6epubli! @nline+ @!tober 4t + ttp:))&&&.po&ells.!om)revie&)2001Y10Y044 E e aut ors of Nmpire see no reason to ex!lude expli!it rea!tionaries+ in!luding religious fundamentalists+ from t e !atalogue of post(<ordist movements t at t e' admire. <undamentalists+ t e' &rite+ are often portra'ed as anti(modernist+ but t is is Hestern propaganda. I5t is more a!!urate and more useful...to understand t e various fundamentalism Tsi!U not as t e re(!reation of a pre(modern &orld+ but rat er as a po&erful refusal of t e !ontemporar' istori!al passage in !ourse.I Cegle!ting to mention t e EalibanKs treatment of &omen+ >ardt and Cegri go out of t eir &a' to reassure readers of t e genuinel' subversive nature of t e 5slami! version of fundamentalism. E ese movements are motivated not b' nostalgi! attempts to re!onstru!t t e past+ but b' Ioriginal t oug t.I E e' are anti(Hestern+ & i! means t at t e' are anti(!apitalist. =roperl' understood+ t e' are postmodern rat er t an premodern+ sin!e t e' engage in a refusal of Hestern egemon'+ &it t e proviso t at fundamentalism speaks to t e losers in t e globalization pro/e!t and postmodernism to t e &inners. >ardt and Cegri even leave t e impression t at+ if t e' ad to ! oose bet&een t e postmodernists in Hestern universities and t e fundamentalists in 5ran+ t e' &ould prefer t e latter: IE e losers in t e pro!ess of globalization mig t indeed be t e ones & o give us t e strongest indi!ation of t e transformation in pro!ess.I Far-& an- !egri s+%%or& &erroris&s o)er -e$ocrac*,i& is %oli&ical l+nac*/ Balakrishnan. 2000 3=oliti!al 9!ien!e =rofessor at ?niversit' of 7 i!ago and member of t e editorial board of Ce& 8eft 6evie&. Dopal+ 0>ardt and Cegri*s Nmpire1+ Ce& 8eft 6evie&+ 9eptember(@!tober+ ttp:))ne&leftrevie&.org)222$"4 2politi!al abstra!tion and &ild.e'ed utopianism+ a terroristi! approa! to politi!al argument+ atred for fles and blood uman beings+ ni ilism: Nmpire is a poisonous bre& of bad ideas. 5t belongs &it Aein Qampf in t e librar' of politi!al madness. Go Nmpire*s man' fans reall' believe t eir o&n praiseR Goes Eime reall' t ink it*s 0smart1 to !all for t e eradi!ation of private propert'+ !elebrate revolutionar' violen!e+ & ite&as totalitarianism+ and pour !ontempt on t e genuine a! ievements of liberal demo!ra!ies and !apitalist e!onomi!sR Hould <rederi! ;ameson like to give up is big salar' at GukeR Eo ask su! questions is to ans&er t em. E e far left*s pleasure is in t e adoles!ent t rill of perpetual rebellion. Eoo man' & o s ould kno& better refuse to gro& up. E e g ost of Aarx aunts us still. <or all its infantilism+ t e kind of atred >ardt and Cegri express for our fla&ed but de!ent demo!rati! !apitalist institutions-t e best politi!al and e!onomi! arrangements man as 'et devised and t e out!ome of !enturies of diffi!ult trial and error-is dangerous+ espe!iall' sin!e it*s so !ommon in t e universit' and media. 5t seems to support 5slamist revolutionar' opes+ t e in!reasingl' violent anti.globalization movement+ and kindred politi!al luna!ies. #$%ire anarchis& rhe&oric <hich %raises &erroris$ an- &o&ali&arianis$/ Wolfe. 00 32lan+ dire!tor of t e Loisi 7enter for 6eligion and 2meri!an =ubli! 8ife at Loston 7ollege+ 0E e 9nake1+ E e Ce& 6epubli! @nline+ @!tober 4t + ttp:))&&&.po&ells.!om)revie&)2001Y10Y044 E e anar! ist flavor of Nmpire is !onve'ed most strikingl' b' its romanti!ization of violen!e. 2lt oug b' no& ever'one kno&s t at t ere are terrorists in t is &orld+ t ere are no terrorists in >ardt and CegriKs book. E ere are onl' people & o are !alled terrorists+ Ia !rude !on!eption and terminologi!al redu!tion t at is rooted in a poli!e mentalit'.I Eerms su! as Iet ni! terroristsI and Idrug mafiasI appear &it in quotation marks+ as if no serious revolutionar' !ould believe t at t ere &ere su! t ings. IEotalitarianismI is anot er pure !onstru!t+ simpl' an invention of !old &ar ideolog'+ t at as been used to Idenoun!e t e destru!tion of t e demo!rati! sp ere....I 7ertainl' t e term as little to do &it a!tual life in t e 9oviet ?nion+ & i! >ardt and Cegri des!ribe as Ia so!iet' !riss(!rossed b' extremel' strong instan!es of !reativit' and freedom.I

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AT FA("TP!#7( ' ALT#(!AT 8# M@ST F #S FOLOEA@ST Far-& an- !egri arg+e &ha& &he s&a&e as al<a*s ba- an- resis&ance $o)e$en&s are al<a*s goo- K &his ignores a cri&ical -is&inc&ion be&<een -e$ocrac* an- &o&ali&arianis$ &ha& -o<n%la*s &he Foloca+s&/ Wolfe. 00 32lan+ dire!tor of t e Loisi 7enter for 6eligion and 2meri!an =ubli! 8ife at Loston 7ollege+ 0E e 9nake1+ E e Ce& 6epubli! @nline+ @!tober 4t + ttp:))&&&.po&ells.!om)revie&)2001Y10Y044 Cegri+ & en not in prison+ as been a politi!al p ilosop er+ and e is t e aut or of numerous books+ manifestos+ and t eses on sub/e!ts ranging from 9pinozaKs metap 'si!s to t e nature of insurgen!' under !ontemporar' !apitalism. 5n nearl' all t is &ork+ as in Nmpire+ e invariabl' asso!iates violen!e &it states in t e exer!ise of t eir po&er+ never &it opposition groups and t eir ta!ti!s. <or t e latter+ an' a!tion+ no matter o& insurre!tionar'+ is /ustified. <or t e former+ an' a!tion+ no matter o& pea!eful+ is terrorism in disguise. <rom t is &arped perspe!tive+ all states are equall' bad and all movements of opposition are equall' good. @nl' t e &orking of su! a m'opia !an elp t e reader to understand & ' t e aut ors of Nmpire are in!apable of mustering an' rigorous istori!al or moral !ons!iousness of Cazism and its poli!' of ;e&is extermination. 5n t eir vie& Cazism is !apitalism+ and t at is t e end of t e stor'. Cazi Derman'+ >ardt and Cegri &rite+ far from a unique ex!ursion into uman evil+ Iis t e ideal t'pe of t e transformation of modern sovereignt' into national sovereignt' and of its arti!ulation into !apitalist form....I 9in!e Cazism is merel' normal !apitalism - t is point of vie& &as on!e asso!iated &it t e <rankfurt 9! ool+ and it survives almost no& ere outside t e pages of t is book - t ere is no reason to single out t e Cazis or t eir s'mpat izers for !rimes against umanit'. 2stonis ingl'+ >ardt and Cegri are &orse t an neutral in t eir dis!ussion of t e Cazi period: t e' a!tuall' eap praise on t e ordinar' Dermans & o supported t e regime. E e obedien!e of t ese !itizens is !alled Iexemplar'I in t is book. E e aut ors also !elebrate It eir militar' and !ivil valor in t e servi!e of t e nation+I before moving on to identif' t e vi!tims & om t e' valorousl' elped to send to Lu! en&ald as I!ommunists+ omosexuals+ D'psies+ and ot ers+I t e latter+ presumabl'+ being t e ;e&s 3& om >ardt and Cegri reserve for 2us! &itz4. 5 am not making t is up. 8est an'one !onsider t ese apologeti!s for Cazism a misreading of m' o&n - o& !an good leftists+ after all+ engage in a do&npla'ing of t e >olo!austR - >ardt and Cegri t&i!e a!kno&ledge t at t e' are !ompletel' fed up &it t e & ole question of totalitarianism.

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7lobaliBa&ion increases <orl- %ros%eri&* an- free-o$/ Balakrishnan. 2000 3=oliti!al 9!ien!e =rofessor at ?niversit' of 7 i!ago and member of t e editorial board of Ce& 8eft 6evie&+ Dopal+ 0>ardt and Cegri*s Nmpire1+ Ce& 8eft 6evie&+ 9eptember(@!tober+ ttp:))ne&leftrevie&.org)222$"4 5nseparable from t e failure to t ink politi!all'+ >ardt and Cegri+ like t e rioters endlessl' disrupting Horld Erade @rganization meetings+ offer no eviden!e to support t eir basi! ! arge t at e!onomi! globalization is !ausing &ide.s!ale planetar' miser'. =redi!tabl'+ t is past summer+ as t e D.% meeting got under&a' in Denoa+ 5tal'+ t e Ce& Xork Eimes ! ose t ese t&o 0/o'ful1 7ommunists to &rite a lengt ' op.ed extolling t e virtues of anti.globalization rioters. E e trut about globalization is exa!tl' t e reverse of & at >ardt and Cegri assert. Dlobalization is dramati!all' in!reasing &orld prosperit' and freedom. 2s t e N!onomist*s ;o n Ai!klet &ait and 2drian Hooldridge point out+ in t e alf !entur' sin!e t e foundation of t e Deneral 2greement on Eariffs and Erade 3D2EE4+ t e &orld e!onom' as expanded six.fold+ in part be!ause trade as in!reased 1+#00 per!entF nations open to trade gro& nearl' t&i!e as fast as t ose t at aren*tF and Horld Lank data s o& t at during t e past de!ade of a!!elerated e!onomi! globalization+ approximatel' %00 million people es!aped povert'.U 7lobaliBa&ion allo<s for H+s&ice. soli-ari&*. an- -e$ocrac*/ 7ills K02 TLarr' Q+ 7 air of t e Horld >istori!al 9'stems t eor' group of t e 5nternational 9tudies 2sso!iation and a fa!ult' affiliate of t e Dlobalization 6esear! 7enter of t e ?niversit' of >a&aii+ 0Gemo!ratizing Dlobalization and Dlobalizing Gemo!ra!'+ Aa'+ 2nnals of t e 2meri!an 2!adem' of =oliti!al and 9o!ial 9!ien!e+ Aa'U 5f t ere is global !apitalism+ t en t e s'stem gives rise to and in fa!t requires fundamental !ounterparts+ in!luding global /usti!e+ global solidarit'+ global demo!ra!'+ and global !itizens ip+ t e last of t ese per aps being espe!iall' signifi!ant. He need a !redible politi!al t eor' of global demo!ra!' based on t e ne& !on!ept of global !itizens ip rat er t an merel' a pragmati! problem(solving approa! . 5f demo!ra!' is a pro!ess of building !ountervailing po&ers+ t en t e demo!rati! t eor' &e ave at present+ & i! is based on !ountries and t eir domesti! politi!al order+ must be transposed to t e global level. Eo do so+ &e must also elevate or transpose t e !lassi! enlig tenment demo!rati! ideals of equalit'+ /usti!e+ solidarit' 3fraternit'4+ and libert' to t e global level. 7lobaliBa&ion is ine)i&able an- ke* &o s%rea-ing -e$ocrac* an- co$$+ni&* e$%o<er$en&/ 7ills K02 TLarr' Q+ 7 air of t e Horld >istori!al 9'stems t eor' group of t e 5nternational 9tudies 2sso!iation and a fa!ult' affiliate of t e Dlobalization 6esear! 7enter of t e ?niversit' of >a&aii+ 0Gemo!ratizing Dlobalization and Dlobalizing Gemo!ra!'+ Aa'+ 2nnals of t e 2meri!an 2!adem' of =oliti!al and 9o!ial 9!ien!e+ Aa'U E us+ t ere is like&ise a istori!al diale!ti! bet&een globalization and demo!ratization+ a pro!ess t at is unavoidable. 5 firml' believe+ on bot istori!al and moral grounds+ t at t is istori!al diale!ti! leads strongl'+ even inexorabl'+ to&ard t e pra!ti!es and t eor' of global demo!ra!'+ t at is+ to t e globalization of demo!ra!' and t e demo!ratization of globalization. 5nsofar as neoliberal e!onomi! globalization as su!!eeded+ it !reates t e !onditions for furt er !riti!al so!ial responses t at lead to rene&ed struggles for demo!rati! freedoms and parti!ipation b' t e ordinar' people affe!ted b' t ese ! anges. 5n t ese pro!esses of rene&ed demo!rati! struggles+ &e ma' expe!t to see !ontinued efforts at self(government b' man' peoples and also expanded representation. Dlobalization allo&s t e trans!ending of old establis ed and fixed territorial units and borders of politi!al representation+ t us allo&ing a more territoriall' diffuse pattern of politi!al !ommunit' to emerge+ and to do so globall'. E is pro!ess deepens demo!ra!' b' extending it to t e global arena but moreover b' also devolving po&er to self(!onstituting !ommunities seeking self(government and representation in t e politi!al order+ & et er t is be on a lo!al+ national+ regional+ or global level.

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Ea%i&alis$ is no& %erfec& b+& is be&&er &han Far-& an- !egri9s al&erna&i)e,<hich <o+l- -e)ol)e in&o &o&ali&arianis$/ Balakrishnan. 2000 3=oliti!al 9!ien!e =rofessor at ?niversit' of 7 i!ago and member of t e editorial board of Ce& 8eft 6evie&+ Dopal+ 0>ardt and Cegri*s Nmpire1+ Ce& 8eft 6evie&+ 9eptember(@!tober+ ttp:))ne&leftrevie&.org)222$"4 Ceedless to sa'+ e!onomi! globalization isn*t &it out its do&nside. 2s 5*ve argued in t ese pages 3see 07apitalism and t e 9ui!ide of 7ulture+1 <ebruar' 20004+ it !an-t ere*s no ne!essit' at &ork-amplif' and disseminate some of t e less attra!tive aspe!ts of toda'*s libertine !ulture. Lut on balan!e+ as neo!onservative so!iologist =eter 8. Lerger as suggested+ t e empiri!al eviden!e proves it far preferable to an' alternative e!onomi! order &e kno& of. 5t as profoundl' diminis ed uman suffering. 5f >ardt and Cegri*s depi!tion of global !apitalism is menda!ious+ t eir az' alternative to it-absolute demo!ra!'+ open borders+ equal !ompensation-is apoliti!al utopian nonsense. >o& &ould su! s! emes a!tuall' &orkR >ardt and Cegri never sa'. Go t e' trul' t ink t at 0annulling1 private propert' and eliminating nations+ if it &ere some o& possible+ &ould be liberatingR Houldn*t it lead to a totalitarian in!rease in politi!al po&er+ as in t e old 9oviet ?nionR Lut t en >ardt and Cegri seem to look ba!k fondl' on 8enin and 9talin*s dark regime. 07old &ar ideolog' !alled t at so!iet' totalitarian+1 t e' !omplain+ 0but in fa!t it &as a so!iet' !riss.!rossed b' extremel' strong instan!es of !reativit' and freedom+ /ust as strong as t e r 't ms of e!onomi! development and !ultural modernization.1 Eo & i! one !an onl' respond: >ave t e' never read a page of 9olz enits'nR Aoreover+ as filled &it admiration as >ardt and Cegri are to&ard t e 9oviet ?nion+ t e' are !ontemptuous to&ard t e de!en!ies and t e umbleoften not so umble-freedoms of demo!rati! !apitalist so!ieties.

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Far-& an- !egri9s ha)e no s+%%or&ing -a&a/ Wolfe. 00 32lan+ dire!tor of t e Loisi 7enter for 6eligion and 2meri!an =ubli! 8ife at Loston 7ollege+ 0E e 9nake1+ E e Ce& 6epubli! @nline+ @!tober 4t + ttp:))&&&.po&ells.!om)revie&)2001Y10Y044 Aost of Nmpire is an exer!ise in nominalism+ in t e attempt to name+ rat er t an to des!ribe+ to anal'ze+ or even to !ondemn+ t e ne& order t at its aut ors see emerging. 2lt oug it is presumabl' devoted to outlining t e !ontours of a ne& mode of produ!tion+ t e book !ontains no data+ offers no effort to demonstrate & o o&ns & at or olds po&er over & om+ and provides no indi!ators of an' of t e deplorable !onditions t at it dis!usses. 2s if on!e again to distinguis itself from Aarx+ Nmpire+ like t e left >egelians & om Aarx on!e atta!ked+ moves entirel' at t e level of ideas. ?nlike t e left >egelians+ o&ever+ >ardt and Cegri andle ideas in!ompetentl'.

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The $+l&i&+-e <ill ne)er be +nifie-,:<orkers; s&an- for -ifferen& obHec&i)es an- ne)er coor-ina&e/ Wolfe. 00 32lan+ dire!tor of t e Loisi 7enter for 6eligion and 2meri!an =ubli! 8ife at Loston 7ollege+ 0E e 9nake1+ E e Ce& 6epubli! @nline+ @!tober 4t + ttp:))&&&.po&ells.!om)revie&)2001Y10Y044 Cever sa'ing so expli!itl'+ t e aut ors of t is book+ in identif'ing t eir opes &it su! disparate movements of protest & atever t eir targets or t eir politi!al !oloration+ are t ro&ing over t e most !entral proposition of Aarxism: !lass !ons!iousness. Horkers no longer need to be a&are of t emselves as &orkers in order to bring do&n !apitalism. E e' need not develop a revolutionar' strateg'+ for under !ontemporar' !onditions Iit ma' no longer be useful to insist on t e old distin!tion bet&een strateg' and ta!ti!s.I E e' do not even need to be &orkers. 2ll t at is required is t at t e' set t emselves up against po&er+ & atever and & erever po&er appens to be. Cever mind t at movements t at do so !an stand for &ildl' different ob/e!tives - an open so!iet' ere+ a !losed so!iet' t ereF or t at t e' are also+ as >ardt and Cegri point out+ often unable or un&illing to !ommuni!ate &it ea! ot er. 5ndeed+ as >ardt and Cegri do not point out+ t e' mig t+ if t e' ad t e ! an!e+ prefer to kill one anot er. Far-& an- !egri a-$i& &he* ha)e no i-ea ho< &he $+l&i&+-e <ill rise +% an- o)er &hro< #$%ire/ Wolfe. 00 32lan+ dire!tor of t e Loisi 7enter for 6eligion and 2meri!an =ubli! 8ife at Loston 7ollege+ 0E e 9nake1+ E e Ce& 6epubli! @nline+ @!tober 4t + ttp:))&&&.po&ells.!om)revie&)2001Y10Y044 2nd redemption &ill !ome from t e multitude+ & o despite t eir oppression under empire - or Nmpire - remain pure in eart. 5n t em+ one !an see t e emergen!e of t e ne& !it' t at &ill put us at one &it t e &orld. ?nlike 2ugustineKs+ of !ourse+ t eir !it' !annot be t e divine one+ sin!e It e multitude toda'...resides on t e imperial surfa!es & ere t ere is no Dod t e <at er and no trans!enden!e.I 5nstead+ t e' &ill !reate It e eart l' !it' of t e multitude+I & i! t e aut ors esoteri!all' define as It e absolute !onstitution of labor and !ooperation.I 2bout t e pra!ti!al question of o& t is !an be done+ >ardt and Cegri ave not ing signifi!ant to sa'. IE e onl' response t at &e !an give to t ese questions is t at t e a!tion of t e multitude be!omes politi!al primaril' & en it begins to !onfront dire!tl' and &it an adequate !ons!iousness t e !entral repressive operations of Nmpire.I E is+ too+ is a 7 ristian !on!eption of revolution. He !annot kno& o& &e &ill be savedF &e must re!ognize t at if onl' &e ave fait + a &a' &ill be found.

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The na&ion s&a&e is no& -*ing a<a*,&heir econo$ic anal*sis is s+%erficial/ =e&ras. 00 L;ames+ =rofessor of 9o!iolog' at Ling amton ?niversit'+ 0Nmpire Hit 5mperialism1+ 6ebelion: =etras Nssa's in Nnglis + @!tober 29+ ttp:))&&&.rebelion.org)petras)englis )negri010102. tm4 2ssumption 2: E e old nation(state governments ave been superseded b' a ne& &orld government+ made up of t e eads of t e 5<5+ t e HE@+ and t e eads of t e AC7s 3p. 32#4. E is is an argument t at is based on a superfi!ial dis!ussion of epip enomena+ rat er t an a deeper anal'ti!al vie& of t e stru!ture of po&er. H ile it is true t at t e 5<5s make man' important de!isions in a great man' geograp i!al lo!ations affe!ting signifi!ant e!onomi! and so!ial se!tors+ t ese de!isions and t e de!ision(makers are !losel' linked to t e imperial states and t e AC7s & i! influen!e t em. 2ll top 5<5 offi!ials are appointed b' t eir national)imperial governments. 2ll t eir !ru!ial poli!' guide lines t at di!tate t eir loans and !onditions for lending are set b' t e finan!e+ treasur' and e!onom' ministers of t e imperial states. E e vast ma/orit' of funds for t e 5<5s !ome from t e imperial states. 6epresentation on t e exe!utive board of t e 5<5 is based on t e proportion of funding b' t e imperial states. E e 5A< and t e HL ave al&a's been led b' individuals from t e ?.9. or N.?. >ardt and CegriKs vision of 5<5 po&er is based on a dis!ussion of derived po&er not its imperial states sour!e. 5n t is sense+ international po&er is based in t e imperial states not on supra(national entities. E e latter !on!ept grossl' overestimates t e autonom' of t e 5<5s and underestimates t eir subordination to t e imperial states. E e real signifi!an!e of t e 5<5s is o& t e' magnif'+ extend and deepen t e po&er of t e imperial states and o& t e' be!ome terrain for !ompetition bet&een rival imperial states. <ar from superseding t e old states+ t e 5<5s ave strengt ened t eir positions. 2ssumption 3: @ne of t e !ommon arguments of globalist t eorists like >ardt and Cegri is t at an information revolution as taken pla!e t at as eliminated state borders+ transformed !apitalism and !reated a ne& epo! 3p.14"4 b' providing a ne& impetus to t e development of t e produ!tive for!es. E e !laims t at information te! nologies ave revolutionized e!onomies and t us !reated a ne& global e!onom' in & i! nation states and national e!onomies ave be!ome superfluous is extremel' dubious. 2 !omparison of produ!tivit' gro&t in t e ?.9. over t e past alf !entur' fails to support t e globalist argument. Let&een 19"3($2+ before t e so(!alled information revolution in t e ?.9. produ!tivit' gre& an average 2."`F &it t e introdu!tion of !omputers+ produ!tivit' gro&t bet&een 19$3(9" &as less t an alf. Nven in t e so(!alled boom period of 199"(99+ produ!tivit' gro&t &as 2."` about t e same as t e pre(!omputer period. ;apan & i! makes t e most extensive use of !omputers and robots as &itnessed a de!ade of stagnation and !rises. Guring t e 'ear 2000(01+ t e information se!tor &ent into a deep !rises+ tens of t ousands &ere fired+ undreds of firms &ent bankrupt+ sto!ks dropped in value some %0`. E e spe!ulative bubble+ t at defined t e so(!alled information e!onom'+ burst. Aoreover+ t e ma/or sour!e of gro&t of produ!tivit' !laimed b' t e globalists &as in t e !omputerization of t e area of !omputer manufa!ture. 9tudies ave s o&n t at !omputer use in offi!es is dire!ted more to&ard personal use t an to ex! anging ideas. Nstimates run up to #0` of !omputer time is spent in a!tivit' unrelated to t e enterprise. 7omputer manufa!turers a!!ount for 1.2` of t e ?.9. e!onom' and less t an "` of !apital sto!k. Aoreover+ t e ?.9. population !ensus provides anot er explanation for t e ig er produ!tivit' figures ( t e " million illegal immigrants & o ave flooded t e ?.9. labor market in t e 1990s. 9in!e produ!tivit' is measured b' t e output per estimated &orker+ t e " million un!ounted &orkers inflate t e produ!tivit' data. 5f t e " million are in!luded t e produ!tivit' figures &ould deflate. Hit t e de!line of t e information e!onom' and its sto!k valuations it be!omes !lear t at t e Iinformation revolutionI is not t e trans!endent for!e defining t e e!onomies of t e ma/or imperial states+ let alone defining a ne& &orld order. E e fa!t t at most people ave !omputers and bro&se+ t at some firms ave better !ontrol over t eir inventories does not mean t at po&er as s ifted be'ond t e nation(state. E e publi!istsK !laims about t e Iinformation revolutionI ring ollo&+ as t e investors in t e &orld sto!k markets move funds to&ard t e real e!onom' and a&a' from t e ig te! firms & i! s o& no profits and in!reasing losses.

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Far-& an- !egri9s exa$%les of globaliBa&ion all ignore &he cr+cial role of &he na&ion>s&a&e in crea&ing &hose &ren-s, &he na&ion is no& -*ing a<a*/ =os&. 02 37 arlie+ member of 9olidarit'*s Cational 7ommittee+ 06evie&: Nmpire and 6evolution1+ 5nternational Bie&point Aagazine+ ttp:))&&&.internationalvie&point.org)arti!le.p p3RidYarti!le,43"4 E e result of t e internationalisation of lean produ!tion over t e past t&o de!ades as not been a *smoot * or *de!entred global net&ork* or *empire* t at >ardt and Cegri !laim. _uite t e opposite+ t e !entres of a!!umulation and so!ial po&er remain in t e !entres of advan!ed !apitalism in Hestern Nurope+ t e ?9 and ;apan. Dlobal uneven and !ombined development ( t e gro&ing gap in in!omes+ produ!tion and t e like ( bet&een t is global *nort * and t e global *sout * as onl' gro&n &ider. 9ome regions of t e former *t ird &orld* ave be!ome !entres of labour(intensive assembl' and parts produ!tion 3t e *Ce&l' 5ndustrialized 7ountries* of Aexi!o+ Lrazil+
9out 2fri!a+ 9out Qorea+ Eai&an4+ be!oming extensions of !apitalist a!!umulation !antered in t e *nort .* >o&ever+ vast expanses of t e globe 3sub(9a aran 2fri!a4 remain at best sites of ra& material

. >ardt and Cegri*s !laims t at t e nation(state and inter(imperialist rivalr' ave de!lined in importan!e &it t e rise of *empire* and various institutions of *global governan!e* 3Horld Lank+ 5A<+ HE@+ D$+ N?+ C2E@+ et!4 la!k t eoreti!al and even empiri!al plausibilit'. E e *de!lining
extra!tion+ or at &orst uge labour reserves+ marked b' extreme povert' and !apitalist(!reated famine and natural disasters effe!tiveness* of t e nation(state !an be tra!ed !learl' t roug t e evolution of a & ole series of global /uridi!o(e!onomi! bodies+ su! as D2EE+ t e Horld Erade @rganization+ t e Horld Lank+ and t e 5A<. E e globalisation of produ!tion and !ir!ulation+ supported b' t is supranational /uridi!al s!affolding+ supersedes t e effe!tiveness of national /uridi!al stru!tures 3p 33$4. 7learl'+ t is *supranational /uridi!al s!affolding* as been !ru!ial in ! anging t e politi!al environment for !apitalist a!!umulation over t e past t&o de!ades. 7learl'+ *neo(liberalism* ( t e dismantling of t e rules t at restri!t

+ t e gro&ing importan!e of t ese trans(national organizations does not mean t at+ in t e &ords of >ardt and Cegri *state fun!tions and !onstitutional elements ave effe!tivel' been displa!ed to ot er levels and domains* 3p. 30$4. @n t e !ontrar'+ t e abilit' of t ese global politi!al bodies to operate effe!tivel' requires+ in man' &a's+ t e strengt ening of t e national(!apitalist state. TQim Aood' presents a !ompelling alternative
!orporations at ome and abroad ( &ould be impossible &it out t ese *global /uridi!o(e!onomi! bodies.* >o&ever anal'sis. E e trans(national !orporations 3EC7s4 ave neit er t e desire nor abilit' to !reate a &orld state. E e' ave opted instead for a s'stem of multilateral agreements and institutions t at t e' ope &ill provide !o eren!e and order t e &orld market. E roug t eir * ome* governments+ t e EC7s ave attempted to negotiate forms of regulation t roug t e D2EE+ t e ne& HE@+ and t e various regional and multilateral trade agreements. E e' ave also transformed some of t e old Lretton Hoods institutions+ notabl' t e Horld Lank and 5A<. T9U Eo ensure t e un indered operations of t e trans(nationals and prote!t private business propert'+ t ese global politi!al institutions require national !apitalist states !apable of denationalising industries+ abolis ing so!ial &elfare programs and labour regulations+ generall'

+ rat er t an representing a simple s ift of politi!al po&ers *up&ard* from t e nation(state to t e *global /uridi!o(e!onomi! bodies*+ t e development of t e HE@+ N?+ and t e like a!tuall' en an!e t e role of t e nation(state.
deregulating t eir !apital+ labour and !ommodities markets+ and !ontaining ! allenges from belo&. =ut simpl'

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=o<erless %eo%le -e%en- +%on bio%oli&ics &o kee% &he$ ali)e,for exa$%le. &hose s+ffering fro$ F 8PA "S <o+lbe sD+eeBe- o+& of Far-& an- !egri9s socie&* beca+se &he* <o+l- be non>%ro-+c&i)e <orkers/ B+ll. 00 3Aal!olm+ ead of art istor' and t eor' at @xford ?niversit'+ 0Xou 7an*t Luild a Ce& 9o!iet' &it a 9tanle' Qnife1+ 8ondon 6evie& of Looks+ Bol. 23+ Co. 19+ ttp:))&&&.lrb.!o.uk)v23)n19)bull01Y. tml4 5t &ould+ 5 t ink+ be diffi!ult for >ardt and Cegri to turn t eir argument around in t is &a'. 2lt oug t e' re!ognise t e fun!tion of so!iet' in t e produ!tion of individual sub/e!tivities t e' barel' a!kno&ledge its role in t e produ!tion of po&er. ?sing <ou!aultKs model of biopo&er+ t e' argue t at po&er !onstitutes so!iet'+ not t e ot er &a' round: K=o&er+ as it produ!es+ organisesF as it organises+ it speaks and expresses itself as aut orit'.K 5n repl' to Aa! iavelliKs observation t at t e pro/e!t of !onstru!ting a ne& so!iet' needs arms and mone'+ t e' !ite 9pinoza and ask: KGonKt &e alread' possess t emR GonKt t e ne!essar' &eapons reside pre!isel' &it in t e !reative and prop eti! po&er of t e multitudeRK Co one is po&erlessF even t e old+ t e si!k and t e unemplo'ed are engaged in t e Kimmaterial labourK t at produ!es Ktotal so!ial !apitalK. 9ounding a bit like 2li D+ t e' !on!lude: KE e poor itself is po&er. E ere is Horld =overt'+ but t ere is above all Horld =ossibilit'+ and onl' t e poor is !apable of t is.K 5t is diffi!ult to see o& t is anal'sis !ompre ends t e realit' of po&erlessness. Xou ma' be able to t reaten t e &orld &it a 9tanle' knife+ but 'ou !annot build a ne& so!iet' &it one. 5nsofar as t e problems of t e po&erless ave been addressed in re!ent 'ears it is often t roug a d'nami! t at &orks in t e opposite dire!tion to t e one >ardt and Cegri suggest. E eir response to globalisation is to maintain t at sin!e &e ave not !ontra!ted into global so!iet'+ &e still ave all t e po&er &e need to ! ange it. E e alternative is to argue t at a geograp i!all' boundless so!iet' must also be a totall' in!lusive so!iet'. E e latter is an extension of & at used to be !alled t e politi!s of re!ognition. Dlobalisation ma' ave repla!ed multi!ulturalism as t e fo!us of !ontemporar' politi!al debate+ but t ere is an underl'ing !ontinuit': t e !on!ern of anti(globalisation protesters &it remote regions of t e &orld+ &it t e lives of people unlike t emselves+ and &it spe!ies of animals and plants t at most ave seen onl' on EB is predi!ated on an unparalleled imaginative identifi!ation &it t e @t er. E is totalisation of t e politi!s of re!ognition from t e lo!al to t e global is & at as given momentum to !ampaigns su! as t e one for 2fri!an 2ids vi!timsF ere+ it is a question of s'mpat ' rat er t an sovereignt'+ of /usti!e rat er t an po&er. 5n man' !ases+ unless t e po&erful re!ognised some kins ip &it t em+ t e po&erless &ould /ust die. 7apitalism as no need for t e Kimmaterial labourK of millions no& living. <or po&erless uman beings+ as for ot er spe!ies+ autonom' leads to extin!tion.

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The al&erna&i)e fails' &here are far &oo $an* frag$en&e- c+l&+res &o for$ an effec&i)e $+l&i&+-e an- social organiBa&ion is nee-e- &o co$ba& o%%ression/ Ang+s. 02 30Nmpire+ Lorders+ =la!e: 2 7ritique of >ardt and Cegri*s 7on!ept of Nmpire.1 E eor' : Nvent $:3 5an 2ngus+ =ro/e!t Ause+ 20044 E e 0aspirations1 of t e multitude establis ed as t e !onstitutive for!e of t e future are redu!ed to ver' little: freedom+ parti!ularl' to emigrate+ and t e rig t to a so!iall' guaranteed in!ome. 5n t e undoubted !are not to venture outside & at is permitted b' 2meri!an liberalism+ t e pro/e!t deliberatel' ignores ever't ing t at !ould be qualified as t e eritage of t e &orkers* and so!ialist movement+ in parti!ular t e equalit' re/e!ted b' t e politi!al !ulture of t e ?nited 9tates. 5t is diffi!ult to believe in t e transformative po&er of an emerging global 3and Nuropean4 !itizens ip & ile t e poli!ies implemented fundamentall' deprive !itizens ip of its effe!tiveness. E e !onstru!tion of a real alternative to t e !ontemporar' s'stem of globalized liberal !apitalism involves ot er requirements+ in parti!ular t e re!ognition of t e giganti! variet' of needs and aspirations of t e popular !lasses t roug out t e &orld. 5n fa!t+ >ardt and Cegri experien!e mu! diffi!ult' in imagining t e so!ieties of t e perip er' 3%" per!ent of t e uman population4. E e debates !on!erning t e ta!ti!s and strateg' of building a demo!rati! and progressive alternative t at &ould be effe!tive in t e !on!rete and spe!ifi! !onditions of t e different !ountries and regions of t e &orld never appear to ave interested t em. Hould t e 0demo!ra!'1
promoted b' t e intervention of t e ?nited 9tates permit going be'ond an ele!toral far!e like t e one in t e ?kraine+ for exampleR 7an one redu!e t e rig ts of t e 0poor1 & o people t e planet to t e rig t to 0emigrate1 to t e opulent HestR 2 so!iall' guaranteed in!ome ma' be a /ustifiable demand. Lut !an one ave t e naivet\ to believe t at its adoption &ould abolis t e !apitalist relation+ & i! allo&s !apital to emplo' labor 3and+ !onsequentl'+ to exploit and oppress it4+ to t e advantage of t e &orker & o &ould from t at point on be in a position to use !apital freel' and so be able to affirm t e potential

E e redu!tion of t e sub/e!t of istor' to t e 0individual1 and t e uniting of su! individuals into a 0multitude1 dispose of t e true questions !on!erning t e re!onstru!tion of sub/e!ts of istor' equal to t e ! allenges of our era. @ne !ould point to man' ot er important !ontributions to oppose to t e silen!e of >ardt and Cegri on t is sub/e!t. ?ndoubtedl'+ istori! so!ialisms and !ommunisms ad a tenden!' to redu!e t e ma/or sub/e!t of modern istor' to t e 0&orking !lass.1 Aoreover + t is is a reproa! t at !ould be leveled at t e Cegri of &orkerism. 5n !ounterpoint+ 5 ave proposed an anal'sis of t e sub/e!t of istor' as formed from parti!ular so!ial blo!s !apable+ in su!!essive p ases of popular struggle+ of effe!tivel' transforming t e so!ial relations of for!e to t e advantage of t e dominated !lasses and peoples . 2t t e present time+ to take up t e ! allenge implies t at one is moving for&ard in t e formation of demo!rati!+ popular+ and national egemoni! blo!s !apable of over!oming t e po&ers exer!ised b' bot t e egemoni! imperialist blo!s and t e egemoni! !omprador blo!s.
of is or er !reativit'R E e formation of su! blo!s takes pla!e in !on!rete !onditions t at are ver' different from one !ountr' to anot er so t at no general model 3& et er in t e st'le of t e 0multitude1 or some ot er4 makes

+ /ust as t e affirmation of t e autonom' of peoples+ nations+ and states &ill make it possible to substitute a negotiated globalization for t e unilateral globalization imposed b' dominant !apital 3& i! Nmpire praisesJ4 and t us graduall' de!onstru!t t e !urrent imperialist s'stem.
sense. 5n t is perspe!tive+ t e !ombination of demo!rati! advan!es and so!ial progress &ill be part of t e long transition to &orld so!ialism

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#$%ire &heor* is &heore&icall* in-efensible an- -isabling &o $o)e$en&s beca+se &he* co+l- $is-irec& &heir effor&s/ ns&ea- of a $o$en& of &ransfor$a&ion. <e are face- <i&h a -ra$a&ic consoli-a&ion of s&a&e %o<er an- ca%i&alis& hege$on*/ S&ein$e&B. 01 3Deorge+ Cublic Culture 1".2 320034 323(34"+ 39o!iolog' =rofessor+ Ai! igan4+ E e 9tate of Nmergen!' and t e 6evival of 2meri!an 5mperialism: Eo&ard an 2ut oritarian =ost(<ordism4. 7ontra su! t eorists as >ardt and Cegri+ t ere is little support for arguments t at !apitalist istor' as entered its final p ase+ t at &it t e !oming of Nmpire t e multitudes ave rea! ed a stage in & i! Ipus ing t roug to !ome out t e ot er sideI be!omes a realisti! possibilit'. E ese aut ors link t e rise of <ordism to t e Igreat e!onomi! !risis of 1929I 3>ardt and Cegri 2000: 2414 and a!kno&ledge t e role of t e e!onomi! !risis of t e 19$0s in !reating t e !onditions for t e transition to post(<ordism. Xet t e' do not entertain t e possibilit' t at Nmpire itself !ould enter into a politi!al !risis+ like t e one &e are !urrentl' &itnessing+ and give rise to a ne& imperialism. Cor do t e' !onsider t e possibilit' t at a more s'stemi! e!onomi! !risis mig t give rise to a mode of regulation t at is neit er imperial nor imperialist+ but prote!tionist and neo!olonial. Na! period of !ore egemon' as nurtured t e illusion among ent usiasts of !apitalism t at it as rea! ed its apot eosis and t e parallel fantas' among leftists t at !apitalism is on its last legs. >ugo Drotius 3T1#2"U 19014+ &riting during t e golden age of Gut! egemon'+ believed t at is o&n &orld &as t e ultimate one. 3Cot surprisingl'+ DrotiusKs name is often eard in !urrent dis!ussions of ?.9. foreign poli!'.4 E e events leading up to t e 1%4% revolutions in Nurope+ during t e era of Lritis egemon'+ famousl' led Aarx and Nngels in t e 7ommunist Aanifesto to predi!t Ian immediatel' follo&ing proletarian revolution.I Eo take a more re!ent example+ Nrnest Aandel 319$": 12"4 believed t at late capitalism-t e title of is book+ publis ed in 19$2 at t e beginning of t e deat t roes of <ordism but &ritten at t e end of t e first era of post&ar 2meri!an egemon'- ad entered a terminal period of Ioverall so!ial !risis.I E e final senten!e of Late Capitalism announ!ed t at It e final abolition of !apitalism. . . is no& approa! ing.I 5nsisting t at t ere is somet ing ultimate about Nmpire is not onl' t eoreti!all' indefensible but !ould a!tuall' be disabling for movements of resistan!e+ for su! arguments ma' desensitize readers to t e possibilit' of furt er mutations of !apitalism and modes of so!ial regulation. Hit out pus ing for a !'!li!al vie& of istor'+ & i! >ardt and Cegri rig tl' re/e!t+ one need not fall ba!k on its inverse+ a teleologi!al or trun!ated narrative.

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Fei-egger9s %hiloso%h* is !aBis$,&he reHec&ion of &echnolog* an- re>connec&ion <i&h Being offere- b* !a&ional Socialis$ fi& <i&h his arg+$en&s/ Wolin. 00 . Gistinguis ed =rofessor of >istor' at t e 7it' ?niversit' of Ce& Xork Draduate 7enter . 2001 36i! ard Holin+ Heidegger(s Children+ =. 324 Eo sa' t at 2rendtKs explanation &as t e more su!!essful+ despite its fla&s+ is ardl' !ontroversial. 5n man' respe!ts+ >eideggerKs o&n narrative &as simpl' delusor'+ a retrospe!tivel' !ontrived ps'! ologi!al prop 'laxis against is o&n ent usiasti! support for t e regime. 5n >eideggerKs vie&+ ever't ing t at !ame to pass(t e &ar+ t e extermination !amps+ t e Derman di!tators ip 3& i! e never renoun!ed per se4(&as merel' a monumental instan!e of t e Iforgetting of Leing+I for & i! t e Dermans bore no spe!ial responsibilit'. 2fter t e &ar+ e &ent so far as to insist t at Derman fas!ism &as unique among Hestern politi!al movements in t at+ for one s ining moment+ it ad !ome !lose to mastering t e vexatious Irelations ip bet&een planetar' te! nolog' and modern man.I 5n >eideggerKs estimation+ t erein la' t e Iinner trut and greatness of Cational 9o!ialism.I Lut ultimatel' It ese people Tt e CazisU &ere far too limited in t eir t inking+I e !laimed. =at eti!all'+ >eidegger &as left to repla' in is o&n mind t e &a' t ings mig t ave been ad >itler 3instead of part' a!ks4 eeded t e !all of Leing as rela'ed b' >eidegger imself. Cazism mig t t ereb' ave realized its genuine istori!al potential. <ortunatel'+ t e &orld &as spared t e out!ome of t is parti!ular t oug t experiment. Fei-egger clai$e- &ha& !aBis$ <as a& &he hear& of his %hiloso%h* an- he <as %ersonall*. -ee%l* an&i>Se$i&ic/ Wolin. 00 . Gistinguis ed =rofessor of >istor' at t e 7it' ?niversit' of Ce& Xork Draduate 7enter . 2001 36i! ard Holin+ Heidegger(s Children+ =. 10(114 5n Aa' 1933+ >eidegger sent a telltale telegram to >itler expressing solidarit' &it re!ent Dlei! s! altung legislation. E ere &ere instan!es of politi!al denun!iation and personal betra'al. Aoreover+ >eidegger remained a dues(pa'ing member of t e Cazi =art' until t e regimeKs bitter end. >e !ontinued to open is !lasses &it t e so(!alled IDerman greetingI of I>eil >itlerJI 5n 193#+ e !onfided to 8o&it t at is Kpartisans ip for Cational 9o!ialism la' in t e essen!e of is p ilosop 'IF it derived+ e !laimed+ from t e !on!ept of I istori!it'I 3& i! stressed t e importan!e of aut enti! istori!al !ommitment4 in Leing and Eime.KI 2s t e re!tor of <reiburg ?niversit'+ >eidegger &as ! arged &it enfor!ing t e anti(9emiti! !lauses of t e so(!alled I8a& for t e =reservation of a =ermanent 7ivil 9ervi!e+I & i! effe!tivel' banned ;e&s from all &alks of government servi!e+ in!luding universit' life. Gespite is later dis!laimers+ in is !apa!it' as re!tor >eidegger fait full' exe!uted t ese la&s+ even t oug it meant banning >usserl+ to & om e o&ed so mu! + from t e p ilosop ' fa!ult' librar'. 5n t e e'es of >anna 2rendt+ t is a!tion+ & i! ad affe!ted t e septuagenarian p enomenologist so adversel'+ made >eidegger a Ipotential murderer.II 2t t e time+ >usserl !omplained bitterl' in a letter to a former student about >eideggerKs gro&ing anti(9emitism: I5n re!ent 'ears T eU as allo&ed is anti(9emitism to !ome in!reasingl' to t e fore+ even in is dealings &it is groups of devoted ;e&is students+I observes >usserl. IE e events of t e last fe& &eeks+I e !ontinued 3referring to >eideggerKs /oining t e Cazi =art' as &ell as t e re!ent universit' ban on ;e&s4+ I ave stru!k at t e deepest roots of m' existen!e.IKI 5n 1929+ >eidegger ad alread' !omplained t at Derman' &as fa!ed &it a stark alternative: It e ! oi!e bet&een sustaining our Derman intelle!tual life t roug a rene&ed infusion of genuine+ native tea! ers and edu!ators+ or abandoning it on!e and for all to gro&ing ;e&is influen!e TBer/udungU(in bot t e &ider and narro& sense.IK

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Fei-egger9s !aBis$ is inexc+sable K his o<n %hiloso%h* s&resse- &ha& &ho+gh& can9& be -i)orce- fro$ ac&ion/ Wolin. 90 ( Gistinguis ed =rofessor of >istor' at t e 7it' ?niversit' of Ce& Xork Draduate 7enter ( 1990 36i! ard Holin+ 8he Colitics o' Being+ =. 33(344 2lt oug an understanding of >eideggerKs politi!al t oug t s ould in no &a' be redu!ed to t e !on!rete politi!al ! oi!es made b' t e p ilosop er in t e 1930s+ neit er is it entirel' separable t erefrom. 2nd & ile t e strateg' of is apologists as been to disso!iate t e p ilosop ' from t e empiri!al person+ t ereb' suggesting t at >eideggerKs Cazism &as an unessential aberration in t e ope of exempting t e p ilosop ' from politi!al taint+ t is strateg' &ill not &as for several reasons. Eo begin &it + >eideggerKs p ilosop ' itself &ould seem to rule out t e artifi!ial+ traditional p ilosop i!al separation bet&een t oug t and a!tion. 5n trut + mu! of Being and Time is concerned with o ercoming the con entional philosophical di ision

between theoretical and practical reason! a fact that is e ident abo e all in the "pragmatic" point of departure of the analytic of "asein# "$eing%in% the%world" rather than the &artesian "thinking substance." Aore importantl'+ t oug + & at is per aps
t e !entral !ategor' of >eideggerKs existential ontolog'(t e !ategor' of Iaut enti!it'KK( automati!all' pre!ludes su! a fa!ile separation bet&een p ilosop i!al outlook and !on!rete life(! oi!es. 2s a &ork of fundamental ontolog'+ Leing and Eime aims at delineating t e essential+ existential determinants of uman Leing(in(t e(&orld. >eidegger refers to t ese stru!tures 3e.g.+ I!are+I Ifallenness+I It ro&nness+I ILeing(to&ard(deat I4 as Nxistenzialien. E e !ategor' of aut enti!it' demands t at t e ontologi!al stru!tures of Leing and Eime re!eive pra!ti!al or onti! fulfillmentF t at is+ t e realization of t ese !ategorial determinations in a!tual+ !on!rete life !ontexts is essential to t e !o eren!e of t e >eideggerian pro/e!t. E is !on!lusion follo&s of ne!essit' from t e nature of t e !ategor' of aut enti!it' itself: it &ould be nonsensi!al to speak of an Iaut enti! GaseinI t at &as unrealized+ existing in a state of mere potentialit'. 2ut enti!it' requires t at onti! or pra!ti!al ! oi!es and involvements(!on!rete de!isions+ engagements+ and politi!al !ommitments(be!ome an essential feature of an aut enti! existen!e. Fei-egger9s !aBis$ <as a logical conseD+ence of his ref+sal of e&hics/ Wolin. 90 ( Gistinguis ed =rofessor of >istor' at t e 7it' ?niversit' of Ce& Xork Draduate 7enter ( 1990 36i! ard Holin+ 8he Colitics o' Being+ =. #"4 E e !onsequen!es of t is de!isionisti! Iet i!al va!uum+I !oupled &it t e pre/udi!ial nature of >eideggerKs !onservative revolutionar' degradation of t e modern life(&orld+ suggests an undeniable t eoreti!al !ogen!' be ind >eideggerKs ignominious life(! oi!e of 1933. 5n its re/e!tion of Imoral !onvention(& i! qua !onvention+ proves inimi!al to a!ts of eroi! bravado(de!isionism s o&s itself to be distin!tl' ni ilisti! vis(a(vis t e totalit' of in erited et i!al paradigms.11%< or t is reason+ t e impli!it politi!al t eor' of Leing and Eime(and in t is respe!t+ it proves a !lassi!al instan!e of t e Derman !onservative(aut oritarian mentalit' of t e period(remains devoid of fundamental Iliberal !onvi!tionsI t at mig t ave served as an et i!opoliti!al bul&ark against t e enti!ement of fas!ism. <reed of su! bourgeois qualms+ t e Cational 9o!ialist movement presented itself as a plausible material IfillingI for t e empt' vessel of aut enti! de!ision and its !ategori!al demand for existentiell( istori!al !ontent. E e summons to&ard an Iaut enti! istori!al destin'I enun!iated in Leing and Eime &as t us provided &it an ominousl' appropriate response b' Derman'Ks Cational 6evolution. E e latter+ in effe!t+ &as vie&ed b' >eidegger as Kt e onti! fulfillment of t e !ategori!al demands of I istori!it'I: it &as >eideggerKs o&n ! oi!e of a I ero+I a Idestin'+I and a I!ommunit'.I

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Fei-egger9s "asein <as easil* &ransla&e- in&o a 7er$an "asein an- an exc+se for na&ionalis$/ Wolin. 00 . Gistinguis ed =rofessor of >istor' at t e 7it' ?niversit' of Ce& Xork Draduate 7enter . 2001 36i! ard Holin+ Heidegger(s Children+ =. 1%4(1%"4 H at is troubling about >eideggerKs standpoint is not t at e /udges but t e basis on & i! e distinguis es. >is lo!k(step identifi!ation &it t e IDerman ideolog'I risks settling in advan!e all questions of relative istori!al merit. I7apitalism+I Ipeasant &ars+I ICegroesI(on!e t e &orld as been neatl' divided into I istori!alI and Iun istori!alI peoples and events+ istor'Ks gra' zones fade from vie&. E at t e IBolkI t at+ in >eideggerKs vie&+ possessed I istori!it'I in t e greatest abundan!e(t e Dermans( ad as of 1934 abolis ed politi!al pluralism+ !ivil liberties+ and t e rule of la& and &as in t e pro!ess of !onsolidating one of t e most brutal di!tators ips of all time+ !annot elp but raise additional doubts about t e IexistentialI grounds of >eideggerKs dis!ernment. >ere+ one !ould reverse t e terms and !laim t at Derman' of t e 1930s suffered from an e&cess of istori!it'. 7onversel'+ t e istori!al events and peoples t at >eidegger slig ts !ould readil' be in!orporated into progressive istori!al narratives.I E at e fails to per!eive t ese prospe!ts is attributable to is renun!iation of I!osmopolitan istor'I and is !on!omitant embra!e of a p ilosop i!all' embellis ed version of Derman parti!ularism or so!alled Sondenveg. <rom an epistemologi!al standpoint+ >eideggerKs diffi!ulties derive from is de!ision to base et i!al and politi!al /udgments on 'actical rat er t an normative termsF t at is+ from t e Femeinig"eit or !on!rete parti!ularit' of Derman +&istenz. E e more one re!onsiders >eideggerKs p ilosop ' of t e 1930s+ t e more one sees t at one of its guiding leitmotifs is a refas ioning of Hestern metap 'si!s in keeping &it t e demands of t e Dermani! Gasein.I >e !onsistentl' re/e!ts t e IuniversalsI t at in t e Hestern tradition o!!upied a position of preeminen!e in favor of et no!entri! notions derived from t e annals of Dermani! Leing(in(t e(&orld. E e example of t e airplane t at brings t e <u rer to AussoliniI is merel' a paradigmati! instan!e of a more general trend. Fei-egger &ho+gh& &ha& labor ca$%s co+l- be +se- &o a&&ack $o-erni&*/ Wolin. 00 . Gistinguis ed =rofessor of >istor' at t e 7it' ?niversit' of Ce& Xork Draduate 7enter . 2001 36i! ard Holin+ Heidegger(s Children+ =. 1914 >eideggerKs !on!ern &it t e importan!e of labor in t e ne& 6ei! &as a matter of p ilosop i!al as &ell as politi!al !onvi!tion. 2 longtime !riti! of t e senes!en!e and disorientation of Derman universit' life+ e &as of t e opinion t at t e labor !amps &ould serve to reintegrate kno&ledge &it t e life of t e Derman Bolk+ & ose simpli!it' and la!k of sop isti!ation e revered.*#2 s 8i/&it remarked+ >eidegger Ifailed to noti!e t e destru!tive radi!alism of t e & ole TCaziU movement and t e pett' bourgeois ! ara!ter of all its Kstrengt (t roug (/o'K institutions+ be!ause e &as a radi!al pett' bourgeois imself.I*K >eidegger+ & o ailed from t e provin!ial lo&er !lasses+ and & o+ despite is manifest brillian!e+ &as denied a universit' ! air until t e age of t irt'(nine+ found mu! e !ould agree &it in CazismKs dismantling of t e old estates and !ommitment to up&ard so!ial mobilit'.I 5n is vie&+ t e value of labor !amps as a ve i!le of ideologi!al reedu!ation for politi!all' reti!ent s! olars !ould ardl' be overestimated.

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AT F# "#77#(' F@MA! SM K#J TO STO= !A? SM Their K has i& back<ar-s,e&hical h+$anis$ is ke* &o cri&iciBing !aBis$/ Ferr* an- (ena+&. 90 . =rofessor of =oliti!al 9!ien!e at t e 9orbonne and =rofessor of = ilosop ' at Cantes . 1990 38u! <err' and 2lain 6enaut+ Heidegger and Modernity+ trans. <ranklin = ilip+ =. 10$(10%4 H atever is true of t is debate+ & i! + it &ill be readil' agreed+ ere remains open+ one t ing is still !ertain. >eidegger is not !lose to Cazism be!ause e remained a prisoner of umanism+ nor be!ause of is deliberations about aut enti!it' and t e distinguis ing propert' of man. <or >eidegger+ t e distinguis ing propert' of man is al&a's trans!enden!e+ and on t e !ontrar'+ it &as in t e name of t is trans!enden!e and t us be!ause e &as still a umanist t at >eidegger !ould !riti!ize t e biologizing reifi!ations of Cazi anti(9emitism. Aore generall'+ it is ver' mu! in t e name of umanism t us understood+ in t e name of t at stri!tl' uman !apa!it' to &ren! oneself free of natural determinations+ t at a !riti!ism of t e ra!ist imaenation 3in t e 8a!anian sense4 is possible. H en+ o&ever+ >eidegger makes t e destin' of Leing t e destin' of man+ & en e t us returns to t e anti umanist idea of a traditional !ode 3if onl' t at of t e istor' of Leing4+ e founders in inaut enti!it'+ and is fall makes possible t e return of t e nationalisti! m't and t e fanati!al atred of modernit'.

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Fei-egger9s :call of conscience; is ho%elessl* )ag+e Wolin. 90 ( Gistinguis ed =rofessor of >istor' at t e 7it' ?niversit' of Ce& Xork Draduate 7enter ( 1990 36i! ard Holin+ 8he Colitics o' Being+ =. 404 5n t e t oug t of >eidegger+ it is t e !ategor' of t e I!all of !ons!ien!eI 36uf des De&issens4 t at paves t e &a' for aut enti! de!ision or Nnts! lossen eit+ t ereb' elevating Gasein above t e fallenness of t e E e'. Xet+ t e dis!ussion of t e I!all of !ons!ien!eI is disappointingl' vague. H en t e question is posed as to & en!e t e !all emanates+ t e spe!ifi! !ontent of t e !all+ or o& it mig t be re!ognized+ &e are provided &it onl' t e most roundabout and tenuous ints. 5ndeed+ >eidegger seems to treat t e nebulousness of t e !all as a virtue. 5n part+ t is evasiveness is an onest refle!tion of t e requirements of existential anal'sis+ & i! s ould in prin!iple bear no responsibilit' for suppl'ing IexistentiellI parti!ulars. <or &ere spe!ifi! Ionti!I dire!tives provided+ t e & ole question of t e Ide!isionI at issue(t e Hozu of resolve( &ould be!ome superfluous. 5n a ver' real sense+ it is not up to fundamental ontolog' to make our ! oi!es for us. 5t is I&eI & o must de!ide+ in a!!ordan!e &it & at >eidegger is fond of !alling our Io&nmost potentialit'(for( Leing.I Cevert eless+ t ese !aveats s ould b' no means exonerate existential anal'sis from t e ! arge of va!uit' or insuffi!ient !on!reteness.

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The al&erna&i)e of &rea&ing &r+&h as +nconceal$en& $akes i& i$%ossible &o H+-ge &r+e fro$ false,&his is &he sor& of error &ha& allo<e- Fi&ler &o Hoin &he !aBis/ Wolin. 90 ( Gistinguis ed =rofessor of >istor' at t e 7it' ?niversit' of Ce& Xork Draduate 7enter ( 1990 36i! ard Holin+ 8he Colitics o' Being+ =. 121(1224 ?ltimatel' >eideggerKs t eor' of trut su!!umbs to t e same problem of !riterionlessness t at &as at issue in t e de!isionisti! approa! to uman a!tion in Being and Time. @n t e one and+ >eidegger seems at first to be !laiming t at un!on!ealment is merel' an ontologi!al precondition of trut (& i! is+ as far as it goes+ !ertainl' a plausible and valuable insig t. 5n point of fa!t+ o&ever+ t e nature of trut is !on!eptualized in terms of t e diale!ti! of !on!ealment and un!on!ealment t at o!!urs &it in t e p enomenologi!al orizon t at as been opened up b' a &ork+ a &orld+ et!. 5n t e end+ is t oroug going antisub/e!tivism+ & i! is radi!alized in t e IEurn+I results in a t'pe of ineffe!tual positivism: ob/e!ts 3beings4 are no longer to be I/udgedI 3for t is &ould be to sub/e!t t em to sub/e!tive !riteria+ or+ &orse still+ to IvaluesI4+ but Idis!losedI or Iunveiled.I Xet+ on!e t e lines bet&een trut and error be!ome blurred+ t e distin!tion bet&een aut enti! and inaut enti! unveiling essentiall' evaporates: bot are vi!timized b' error in an unspe!ifiable &a'. >eidegger !ould !on!eivabl' redeem is t eor' of trut b' an attempt+ o&ever minimal+ to distinguis a true from an untrue a!t of un!on!ealment. 2 true un!on!ealment &ould t us unveil a being Iessentiall'I or as it is Iin itself.I Lut no su! distin!tion bet&een genuine and non(genuine unveiling is fort !oming in is &ork. 5nstead+ error (Irrnis4 is paradoxi!all' deemed a mode of un!on!ealment t at is valid in its o&n rig t and t us IequiprimordialI &it trut . @r again+ >eidegger mig t ave !laimed t at un!on!ealment presents a t'pe of privileged or exemplary dis!losure of beingsF and /udgments of trut + in turn+ !ould ave been predi!ated on t is exemplar' mode of dis!losure. Lut no su! !laim is made. 5nstead+ all &e are left &it is an unexalted+ positivisti! affirmation of Igivenness+I Ibeings in t eir immedia!'+I Idis!losure as su! .I 5n t is respe!t+ >eideggerKs t eor' of Seinsgeschichte regresses be ind bot t e >usserlian and t e an!ient Dreek !on!eptions of trut . <or in bot !ases+ trut resides not in t e IgivennessI of beings as su! + but in a supramundane or superior mode of givennessR* 2s a result of is obsession &it providing a Itopograp 'I of trut (&it defining t e !learing or openness as a suffi!ient !ondition for t e appearan!e of trut as Iuntrut I(to t e & olesale ex!lusion of all traditional predi!ative !onsiderations+ >eidegger la's imself open to extreme /udgmental in!apa!ities. 2nd it &as t is p ilosop i!all' indu!ed la!k of dis!ernment t at &ould lead to is fatal misappre ension of t e intelle!tual as &ell as t e politi!al essen!e of Cational 9o!ialism.

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Fei-egger9s o)er -e&er$ine- Being so s&rongl* &ha& free <ill is i$%ossible/ Wolin. 90 ( Gistinguis ed =rofessor of >istor' at t e 7it' ?niversit' of Ce& Xork Draduate 7enter ( 1990 36i! ard Holin+ 8he Colitics o' Being+ =. 1"34 7onsequentl'+ t e ma/or problem &it >eideggerKs later p ilosop ' is t at t e do!trine of Leing+ in its oppressive omnipoten!e+ !auses t e !on!eptual spa!e in & i! freedom !an be meaningfull' t oug t to all but disappear. 5n lig t of t is fa!t+ ;aspersK verdi!t !on!erning >eideggerKs inabilit' to grasp t e nature of uman freedom(I>eidegger doesnKt kno& & at freedom isI(be!omes readil' intelligible. <or a!!ording to t e t eor' of t e Idestining of Leing+I all t e &orldl' events &e experien!e undergo a prior+ ot er(&ordl'+ metaontologi!al determination. 8ike a deus abs!onditus+ Leing Iessen!esI or I!omes to presen!eI in &a's t at are ins!rutable to t e uman understanding. @n t is point+ >eidegger is emp ati!all' !lear: IE e istor' of Leing(and not t e de!isions of man imself(Iunderlies and determines ever' situation et !ondition umaine.I Lut if t is des!ription of t e uman !ondition is !orre!t+ t en uman a!tion is essentiall' unfree+ and t e notion of persons as potentiall' autonomous a!tors be!omes equall' in!o erent. <or t e ver' possibilit' of a meaningful !orrelation bet&een uman pra!ti!e and its desired ends as been disqualified in advan!e: it is not &e & o are ultimatel' responsible for t e out!ome of our a!tions 3for It e advent of beingsI4F rat er+ it is t e Idestin' of Leing. #$%hasis on release$en& res+l&s in %aral*Bing %assi)i&*/ Wolin. 90 ( Gistinguis ed =rofessor of >istor' at t e 7it' ?niversit' of Ce& Xork Draduate 7enter ( 1990 36i! ard Holin+ 8he Colitics o' Being+ =. 14$4 2s &e suggested earlier+ t e essential t inking of t e later >eidegger promotes an Ie!lipse of pra!ti!al reason.I <or is post(Qe re reformulation of t e relation bet&een Leing and Gasein rebels so ferventl' against t e voluntarist dimension of is o&n earlier t inking t at t e ver' !on!ept of Imeaningful uman a!tionI is seemingl' rendered null and void. 5f t e earl' >eidegger attempted to rall' Gasein to Ide!isivenessI 3Nnts! lossen eit4+ t e t oug t of t e later >eidegger appears at times to be a summar' /ustifi!ation of uman passivit' and ina!tion 3Delassen eit4(so pre/udi!iall' is t e balan!e bet&een 9ein and Aens! stru!k in favor of t e former term. E us+ in t e later >eidegger+ t e !ampaign against pra!ti!al reason develops along a t&o(fold front: not onl' is t e !on!ept of Leing grossl' inflated+ but t e po&ers of uman reason and &ill are !orrespondingl' devalued. 5n t e later &ritings+ Leing assumes t e ! ara!ter of an omnipotent primal for!e+ a Ifirst unmoved mover+I & ose Ipresen!ingI proves to be t e determinative+ ultimate instan!e for events in t e lo&l' &orld of uman affairs. 5n its ot er(&orldl' suprema!'+ t is for!e bot &it dra&s from t e tribunal of uman reason and defies t e meager !apa!ities of uman des!ription: I2 Leing t at not onl' surpasses all beings(and t us all men(but & i! like an unkno&n Dod rests and Kessen!esK in its o&n trut + in t at it is sometimes present and sometimes absent+ !an never be explained like a being in existen!eF instead+ it !an onl' be Kevoked.K I

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Fei-egger9s %hiloso%h* reHec&s -e$ocrac* an- H+s&ifies -o$ina&ion of &hose -ee$e- :ina+&hen&ic/; Wolin. 90 ( Gistinguis ed =rofessor of >istor' at t e 7it' ?niversit' of Ce& Xork Draduate 7enter ( 1990 36i! ard Holin+ 8he Colitics o' Being+ =. 4#4 E e politi!al p ilosop i!al impli!ations of t is t eor' are as unequivo!al as t e' are distasteful to a demo!rati! sensibilit'. @n t e basis of t e p ilosop i!al ant ropolog' outlined b' >eidegger+ t e modern !on!eption of popular sovereignt' be!omes a s eer non sequitur: for t ose & o d&ell in t e publi! sp ere of ever'da'ness are vie&ed as essentiall' in!apable of self(rule. 5nstead+ t e onl' viable politi!al p ilosop ' t at follo&s from t is standpoint &ould be brazenl' elitist: sin!e t e ma/orit' of !itizens remain in!apable of leading meaningful lives & en left to t eir o&n devi!es+ t eir onl' ope for IredemptionI lies in t e imposition of a I ig er spiritual missionI from above. 5ndeed+ t is &as t e expli!it politi!al !on!lusion dra&n b' >eidegger in 1933. 5n t is &a'+ >eideggerKs politi!al t oug t moves pre!ariousl' in t e dire!tion of t e I<u rerprinzipI or Ileaders ip prin!iple.I 5n essen!e+ e reiterates+ in keeping &it a ! ara!teristi! antimodern bias+ a strategem dra&n from =latoni! politi!al p ilosop ': sin!e t e ma/orit' of men and &omen are in!apable of ruling t emselves insofar as t e' are driven b' t e base part of t eir souls to seek after inferior satisfa!tions and amusements+ &e in effe!t do t em a servi!e b' ruling t em from above.$$E o date+ o&ever+ t ere as never been a satisfa!tor' ans&er to t e question Aarx poses !on!erning su! t eories of edu!ational di!tators ip: IH o s all edu!ate t e edu!atorR1 The -esire for :a+&hen&ic; lea-ers H+s&ifies &o&ali&arianis$/ Wolin. 90 ( Gistinguis ed =rofessor of >istor' at t e 7it' ?niversit' of Ce& Xork Draduate 7enter ( 1990 36i! ard Holin+ 8he Colitics o' Being+ =. 11"(11#4 E ere are man' dangers lurking in t e statist !on!eption of politi!s advan!ed b' >eidegger in t e pre!eding !itation. E e spe!ifi!all' politi!al danger of t is t eor' of t e polis)state is t at it is latentl' totalitarian: & en t e state(and t e Idestin' of a istori!al BolkI t at is its raison dKttre(are a!!orded un! allenged ontologi!al prima!' as It e &ork for t e &orks+I t e autonom' and integrit' of t e ot er sp eres of life 3so!ial+ !ultural+ religious4 disappears: t e' are glei! ges! altet or immediatel' subsumed &it in t e politi!al sp ere. E e Dreeks !ould solve t is potential danger via t e institution of dire!t demo!ra!': b' virtue of t is medium+ politi!al spa!e &as opened up to its maximum extent. Lut in >eideggerKs !ontemporar' pan(Dermani! IrepetitionI of t e an!ient polis+ t e opposite is true: sin!e is t&entiet !entur' polis) state is integrall' tied to t e <ii rerprinzip+ it be!omes a <ii rerstaat+ a ne& form of politi!al t'rann'+ in & i! politi!al spa!e s rivels up into t e person of t e <u rer and is s'!op anti! entourage.# 2s t e remarks /ust !ited suggest+ for >eidegger+ t e !on!ept of a <ii rerstaat is unproblemati!al provided t ere be Irulers alone+ but t en reall' rulers.I E at is+ t e rulers must be Iaut enti!I and not imposters. 2nd as &e &ill soon see+ >eidegger develops a t eor' of &orld( istori!al Ileader( !reatorsI in order to ground is partisans ip for t e <ii rerprinzip p ilosop i!all'.

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Fei-egger9s &heor* re-+ces &he )al+e &o life,he forces Ho*less -isconnec&ion fro$ &he real <orl-/ Wolin. 90 ( Gistinguis ed =rofessor of >istor' at t e 7it' ?niversit' of Ce& Xork Draduate 7enter ( 1990 36i! ard Holin+ 8he Colitics o' Being+ =. 49("04 >eideggerKs ! ara!terization of ever'da'ness is so disproportionatel' negative t at &e are seemingl' left &it no immanent prospe!ts for realizing our aut enti! natures in t e domain of onti! life as su! . <or on t e basis of is p enomenologi!al des!riptions+ it &ould seem t at t e onti! sp ere in general( I&orldlinessI in its entiret'( as been I!olonizedI b' t e E e'. >ere+ &e see t at >eideggerKs pessimisti! p ilosop i!al ant ropolog' and is I/o'lessI so!ial ontolog' ultimatel' /oin for!es. E e result is a radi!al devaluation of t e life(&orld+ t at deli!ate substratum of ever'da' uman so!iation & i! existential p enomenolog' !laims to redeem. 2t t is point+ one mig t raise against >eideggerKs so!ial ontolog' t e same ! arge e levels against >usserlKs t eor' of t e pure+ trans!endental ego: it suffers from an impoveris ment of &orld( relations(a fa!t !learl' evin!ed in >eideggerKs self(defeating !elebration of t e Inon(relationalI ! ara!ter of aut enti! Gasein !ited above. <or o& !an t e aut enti!it' of a Gasein t at is essentiall' Inon (relationalI ever attain realization in t e sp ere of onti! lifeR

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Eri&iD+e of &he enligh&en$en& H+s&ifie- !aBis$/ Wolin. 90 ( Gistinguis ed =rofessor of >istor' at t e 7it' ?niversit' of Ce& Xork Draduate 7enter ( 1990 36i! ard Holin+ 8he Colitics o' Being+ =. 1"24 2nd t us+ if upon turning to t e text of a 19"3 le!ture &e find t e observation: IE inking begins onl' & en &e ave !ome to kno& t at reason+ glorified for !enturies+ is t e most stiff(ne!ked adversar' of t oug tI &e !annot elp but !on!lude t at in is later &ork+ >eidegger as onl' sunk more deepl' into t e bog of 8ogosvergessen eit. E is verdi!t gives !ause for disma'+ for it suggests t at t e p ilosop er as dra&n pre!isel' t e &rong !on!lusions from t e politi!al events of 1933( 194": instead of parti!ipating in t e attempt to forge+ out of t e ravages of post&ar Nurope+ a ne& !on!eption of reason and trut + >eidegger imself as be!ome an even greater Istiff(ne!kedI advo!ate of !ounterenlig tenment. >is t oug t seeks refuge in t e re!rudes!en!e of m't : Iopenness for t e m'ster'+I It e remembran!e of Leing+I and It e mirror(pla' of t e four(foldI 3gods and mortals+ eaven and eart 4 be!omes t e m'stified !ategorial s! eme around & i! is later t inking revolved. E e notion t at analogous !ounterenlig tenment attitudes and do!trines mig t ave pla'ed a ke' role in t e spiritual preparation for t e Derman !atastrop e is a t oug t t at as obviousl' never !rossed is mind."$

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Fei-egger is +nable &o &ransla&e on&ological insigh&s in&o &he real <orl-/ Wolin. 90 ( Gistinguis ed =rofessor of >istor' at t e 7it' ?niversit' of Ce& Xork Draduate 7enter ( 1990 36i! ard Holin+ 8he Colitics o' Being+ =. 1#44 >eideggerKs inabilit' to !on!eptualize t e so!io istori!al determinants and ! ara!ter of modern te! nolog' raises t e oft( dis!ussed question of t e Ipseudo(!on!reteness of is p ilosop 'IF t at is+ its apparent in!apa!it' to fulfill its original p enomenologi!al promise as a p ilosop ' of Iexistential !on!retion.I E e problem &as alread' evident in t e tension bet&een t e ontologi!al and onti! levels of anal'sis t at dominated t e existential anal'ti! of Leing and Eime. <or t ere t e sp ere of onti! life seemed degraded a priori as a result of its monopolization b' t e IE e'I and its !on!omitant inaut enti! modalities. 2s a result+ bot t e desirabilit' and possibilit' of effe!ting t e transition from t e metalevel of ontolog' to t e Ifa!ti!alI realm of onti! !on!retion seemed problemati!al from t e outset. Co& ere &as t is problem better illustrated t an in t e !ase of t e !ategor' of istori!it'. 2nd t us despite >eideggerKs real insig t into limitations of Gilt e'Ks istori!ism+ t e inflexible elevation of ontolog' above t e onti! plane virtuall' !loses off t e !on!eptual spa!e & erein real istor' mig t be t oug t. 5n trut + it !an onl' appear as an aftert oug t: as t e material demonstration of !on!lusions alread' rea! ed b' t e !ategories of existential ontolog'. 7onsequentl'+ t e Iontolog' of Leing and Eime is still bound to t e metap 'si!s t at it re/e!ts. E e !onventional tension bet&een existentia and essentia stands be ind t e differen!e bet&een ever'da' 3fa!ti!al4 and Kaut enti! istori!al existen!e.K

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Ol- fla<s in calc+la&i)e &ho+gh& reD+ire ex%an-ing &he reasoning %rocess. no& reHec&ing i&/ Wolin. 90 ( Gistinguis ed =rofessor of >istor' at t e 7it' ?niversit' of Ce& Xork Draduate 7enter ( 1990 36i! ard Holin+ 8he Colitics o' Being+ =. 1#$4 >eideggerKs t eor' of te! nolog' ultimatel' !ollapses under t e &eig t of its o&n self(imposed !on!eptual limitations. 2nd t us+ t e intrinsi! s ort!omings of is t eoreti!al frame&ork prevent im from entertaining t e prospe!t t at t e problem of te! nologi!al domination o&es more to t e deart of reason in t e modern &orld rat er t an an ex!ess . <or in modern life+ t e parameters of rationalit' ave been prematurel' restri!ted: formal or instrumental reason as attained de fa!to egemon'F pra!ti!al reason(refle!tion on ends( as been effe!tivel' marginalized. 5nstead of t e Iover!omingI of reason re!ommended b' >eidegger+ & at is needed is an expansion of reasonKs boundaries+ su! t at t e autonomous logi! of instrumental rationalit' is subordinated to a rational refle!tion on ends. 9imilarl'+ >eideggerKs in!essant lamentations !on!erning t e I&ill to &ill(t e t eoreti!al prism t roug & i! e vie&s t e modern pro/e!t of uman self(assertion in its entiret'( onl' serve to !onfuse t e problem at issueR$ E at t e for!es of te! nolog' and industr' follo& an independent logi!.

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Ac&ion an- reflec&ion on conseD+ences of &ha& ac&ion are co$%a&ible/ =a-r+&&. 92 . =s'! iatrist and =resident of t e Gaseinsanal'se Desells! aft . 1992 3>anspeter =adrutt+ Heidegger and the +arth+ 0>eidegger and N!olog'+1 ed. 8aGelle A!H orter+ =.314 @n!e in a & ile t e !on!eptual interpla' of t eor' and praxis is put against t is attempt. <rom t e p ilosop i!al point of vie& t e so(!alled pra!ti!al or politi!al dimension of t e attempt is re/e!ted+ & ereas from t e e!ologi!al point of vie& t e so(!alled t eoreti!al+ p ilosop i!al dimension is re/e!ted. Lut deeper refle!tion and de!isive a!tion do not need to !ontradi!t ea! ot er. E ose & o s ield t emselves from t e politi!al !onsequen!es mig t one da' be !onfronted b' t e fa!t t at no de!ision is still a de!ision t at !an ave !onsequen!es. 2nd t ose & o believe t at t e' need not bot er about t inking fail to re!ognize t at no p ilosop ' is also a p ilosop ' . e.g.+ a !'berneti! &orldvie& . t at also as !onsequen!es.

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"isco+rse on being is so abs&rac& &ha& i& ren-ers +s silen&,i& is nihilis&ic %aral*sis/ (osen. 49 ( Lorden =arker Lo&ne =rofessor of = ilosop ' at Loston ?niversit' . 19#9 39tanle' 6osen+ !ihilism: A Chilosophical +ssay+ =. 4"(4#4 5 ave been arguing t at ontologi!al spee! + in t e sense attributed to it b' t ose & o follo& >eidegger*s distin!tion bet&een t e ontologi!al and onti!+ is in fa!t silen!e. @ntologists of t is t'pe &is to talk about Leing as distin!t from beings+ and spee! &ill simpl' not permit t is. 5f t is is a defe!t of spee! + and t e signifi!an!e of spee! is in t e deepest and final sense relative to silen!e+ t en t ere is no reason for & at &e sa' or for & et er &e speak at all+ ot er t an t e mere fa!t+ alt oug t ere is equall' no reason to keep silent. E e result is absurdism or ni ilism. E erefore no reason !an be given & i! &ould /ustif' our falling into su! desperate straits. Nver' fundamental ontologi!al spee! of t e t'pe in question is not /ust self(refuting but self(!an!eling.

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-en&i&* %oli&ics re%lace %oli&ical ac&ion <i&h s&ories of %ersonal o%%ression/ 7rossberg. 92 38a&ren!e+ Aorris Gavis =rofessor of 7ommuni!ation 9tudies at t e ?niversit' of Cort 7arolina at 7 apel >ill+ 0He Dotta Det @ut of t is =la!e: =opular 7onservatism and =ostmodern 7ulture1+ page 3#"(3##4 5dentit' politi!s is an extension of feministsK argument t at t e personal 3i.e.+ experien!e+ determined b' so!ial differen!e4 is politi!al. Lut it ignores t e fa!t t at It e politi!al !annot be redu!ed to t e personal.Il$ 5t assumes t at politi!s is determined b' identit' and !onsequentl'+ ignores t e most obvious lesson of !ontemporar' politi!al istor': t e politi!s of an' so!ial position is not guaranteed in advan!e+ even if it appears to be stit! ed tig tl' in pla!e. E ere is no ne!essar' reason & ' an'one in abiting a parti!ular experiential field or lo!ated in a parti!ular so!ial position as to ad ere to parti!ular politi!al agendas and interests. E e illusion !an be maintained onl' b' assuming t at people & o do not ave t e Irig tI politi!s must be suffering from false !ons!iousness and t e' ave 'et to aut enti!all' experien!e t eir o&n lives. 5t is too eas' to assume t at abortion is Ia &omanKs issueI and+ furt er+ t at a &oman & o is against abortion is a!ting against er o&n experien!e and interests. Aore importantl'+ t is often leads people to miss broader politi!al possibilities 3e.g.+ t at 6ust v. 9ullivan limits free spee! in an' federall' funded institution and overrides professional !odes of responsibilit' and signifi!antl' strengt ens bot state !ourts and t e Nxe!utive Lran! 4. 2s ;une ;ordan puts it+ =eople ave to begin to understand t at /ust be!ause somebod' is a &oman or somebod' is bla!k does not mean t at e or s e and 5 s ould ave t e same politi!s. He s ould tr' to measure ea! on t e basis of & at &e do for ea! ot er rat er t an on t e basis of & o &e are. 1% =oliti!al struggle is too easil' repla!ed b' t e ongoing anal'sis of oneKs o&n oppression and experien!e or+ onl' slig tl' better+ b' a politi!s in & i! t e onl' site of struggle is t e lo!al !onstitution of oneKs experien!e &it in a stru!ture of differen!e. H ile t e personal is most !ertainl' politi!al+ it is often impossible to rea! it ot er t an t roug indire!tion+ t roug struggles over and &it in t e publi! sp ere. 2s a politi!al pra!ti!e+ identit' politi!s as 3unintentionall'4 pla'ed into efforts b' t e 6ig t to marginalize man' important struggles over bot !ivil liberties and !ivil rig ts as Ispe!ial interests.KI

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-en&i&* %oli&ics fail &o enac& grea&er %oli&ical change/ 7rossberg. 92 38a&ren!e+ Aorris Gavis =rofessor of 7ommuni!ation 9tudies at t e ?niversit' of Cort 7arolina at 7 apel >ill+ 0He Dotta Det @ut of t is =la!e: =opular 7onservatism and =ostmodern 7ulture1+ page 3$$(3%04
L' fo!using on t e !onstru!tion of so!ial individualit'+ identit'

politi!s a!tuall' loses an' !ommon sense of po&er and oppression. 5t mistakes empo&erment

and resistan!e for opposition. 5t begins &it

position. E

t e !orre!t observation t at people often find pleasures in unexpe!ted pla!es and a!tivities+ t at t e' often use a!tivities in unexpe!ted &a's in order to struggle to ! ange t e !onditions of t eir ever'da' life. Lut &a's of life are not in erentl' politi!izedF t e' do not ne!essaril' map onto &a' of struggling unless t e' are defined b' and dire!ted against some dominant Iot er+I & i! ma' or ma' not a!tuall' be t e agent responsible for maintaining t eir subordinate

e resistan!e of a politi!s of identit' requires establis ing a so!ial !onfli!t rat er t an a politi!al antagonism+ a relation bet&een individuals or groups &it spe!ifi! positions in ever'da' life. 9u! a politi!s !onfuses identit' for t e relation bet&een sub/e!ts and agen!ies. 2nd antagonism disappears into t e pra!ti!e of arti!ulation. 5 do not mean to den' t e
intelle!tual importan!e of notions of identit' and differen!e+ nor do 5 &ant to assert t at t e' ave be!ome politi!all' irrelevant. E e question+ o&ever+ is & et er a politi!s of identit' !an provide a suffi!ient ground to organize bot opposition and alternatives to t e !ontemporar' !onservative egemon' . differential stru!tures of po&er t at are ins!ribed upon t e population+ but it must

E e 8eft !annot ignore t e issues of t e refuse to begin b' assuming t at po&er !an al&a's be adequatel' understood or !ontested b' simpl' a!kno&ledging t e suffering of t e subordinate. 5t as to address t e in!reasing segmentation of t e various subordinate groups. Droups & i! ave been traditionall' produ!ed t roug and &it in a binar' me! anism are
in!reasingl' deplo'ed in !omplex and !ontext(spe!ifi! &a's. E e !ontemporar' organization of po&er ma' !onstru!t and enable parti!ular stru!tures of binar' ra!ism in one pla!e+ & ile fragmenting t e binarism in anot er. 5t ma' refuse ra!ism at parti!ular sites+ and at ot ers+ demand it. 2nd it ma' arti!ulate spe!ifi! fra!tions of apparentl' subordinated groups into real positions of po&er+ or into positions in & i! t eir IrealI interests lead t em into !onservative positions &it in & i! t e' seem to embra!e t eir subordination. E us+ it !annot be a simple question of Lla!ks or &omen or differentiall' abled organizing against t e ne& !onservatism 3sin!e t e' are !learl' not all in opposition4+ but rat er of !onstru!ting a movement & i! !an strategi!all' and effe!tivel' mobilize people against it. 5t requires+ in Geleuze and DuattariKs terms+ a politi!s of t e minor. 43 @ppositional struggle depends upon an anal'sis and identifi!ation of t e agents and agen!ies+ t e istori!al for!es 3e!onomi!+ !ultural and politi!al4 & i! !onstru!t t e !onfiguration of ever'da' life+ spe!ifi! positions &it in it+ and t e relations bet&een t ese and t e larger so!ial formation .

E e politi!s of identit' is al&a's a politi!s of resistan!e+ operating at t e lo!al level+ &it in t e !onfigurations of ever'da' life+ sin!e it refuses to trans!end t e spe!ifi! identities and oppressions & i! are being !ontested. 5t allo&s onl' t e extremes of politi!al involvement: one !an onl' a!t ver' lo!all' or at ver' great distan!es. E e 8eft+ be!ause it must allo& an' morall' !orre!t protest 3and & o is to de!ide ex!ept t e vi!tims4+ !annot
strategi!all' define its priorities. Eoo often+ it trivializes itself in publi! struggles & i! fo!us on t e most minor signs of subordinate identities+ espe!iall' given t e real problems fa!ing not onl' minorities but also t e &orld. Eo develop a ne& !on!eption of politi!s and allian!e+

&e must move be'ond bot essentialism and t e assumption t at identit' is t e ma/or site of politi!al struggle He ave to define politi!s and t e appropriate sites and forms of struggle b' somet ing ot er t an t e feelings of t e oppressed . 6a!ism+ for example+ & et er aimed at Lla!ks+ 8atinos+ ;e&s+ 2rabs+ 2sians+ or an' ot er group+ is not merel' a matter of t e experien!e of t e subordinate alt oug t at experien!e (t e pain and anger(is ver' real. Lut it !an onl' be!ome a resour!e if it is arti!ulated into a viable politi!al strateg'. He need to !onfront all forms of ra!ism+ in!luding t e ra!isms of subordinate groups+ in our so!iet'. 2nd &e need to !onfront as &ell t e &a's ra!ism is deplo'ed in spe!ifi! egemoni! struggles. E is requires a politi!s of pra!ti!e 3e.g.+ a politi!s of antira!ism4 built on agen!' rat er t an identit'. 5t requires a publi! sp ere 3& i! is not ne!essaril' demo!rati!4 and a moralit' 3on t e basis of & i! &e mig t struggle to /udge and demo!ratize it4. 9u! a politi!s of pra!ti!e need not ne!essaril' involve t e !reation of !riti!al !ommunities but it does require t e produ!tion of spa!es of arti!ulation and pla!es of investment. L' making so!ial identit' t e !ornerstone of its politi!al anal'sis+ identit' politi!s as effe!tivel' erased affe!tive sub/e!tivit' and as no t eor' of politi!al !ommitment. 5n fa!t+ t e motivation to struggle !an onl' be derived out of self(interest or ! arit' 3t e latter is bot patronizing and imperialisti!4. Eo t e
extent t at su! identities are mobile and fra!tured+ t e politi!al !ommitment &ill itself be temporar' and fluid: I=oliti!s ere be!omes somet ing to be plugged into and pulled out of+I4" mu! like a stereo or a designer life(st'le. E is is t e dilemma presented b' su! events as Land2id and b' su! struggles as t at over abortion rig ts. E e ver' fragmentation of identit' be!omes a sour!e of disempo&erment as struggles multipl' and proliferate. 2!!ording to identit' politi!s+ onl' dire!t experien!e !an legitimate !ommitment and an' ot er involvement is suspe!t. Hit out a t eor' of !ommitment & i! is some& at independent of identit'+ it is impossible to understand t e possibilities of a!tive politi!al opposition & i! trans!ends an' spe!ifi! identit' or lo!al struggle. E is suggests anot er &a' of vie&ing politi!al struggle+ one & i! lo!ates t e &ill to oppose t e tra/e!tories of istor' in t e arti!ulation of !ommon affe!tive stru!tures and antagonisms. 5t does not involve t e representation of ideologi!al sub/e!ts but t e mobilization of affe!tive sub/e!ts. 5t does not ave to !onstru!t a I&eI & i! purports to represent an'one. 6at er+ it strategi!all' and provisionall' deplo's I&eI as a floating sign of a !ommon aut orit' and !ommitment to speak and to a!t. 2ut orit'+ like representation+ refers to a !ertain kind of prox'+ but it is a prox' & i! empo&ers a position from & i! peoplesK lives !an be measured and from & i! t e agents and agen!ies responsible for maintaining t ose lives !an be ! allenged. 2ut orit' is t e me! anism b' & i! !ontrol over t e pla!es and spa!es of ever'da' life is assigned.

E e struggle for aut orit' is not merel' t e struggle to !ontrol oneKs o&n life but to stru!ture t e !ommitments & i! fas ion ever'da' life and its relations to t e so!ial formation.

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-en&i&* %oli&ics frac&+res &he lef& in&o co$%e&ing fac&ions. +n-er$ining ho%e of change/ 7rossberg. 92 38a&ren!e+ Aorris Gavis =rofessor of 7ommuni!ation 9tudies at t e ?niversit' of Cort 7arolina at 7 apel >ill+ IHe Dotta Det @ut of t is =la!e: =opular 7onservatism and =ostmodern 7ultureI+ page 3#$(3#94 E e politi!s of identit' as ad a parti!ularl' negative effe!t on t e 8eft+ albeit unintentionall': it as produ!ed a Ipoliti!s of guiltI or a Idiagnosti!s of dis!ourseI in & i! an'oneKs so!ial position alread' determines t eir aut orit' to address spe!ifi! so!ial problems. Gisagreements !an al&a's be tra!ed ba!k to t e so!ial differen!es bet&een t e speakers 3and t e so!ial IillnessesI and distortions & i! t ese differen!es produ!e4 rat er t an pro/e!ted for&ard into an anal'sis of t e istori!al adequa!' and politi!al effi!a!' of t e alternatives. Nver' individual and struggle is /udged b' a standard of linguisti! self(rig teousness and moral purit'. Leing morall' and politi!all' !orre!t is defined b' t e !onstant need to demonstrate t e proper deferen!e to t e subordinate terms &it in t e s'stems of differen!es . Nver'one is eld a!!ountable to an ever(expanding and unpredi!table series of potential ex!lusions and subordinations. E is demand for politi!al purit' redu!es t e !ontext of struggle to t e sum of parti!ular identifi!ations and identities. 5t is a strateg' designed to alienate no one but+ in t e end+ it merel' !onstru!ts situations in & i! different fragments are !onstantl' &arring &it ea! ot er. 9u! passionate diagnoses of ot er peopleKs inevitable failure+ !oupled &it t e seemingl' endless fragmentation of t e 8eft into different subordinate identities and groups+ is at least partl' responsible for its !urrent po&erlessness. E e old !li! e t at t e 8eft !onstantl' devours its o&n is no longer a /oke. Gonna Ainko&itzKs report on t e 1991 Cational 8esbian 7onferen!e provides a sad but telling indi!tment of an' attempt to organize a 8eft politi!s around identit' 3for it is onl' t e most re!ent example4. Gespite t e empo&erment derived from It e profusion of lesbian personae+I t e !onferen!e demonstrated t at t e different lesbian groups Ido not trust ea! ot er.I E e attempt to !reate a national organization fell b' t e &a'side as t e main business emerged: an inquisition into t e politi!al sins of !onferen!e goers+a2!tivism took a ba!k seat: >o& !ould people be motivated to&ard politi!al a!tion & en t eir value to t e movement &as !onstantl' being questionedR 5n admittedl' naive terms+ a politi!s of guilt undermines t e possibilit' of free and open dis!ussion about t e ne!essit' to put aside differen!es in t e name of !ommon politi!al goals+ or at least !ommon opposition to t e ! anging balan!e of for!es in t e !ontemporar' &orld. 6at er t an assuming a minimum of Igood &ill+I absen!es and disagreements be!ome signs of inevitable moral and politi!al failure. 9upportive and even polite debate as all but disappeared and guilt and intimidation+ & et er intended or not+ ave be!ome !ommon experien!es &it in t e 8eftJ E is is partl' t e result of t e fa!t t at a politi!s of identit' lets intelle!tuals too easil' off t e ook. 5t !orre!tl' re/e!ts t e old liberal model & i! gave sele!t groups t e un! allenged po&er to speak and a!t for ot ers 3assuming t at subordinate groups are passive vi!tims & o need t ings done for t em4. Lut it often goes too far+ undermining an' re!ognition of t e &a's in & i! different groups of people are impli!ated toget er in relations of po&er and mutual responsibilit'. 2t best+ su! a politi!s seeks to identif' positions from & i! t e oppressed mig t be empo&ered to speak. >o&ever+ as 9pivak as argued+ it is not suffi!ient to identif' t e differential a!!ess & i! people ave to various speaking positions. 5t is also ne!essar' to identif' t e !onditions & i! ave made it impossible for !ertain people to take up su! positions+ and to speak parti!ular sorts of dis!ourses. 2" 2!kno&ledging t e material realit' of oppression s ould lead intelle!tuals to ret ink t e need for+ and effe!tiveness of+ pra!ti!es of representation. Diven t at some groups are effe!tivel' silen!ed+ part of t e politi!al responsibilit' of t ose empo&ered to speak ma' be t at t e' speak for(represent(ot ers.

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The @/S/ $ischarac&eriBe- as an e$%ire,reci%rocal econo$ic %ar&nershi%s an- -e$ocra&ic agree$en&s are &he nor$/ kenberr*. 02/ =rofessor of Deopoliti!s. D. ;o n 5kenberr'. 05llusions of Nmpire: Gefining t e Ce& 2meri!an @rder1 <oreign 2ffairs+ Aar! )2pril 2004. 5s t e ?nited 9tates an empireR 5f so+ <ergusonKs liberal empire is a more persuasive portrait t an is ;o nsonKs militar' empire. Lut ultimatel'+ t e notion of empire is misleading (( and misses t e distin!tive aspe!ts of t e global politi!al order t at as developed around ?.9. po&er. E e ?nited 9tates as pursued imperial poli!ies+ espe!iall' to&ard &eak !ountries in t e perip er'. Lut ?.9. relations &it Nurope+ ;apan+ 7 ina+ and 6ussia !annot be des!ribed as imperial+ even & en IneoI or IliberalI modifies t e term. E e advan!ed demo!ra!ies operate &it in a Ise!urit' !ommunit'I in & i! t e use or t reat of for!e is unt inkable. E eir e!onomies are deepl' inter&oven. Eoget er+ t e' form a politi!al order built on bargains+ diffuse re!ipro!it'+ and an arra' of intergovernmental institutions and ad o! &orking relations ips. E is is not empireF it is a ?.9.(led demo!rati! politi!al order t at as no name or istori!al ante!edent.Eo be sure+ t e neo!onservatives in Has ington ave trumpeted t eir o&n imperial vision: an era of global rule organized around t e bold unilateral exer!ise of militar' po&er+ gradual disentanglement from t e !onstraints of multilateralism+ and an aggressive effort to spread freedom and demo!ra!'. Lut t is vision is founded on illusions of ?.9. po&er. 5t fails to appre!iate t e role of !ooperation and rules in t e exer!ise and preservation of su! po&er. 5ts pursuit &ould strip t e ?nited 9tates of its legitima!' as t e preeminent global po&er and severel' !ompromise t e aut orit' t at flo&s from su! legitima!'. ?ltimatel'+ t e neo!onservatives are silent on t e full range of global ! allenges and opportunities t at fa!e t e ?nited 9tates. 2nd as <erguson notes+ t e 2meri!an publi! as no desire to run !olonies or manage a global empire. E us+ t ere are limits on 2meri!an imperial pretensions even in a unipolar era. ?ltimatel'+ t e empire debate misses t e most important international development of re!ent 'ears: t e long pea!e among great po&ers+ & i! some s! olars argue marks t e end of great(po&er &ar. 7apitalism+ demo!ra!'+ and nu!lear &eapons all elp explain t is pea!e. Lut so too does t e unique &a' in & i! t e ?nited 9tates as gone about t e business of building an international order. E e ?nited 9tatesK su!!ess stems from t e !reation and extension of international institutions t at ave limited and legitimated ?.9. po&er. Fege$on* -oesn9& eD+a&e &o e$%ire,o&her na&ions can choose &o -isengage fro$ @S sec+ri&* g+aran&ees/ kenberr*. 02/ =rofessor of Deopoliti!s. D. ;o n 5kenberr'. 05llusions of Nmpire: Gefining t e Ce& 2meri!an @rder1 <oreign 2ffairs+ Aar! )2pril 2004. ;o nson also offers little be'ond passing mention about t e so!ieties presumed to be under Has ingtonKs t umb. Gomination and exploitation are+ of !ourse+ not al&a's self(evident. Ailitar' pa!ts and se!urit' partners ips are !learl' part of t e stru!ture of ?.9. global po&er+ and t e' often reinfor!e fragile and !orrupt governments in order to pro/e!t ?.9. influen!e. Lut !ountries !an also use se!urit' ties &it t e ?nited 9tates to t eir o&n advantage. ;apan ma' be a subordinate se!urit' partner+ but t e ?.9.(;apan allian!e also allo&s Eok'o to forgo a !ostl' buildup of militar' !apa!it' t at &ould destabilize Nast 2sia. Aoreover+ !ountries do ave ot er options: t e' !an+ and often do+ es!ape ?.9. domination simpl' b' asking t e ?nited 9tates to leave. E e = ilippines did so+ and 9out Qorea ma' be next. E e variet' and !omplexit' of ?.9. se!urit' ties &it ot er states makes ;o nsonKs simplisti! vie& of militar' egemon' misleading.

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7lobal %l+ralis$ $akes e$%ire i$%ossible,&he @S has infl+ence b+& no& &he con&rol -escribe- b* &he nega&i)e/ ?eliko<. 01 0Eransformation of Cational 9e!urit'1 = ilip Veliko&. =rofessor of >istor' and =ubli! 2ffairs+ ?niversit' of Birginia. Cational 5nterest+ 9ummer 2003+ pg. 1%(10 8exis4. Lut t ese imperial metap ors+ of & atever provenan!e+ do not enri! our understandingF t e' impoveris it. E e' use a metap or of o& to rule ot ers & en t e problem is o& to persuade and lead t em. 6eal imperial po&er is sovereign po&er. 9overeigns rule+ and a ruler is not /ust t e most po&erful among diverse interest groups. 9overeignt' means a dire!t monopol' !ontrol over t e organization and use of armed mig t. 5t means dire!t !ontrol over t e administration of /usti!e and t e definition t ereof. 5t means !ontrol over & at is boug t and sold+ t e terms of trade and t e permission to trade+ to t e limit of t e rulerKs desires and !apa!ities. 5n t e modern+ pluralisti! &orld of t e 21st !entur'+ t e ?nited 9tates does not ave an't ing like su! dire!t aut orit' over ot er !ountries+ nor does it seek it. Nven its informal influen!e in t e politi!al e!onom' of neig boring Aexi!o+ for instan!e+ is far more modest t an+ sa'+ t e influen!e t e Lritis !ould exert over 2rgentina a undred 'ears ago. E e purve'ors of imperial metap ors suffer from a la!k of imagination+ and more+ from a la!k of appre!iation for t e ne& !onditions under & i! &e no& live. 5t is easier in man' respe!ts to !ommuni!ate images in a !'berneti! &orld+ so t at a ver' po&erful ?nited 9tates does exert a range of influen!es t at is quite striking. Lut t is does not negate t e proliferating pluralism of global so!iet'+ nor does it suggest a &ill to imperial po&er in Has ington. E e proliferation of loose empire metap ors t us distorts into banal nonsense t e onl' pre!ise meaning of t e term imperialism t at &e ave. E e ?nited 9tates is !entral in &orld politi!s toda'+ not omnipotent. Cor is t e ?.9. <ederal government organized in su! a fas ion t at &ould allo& it to &ield durable imperial po&er around t e &orld(it as trouble enoug fas ioning !o erent poli!ies &it in t e fift' ?nited 9tates. 6at er t an ex ibiting a !onfident &ill to po&er+ &e instin!tivel' tend+ as Gavid Lrooks as put it+ to Ienter ever' !onfli!t &it t e mig t of a mus!leman and t e mentalit' of a &imp.I He must speak of 2meri!an po&er and of responsible &a's to &ield itF let us stop talking of 2meri!an empire+ for t ere is and t ere &ill be no su! t ing. The @S foc+ses on s%rea-ing -e$ocrac*> &heir clai$s of e$%ire are o+&-a&e-/ Boo&. 01 L0Ceit er ne& nor nefarious: t e liberal empire strikes ba!k1 Aax Loot+ fello& of t e 7oun!il of foreign relations+ 7urrent >istor'+ Bol. 102+ 5ss. ##$F pg. 3#1 Cov. 2003. =ro _uest4 5f t e Nuropeans+ &it t eir long tradition of !olonialism+ ave found t e pri!e of empire too ig + & at ! an!e is t ere t at 2meri!ans+ & ose !ountr' &as born in a revolt against empire+ &ill repla!e t e !olonial administrators of oldR Cot mu! . E e kind of imperial missions t at t e ?nited 9tates is likel' to undertake toda' are ver' different. E e Nuropeans foug t to sub/ugate InativesIF 2meri!ans &ill fig t to bring t em demo!ra!' and t e rule of la&. 3Co one &ants to put 5raq or 2fg anistan permanentl' under t e 9tars and 9tripes.4 Nuropean rule &as /ustified b' ra!ial pre/udi!esF 2meri!an interventions are /ustified b' self(defense and uman rig ts do!trines a!!epted 3at least in prin!iple4 b' all signatories to t e ?niversal Ge!laration of >uman 6ig ts. Nuropean expeditions &ere unilateralF 2meri!an missions are usuall' blessed &it international approval+ & et er from t e ?nited Cations+ C2E@+ or simpl' an ad o! !oalition. Nven t e ?9 intervention in 5raq t is 'ear+ &idel' eld to be Iunilateral+I en/o's far more international support 3and en!e legitima!'4 t an+ sa'+ t e <ren! role in 2lgeria in t e 19"0s. M+l&ila&eralis$ an ine)i&able check on &he %ossibili&* of e$%ire/ ?eliko<. 01 0Eransformation of Cational 9e!urit'1 = ilip Veliko&. =rofessor of >istor' and =ubli! 2ffairs+ ?niversit' of Birginia. Cational 5nterest+ 9ummer 2003+ pg. 1%(10 8exis4. Nver't ing t at 2meri!a does in t e &orld is done multilaterall'. E at emp ati!all' in!ludes t e poli!ies t e Lus 2dministration !onsiders most important+ and even t ose t at are t e most Imilitar'I in ! ara!ter. E e global &ar against terrorism is being
!ondu!ted t roug an elaborate+ often idden+ net&ork of multilateral !ooperation among s!ores of governments. 2 large number of pla'ers are intera!ting on intelligen!e+ la& enfor!ement+ militar' a!tion+ air transportation+ s ipping+ finan!ial !ontrols and more. @ngoing militar' operations in 2fg anistan involve several !ountries+ and &ere multilateral even at t e eig t of 2meri!an militar' a!tivit'+ as t e

E e !ari!ature of t e administrationKs unilateralism usuall' rests on t e re!itation of a b' no& standard list of diplomati! a!tions t at some ot er governments did not like 3Q'oto+ t e 5nternational 7riminal 7ourt and so on4. 9ome of t ese disagreements &ere andled in a st'le and manner t at seemed insensitive or simpl' maladroit. ?nfortunatel'+ too+ t e !ari!ature of t e administrationKs unilateralism is &illingl' fed b' some ?.9. offi!ials and unoffi!ial advisers & o relis t e ! an!e to pla' t e role of t e trut teller lan!ing foreign obfus!ations. 9ometimes t e' overpla' t e part+ sensing t e li!ense t e' get from &orking for a plain( spoken president.
?nited 9tates relied eavil' on relations ips &it =akistan+ 6ussia+ t ree 7entral 2sian governments and a variet' of 2fg an fa!tions.

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AT M=#( AL SM' T#((O( SM M@ST B# EO!F(O!T#" =oin&ing o+& fla<s <i&h i$%erialis$ is no& eno+gh,&here are real &hrea&s %ose- b* &erroris$ &ha& &he al&erna&i)e $+s& be able &o sol)e/ 7i&lin. 04 ( =rofessor of ;ournalism and 9o!iolog' at 7olumbia ?niversit' ( 200#3Eodd+ E e 5ntelle!tuals 2nd E e <lag+ p. 1"14 Guring t e Lus 'ears intelle!tuals ave ad t eir &ork !ut out for t em exposing t e arrogan!e of empire+ pier!ing its rationalizations+ identif'ing its betra'al of patrioti! traditions. Lut all t at said+ serious questions remained about & at intelle!tuals of t e left &anted: H at &as to be done about fig ting t e /i adists and improving demo!ra!'*s ! an!esR H at roles made sense for t e ?nited 9tates+ t e ?nited Cations+ C2E@+ or an'one elseR H at &as required of governments+ nongovernmental organizations+ foundations+ and private initiativesR Diven t at t e 5raq Har ad been ill advised+ & at s ould be done next about 5raq and 5raqisR 2bout su! questions man' intelle!tuals of t e left &ere understandabl' perplexed-and sometimes evasive. <oreign poli!' &asn*t 0t eir problem.1 E eir mode &as !riti!al and ba!k(glan!ing+ not !onstru!tive and prospe!tive. 5t &as useful to raise questions about t e purposes of ?.9. bases abroad+ for example. 5t &as satisf'ing+ but not espe!iall' useful+ to t ink t at t e questions ans&ered t emselves. 9o t e intelle!tuals* evasion damaged & at mig t ave been t eir !ontribution to t e larger debate t at t e !ountr' needed-and still needs-on its pla!e in t e &orld and o& it prote!ts itself. 8iberal patriots &ould refuse to be satisfied &it knee(/erk ans&ers but &ould /oin t e ard questions as members of a so!iet' do-members & o !riti!ize in be alf of a !ommunit' of mutual aid+ not marginal s!offers & o ave painted t emselves into a !orner. 8iberal patriots &ould not be satisfied to repl' to !onsensus tru!ulen!e &it re/e!tionist tru!ulen!e. E e' &ould not take pride in t eir marginalit'. E e' &ould !onsider & at t e' !ould do for our natural allies+ demo!rats abroad. E e' &ould take it as t eir obligation to illuminate a transformed &orld in & i! al _aeda and its allies are not misinterpreted as t e !urrent rein(!arnations of t e eternal spirit of anti(imperialism. E e' &ould retain !uriosit' and resist t at ardening of t e !ategories t at is a form of self(prote!tion against t e unpre!edented.

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A$erican i$%erialis$ sho+l- be e$brace- K i& has been &he grea&es& force for goo- in &he <orlBoo&. 1 3Aax+ @lin senior fello& at t e 7oun!il on <oreign 6elations+ I2meri!an 5mperialismR Co Ceed to 6un 2&a' from 8abel+I "(1%(2003+ &&&.atta!berlin.de)fileadmin)9ommerakademie)LootY5mperialimYfine.pdf+ ;A=4 E e greatest danger is t at &e &onKt use all of our po&er for fear of t e KK5KK &ord (( imperialism. H en asked on 2pril 2% on al(
;azeera & et er t e ?nited 9tates &as KKempire building+KK 9e!retar' of Gefense Gonald 6umsfeld rea!ted as if eKd been asked & et er e &ears &omenKs under&ear. KKHe donKt seek empires+KK e replied uffil'. KKHeKre not imperialisti!. He never ave been.KK E atKs a fine ans&er for publi! !onsumption. E e problem is t at it isnKt true. E e ?nited 9tates as been an empire sin!e at least 1%03+ & en E omas ;efferson pur! ased t e 8ouisiana Eerritor'. E roug out t e 19t !entur'+ & at ;efferson !alled t e KKempire of libert'KK expanded a!ross t e !ontinent. H en ?.9. po&er stret! ed from KKsea to s ining sea+KK t e 2meri!an empire moved abroad+ a!quiring !olonies ranging from =uerto 6i!o and t e = ilippines to >a&aii and 2laska. H ile t e formal empire mostl' disappeared after Horld Har 55+ t e ?nited 9tates set out on anot er bout of imperialism in Derman' and ;apan. @ + sorr' (( t at &asnKt imperialismF it &as KKo!!upation.KK Lut & en 2meri!ans are running foreign governments+ itKs a distin!tion &it out a differen!e. 8ike&ise+ re!ent KKnation( buildingKK experiments in 9omalia+ >aiti+ Losnia+ Qosovo and 2fg anistan 3ne&s ( &eb sites4 are imperialism under anot er name. Aind 'ou+ t is is not meant as a !ondemnation. E e istor' of 2meri!an imperialism is ardl' one of unadorned good doingF t ere ave been plent' of s ameful episodes+ su! as t e mistreatment of t e 5ndians. Lut+ on t e & ole+ ?.9. imperialism as been

t e greatest for!e for good in t e &orld during t e past !entur'. 5t as defeated t e monstrous evils of !ommunism and Cazism and lesser evils su! as t e Ealiban and 9erbian et ni! !leansing. 2long t e &a'+ it as elped spread liberal institutions to !ountries as diverse as 9out Qorea 3ne&s ( &eb sites4 and =anama. Xet+ & ile generall' su!!essful as imperialists+
2meri!ans ave been loat to !onfirm t atKs & at t e' &ere doing. E atKs @Q. Diven t e istori!al baggage t at KKimperialismKK !arries+ t ereKs no need for t e ?.9. government to embra!e t e term. Lut it s ould definitel' embra!e t e pra!ti!e. E at doesnKt mean looting 5raq of its natural resour!esF not ing !ould be more destru!tive of our goal of building a stable government in Lag dad. 5t means imposing t e rule of la&+ propert' rig ts+ free spee! and ot er guarantees+ at gunpoint if need be. E is &ill require sele!ting a ne& ruler & o is !ommitted to pluralism and t en ba!king im or er to t e ilt. 5ran and ot er neig boring states &onKt esitate to impose t eir despoti! vie&s on 5raqF &e s ouldnKt esitate to impose our demo!rati! vie&s. E e indi!ations are mixed as to & et er t e ?nited 9tates is prepared to embra!e its imperial role unapologeti!all'. 6umsfeld as said t at an 5ranian(st'le t eo!ra!' KKisnKt going to appen+KK and =resident Lus 3ne&s ( &eb sites4 as pledged to keep ?.9. troops in 5raq as long as ne!essar' to KKbuild a pea!eful and representative government.KK 2fter allo&ing a temporar' po&er va!uum to develop+ ?.9. troops no& are moving aggressivel' to put do&n ! allenges to t eir aut orit' b'+ for example+ arresting t e self(de!lared KKma'orKK of Lag dad. E atKs all for t e good. Lut t ere are also some &orrisome signs. Lus asked for onl' f2." billion from 7ongress for rebuilding 5raq+ even t oug a stud' from t e 7oun!il on <oreign 6elations and t e ;ames 2. Laker 555 5nstitute for =ubli! =oli!' estimates t at f2" billion to f100 billion &ill be needed. 5raqKs oil revenues and !ontributions from allies &onKt !over t e entire s ortfall. E e president s ould be doing more to prepare t e ?.9. publi! and 7ongress for a !ostl' !ommitment. @t er&ise+ 5raqis qui!kl' !ould be!ome disillusioned about t e benefits of liberation. E e !ost of our !ommitment &ill be measured not onl' in mone' but also in troops. H ile Lus and 6umsfeld ave &isel' es! e&ed an' talk of an earl' KKexit strateg'+KK t e' still seem to t ink t at ?.9. for!es &onKt need to sta' more t an t&o 'ears. 6umsfeld even denied a report t at t e ?.9. armed for!es are planning to open permanent bases in 5raq. 5f t e'Kre not+ t e' s ould be. E atKs t e onl' &a' to ensure t e se!urit' of a nas!ent demo!ra!' in su! a roug neig bor ood. Goes t e administration reall' imagine t at 5raq &ill ave turned into 9&itzerland in t&o 'earsK timeR 2llied rule lasted four 'ears in Derman' and seven 'ears in ;apan. 2meri!an troops remain stationed in bot pla!es more t an "0 'ears later. E atKs & ' t ese t&o !ountries ave be!ome paragons of liberal demo!ra!'. 5t is !raz' to t ink t at 5raq (( & i! as less of a demo!rati! tradition t an eit er Derman' or ;apan ad in 194" (( !ould make t e leap overnig t. E e re!ord of nation(building during t e past de!ade is !lear: E e ?nited 9tates failed in 9omalia and >aiti+ & ere it pulled out troops prematurel'. Losnia+ Qosovo and 2fg anistan s o& more promise be!ause ?.9. troops remain stationed t ere. 2fg anistan &ould be making even more progress if t e ?nited 9tates and its allies ad made a bigger !ommitment to se!ure t e !ountr'side+ not /ust Qabul.

5f &e &ant 5raq to avoid be!oming a 9omalia on steroids+ &eKd better get used to ?.9. troops being deplo'ed t ere for 'ears+ possibl' de!ades+ to !ome. 5f t at raises a!kles about 2meri!an imperialism+ so be it. HeKre going to be !alled an empire & atever &e do. He mig t as &ell be a su!!essful empire.

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Eri&iciBing Wes&ern :i$%erialis$; obsc+res $ore insi-io+s %rac&ices b* regional %o<ers Sha<. 2 3Aartin 9 a&+ professor of international relations at ?niversit' of 9ussex+ ?ses and 2buses of 2nti(5mperialism in t e Dlobal Nra+ 4($(2002+ ttp:))&&&.martins a&.org)empire. tm 2<A4 5t is fas ionable in some !ir!les+ among & i! &e must !learl' in!lude t e organizers of t is !onferen!e+ to argue t at t e global era is seeing Ka ne& imperialismK ( t at !an be blamed for t e problem of Kfailed statesK 3probabl' among man' ot ers4. Gifferent !ontributors to t is strand of t oug t name t is imperialism in different &a's+ but novelt' is !learl' a !riti!al issue. E e logi! of using t e term imperialism is a!tuall' to establis !ontinuit' bet&een !ontemporar' forms of Hestern &orld po&er and older forms first so named b' Aarxist and ot er t eorists a !entur' ago. E e last t ing t at !riti!s of a ne& imperialism &is to allo& is t at Hestern po&er as ! anged suffi!ientl' to invalidate t e ver' appli!ation of t is !riti!al !on!ept. Cor ave man' !onsidered t e possibilit' t at if t e !on!ept of imperialism as a relevan!e toda'+ it applies to !ertain aggressive+ aut oritarian regimes of t e non(Hestern &orld rat er t an to t e !ontemporar' Hest. 5n t is paper 5 full' a!!ept t at t ere is a !on!entration of mu! &orld po&er ( e!onomi!+ !ultural+ politi!al and militar' ( in t e ands of Hestern elites. 5n m' re!ent book+ E eor' of t e Dlobal 9tate+ 5 dis!uss t e development of a Kglobal(Hestern state !onglomerateK 39 a& 20004. 5 argue t at KglobalK ideas and institutions+ & ose signifi!an!e ! ara!terizes t e ne& politi!al era t at as opened &it t e end of t e 7old Har+ depend largel' ( but not solel' ( on Hestern po&er. 5 old no brief and intend no apolog' for offi!ial Hestern ideas and be aviour. 2nd 'et 5 propose t at t e idea of a ne& imperialism is a profoundl' misleading+ indeed ideologi!al !on!ept t at obs!ures t e realities of po&er and espe!iall' of empire in t e t&ent'(first !entur'. E is notion is an obsta!le to understanding t e signifi!an!e+ extent and limits of !ontemporar' Hestern po&er. 5t simultaneousl' serves to obs!ure man' real !auses of oppression+ suffering and struggle for transformation against t e quasi(imperial po&er of man' regional states. 5 argue t at in t e global era+ t is separation as finall' be!ome !riti!al. E is is for t&o related reasons. @n t e one and+ Hestern po&er as moved into ne& territor'+ largel' un! arted (( and 5 argue un! artable (( &it t e !riti!al tools of anti(imperialism. @n t e ot er and+ t e politi!s of empire remain all too real+ in !lassi! forms t at re!all bot modern imperialism and earlier empires+ in man' non(Hestern states+ and t e' are revived in man' politi!al struggles toda'. E us t e !on!ept of a Kne& imperialismK fails to deal &it bot ke' post(imperial features of Hestern po&er and t e quasi(imperial ! ara!ter of man' non(Hestern states. E e !on!ept overstates Hestern po&er and understates t e dangers posed b' ot er+ more aut oritarian and imperial !entres of po&er. =oliti!all' it identifies t e Hest as t e prin!ipal enem' of t e &orldKs people+ & en for man' of t em t ere are far more real and dangerous enemies !loser to ome. 5 s all return to t ese politi!al issues at t e end of t is paper. $%erialis$ is goo-' &he -efea& of !aBis$ an- &he %ro$o&ion of -e$ocrac* are %roof/ Boo&. 01 02meri!an 5mperialismR Co need to run a&a' from 8abel1 Aax Loot+ 9enior fello& of t e 7oun!il of foreign relations+ ?92 Eoda'+ Aa' #+ 2003. ttp:))##.102.1.104)s! olarR l,en:lr,:q,!a! e:s="so='Gtz2;:&&&.atta!berlin.de)fileadmin)9ommerakademie)LootY5mperialimYfine.pdfcaut or:m axcaut or:boot4. Aind 'ou+ t is is not meant as a !ondemnation. E e istor' of 2meri!an imperialism is ardl' one of unadorned good doingF t ere ave been plent' of s ameful episodes+ su! as t e mistreatment of t e 5ndians. Lut+ on t e & ole+ ?.9. imperialism as been t e greatest for!e for good in t e &orld during t e past !entur'. 5t as defeated t e monstrous evils of !ommunism and Cazism and lesser evils su! as t e Ealiban and 9erbian et ni! !leansing. 2long t e &a'+ it as elped spread liberal institutions to !ountries as diverse as 9out Qorea 3ne&s ( &eb sites4 and =anama. Xet+ & ile generall' su!!essful as imperialists+ 2meri!ans ave been loat to !onfirm t atKs & at t e' &ere doing. E atKs @Q. Diven t e istori!al baggage t at KKimperialismKK !arries+ t ereKs no need for t e ?.9. government to embra!e t e term. Lut it s ould definitel' embra!e t e pra!ti!e. E at doesnKt mean looting 5raq of its natural resour!esF not ing !ould be more destru!tive of our goal of building a stable government in Lag dad. 5t means imposing t e rule of la&+ propert' rig ts+ free spee! and ot er guarantees+ at gunpoint if need be. E is &ill require sele!ting a ne& ruler & o is !ommitted to pluralism and t en ba!king im or er to t e ilt. 5ran and ot er neig boring states &onKt esitate to impose t eir despoti! vie&s on 5raqF &e s ouldnKt esitate to impose our demo!rati! vie&s.

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Eri&iciBing bene)olen& ac&ion on &he gro+n-s of i$%erialis$ +n-er$ines libera&ion of o%%resse- %eo%le K i$%erialis$ is H+s&ifie- in so$e ins&ances/ Sha<. 2 3Aartin 9 a&+ professor of international relations at ?niversit' of 9ussex+ ?ses and 2buses of 2nti(5mperialism in t e Dlobal Nra+ 4($(2002+ ttp:))&&&.martins a&.org)empire. tm 2<A4 Conclusion: 8he abuses o' antiDimperialism 5t is &ort asking o& t e politi!s of anti(imperialism distorts Hestern leftistsK responses to global struggles for /usti!e. ;o n =ilger+ for example+ !onsistentl' seeks to minimise t e !rimes of Ailosevi! in Qosovo+ and to den' t eir geno!idal ! ara!ter ( purel' be!ause t ese !rimes formed part of t e rationale for Hestern intervention against 9erbia. >e never attempted to minimise t e !rimes of t e pro(Hestern 9u arto regime in t e same &a'. E e !rimes of quasi(imperial regimes are similar in !ases like Xugoslavia and 5ndonesia+ but t e HestKs attitudes to&ards t em are undeniabl' uneven and in!onsistent. 8o ta"e as the criterion o' oneEs politics opposition to :estern policy$ rather than the demands 'or ustice o' the victims o' oppression as such$ distorts our responses to the victims and our commitment to ustice. He need to support t e vi!tims regardless of & et er Hestern governments take up t eir !ause or notF &e need to /udge Hestern po&er not a!!ording to a general assumption of Kne& imperialismK but a!!ording to its a!tual role in relation to t e vi!tims. E e task for !ivil so!iet' in t e Hest is not+ t erefore to oppose Hestern state poli!ies as a matter of !ourse+ J la 7old Har+ but to mobilise solidarit' &it demo!rati! oppositions and repressed peoples+ against aut oritarian+ quasi(imperial states. 5t is to demand more effe!tive global politi!al+ legal and militar' institutions t at genuinel' and !onsistentl' defend t e interests of t e most t reatened groups. 5t is to grasp t e !ontradi!tions among and &it in Hestern elites+ !onditionall' all'ing t emselves &it internationalising elements in global institutions and Hestern governments+ against nationalist and rea!tionar' elements. E e arrival in po&er of Deorge Lus 55 makes t is dis!rimination all t e more urgent. 5n t e long run+ &e need to develop a larger politi!s of global so!ial demo!ra!' and an et i! of global responsibilit' t at address t e profound e!onomi!+ politi!al and !ultural inequalities bet&een Hestern and non(Hestern &orlds. He &ill not move far in t ese dire!tions+ o&ever+ unless &e grasp t e life(and(deat struggles bet&een man' oppressed peoples and t e ne& lo!al imperialisms+ rat er t an subsuming all regional !ontradi!tions into t e false s'nt esis of a ne& Hestern imperialism.

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?iBek is an a+&hori&arian b+ll* KK his arg+$en&s are non>falsifiable/ Kirsch. 5 . senior editor of E e Ce& 6epubli! 32dam+ E e Ce& 6epubli!+ 0E e Geadl' ;ester+1 ttp:))&&&.tnr.!om)stor'Yprint. tmlRid,09$a31f3(!440(4b10(%%94( 1419$d$a#eef4 H en Vizek emplo'ed t is p rase as t e title of a s ort book about t e 9eptember 11 atta!ks and t eir aftermat + e &as not making an ironi! pop referen!e. >e &as dra&ing an edif'ing parallel. H ' is it+ t e !ommunist revolutionar' must inevitabl' refle!t+ t at nobod' &ants a !ommunist revolutionR H ' do people in t e Hest seem so !ontent in & at Vizek !alls It e <ran!is <uku'ama dream of t e Kend of istor'KIR <or most of us+ t is ma' not seem like a ard question to ans&er: one need onl' !ompare t e experien!e of !ommunist !ountries &it t e experien!e of demo!rati! ones. Lut Vizek is not an empiri!ist+ or a liberal+ and e as anot er ans&er. 5t is t at !apitalism is t e Aatrix+ t e illusion in & i! &e are trapped. E is+ of !ourse+ is merel' a flambo'ant s!i(fi formulation of t e old Aarxist !on!ept of false !ons!iousness. I@ur Kfreedoms+KI Vizek &rites in :elcome to the 9esert o' the ,eal+ It emselves serve to mask and sustain our deeper unfreedom.I E is is t e !entral instan!e in VizekKs &ork of t e kind of diale!ti!al reversal . t e !lever anti(liberal inversion+ t at is t e basi! movement of is mind. 5t !ould ardl' be ot er&ise+ !onsidering t at is intelle!tual gods are >egel and 8a!an((masters of t e diale!ti!+ for & om realit' never appears ex!ept in t e form of t e illusion or t e s'mptom. 5n bot t eir s'stems+ t e interpreter((t e p ilosop er for >egel+ t e anal'st for 8a!an((is granted absolute+ un! allengeable aut orit'. Aost people are ne!essaril' in t rall to appearan!es+ and t ereb' to t e de!eptions of po&erF but t e interpreter is some o& immune to t em. and !an single andedl' re!ognize and expose t e idden meanings. t e true pro!esses at &ork in >istor' or in t e ?n!ons!ious.

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Their ref+sal &o co$%ro$ise <i&h an* liberal ac&ion is no& noble K i&9s &o&ali&arian/ Kirsch. 5 . senior editor of E e Ce& 6epubli! 32dam+ E e Ce& 6epubli!+ 0E e Geadl' ;ester+1 ttp:))&&&.tnr.!om)stor'Yprint. tmlRid,09$a31f3(!440(4b10(%%94( 1419$d$a#eef4 E ere is a name for t e politi!s t at glorifies risk+ de!ision+ and &illF t at 'earns for t e ero+ t e master+ and t e leaderF t at prefers deat and t e infinite to demo!ra!' and t e pragmati!F t at finds t e onl' true freedom in t e terror of violen!e. 5ts name is not !ommunism. 5ts name is fas!ism+ and in is most re!ent &ork Vizek as inarguabl' revealed imself as some sort of fas!ist. >e admits as mu! in Biolen!e+ & ere e quotes t e Derman p ilosop er =eter 9loterdi/k on t e Ire( emerging 8eft(<as!ist & ispering at t e borders of a!ademiaI((I& ere+ 5 guess+ 5 belong.I E ere is no need to guess. Vizek endorses one after anot er of t e pra!ti!es and t e values of fas!ism+ but e obstinatel' denies t e label . 5s Imass
! oreograp ' displa'ing dis!iplined movements of t ousands of bodies+I of t e kind 8eni 6iefensta l loved to p otograp + fas!istR Co+ Vizek insists+ Iit &as Cazism t at stoleI su! displa's Ifrom t e &orkersK movement+ t eir original !reator.I 3>e is &illfull' blind to t e old and obvious !on!lusion t at totalitarian form a!!epts !ontent from t e left and t e rig t.4 5s t ere somet ing fas!ist about & at 2dorno long ago !alled t e /argon of aut enti!it'((It e notions of de!ision+ repetition+ assuming oneKs destin' ... mass dis!ipline+ sa!rifi!e of t e individual for t e !olle!tive+ and so fort IR Co+ again: It ere is not ing Kin erentl' fas!istKI in all t at. 5s t e !ult of mart'rdom t at surrounds 7 e Duevara a oldover from t e deat &ors ip of rea!tionar' 8atin 2meri!an 7at oli!ism+ as =aul Lerman as arguedR

IEo be !lear and brutal to t e end+I e sums up+ It ere is a lesson to be learned from >ermann DoeringKs repl'+ in t e earl' 1940s+ to a fanati!al Cazi & o asked im & ' e prote!ted a &ell(kno&n ;e& from deportation: K5n t is !it'+ 5 de!ide & o is a ;e&JK... 5n t is !it'+ it is &e & o de!ide & at is left+ so &e s ould simpl' ignore liberal a!!usations of in!onsisten!'.I E at senten!e is a remarkable moment in VizekKs &riting. 5t stands out even among t e man' instan!es in & i! Vizek+ before delivering imself of some monstrous sentiment+ &arns t e reader of t e need to be ars + never to flin! before liberal pieties/ 5n order to defend imself against t e ! arge of proto(fas!ism+ Vizek falls ba!k on DoeringKs /oke about ;e&sJ E is is not /ust t e Iadrenalin(fueledI auda!it' of t e bold &riter & o Idares t e reader to disagree.I Eo produ!e t is quotation in t is !ontext is a sign+ 5 t ink+ of somet ing darker/ 5t is a dare to imself to see o& far e !an go in t e dire!tion of inde!en!'+ of an obsession t at as not ing progressive or revolutionar' about it.
=er aps+ Vizek grants+ Ibut((so & atRI

?iBek9s <ork is a re)i)al of &o&ali&arianis$. re)ol+&ionar* &error. an- an&i>Se$i&is$/ Kirsch. 5 . senior editor of E e Ce& 6epubli! 32dam+ E e Ce& 6epubli!+ 0E e Geadl' ;ester+1 ttp:))&&&.tnr.!om)stor'Yprint. tmlRid,09$a31f3(!440(4b10(%%94( 1419$d$a#eef4 2nd t ere is no doubt t at t is s!ale of killing is & at Vizek looks for&ard to in t e 6evolution. IH at makes Cazism repulsive+I
e &rites+ Iis not t e r etori! of a final solution as su! + but t e !on!rete t&ist it gives to it.I =er aps t ere is supposed to be some reassuran!e for ;e&s in t at senten!eF but per aps not. <or in Bn 9e'ense o' Lost Causes+ again parap rasing Ladiou+ Vizek &rites: IEo put it su!!in!tl'+ t e onl' true solution to t e K;e&is questionK is t e Kfinal solutionK 3t eir anni ilation4+ be!ause ;e&s ... are t e ultimate obsta!le to t e Kfinal solutionK of >istor' itself+ to t e over!oming of divisions in all(en!ompassing unit' and flexibilit'.I 5 asten to add t at Vizek dissents from LadiouKs vision to t is extent: e believes t at ;e&s Iresisting identifi!ation &it t e 9tate of 5srael+I It e ;e&s of t e ;e&s t emselves+I t e I&ort ' su!!essors to 9pinoza+I deserve to be exempted on a!!ount of t eir Ifidelit' to t e Aessiani! impulse.I 5n t is &a'+ VizekKs allegedl' progressive t oug t leads dire!tl' into a pit of moral and intelle!tual squalor. 5n is Ce& Xork Eimes pie!e against torture+ Vizek &orried t at t e normalization of torture as an

E is is a good des!ription of VizekKs o&n &ork. ?nder t e !over of !omed' and 'perbole+ in bet&een allusions to movies and video games+ e is engaged in t e re abilitation of man' of t e most evil ideas of t e last !entur'. >e is tr'ing to undo t e a! ievement of all t e post&ar t inkers & o taug t us to regard totalitarianism+ revolutionar' terror+ utopian violen!e+ and anti(9emitism as inadmissible in serious politi!al dis!ourse. 5s VizekKs audien!e too bus' laug ing at im to ear imR 5 ope so+ be!ause t e idea t at t e' !an ear im &it out re!oiling from im is too dismal+ and frig tening+ to !ontemplate.
instrument of state &as t e first step in Ia pro!ess of moral !orruption: t ose in po&er are literall' tr'ing to break a part of our et i!al ba!kbone.I

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?iBek9s al&erna&i)e is an en-orse$en& of a+&hori&arian )iolence. like 9P00/ Kirsch. 5 . senior editor of E e Ce& 6epubli! 32dam+ E e Ce& 6epubli!+ 0E e Geadl' ;ester+1 ttp:))&&&.tnr.!om)stor'Yprint. tmlRid,09$a31f3(!440(4b10(%%94(1419$d$a#eef4
E is sa!erdotal notion of intelle!tual aut orit' makes bot t inkers essentiall' ostile to demo!ra!'+ & i! to speak for imself olds t at t e trut is available in prin!iple to ever'one+ and t at ever' individual must be allo&ed

. Vizek+ too+ sees t e similarit'((or+ as e sa's+ It e profound solidarit'I((bet&een is favorite p ilosop i!al traditions. IE eir stru!ture+I e a!kno&ledges+ Iis in erentl' Kaut oritarianK: sin!e Aarx and <reud opened up a ne& t eoreti!al field & i! sets t e ver' !riteria of vera!it'+ t eir &ords !annot be put to t e test t e same &a' one is allo&ed to question t e statements of t eir follo&ers.I Cote t at t e term Iaut oritarianI is not used ere pe/orativel' . <or Vizek+ it is pre!isel' t is aut oritarianism t at makes t ese perspe!tives appealing. E eir Iengaged notion of trut I makes for Istruggling t eories+ not onl' t eories about
struggle.I Lut to kno& & at is &ort struggling for+ 'ou need t eories about struggle. @nl' if 'ou ave alread' a!!epted t e terms of t e struggle((in VizekKs !ase+ t e !lass struggle((!an 'ou move on to t e

+ Vizek t e diale!ti!ian is at bottom entirel' undiale!ti!al. E at liberalism is evil and t at !ommunism is good is not is !on!lusion+ it is is premiseF and t e !ontortions of is t oug t+ espe!iall' in is most politi!al books+ result from t e need to re!on!ile t at premise &it a realit' t at seems abundantl' to indi!ate t e opposite. >en!e t e ne!essit' of t e Aatrix+ or somet ing like it+ for VizekKs &orldvie&. 2nd en!e is approval of an't ing t at unplugs us from t e Aatrix and returns us to t e desert of t e real((for instan!e+ t e orrors of 9eptember 11. @ne of t e ambiguities
struggling t eor' t at tea! es 'ou o& to fig t. 5n t is sense of VizekKs re!ent &ork lies in is attitude to&ard t e kind of 5slami! fundamentalists & o perpetrated t e atta!ks. @n t e one and+ t e' are !learl' rea!tionar' in t eir religious dogmatismF on t e ot er and+

2s Vizek observes+ I& ile t e' pursue & at appear to us to be evil goals &it evil means+ t e ver' form of t eir a!tivit' meets t e ig est standard of t e good.I Xes+ t e good: Ao ammed 2tta and is !omrades exemplified Igood as t e spirit of and a!tual readiness for sa!rifi!e in t e name of some ig er !ause.I VizekKs diale!ti! allo&s im to ave it all: t e /i adis are not reall' motivated b' religion+ as t e' sa' t e' areF t e' are a!tuall' !asualties of global !apitalism+ and t us Iob/e!tivel'I on t e left. IE e onl' &a' to !on!eive of & at appened on 9eptember 11+I e &rites+ Iis to lo!ate it in t e !ontext of t e antagonisms of global !apitalism.I
t e' ave been far more effe!tive t an t e Vapatistas or t e =orto 2legre movement in dis!omfiting 2meri!an !apitalism.

?iBek kno<s his re)ol+&ion is -oo$e- &o fail K&heir +&o%ianis$ arg+$en&s are exc+ses &o ignore real s+ffering ancrea&e $ore h+$an sacrifices &o &he i)or* &o<er/ Kirsch. 5 . senior editor of E e Ce& 6epubli! 32dam+ E e Ce& 6epubli!+ 0E e Geadl' ;ester+1 ttp:))&&&.tnr.!om)stor'Yprint. tmlRid,09$a31f3(!440(4b10(%%94( 1419$d$a#eef4
KHill 2meri!a finall' risk stepping t roug t e fantasmati! s!reen t at separates it from t e @utside Horld+ a!!epting its arrival in t e 6eal &orldIR Vizek asked in 2002. E e ans&er &as no. Nven 9eptember 11 did not su!!eed in robbing t e Hest of its liberal illusions. H at remains+ t en+ for t e &ould(be !ommunistR E e trul' diale!ti!al ans&er+ t e kind of ans&er t at Aarx &ould ave given+ is t at t e adaptations of !apitalism must t emselves prove fatall' maladaptive. E is is t e ans&er t at 2ntonio Cegri and Ai! ael >ardt gave in t eir popular neo(Aarxist treatises +mpire and Multitude: as global !apitalism evolves into a kind of disembodied+ !enterless+ virtual realit'+ it makes labor autonomous and renders !apital itself unne!essar'. Lut Vizek+ in Bn 9e'ense o' Lost Causes+ as no use for CegriKs

+ & at Vizek &ants is not diale!ti!+ but repetition: anot er 6obespierre+ anot er 8enin+ anot er Aao. >is IprogressivismI is not linear+ it is !'!li!al / 2nd if ob/e!tive !onditions are different from & at t e' &ere in 1$%9 or 191$+ so mu! t e &orse for ob/e!tive !onditions. TErue ideas are eternal. t e' are indestru!tible+ t e' al&a's return ever' time t e' are pro!laimed dead+I Vizek &rites in is introdu!tion. @ne of t e se!tions in t e book is titled IDive t e di!tators ip of t e proletariat a ! an!eJI @f !ourse+ Vizek kno&s as &ell as an'one o& man' ! an!es it as been given+ and & at t e results ave been. 5n is re!ent books+ t erefore+ e as begun to arti!ulate a ne& rationale for revolution. one t at a!kno&ledges its destined failure in advan!e.
I eroi! attempt to sti!k to fundamental Aarxist !oordinates.I H en it !omes to t e eart of t e matter I2lt oug + in terms of t eir positive !ontent+ t e 7ommunist regimes &ere mostl' a dismal failure+ generating terror and miser'+I e explains+ Iat t e same time t e' opened up a !ertain spa!e+ t e spa!e of

E e !rimes denoted not t e failure of t e utopian experiments+ but t eir su!!ess. E is utopian dimension is so pre!ious t at it is &ort an' number of uman lives. Eo t e tens of millions alread' lost in 6ussia+ 7 ina+ 7ambodia+ and else& ere+ Vizek is prepared to add o&ever man' more are required. >e endorses t e formula of t e <ren! radi!al p ilosop er 2lain Ladiou: Imieu& vaut un desastre )uEun desetre$I better a disaster t an a la!k of being. E is ontolog' of revolution raises some questions. @n several o!!asions + Vizek des!ribes t e IutopianI moment of revolution as Idivine/T 5n support of t is notion e addu!es Halter Len/amin on Idivine violen!e.I IE e most obvious !andidate for Kdivine violen!e+KI e &rites in Kiolence+ Iis t e violent explosion of resentment
utopian expe!tations.I >e adds else& ere: I5n spite of 3or+ rat er+ because o'4 all its orrors+ t e 7ultural 6evolution undoubtedl' did !ontain elements of an ena!ted utopia.I & i! finds expression in a spe!trum t at ranges from mob l'n! ings to revolutionar' terror.I 5t is true t at Len/amin did+ in is &orst moments+ endorse revolutionar' violen!e in t ese terms. Lut for

<or Vizek+ & o sometimes emplo's religious tropes but !ertainl' does not believe in religion+ IdivineI is /ust an onorifi!((a loft' &a' of /ustif'ing is !all for uman sa!rifi!es/
Len/amin+ & o ad a quasi(m'sti!al temperament+ t e divine &as at least a real metap 'si!al !ategor': & en e said divine+ e meant divine.

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The al&erna&i)e relies on &he i$%osi&ion of a $essianic lea-er ens+ring )iolence Tor$e* an- (obinson. 3 . tea! es in t e 9! ool of =oliti!s and 7riti!al E eor' at t e ?niversit' of Cotting amF do!toral student in t e 9! ool of =oliti!s at t e ?niversit' of Cotting am 39imonF 2ndre&+ 92DN =ubli!ations+ 02 Ei!klis 9ub/e!tR Vizek and t e <uture of 8eft 6adi!alism14 <urt ermore+ despite Vizek*s emp asis on politi!s+ is dis!ussion of t e 2!t remains resolutel' individualist . as bents its !lini!al origins. Vizek*s examples of 2!ts are nearl' all isolated a!tions b' individuals+ su! as Aar' Qa' 8etourneau*s denan!e of /uridi!al pressure to end a relations ip &it a 'out + a soldier in <ull Aetal ;a!ket killing is drill sergeant and imself+ and t e a!ts of 9talinist bureau!rats & o re&rote istor' kno&ing t e' &ould later be purged 3Vizek+ 199$a: 21F 1999: 3%".$F 2001b: 9%.94. Nven t e 6ussian 6evolution be!omes for Vizek a set of individual ! oi!es b' 8enin+ 9talin and t e aforementioned bureau!rats+ as opposed to t e !ulmination of mass a!tions involving t ousands of ordinar' men and &omen. E is is problemati! as a basis for understanding previous so!ial transformations+ and even more so as a re!ommendation for t e future/ E e ne& sub/e!t Vizek envisages is an aut oritarian leader+ someone !apable of t e Pin erentl' terroristi!* a!tion of Predenning t e rules of t e game* 3Vizek+ 1999: 3$$4. He &ould argue t at t is is a !onservative+ if not rea!tionar'+ position/ Gonald 6ooum*s !artoon ! ara!ter Hild!at surel' grasps t e essen!e of left radi!al ambition rat er better & en e states+ P5 don*t /ust &ant freedom from t e !apitalists. 5 also &ant freedom from people nt to take over* 36ooum+ 1991: 244. 6egarding so!ial stru!tures+ furt ermore+ Vizek !onsistentl' prefers over!onformit' to resistan!e. <or im+ disidentin!ation &it one*s ideologi(!all'(denned role is not subversiveF rat er+ Pan ideologi!al edin!e !an be undermined b' a too(literal identin!ation* 3Vizek+ 199$a: 224. Ns!apism and ideas of an autonomous self are identi!al &it ideolog' be!ause t e' make intolerable !onditions Pliveable* 3Lutler et al.+ 2000: 1044F even pett' resist( an!e is a P!ondition of possibilit'* of t e s'stem 3Vizek+ 199$a: 204+ a supplement & i! sustains it. Eo be free of t e present+ one s ould renoun!e Pt e transgressive fantasmi! supplement t at atta! es us to it*+ and atta! oneself instead to t e publi! dis!ourse & i! po&er ofn!iall' promotes 3see+ for example+ Lutler et al.+ 2000: 220F Vizek+ 2000: 1494. 9o o& does Vizek distinguis is Pleftist* politi!s from Prig tist* alternatives & i! &ould equall' meet t e formal !riteria of an 2!tR Eo resolve t is dilemma e introdu!es t e idea of t e Pfalse 2!t* 3or Prig tist suspension of t e et i!al*4 to deal &it t is problem. <alse a!ts+ su! as t e Cazi seizure of po&er and t e bombing of 2fg anistan+ ave t e formal stru!ture of an 2!t+ but are false be!ause t e' involve impotent a!ting(out against a pseudoenem'+ and t erefore do not traverse t e a!tual so!ial fantas' 3see+ for example+ Lutler et al.+ 2000: 12#.$F Vizek+ 2001!: 44. E eir fun!tion+ rat er+ is to preserve t e s'stem t roug t e a!ting(out. @ne !an tell a true 2!t from a false 2!t b' assessing & et er an a!t is trul' negative+ i.e. negates all prior standards+ and b' & et er it emerges from a single Ptou! ' nodal point ...& i! de!ides & ere one trul' stands* 3Lutler et al.+ 2000: 12"4.19 E is is problemati! be!ause Vizek ere introdu!es external !riteria & ile else& ere stating t at t e 2!t must negate all su! !riteria. <urt ermore+ if t e aut eni!it' of an 2!t is dependent on an empiri!al assessment of & ere t e a!tual so!ial void is+ t en Vizek*s a!!ount of t e 2!t as t e assertion of a Erut over andagainst t e fa!ts is undermined.

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?iBek celebra&es <ar an- en-orses &erroris$/ Tor$e* an- (obinson. 03 . tea! es in t e 9! ool of =oliti!s and 7riti!al E eor' at t e ?niversit' of Cotting amF do!toral student in t e 9! ool of =oliti!s at t e ?niversit' of Cotting am 39imonF 2ndre&+ 92DN =ubli!ations+ 02 Ei!klis 9ub/e!tR Vizek and t e <uture of 8eft 6adi!alism14 2s be!omes evident+ P!lass struggle* is not for Vizek an empiri!al referent and even less a !ategor' of Aarxisant so!iologi!al anal'sis+ but a s'non'm for t e 8a!anian 6eal. 2 progressive endorsement of P!lass struggle* means positing t e la!k of a !ommon orizon and assuming or asserting t e insolubilit' of politi!al !onoi!t.% 5t t erefore involves a glorin!ation of !onoi!t+ antagonism+ terror and a militaristi! logi! of !arving t e neld into good and bad sides+ as a good in itself 3see+ for example+ t e dis!ussion in Vizek+ 2000: "$+ 12#4. Vizek !elebrates &ar be!ause it Pundermines t e !ompla!en!' of our dail' routine* b' introdu!ing Pmeaningless sa!rin!e and destru!tion* 3Vizek+ 1999: 10"4. >e fears being trapped b' a suffo!ating so!ial pea!e or Dood and so !alls on people to take a Pmilitant+ divisive position* of Passertion of t e Erut t at ent uses t em* 3Vizek+ 2001b: 23$.%4.9 E e !ontent of t is Erut is+ o&ever+ a se!ondar' issue. <or Vizek+ Erut as not ing to do &it trut !laims and t e neld of Pkno&ledge*. Erut is an event & i! P/ust appens*+ and in & i! Pt e t ing itself* is Pdis!losed to us as & at it is*.10 Erut is t erefore t e exaggeration & i! distorts an' balan!ed s'stem. 2 Ptrut (effe!t* o!!urs & enever a &ork produ!es a strong emotional rea!tion+ and it need not be identined &it empiri!al a!!ura!': lies and distortions !an ave a Ptrut (effe!t*+ and fa!tual trut !an !over t e disavo&al of desire and t e 6eal. ?iBek9s al&erna&i)e is al<a*s r+&hless. res+l&ing in &erroris$ an- sla)er*/ Tor$e* an- (obinson. 3 . tea! es in t e 9! ool of =oliti!s and 7riti!al E eor' at t e ?niversit' of Cotting amF do!toral student in t e 9! ool of =oliti!s at t e ?niversit' of Cotting am 39imonF 2ndre&+ 92DN =ubli!ations+ 02 Ei!klis 9ub/e!tR Vizek and t e <uture of 8eft 6adi!alism14 Vizek uses an example from t e nlm E e ?sual 9uspe!ts & ere t e ero s oots is famil' to give im a pretext for ! asing t e gang & o eld t em ostage. E is is t e P!raz'*+ impossible ! oi!e of+ in a &a'+ s ooting at imself+ at t at & i! is most pre!ious to imself*+ t roug & i! t e sub/e!t gains a Pspa!e of free de!ision* b' P!utting imself loose from t e pre!ious ob/e!t t roug & ose possession t e enem' kept im in ! e!k*+ and !lears t e terrain for a ne& beginning 3Lutler et al.+ 2000: 122.34. E roug an 2!t+ one negates one*s position in t e so!ial s'stem and destro's t e person one &as before. E e !on!ept of t e 2!t is t erefore palingeneti!: one destro's one*s former self to go t roug a moment of rebirt + but a rebirt grounded on a desire for Cot ingness rat er t an on an' parti!ular programme of ! ange 3Vizek+ 2000: 1##. $4. <or Vizek Pt e onl' legitimation of revolution is negative+ t e &ill to break &it t e =ast*+ and revolutionaries s ould not ave positive !on!eptions of an alternative to be realized 3Lutler et al.+ 2000: 1314. 6ut lessness is ! ara!teristi! of t e 2!t: Vizek ates soft( eartedness be!ause it Pblurs t e sub/e!t*s pure et i!al stan!e* and !alls for an 2!t Pimpervious to an' !all of t e @t er* 3Vizek+ 2001b: 111+ 1$"4. E e 2!t t us reprodu!es in t e so!io(politi!al neld t e 8a!anian !on!ept of traversing t e fantas'. Eraversing t e fantas' involves Pa!!epting* t at t ere is no &a' one !an be satisned+ and t erefore a Pfull a!!eptan!e of t e pain ... as in erent to t e ex!ess of pleasure & i! is /ouissan!e*+ as &ell as a re/e!tion of ever' !on!eption of radi!al differen!e 3Vizek+ 199$a: 30.14. 5t means Pan a!!eptan!e of t e fa!t t at t ere is no se!ret treasure in me* 3Vizek+ 199$a: 104+ and a transition from being t e Pnot ing* &e are toda' to being Pa Cot ing umbl' a&are of itself+ a Cot ing paradoxi!all' made ri! t roug t e ver' a&areness of its la!k* 3Vizek+ 2000: 14#.$4. 5t involves being redu!ed to a zero(point or Pultimate level* similar to t at seen in t e most broken !on!entration(!amp inmates 3Vizek+ 2001b: $#.$+ %#4+ so t e role of anal'sis is Pto t ro& out t e bab'* in order to !onfront t e patient &it is Pdirt' bat &ater* 3Vizek+ 199$a: #2.34+ indu!ing not an improvement but a transition Pfrom Lad to Horse*+ & i! is Pin erentl' 0terroristi!1* 3Vizek+ 1999: 3$$4. 5t is also not freedom in t e usual sense+ but prostration before t e !all of t e trut (event+ Psomet ing violentl' imposedon me from t e @utside t roug a traumati! en!ounter t at s atters t e ver' foundation of m' being* 3Vizek+ 1999: 3$$4. Hit s ades of @r&ell+ Vizek !laims t at t e 2!t involves Pt e ig est freedom and also t e utmost passivit' &it a redu!tion to a lifeless automaton & o blindl' performs its gestures*. 5n ot er &ords+ in t e 2!t freedom equals slaver' 3Vizek+ 1999: 3$$4.

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!o fixe- +n-ers&an-ing of &he %oli&ical a%%lies &o all si&+a&ions/ The* $igh& ha)e %ers+asi)e -escri%&ions of Lacan9s &heor* b+& no&hing &ha& a%%lies i& &o o+r aff/ (obinson L=h" =oli&ical Theor*. @ni)ersi&* of !o&&ingha$I 03 3E eor' and Nvent+ 2ndre&+ %:1+ E e =oliti!al E eor' of 7onstitutive 8a!k: 2 7ritique4. @ne of t e fun!tions of m't is to !ut out & at Erevor =ateman terms t e Imiddle levelI of anal'ti!al !on!epts+ establis ing a s ort(!ir!uit bet&een ig (level generalizations and ultra(spe!ifi! 3pseudo(4 !on!rete instan!es. 5n Lart esKs !lassi! !ase of an image of a bla!k soldier saluting t e <ren! flag+ t is individual a!tion is impli!itl' !onne!ted to ig l' abstra!t !on!epts su! as nationalism+ &it out t e mediation of t e parti!ularities of is situation. 3E ese parti!ularities+ if revealed+ !ould undermine t e m't . =er aps e enlisted for finan!ial reasons+ or due to t reats of violen!e4. E us+ & ile m't s provide an anal'sis of sorts+ t eir basi! operation is anti(anal'ti!al: t e anal'ti!al s! ema is fixed in advan!e+ and t e relations ip bet&een t is s! ema and t e instan!es it organizes is ierar! i!all' ordered to t e ex!lusive advantage of t e former. E is is pre!isel' & at appens in 8a!anian anal'ses of spe!ifi! politi!al and !ultural p enomena. Zi[ek spe!ifi!all' advo!ates Ks&eeping generalizationsK and s ort(!uts bet&een spe!ifi! instan!es and ig (level abstra!tions+ evading t e Imiddle levelI. KE e !orre!t diale!ti!al pro!edure... !an be best des!ribed as a dire!t /ump from t e singular to t e universal+ b'passing t e mid(level of parti!ularit'K. >e &ants a Kdire!t /ump from t e singular to t e universalK+ &it out referen!e to parti!ular !ontexts. =refer o+r s%ecific sol)enc* e)i-ence o)er &heir generic &heor*/ We <ill -efen- agains& an* s%ecific case &+rn b+& canno& -efen- agains& a &+rn &ha& &he* sa* is roo&e- in &he +nconscio+s/ (obinson L=h" =oli&ical Theor*. @ni)ersi&* of !o&&ingha$I 03 3E eor' and Nvent+ 2ndre&+ %:1+ E e =oliti!al E eor' of 7onstitutive 8a!k: 2 7ritique4. E e te! ni!al term operates in mu! t e same &a' as in positivisti! t eories+ & ere t e use of a noun turns a set of observed Ifa!tsI into a Ila&I. 8a!k 3in t e sense of t e verb Ito la!kI4 is explained b' means of a nominalized la!k 3for instan!e+ t e failure of so!iet' b' t e fa!t of antagonism4+ and t e various versions of nominalized la!k are arranged in senten!es involving t e verb Ito beI. 5t is not simpl' a relation of dislo!ation but a t eoreti!al entit' in its o&n rig t. <or instan!e+ KI!lass struggleI is t at on a!!ount of & i! ever' dire!t referen!e to universalit'... is... IbiasedI+ dislo!ated &it regard to its literal meaning. I7lass struggleI is t e Aarxist name for t is basi! Ioperator of dislo!ationIK90. @ne mig t !ompare t is formula to t e statement+ I5 donKt kno& & at !auses dislo!ationI. Zi[ek also refers to istor' Kas a series of ultimatel' failed attempts to deal &it t e same Iun istori!alI+ traumati! kernel*. Gallma'r similarl' &rites of 8a!lau and AouffeKs !on!ept of antagonism t at Knegativit' designates not simpl' a la!k but a Ini ilatingI poten!'K+ Ka ni ilating ferment &it real effe!tsK92+ and Ce&man &rites of a K!reative and !onstitutive absen!eK. Lutler notes t at Kt e IrealI t at is a Iro!kI or a IkernelI or sometimes a Isubstan!eI is also+ and sometimes &it in t e same senten!e+ Ia lossI+ a Inegativit'IK94. 7onstitutive la!k is a positivit' ( an Ioperator of dislo!ationI+ a Ini ilatingI element ( in t e 8a!anian vo!abular'. 5t is t is pro!ess of m't i!al !onstru!tion & i! allo&s la!k to be defined pre!isel'+ and & i! t erefore meets 3for instan!e4 Ce&manKs !riterion t at it be less Kradi!all' underdefinedK t an GerridaKs !on!ept of la!k9". @ne !an onl' avoid an I5(donKt(kno&I being underdefined if one misrepresents it m't i!all'.

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?iBek9s Ac& fails &o acco$%lish f+n-a$en&al change,i& is $erel* &hera%e+&ic for in-i)i-+als/ (obinson 02 32ndre&+ = G+ politi!al t eor'+ ?niversit' of Cotting am+ 05ntrodu!tion: E e Lasi! Vizekian Aodel+1 E eor' Llog+ ttp:))and'robinsont eor'blog.blogspot.!om)2004)11)zizek(notes(and(&ork(in(progressY1". tml4 H ' does Vizek support t e 2!tR 2lt oug e !onne!ts t e 2!t to Kradi!alismK+ e does not state an'& ere t at t e 2!t a!!omplis es an' fundamental ! ange in t e deep stru!ture of existen!eF at best+ it !an temporaril' suspend 3for instan!e4 ex!lusion. E is is not an attempt to a! ieve a better &orld 3still less a perfe!t oneJ4 but a purel' stru!tural attempt to restore somet ing & i! Vizek t inks is missing. 5n t is sense+ even in its Kradi!alismK+ t e 2!t is !onservative. Vizek is !on!erned t at t e matrix of sublimation ( t e possibilit' of produ!ing KsublimeK ob/e!ts & i! seem to en!apsulate t e absolute ( is under t reat 3<2 2#F else& ere+ Vizek atta!ks postmodernists and ot er Kne& sop istsK for t is4. E e 2!t in & atever form reprodu!es t e possibilit' of sublimit'F in t is sense+ it reprodu!es old !ertainties in ne& forms+ undermining all t e gains made b' t eories of istori!it' and !ontingen!'. E e purpose of t e 2!t+ & i! Vizek as transplanted from ps'! oanal'ti! pra!ti!e 3dire!ted at individual ps'! es4 to so!io(politi!al pra!ti!e 3dire!ted at entire so!ial s'stems4 &it out !onsidering & et er t is is possible or appropriate+ is primaril' t erapeuti!. E e role of t e 2!t is to solve t e antinom' of t e present b' asserting a 6eal against t e !ombined 5maginar' and 6eal of simula!ra+ t ereb' reintrodu!ing t e impossibilit' t at s atters t e 5maginar'+ enabling us to traverse t e fantas' 3E9 3$4F t e fantas' is t e extimate kernel of libidinal investment & i! Vizek sees lurking almost ever'& ere4. Vizek seems to be restoring to ps'! oanal'sis a naive !on!eption of ps'! ologi!al ealt : via t e ex ni ilo a!t+ one !an es!ape t e logi! of t e s'mptom 3G99E 1$%4. ?iBek9s Ac& is ra-icall* nihilis&ic an- acco$%lishes no&hing %oli&ical/ (obinson 02 32ndre&+ = G+ politi!al t eor'+ ?niversit' of Cotting am+ 05ntrodu!tion: E e Lasi! Vizekian Aodel+1 E eor' Llog+ ttp:))and'robinsont eor'blog.blogspot.!om)2004)11)zizek(notes(and(&ork(in(progressY1". tml4 5t is important to realise t at t e 2!t is not revolutionar' in t e sense of !reating somet ing ne& on t e basis of an ideal+ or an imaginar'+ or t e restoration of an aut enti! pre(alienated state+ or an' ot er pro!ess & i! &ould allo& one to !reate somet ing on t e basis of a pro/e!t and praxis. E e 2!t is radi!all' ni ilisti! 3see belo&4. <or Vizek+ t e sub/e!t !an ! ange not ing ( all it !an do is add itself to realit' b' an a!t of !laiming responsibilit' for t e given 39@5 2214. Vizek is a little in!onsistent on t e relations ip bet&een t e 2!t and t e existing s'stem+ but on t e & ole+ e seems to see 2!ts as o!!urring for t e s'stem+ against imaginaries and espe!iall' t e extimate kernel of fantas'. 7 ristianit' did not so mu! suspend t e la&+ sa's Vizek+ as suspend its obs!ene supplement 3<2 1304 3i.e. extimate kernel4. Vizek t inks fantas' is fundamentall' in!onsistent+ so it is an Iet i!al dut'I to put t is on displa'+ in order to disrupt fantas' 3=< $4F see 7@C9N6B2E59A on VizekKs tenden!' to !onflate Kdispla'ingK &it KdoingK+ so t at t e boundar' bet&een being a sexist or a fas!ist and displa'ing sexism or fas!ism to disrupt it is un!lear4. Vizek is in!onsistent+ o&ever+ sin!e t ere are also o!!asions & en e seems to &ant to en!ourage fantasies 3E9 "14. 7ru!iall'+ t e 2!t is also a form of de!isiveness. Vizek &ants to pin do&n va!illating signifiers &it out using a Aaster(9ignifier or quilting(point+ e sa's on one o!!asion 3<2 139(404. Nlse& ere 3eg. on 7 avez and 8enin4+ e seems to rat er like t e Aaster or I@neI & ose 2!t KquiltsK t e field. Nit er &a'+ t e 2!t seems to give a !ertain fo!us to dis!ourse+ a!ting as a !entre. 2s is dis!ussions of t e vanis ing mediator s o&+ e sees t e 2!t establis ing a ne& set of s'mboli! and imaginar' dis!ourses & i! restore t e role of t e master(signifier+ b' dire!tl' adopting t e position of t e extimate kernel. Vizek also sees t e 2!t as a resolution of a dilemma. 2!!ording to Vizek+ Dood assumes 3and t erefore produ!es4 Nvil+ and t e 2!t es!apes t e resulting dilemma b' breaking &it Dood 3E9 3%2F t is is also & at distinguis es t e 2!t as diaboli!al Nvil from ever'da' evil ( !rime+ t e >olo!aust and so on4. <or Vizek+ denial of t e possibilit' of t e 2!t is t e root of evil 3E9 3$#4. H at seems !ompletel' missing ere is an' !ase for t e 2!t t at in an' &a' /ustifies et i!all' t e terrible nature of t e 2!t+ bot for its perpetrator and for ot ersF one !an onl' reall' a!!ept VizekKs 2!t if one pla!es at t e !ore of oneKs belief(s'stem t e importan!e of resolving dilemmas in some supposed deep stru!ture of existen!e+ so & at matters is not uman or so!ial !onsequen!es or an' spe!ifi! beliefs+ but merel' t e adoption of a stru!tural position & i! solves !ontradi!tions in and t ereb' over!omes t e problems of a stru!ture. Gespite VizekKs repeated use of t e term Iet i!sI+ t erefore+ t is is in man' &a's not an et i!al s'stem at all+ but a kind of model of stru!tural problem(solving ( a It erap'I for so!iet'+ passed off as et i!s.

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?iBek9s al&erna&i)e conce%&+aliBes c+l&+re as ha)ing so $+ch %o<er o)er in-i)i-+als &ha& libera&ion is i$%ossible/ (obinson 02 32ndre&+ = G+ politi!al t eor'+ ?niversit' of Cotting am+ 05ntrodu!tion: E e Lasi! Vizekian Aodel+1 E eor' Llog+ ttp:))and'robinsont eor'blog.blogspot.!om)2004)11)zizek(notes(and(&ork(in(progressY1". tml4 E e 2!t is a fundamentall' negative o!!urren!e in & i! one strips oneself of all uman dignit' and Kre!ognisesK t at one is not ing but ex!rement+ t at t ere is no Klittle treasureK inside and t at t e sub/e!t is not ing but a void. 35t is t erefore utterl' in!ompatible &it approa! es & i! involve a!tion ( eg. praxis ( as a umanising p enomenon4. IL' traversing t e fantas'+ t e sub/e!t a!!epts t e void of is nonexisten!eI 3E9 2%14. Eraversing t e fantas' leads to sub/e!tive destitution: abandoning t e notion of somet ing Kin me more t an m'selfK and re!ognising t at t e big @t er is not ing but a semblan!e. E is involves a ! ange in oneKs &orldvie&: t e Ianal'stKs desireI makes possible a !ommunit' minus its p antasmi! support+ &it out an' need for a Ksub/e!t supposed to...K 3kno&+ en/o' or believe4 3E9 29#4. 35n t is passage Vizek portra's t e 2!t as leading to a fundamental s ift in ! ara!ter(stru!ture+ alt oug t is is not a !laim e repeats !onsistentl'4. 2n 2!t is defined b' t e ! ara!teristi! t at it Isurprises)transforms t e agent itselfI 37>? 124F a ! oi!e in t e usual sense !annot t erefore be an 2!t4. 5t involves sub/e!tive destitution+ a 3supposedl'4 liberating moment+ It e anti(ideologi!al gesture par ex!ellen!e b' means of & i! 5 renoun!e t e treasure &it in m'self and full' admit m' dependen!e on t e externalit' of s'mboli! apparatuses ( t at is to sa'+ full' assume t e fa!t t at m' ver' self(experien!e of a sub/e!t & o &as alread' t ere prior to t e external pro!ess of interpellation is a retrospe!tive misre!ognition broug t about b' t e pro!ess of interpellationI 37>? 134F CL o& t is means endorsing !ontrol b' t e s'stem+ not opposing itF !f. A2EN652859A4. E e 2!t t erefore involves an utter prostration before s'mboli! apparatuses: C@E t e liberation of t e uman from t e s'stem+ but t e total vi!tor' of t e s'stem over umans 3!f. VizekKs support for Lig Lrot er(t'pe surveillan!eF see A26b4. ?iBek9s al&erna&i)e is i$%ossible &o H+-ge,i& is so o%en en-e- &ha& i& -enies all ra&ional assess$en&/ (obinson. 02 32ndre&+ = G+ politi!al t eor'+ ?niversit' of Cotting am+ 05ntrodu!tion: E e Lasi! Vizekian Aodel+1 E eor' Llog+ ttp:))and'robinsont eor'blog.blogspot.!om)2004)11)zizek(notes(and(&ork(in(progressY1". tml4 Cot surprisingl' given t at e sees t e 2!t as s attering meaning+ Vizek &ants a !ommitment & i! is Idogmati!I+ I!annot be refuted b' an' KargumentationK I and Idoes not ask for good reasonsI+ and & i! is IindifferentI to t e trut (status of t e Nvent it refers to 3E9 ****F find referen!e4. 2 Ge!ision 32!t4 is !ir!ular+ a s ibbolet + and a !reative a!t & i! nevert eless reveals a !onstitutive void & i! is invisible 3E9 13%F CL t e slippage bet&een epistemolog' and ontolog' ere: o& do &e kno& t e 2!t is revealing rat er t an !reating t e voidR4. 8a& is legitimated b' transferen!e: it is onl' !onvin!ing to t ose & o alread' believe 39@5 3%4. E e 2!t subverts a given field as su! and a! ieves t e apparentl' KimpossibleK b' retroa!tivel' !reating t e !onditions of its possibilit' b' ! anging its !onditions 37>? 1214. 5t as its o&n in erent normativit'+ la!king an' simple external standards 3E9 3%%4 2s &ell as being problemati! in itself+ t is kind of open advo!ation of irrationalism and dogmatism &ould seem to rule out t e possibilit' of empiri!all' or rationall' assessing t e validit' of a parti!ular 2!t: b' definition an 2!t is not open to su! assessment+ so one !annot /udge bet&een a false 3eg. Cazi4 and a true 2!t+ sin!e t is &ould involve pre!isel' su! a rational and empiri!al pro!ess of assessment 3Igood reasonsI and trut (status4. E is raises problems for VizekKs attempts to distan!e imself from Cazism 3see belo&+ on false a!ts4. 2lso+ Vizek is being in!onsistent in tr'ing to defend su! an atta!k on !ommuni!ation b' !ommuni!ative means 3!an one make a rational !ase against rationalit'R4.

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?iBek9s al&erna&i)e reD+ires an aban-on$en& of e&hics an- acce%&ing an obli&era&ion of &he self/ (obinson 02 32ndre&+ = G+ politi!al t eor'+ ?niversit' of Cotting am+ 05ntrodu!tion: E e Lasi! Vizekian Aodel+1 E eor' Llog+ ttp:))and'robinsont eor'blog.blogspot.!om)2004)11)zizek(notes(and(&ork(in(progressY1". tml4 VizekKs t eor' of t e 2!t presupposes a belief t at &e are all basi!all' &ort less. IE e ultimate level of t e et i!al experien!eI is found in t e utterl' broken vi!tim of t e Cazi or 9talinist !amps 3G99E %#4+ & i! means one I&ill be surprised to learn o& even t e darkest 9talinism arbours a redemptive dimensionI 3G99E %%4. >umanit' per se is redu!ible to t e most broken
!on!entration !amp inmates 3i.e. t e ones & o ave gone be'ond tr'ing o re!onstru!t meaning t roug pett' resistan!esF referred to in t e !amps as IAuslimsI or IAusselmenI be!ause of t eir resemblan!e to famine vi!tims4F t ese people &ere not de umanised b' t e Cazis+ but rat er+ express an in uman kernel of umanit' 3G99E $#($4. E is kind of person is t e I Kzero(levelK of umanit'I & i! makes uman s'mboli! engagement possible b' &iping t e slate of animal instin!ts 3G99E $$F CL t e strong binar' operative ere+ & i! is totall' fla&ed: dogs s o& similar modes of a!tion & en exposed to similar situations+ su! as 9eligmanKs dogs in t e Klearned elplessnessK experiments4. Vizek t inks &e all ave ad to go t roug t is experien!e 3G99E $$(%4. E is experien!e also negates t e !on!ept of aut enti!it' 3t oug not enoug to stop Vizek using it else& ere4: one !anKt sa' su! vi!tims are involved in an aut enti! existential pro/e!t+ but it &ould be !'ni!al to sa' t e' are living an inaut enti! existen!e sin!e it is ot ers+ not t emselves+ & o degrade t em 3G99E $%(9F 5 donKt a!tuall' see & ' an external basis for subordination &ould affe!t t e !on!ept of aut enti!it' in t e slig testF per aps it &ould affe!t t e strongest versions & i! assume pure freedom+ but it &ould not undermine+ for instan!e+ t e later 9artre+ sin!e in t is !ase t e aut enti!it' of t e pro/e!t as been defeated b' t e pra!ti!o( inert+ leading to a state of existen!e e terms IexisI: a degraded existen!e &it out pro/e!t4. 5 t ink a Geleuzian anal'sis &ould be more appropriate ere: t e de umanisation of t ese vi!tims results from t e 3temporar'4 total vi!tor' of t e @edipal)aut oritarian !age: flo&s and breaks are !ut off or utterl' !ontained &it in an order of po&er)kno&ledge+ &it t e politi!al !on!lusion being t at freedom exists in a struggle &it domination and t at t e struggle for freedom is ne!essar' to prevent us being redu!ed to t is level. Lut t is &ould be partl' a !ausal a!!ount+ & ereas Vizek seems to &ant a pure et i!s. H ere

F Vizek !annot in all seriousness !riti!ise t e in umanit' of t e !on!entration !amps if t e' simpl' reveal our essen!e+ and it is ard to see o& one !ould oppose t e Cazis if t e' did not de umanise t eir vi!tims or treat t em in umanel'. 5ndeed+ su! an ex!remental redu!tion is somet ing Vizek else& ere praises+ and is attempts to distan!e imself from Cazism ave not ing to do &it t e in umanit' of t e !ampsF rat er+ t e' revolve around nit(pi!king over & et er t e Cazis reall' traversed t e fantas' or stopped s ort at a false a!t 3see belo&4. E e 2!t is a submission: revolutionaries s ould be!ome Ifollo&ersI of t e trut (event and its !all 3E9 22$F t is reprodu!es &it a reversed sign BaneigemKs !on!ept of t e 7ause as a form of alienation. !f. Gonald 6ooumKs !artoon Hild!at: I5 donKt /ust &ant freedom from t e !apitalists+ 5 also &ant freedom from people fit to take overI4. 8ove is Inot ing butI an a!t of self(erasure & i! breaks t e ! ain of /usti!e 3G99E 49("04. Vizek demands submission to radi!all' exterior+ meaningless in/un!tions+ Iexperien!ed as a radi!all' traumati! intrusionI+ & i! Ia rene&ed 8eft s ould aim at full' endorsingIF Isomet ing violentl' imposed on me from t e @utside t roug a traumati! en!ounter t at s atters t e ver' foundations of m' beingI 3E9 2124. 5t also involves t e negation of dignit': Vizek refers to I eroi!all' renoun!ing t e last vestiges of nar!issisti! dignit' and a!!omplis ing t e a!t for & i! one is grotesquel' inadequateI 3E9 3"24. E e eroism of t e a!t is to openl' endorse a transition Ifrom Lad to HorseI+ and for t is reason+ a true a!t+ & i! redefines t e Krules of t e gameK+ is Iin erentl' Kterroristi!K I 3E9 3$$4. E us+ instead of t e Iliberal trapI of respe!ting some rig ts and re/e!ting obligator' =art' lines+ one s ould seek t e Igood terrorI+ i.e. ! oosing & at one as to do 3E9 3$%4. 2n' qualms are dismissed b' Vizek as I umanist 'steri!al s irking t e a!tI 3E9 3%0F CL t is misuse of !lini!al !ategories in so!io(ideologi!al anal'sis qui!kl' leads Vizek into problems: t e 8a!anian !ategories obsessional) 'steri!al)ps'! oti!)perverse are stri!tl' in!ompatible+ & ereas it is quite !lear t at a t eorist & o K 'steri!all'K re/e!ts terror ma' easil' also Kps'! oti!all'K believe in literalit' and Kperversel'K believe in de!oded flo&s4. E e 2!t involves a!!epting utter self(obliteration+ and re/e!ting all !ompassion 3E9 3$%4.
VizekKs a!!ount leads politi!all' is far more sinister

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?iBek9s :ac&; erases all co$%assion for o&hers/ (obinson 02 32ndre&+ = G+ politi!al t eor'+ ?niversit' of Cotting am+ 05ntrodu!tion: E e Lasi! Vizekian Aodel+1 E eor' Llog+ ttp:))and'robinsont eor'blog.blogspot.!om)2004)11)zizek(notes(and(&ork(in(progressY1". tml4 2ssuming an 2!t means re/e!ting all !on!ern for ot ers and making oneself+ to all intents and purposes+ a ro!k. 5n t e 2!t+ one Iassumes... t e full burden of freedom impervious to an' !all of t e @t erI 3G99E 1$"4. H ereas in Gerrida and ot er postmodernists+ argues Vizek+ et i!s is a response to t e !all of t e @t er+ eit er ab'ssal or a!tual+ in VizekKs 8a!an t e et i!al a!t proper suspends bot of t ese along &it t e rest of t e Kbig @t erK 3G99E 1#14. Vizek loat es Ksoft( eartednessK be!ause it Iblurs t e sub/e!tKs pure et i!al stan!eI. 5n t is passage+ e is referring to 9talinist vie&sF but is !riti!ism of t em is not of t is loat ingF rat er+ e t inks It at t e' &ere not KpureK enoug I be!ause t e' got !aug t in an emotional sense of dut' 3G99E 1114. E is a!!ording to Vizek is t e differen!e bet&een 8enin and 9talin: VizekKs 8enin did not be!ome emotionall' atta! ed to is 2!t 3G99E 1134. VizekKs et i!al anti( umanism goes so far t at e advo!ates ating t e beloved out of love 3<2 12#4+ be!ause & at one s ould love is not t eir uman person. Vizek also endorses QantKs attempt to purge et i!s of istori!al !ontents+ in!luding !ompassion and !on!ern for ot ers 3=< 232(34. ?iBek9s al&erna&i)e fails &o &ransfor$ &he exis&ing or-er,i& is a sho& in &he -ark/ (obinson 02 32ndre&+ = G+ politi!al t eor'+ ?niversit' of Cotting am+ 05ntrodu!tion: E e Lasi! Vizekian Aodel+1 E eor' Llog+ ttp:))and'robinsont eor'blog.blogspot.!om)2004)11)zizek(notes(and(&ork(in(progressY1". tml4 >o& one lo!ates t e 2!t in relation to revolution depends /ust o& fundamentall' t e ! ange involved in a revolution is !on!eived. E e 2!t a!!ording to Vizek disrupts)overt ro&s t e existing order of 5maginar' and 9'mboli! alignments 3t oug t is does not of !ourse make it revolutionar' in pra!ti!e4F o&ever+ is a!!ount seems to involve t e restoration of t e basi! stru!ture of t e so!ial s'stem subsequentl'+ so t ere is no possibilit' of meaningful ! ange in terms of over!oming so!ial oppression and ex!lusion or t e irrationalities of ideolog'. 3E is also leaves t e question of & ' an 2!t &ould lead to an't ing betterF indeed+ Vizek denies t at it &ould. 9o & ' opt for an 2!tR4. 5n a sense+ t e 2!t is !onservative. Eraversing t e
fantas' involves t e a!t of Ka!!eptingK t ere is no &a' one !an ever be satisfied: a dire!t relation to t e ob/et petit a 3i.e. desired ob/e!t4 minus t e s!reen of fantas'+ involving Ia full a!!eptan!e of t e pain... as in erent to t e ex!ess of pleasure & i! is /ouissan!eI 3=< 304. E is means a!!epting Iradi!al ontologi!al !losureI ( i.e. Ka!!eptingK t at t ere is no radi!al differen!e ( and also t at I&e renoun!e ever' opening+ ever' belief in t e messiani! @t ernessI+ in!luding+ for instan!e+ Gerridean and 8evinasian !on!epts of being Kout(of(/ointK 3=< 314+ espe!iall' t e idea of /ouissan!e being amassed else& ere. E is leads one into t e realm of driveF one be!omes Ieternal(KundeadK I 3=< 314. 3Vizek is ere repla!ing an irrational belief t at /ouissan!e is amassed else& ere &it an irrational belief t at it isnKtF t e existen!e or non(existen!e of differen!e and @t erness is an empiri!al question+ and VizekKs refusal to a!!ept t at radi!al @t erness !ould exist renders is t eor' potentiall' extremel' normalist and et no!entri!4.

7ru!iall'+ t e 2!t does not involve over!oming 8a& and t e s'stem. 5t involves suspending t em+ so t e' !an be resurre!ted or resus!itated on a ne& basis. 2lt oug t e 2!t is a Ks ot in t e darkK 3preventing voluntar' re!onstru!tion)transformation of so!iet'4+ nevert eless it al&a's involves a ne!essar' betra'al 3see E94 & i! reprodu!es t e @edipal)aut oritarian stru!ture of t e &orldF t e vanis ing mediator al&a's vanis es so as to restore t e s'stem. 5t is interesting to note VizekKs insisten!e on using t e
&ord IsuspensionI 39t =aulKs suspension of t e la&+ t e leftist suspension of t e et i!s+ and so on4. E e suspension of t e 8a&+ as s o&n in VizekKs quote from 9t =aul 3E9 1"0(14+ is !learl' in fa!t somet ing more: it is in a sense ps'! oti!+ breaking &it bot 8a& and desire. Lut it is a suspension be!ause it resurre!ts 8a& in t e more total form of t e 7ause. 5t is interesting t at Vizek ! ooses t e &ord IsuspensionI. 5f Vizek as in mind a destru!tion or fundamental transformation of t e 8a& or et i!s+ t ere are so man' better terms e !ould ave ! osen: abolition+ destru!tion+ smas ing+ over!oming+ trans!ending+ sublating+ surpassing and so on. E at e 3more(or(less !onsistentl'4 uses t e term IsuspensionI is t erefore probabl' signifi!ant. E is term implies a temporar' absen!e of t e p enomenon in

& at is suspended 38a&+ et i!s+ et!.4 nevert eless returns in t e same basi! form as before 3& i! presumabl' means its stru!tural nature is basi!all' t e same4.
question+ as opposed to its permanent destru!tion+ repla!ement+ or even transformation. 5n ot er &ords:

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?iBek9s %oli&ics rel* on ex&re$e in-i)i-+alis$,i& res+l&s in no social change/ (obinson 02 32ndre&+ = G+ politi!al t eor'+ ?niversit' of Cotting am+ 05ntrodu!tion: E e Lasi! Vizekian Aodel+1 E eor' Llog+ ttp:))and'robinsont eor'blog.blogspot.!om)2004)11)zizek(notes(and(&ork(in(progressY1". tml4 E e !ategor' of t e 2!t involves extreme met odologi!al individualism. E e assumption t at an individual 2!t !an alter so!iet' as a & ole+ & atever its eart (s attering ps'! ologi!al !onsequen!es for a parti!ular individual+ is deepl' fla&ed. E is problem is related to VizekKs inappropriate expansion of & at are at root !lini!al)t erapeuti! !on!epts into so!io( politi!al anal'sis. 5ndividual 2!ts do not ave dire!t so!ial effe!ts. E e Aar' Qa' 8etourneau !ase+ for instan!e+ as not substantiall' ! anged popular per!eptions of non(abusive relations bet&een legal( and illegal(age peopleF it !ertainl' as not s attered t e so!ial stru!ture. 6at er+ 8etourneau as been anat ematised and vi!timised b' t e state. @n a so!ial level+ t e 2!t is impotent and politi!all' irrelevantF it as no transformative role and makes sense onl' in a !losed anal'ti!al s'stem. Nven & en 2!ts of VizekKs t'pe do ave so!ial effe!ts+ t ere is no reason to believe t at t ese effe!ts s atter or reformulate entire so!ial stru!tures. VizekKs a!!ount ere rests on ps'! ologising so!ial stru!tures+ imagining t at t ese stru!tures rest on t e same basis as a 8a!anian a!!ount of t e ps'! e. 2!tuall'+ a single a!t on t e superfi!ial level is unlikel' to alter t e so!ial stru!ture an' more t an a tin' amount. <or instan!e: suppose 8etourneauKs 2!t &orkedF suppose t e la& &as ! anged to make love a defen!e for !onsensual sex a!ross t e age(of(!onsent boundar'. Hould t is ave an' deep(rooted so!ial effe!tsR 9urel' not. 9u! ! anges ave not+ for instan!e+ taken us ver' far to&ards ga' liberationF t e situation is better t an it &as+ but t e so!ial position of ga' men as not been res aped dramati!all'. 2!ts are impotent against deep pre/udi!es. 9in!e 2!ts do not ave meaningful so!ial effe!ts+ t e' !annot reall' elp t e &orst(off group 3so!ial s'mptom4. 5f t e I!at arti! momentI of a break &it t e dominant ideolog' onl' o!!urs in a single individual+ t e so!ial s'stem &ould not be armed. Eo be effe!tive+ it &ould ave to produ!e a ne& !on!eption of t e &orld & i! is expansive and !onvin!es &ide strata of t e population. Vizek is missing t e signifi!an!e of revolutions su! as in 6ussia & en e sees t em as pure 2!ts b' leadersF t is is an intentionalist delusion. 2s Drams!i rig tl' puts it+ ea! revolution involves an Iintense !riti!al labourI & ereb' a ne& !on!eption of t e &orld is formulated+ spread and used to !reate a !olle!tive &ill. E e !olle!tive &ill does not simpl' spring mira!ulousl' from a leaderKs & im. ?iBek9s al&erna&i)e is so ra-icall* nega&i)e &ha& i& is +nable &o for$+la&e ne< %oli&ics/ (obinson 02 32ndre&+ = G+ politi!al t eor'+ ?niversit' of Cotting am+ 05ntrodu!tion: E e Lasi! Vizekian Aodel+1 E eor' Llog+ ttp:))and'robinsont eor'blog.blogspot.!om)2004)11)zizek(notes(and(&ork(in(progressY1". tml4 Le!ause of is extreme met odologi!al individualism+ Vizek ends up &it a ig l' intentionalist+ leader(fixated model of politi!s & i! is aut oritarian and also exaggerates t e role of leaders bot in pra!ti!e and potentiall'. 9talinism+ for instan!e+ &as not a
result of an 2!t b' 9talin and 8eninF it &as a so!ial(stru!tural p enomenon involving t e a!tions of man' individuals+ &it a I istor' of ever'da' lifeI and stru!tural d'nami!s su! as intrabureau!rati! !ompetition+ resulting from t e mode 3or modes4 of t oug t and a!tion it involved. E e extension of !lini!al !ategories into so!iet' requires t e redu!tion of !on!epts & i! are usuall' diverse to singularit':

VizekKs politi!s are Ia pres!ription for politi!al quietism and sterilit'I 38a!lau+ 7>? 2934. 5 disagree &it 8a!lauKs reasons for !laiming t is+ but t e !on!lusion is valid: t e 2!t as little pra!ti!al politi!al relevan!e+ and VizekKs se!tarianism 3see 6N959E2C7N4 leaves im aloof from a!tual politi!al struggles. Vizek seems to ave no real sense of & at is important in politi!s. <or Vizek+ t e main issue is
one un!ons!ious+ s'mptom+ fundamental fantas'+ et!. for entire so!ieties or even t e & ole of umanit'. E is is in !ontradi!tion &it ps'! oanal'ti! pra!ti!e and also is implausible. reviving t e !ategor' of t e 2!t+ to fill a supposed stru!tural void. Lut t ere are man' !on!rete issues & i! are man' times more important: !losing do&n t e HE@+ fig ting ba!k against t e &ave of poli!e repression+ stopping t e & olesale !ommodifi!ation of so!iet'+ stopping environmental destru!tion+ stopping Lus Ks ra!ist &ar+ smas ing !apitalism+ et!. K6estoring t e properl' et i!al dimension of t e a!tK onl' matters to someone & o is so trapped in is o&n t eor' t at e t inks t e & ole &orld revolves around it. 3H at did Hittgenstein sa' about p ilosop ' and masturbationR4. Vizek s ould let t e fl' out

. Vizek la!ks+ and is presumabl' unable on prin!iple to formulate+ a positive !on!eption of & at s ould repla!e t e present s'stem. >is suggestions are eit er vague and naive 3so!ialising !'berspa!e+ for instan!e4+ reprodu!e !apitalism 3t e ne!essit' of betra'al4+ or set up somet ing &orse 3terror4. VizekKs endorsement of Iabsolute negativit'I is a barrier to is developing a!tual alternatives.
t e /arJ E e abstra!t and essentialist pursuit of t e Ia!t properI is a distra!tion from !ontingent politi!al struggles

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The al&erna&i)e fails' Lacan +n-er>-e)elo%s &he connec&ion be&<een in-i)i-+al %s*ches an- +ni)ersal +n-ers&an-ings/ The* <ill no& be able &o ex%lain ho< one %erson &hinking <ill change socie&*/ (obinson L=h" =oli&ical Theor*. @ni)ersi&* of !o&&ingha$I 03 3E eor' and Nvent+ 2ndre&+ %:1+ E e =oliti!al E eor' of 7onstitutive 8a!k: 2 7ritique4. 8a!anian anal'sis !onsists mainl' of an exer!ise in pro/e!tion. 2s a result+ 8a!anian IexplanationsI often look more propagandisti! or pedagogi!al t an explanator'. 2 parti!ular !ase is dealt &it onl' in order to+ and to t e extent t at it !an+ !onfirm t e alread'(formulated stru!tural t eor'. ;udit Lutler !riti!izes Zi[ekKs met od on t e grounds t at Kt eor' is applied to its examplesK+ as if Kalread' true+
prior to its exemplifi!ationK. KE e t eor' is arti!ulated on its self(suffi!ien!'+ and t en s ifts register onl' for t e pedagogi!al purpose of illustrating an alread' a!!omplis ed trut K. 5t is t erefore Ka t eoreti!al fetis t at disavo&s t e !onditions of its o&n emergen!eK"2. 9 e alleges t at 8a!anian ps'! oanal'sis Kbe!omes a t eologi!al pro/e!tK and also Ka &a' to avoid t e rat er mess' ps'! i! and so!ial entanglementK involved in stud'ing spe!ifi! !ases"3. 9imilarl'+ Gomini!k 8a7apra ob/e!ts to t e idea of !onstitutive la!k be!ause spe!ifi! Klosses !annot be adequatel' addressed & en t e' are enveloped in an overl' generalised dis!ourse of absen!e... 7onversel'+ absen!e at a IfoundationalI level !annot simpl' be derived from parti!ular istori!al lossesK"4. 2tta!king Kt e long stor' of !onflating absen!e &it loss t at be!omes !onstitutive instead of istori!alK""+ e a!!uses several t eorists of eliding t e differen!e bet&een absen!e and loss+ &it K!onfusing and dubious resultsK+ in!luding a Ktenden!' to avoid addressing istori!al problems+ in!luding losses+ in suffi!ientl' spe!ifi! termsK+ and a tenden!' to Kens roud+ per aps even to et erealise+ t em in a generalised dis!ourse of absen!eK"#. Ganiel Lensaed dra&s out t e politi!al !onsequen!es of t e pro/e!tion of absolutes into politi!s. KE e fetis ism of t e absolute event involves... a suppression of istori!al intelligibilit'+ ne!essar' to its depoliti!izationK.

E e

spa!e from & i! politi!s is eva!uated Kbe!omes... a suitable pla!e for abstra!tions+ delusions and
and statements !ontaining &ords su! as IallI+ Ial&a'sI+ IneverI+ Ine!essit'I and so on

'postasesK. 5nstead of a!tual so!ial for!es+ t ere are Ks ado&s and spe!tresK. E e operation of t e logi! of pro/e!tion is predi!table. 2!!ording to 8a!anians+ t ere is a basi! stru!ture 3sometimes !alled a KgroundK or KmatrixK4 from & i! all so!ial p enomena arise+ and t is stru!ture+ & i! remains un! anged in all eventualities+ is t e referen!e(point from & i! parti!ular !ases are vie&ed. E e IfitI bet&een t eor' and eviden!e is !onstru!ted monologi!all' b' t e redu!tion of t e latter to t e former+ or b' sele!tivit' in in!lusion and reading of examples. 2t its simplest+ t e 8a!anian m't fun!tions b' a s ort(!ir!uit bet&een a parti!ular instan!e

. 2 !ontingent example or a generi! referen!e to Iexperien!eI is used+ misleadingl'+ to found a !laim &it supposed universal validit'. <or instan!e+ 9tavrakakis uses t e fa!t t at existing belief( s'stems are based on ex!lusions as a basis to !laim t at all belief(s'stems are ne!essaril' based on ex!lusions"%+ and !laims t at parti!ular traumas express an Kultimate impossibilit'K"9. 9imilarl'+ 8a!lau and Aouffe use t e fa!t t at a parti!ular antagonism !an disrupt a parti!ular fixed identit' to !laim t at t e so!ial as su! is penetrated and !onstituted b' antagonism as su! #0. = enomena are often anal'sed as outgro&t s of somet ing exterior to t e situation in question. <or instan!e+ Zi[ekKs !on!ept of t e Iso!ial s'mptomI depends on a redu!tion of t e a!ts of one parti!ular series of people 3t e Iso!iall' ex!ludedI+ IfundamentalistsI+ 9erbian paramilitaries+ et!.4 to a ps'! ologi!al fun!tion in t e ps'! e of a different group 3&esterners4. E e IrealI is a supposedl' self(identi!al prin!iple & i! is used to redu!e an' and all qualitative differen!es bet&een situations to a relation of formal equivalen!e. E is s o&s o& m't i!al ! ara!teristi!s !an be pro/e!ted from t e outside+ alt oug it also raises different problems: t e under(!on!eptualization of t e relations ip bet&een individual ps'! es and !olle!tive p enomena in 8a!anian t eor'+ and a related tenden!' for ps'! ologi!al !on!epts to a!quire an ersatz agen!' similar to t at of a Aarxian fetis . IE e 6ealI or IantagonismI o!!urs in p rases & i! ave it doing or !ausing somet ing. 2s Lart es s o&s+ m't offers t e ps'! ologi!al benefits of empiri!ism &it out t e epistemologi!al !osts.

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?iBek9s al&erna&i)e is a+&hori&arian,his conce%& of h+$an na&+re reD+ires %oli&ical -o$ina&ion/ (obinson 02 32ndre&+ = G+ politi!al t eor'+ ?niversit' of Cotting am+ 05ntrodu!tion: E e Lasi! Vizekian Aodel+1 E eor' Llog+ ttp:))and'robinsont eor'blog.blogspot.!om)2004)11)zizek(notes(and(&ork(in(progressY1". tml4 E e 2!t also seems to be aut oritarian in t e sense t at it involves an unfounded imposition of &ill & i! res apes t e s'mboli! edifi!e. =er aps even &orse is VizekKs !on!eption of uman nature. Vizek t inks people are basi!all' too ! aoti! to live &it out rulers+ repeating t e !laims of t e likes of >obbes. >e sees KunrulinessK and going to t e end be'ond ever' uman measure as a primordial drive and part of uman nature ( a drive et i!s tries to !ontain ( a drive involving I!linging to &ild egotisti!al freedom unbound b' an' !onstraintsI & i! I as to be broken and KgentrifiedK b' t e pressure of edu!ationI 3=< 23#($4. >umanit' is as su! unnaturall' prone to ex!ess+ and as to be gentrified t roug institutions 3=< 13"4. E ere is a basi! drive to dis(atta! from t e &orld & i! fantas' is a prote!tion against 3E9 2%94. E e role of paternal 8a& is to expose people to t e ars demands of so!ial realit'+ demands & i! lead to entr' into desire 3<2 $#F Vizek is presumabl' some kind of expe!tationist4. >e even seems to endorse QantKs vie& t at people need a Aaster and 3 ierar! i!4 dis!ipline to tame t eir Kunrul'K insisten!e on t eir o&n &ill and for!e t em to submit to being pla!ed in sub/e!tion to It e la&s of mankind and broug t to feel t eir !onstraintI 3E9 3# ( !learl' a substitutionist term4. 9o Vizek endorses QantKs &ork on edu!ation+ & ere e !laims t e role of s! ools is not for ! ildren to learn but to a!!ustom t em Ito sitting still and doing exa!tl' & at t e' are toldI+ to I!ountera!t manKs natural unrulinessI 3E9 3#4J 3Vizek also !onflates so!ial !ontrol &it t e unrelated issue of Iventuring &ildl' and ras l' into dangerI in t is dis!ussion of Qant4. @n!e a!!ustomed to freedom+ one &ill do an't ing for it+ so t is urge must be Ismoot ed do&nI 3E9 3#4. Vizek !alls t is text of QantKs a Imarvellous textI 3E9 3#4. >e also makes t e 3apparentl' !ontradi!tor' &it all t e above+ but equall' !onservative4 !laim t at Ia uman being is... in need of firm rootsI and t at t is basi! need is t e root of t e s'mboli! order 37>? 2"04. @n t e & ole Vizek seems to be endorsing a !onservative or even rea!tionar' vie& of uman natureF t oug t is is not entirel' !lear.

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?iBek9s %oli&ical s&ance is )iolen& an- fee-s in&o %o<er/ Fis al&erna&i)e has so fe< li$i&s &ha& &here is no&hing &o %re)en& eli&es fro$ -e%lo*ing i& &o )iolen&l* $ain&ain %o<er/ (obinson L=h" =oli&ical Theor*. @ni)ersi&* of !o&&ingha$I 03 3E eor' and Nvent+ 2ndre&+ %:1+ E e =oliti!al E eor' of 7onstitutive 8a!k: 2 7ritique4. @n a politi!al level+ t is kind of stan!e leads to an a!!eptan!e of so!ial ex!lusion & i! negates !ompassion for its vi!tims. E e resultant in umanit' finds its most extreme expression in Zi[ekKs &ork+ & ere Ktoda'Ks Imad dan!eI+ t e d'nami! proliferation of multiple s ifting identities... a&aits its resolution in a ne& form of EerrorK. 5t is also present+ o&ever+ in t e
toned(do&n ex!lusionism of aut ors su! as Aouffe. >en!e+ demo!ra!' depends on Kt e possibilit' of dra&ing a frontier bet&een IusI and It emIK+ and Kal&a's entails relations of in!lusion(ex!lusionK2%. KCo state or politi!al order... !an exist &it out some form of ex!lusionK experien!ed b' its vi!tims as !oer!ion and violen!e29+ and+ sin!e Aouffe assumes a state to be ne!essar'+ t is means t at one must endorse ex!lusion and violen!e. 3E e supposed ne!essit' of t e state is derived from t e supposed need for a master(signifier or nodal point to stabilize identit' and avoid ps'! osis+ eit er for individuals or for so!ieties4. H at is at stake in t e division bet&een t ese t&o trends in 8a!anian politi!al t eor' is akin to t e distin!tion Baneigem dra&s bet&een Ia!tiveI and IpassiveI ni ilism30. E e 8a!lauian trend involves an implied ironi! distan!e from an' spe!ifi! pro/e!t+ & i! maintains a&areness of its !ontingen!'F overall+ o&ever+ it reinfor!es !onformit' b' insisting on an institutional mediation & i!

Zi[ekian version is !ommitted to a more violent and passionate affirmation of negativit'+ but one & i! ultimatel' ! anges ver' little. E e fun!tion of t e Zi[ekian I2!tI is to dissolve t e self+ produ!ing a istori!al event. I2fter t e revolutionI+ o&ever+ ever't ing sta's mu! t e same. <or all its radi!al pretensions+ Zi[ekKs politi!s !an be summed up in is attitude to neo(liberalism: K5f it &orks+ & ' not tr' a dose of itRK31. E e p enomena & i! are denoun!ed in 8a!anian t eor' are invariabl' readmitted in its Ismall printI+ and t is leads to a t eor' & i! renoun!es bot effe!tiveness and politi!al radi!alism. 5t is in t is pragmatism t at t e ambiguit' of 8a!anian politi!al t eor' resides+ for+ & ile on a t eoreti!al level it is based on an almost se!tarian Iradi!alismI+ denoun!ing ever't ing t at exists for its !ompli!it' in illusions and guilt for t e present+ its IalternativeI is little different from & at it !ondemns 3t e assumption apparentl' being t at t e Is'mboli!I ! ange in t e ps'! ologi!al !oordinates of atta! ments in realit' is dire!tl' effe!tive+ a !laim assumed . &rongl' . to follo& from t e !laim t at so!ial realit' is !onstru!ted dis!ursivel'4. ;ust like in t e pro!ess of ps'! oanal'ti! !ure+ not ing a!tuall' ! anges on t e level of spe!ifi! ! ara!teristi!s. E e onl' ! ange is in o& one relates to t e ! ara!teristi!s+ a pro!ess Zi[ek terms Kdotting the GiEsIK in realit'+ re!ognizing and t ereb' installing ne!essit'32. 2ll t at ! anges+ in ot er &ords+ is t e interpretation:
over!odes all t e Iarti!ulationsI. E e as long as t e' are re!on!eived as expressions of !onstitutive la!k+ t e old politi!s are a!!eptable. E us+ Zi[ek !laims t at de DaulleKs I2!tI su!!eeded b' allo&ing im Keffe!tivel' to realize t e ne!essar' pragmati! measuresK & i! ot ers pursued unsu!!essfull'33. Aore re!ent examples of Zi[ekKs pragmatism in!lude t at is alternative to t e ?.9. &ar in 2fg anistan is onl' t at Kt e punis ment of t ose responsibleK s ould be done in a spirit of Ksad dut'K+ not Kex ilarating retaliationK34+ and is IsolutionI to t e =alestine(5srael !risis+ & i! is C2E@ !ontrol of t e o!!upied territories3". 5f t is is t e !ase for Zi[ek+ t e ultra(Iradi!alI IAarxist(8eninistI 8a!anian+ it is so mu! t e more so for is more moderate adversaries. ;ason Dl'nos+ for instan!e+ offers an un!ompromizing !ritique of t e !onstru!tion of guilt and inno!en!e in anti(I!rimeI r etori!+ demanding t at demonization of deviants be abandoned+ onl' to insist as an aftert oug t t at+ Kof !ourse+ t is... does not mean t at t eir offen!es s ould go unpunis edK3#. 8a!anian t eor' tends+ t erefore+ to produ!e an Ian't ing goesI attitude to state a!tion: be!ause ever't ing else is !ontingent

+ not ing is to limit t e pra!ti!al

!onsideration of ta!ti!s b' dominant elites.

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?iBek9s %hiloso%h* is con&ra-ic&or* an- lacks a concre&e al&erna&i)e/ Tor$e* an- (obinson. 03 . tea! es in t e 9! ool of =oliti!s and 7riti!al E eor' at t e ?niversit' of Cotting amF do!toral student in t e 9! ool of =oliti!s at t e ?niversit' of Cotting am 39imonF 2ndre&+ 92DN =ubli!ations+ 02 Ei!klis 9ub/e!tR Vizek and t e <uture of 8eft 6adi!alism14 Vizek*s popularit' results largel' from t e apparent &a' out t at e provides from t e !ul(de(sa! in & i! radi!al t eor'+ and in parti!ular radi!al postmodern t eor'+ as found itself. Vizek is of !ourse not t e nrst aut or to atta!k Ppostmodernists*+ post(stru!turalists and post(Aarxists on grounds of t eir la!k of radi!al ambition on t e terrain of politi!s. >o&ever+ left a!tivists interested in !onfronting t e liberal !apitalist status quo nnd t emselves trapped bet&een politi!all' radi!al but t eoreti!all' oa&ed leftist ort odoxies+ and t eoreti!all' innovative but politi!all' moderate Ppost*(t eories. Nnter Vizek. Vizek offers an alternative to traditional left radi!alisms and Ppostmodern* anti(essentialist approa! es+ espe!iall' identit' politi!s. <or Vizek+ Pradi!al demo!ra!'* a!!epts t e liberal(!apitalist orizon+ and so is never Pradi!al* enoug . 2gainst t is alleged pseudo(radi!alism+ Vizek revives traditional leftist !on!epts su! as P!lass struggle*. >e ignores+ o&ever+ t e Port odox* left meaning of su! terms+ rearti!ulating t em in a sop isti!ated >egelian and 8a!anian vo!abular'. Xet problems remain: Vizek*s version of P!lass struggle* does not map on to traditional !on!eptions of an empiri!al &orking !lass+ and Vizek*s Pproletariat* is avo&edl' Pm't i!al*. >e also re/e!ts ne&er forms of struggle su! as t e anti(!apitalist movement and t e 19#% uprisings+ t ereb' reprodu!ing a problem !ommon in radi!al t eor': his &heor* has no link &o ra-ical %oli&ics in an i$$e-ia&e sense/# Cevert eless+ e as a t eor' of o& su! a politi!s s ouldlook+ & i! e uses to /udge existing politi!al radi!alisms. 9o o& does Vizek see radi!al politi!s emergingR ?iBek -oes no& offer $+ch b* <a* of a %osi&i)e social agen-a. >e does not ave an't ing approximating to a Pprogramme*+ nor a model of t e kind of so!iet' e seeks+ nor a t eor' of t e !onstru!tion of alternatives in t e present. 5ndeed+ t e more one looks at t e matter+ t e more difn!ult it be!omes to pin Vizek do&n to an' Pline* or Pposition*. >e seems at nrst sig t to regard so!ial transformation not as somet ing Ppossible* to be t eorized and advan!ed+ but as a fundamental Pimpossibilit'* be!ause t e inouen!e of t e dominant s'mboli! s'stem is so grea& &ha& i& $akes al&erna&i)es +n&hinkable.$ 2 fundamental transformation+ o&ever+ is !learl' t e onl' ans&er to t e ot er&ise !ompelling vision of !ontemporar' !risis Vizek offers. 7an e es!ape t is !ontradi!tionR >is attempt to do so revolves around a re!lassin!ation of Pimpossibilit'* as an a!tive element in generating a!tion.

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The Ac& crea&es no %oli&ical change an- res+l&s in s+ici-e Tor$e* an- (obinson. 3 . tea! es in t e 9! ool of =oliti!s and 7riti!al E eor' at t e ?niversit' of Cotting amF do!toral student in t e 9! ool of =oliti!s at t e ?niversit' of Cotting am 39imonF 2ndre&+ 92DN =ubli!ations+ 02 Ei!klis 9ub/e!tR Vizek and t e <uture of 8eft 6adi!alism14
9o t e 2!t is a rebirt . but a rebirt as & atR E e parallel &it 8a!an*s !on!ept of Ptraversing t e fantas'* is !ru!ial be!ause+ for 8a!an+ t ere is no es!ape from t e s'mboli! order or t e 8a& of t e Aaster. He are trapped in t e existing &orld+ !omplete &it its dislo!ation+ la!k+ alienation antagonism+ and no trans!enden!e !an over!ome t e deep stru!ture of t is &orld+ & i! is fixed at t e level of sub/e!t(

. 5n Vizek*s politi!s+ t erefore+ a fundamental so!ial transformation is impossible. 2fter t e break initiated b' an 2!t+ a s'stem similar to t e present one is restoredF t e sub/e!t undergoes identifi!ation &it a 7ause+ leading to a ne& Pproper s'mboli! =ro ibition* revitalized b' t e pro!ess of rebirt pragmati! measures* 3Vizek+ 199$b: $2.34+ & i! ma' be t e same ones astoda'. 5t is on t is ground t at Vizek is relaxed about supporting measures
formation. E e most &e !an ope for is to go from in!apable neurosis to mere alienated sub/e!tivit' t at+ far from ! allenging or undermining t e status quo+ give added support to it . as+ for example+ in is refusal to denoun!e stru!tural ad/ustment poli!ies 3Vizek+ 199#: 324. E is is all be!ause+ in is vie&+ it is possible to start a Pne& life*+ but onl' b' repla!ing one s'mboli! fi!tion &it anot er 3Vizek+ 1999: 3314. 2s a 8a!anian+ Vizek is opposed to an' idea of realizing utopian Pfullness* and t us in es!aping

n t e basi! stru!ture of existen!e+ & ereb' one ma' over!ome dislo!ation and disorientation+ is out of t e question. >o&ever+ e also re/e!ts pra!ti!al solutions to problems as a mere displa!ement 3Vizek+ 1999: 3%3.44. 9o an 2!t neit er solves !on!rete problems nor a! ieves drasti! improvementsF it merel' removes blo!kages to existing modes of t oug t and a!tion. 5t transforms t e P!onstellation & i! generates so!ial s'mptoms* 3Lutler et
t e vi!issitudes of t e politi!al qua antagonism. 2n' ! ange i al.+ 2000: 1244+ s ifting ex!lusion from one group to anot er+ but it does not a! ieve eit er drasti! or moderate !on!rete ! anges. 5t Pmeans t at &e a!!ept t e vi!ious !ir!le of revolving around t e ob/e!t

5t also offers t ose & o take part in it a Pdimension of @t erness+ t at moment & en t e absolute appears in all its fragilit'*+ a Pbrief apparition of a future utopian @t erness to & i! ever' aut enti! revolutionar' stan!e s ould !ling* 3Vizek+ 2000: 1"9.#04. E is absolute+ o&ever+ !an onl' be glimpsed. E e leader+ 2!t and 7ause must be betra'ed so t e so!ial order !an be refounded. E e leader+ or Pmediator*+ Pmust erase imself Tsi!U from t e pi!ture* 3Vizek+ 2001b: "04+ retreating to t e orizon of t e so!ial to aunt istor' as spe!tre or p antas' 3Vizek+ 2000: #44. Nver' Dreat Aan must be betra'ed so e !an assume is fame and t ereb' be!ome !ompatible &it t e status quo 3Vizek+ 1999: 90.1+ 31#4F on!e one glimpses t e sublime ?niversal+ t erefore+ one must !ommit sui!ide . as Vizek !laims t e Lols evik =art' did+ via t e 9talinist purges 3199$!4.
Tt e 6ealU and find /ouissan!e in it+ renoun!ing t e m't t at /ouissan!e is amassed some& ere else* 3Vizek+ 19%%: 109.104.

The al&erna&i)es -isa)o<al of %rogressi)e $o)e$en&s -oo$s i& &o fail+re Tor$e* an- (obinson. 3 . tea! es in t e 9! ool of =oliti!s and 7riti!al E eor' at t e ?niversit' of Cotting amF do!toral student in t e 9! ool of =oliti!s at t e ?niversit' of Cotting am 39imonF 2ndre&+ 92DN =ubli!ations+ 02 Ei!klis 9ub/e!tR Vizek and t e <uture of 8eft 6adi!alism14 5n our vie&+ Vizek is /ustined in advo!ating a transformative stan!e given t e stru!tural !auses of man' of t e issues e !onfronts+ but e is &rong to posit su! a stan!e as a radi!al break !onstituted ex ni ilo. <ar from being t e disavo&ed supplement of !apitalism+ t e spa!e for t inking t e not(real & i! is opened b' imaginaries and Ppett' resistan!es* is+ &e t ink+ a prerequisite to building a more a!tive resistan!e and+ ultimatel'+ an' substantial so!ial transformation. 2s t e !ultural ant ropologist ;ames 9!ott s o&s in a series of !ase studies+ politi!al revolutions tend to emerge t roug t e radi!alization of existing demands and resistan!es . not as pure 2!ts o!!urring out of not ing. Nven & en t e' are in!ompre ensible from t e
standpoint of Pnormal*+ !onformist b'standers+ t e' are a produ!t of t e development of subterranean resistan!es and !ounter egemonies among subaltern groups 3see+ for example+ 9!ott+ 1990: 1$9.%24.

E is is to sa' t at so!ial ! ange does not !ome from not ing+ but rat er requires t e pre(existen!e of a !ounter(!ulture involving non!onformist ideas and pra!ti!es. 2s Drams!i puts it+ before !oming into existen!e a ne& so!iet' must be Pideall' a!tive* in t e minds of t ose struggling for ! ange 3Drams!i+ 19%": 394. E e istor' of resistan!e t us gives little reason to support Vizek*s politi!s of t e 2!t. E e abilit' to 2!t in t e manner des!ribed b' Vizek is largel' absent from t e subaltern strata. Aar' Qa' 8etourneau 3let us re!all4 did not transform so!iet'F rat er+ er P2!t* &as repressed and s e &as /ailed. 5n anot er !ase dis!ussed b' Vizek 32001b: $4."4+ a group of 9iberian miners is said to a!!omplis an 2!t . b' getting massa!red. 9in!e 2!ts are not even on Vizek*s terms so!iall' effe!tive+ t e' !annot elp t e &orst(off+ let alone transform so!iet'. Vizek*s assumption of t e effe!tiveness of 2!ts t us rests on a !onfusion bet&een individual and so!ial levels of anal'sis and bet&een !lini!al t erap' and politi!al a!tion. Baneigem eeril' foresees Vizek*s P2!t* & en e argues against Pa!tive ni ilism*. E e
transition from t is P&asteland of t e sui!ide and t e solitar' killer* to revolutionar' politi!s requires t e repetition of negation in a different register+ !onne!ted to a positive pro/e!t to ! ange t e &orld and

Vizek*s politi!s are not merel' impossible but+ as &e ave s o&n+ potentiall' despoti!+ and also . bet&een support for a Aaster+ a!!eptan!e of pain and alienation+ militarism and t e restoration of order . tendentiall' !onservative/ 9u! a politi!s+ if adopted in pra!ti!e+ !ould onl' dis!redit progressive movements and furt er alienate t ose t e' seek to mobilize. He &ould argue t at a transformative politi!s s ould be t eorized instead as a pro!ess of transformation+ an a(linear+ r izomati!+ multiform pluralit' of resistan!es+ initiatives and+ indeed+ a!ts & i! are sometimes spe!ta!ular and !arnivalesque+ sometimes prengurative+ sometimes subterranean+ sometimes rooted in institutional ! ange and reform and+ under !ertain !ir!umstan!es+ dire!tl' transformative/
rel'ing on t e imaginaries Vizek denoun!es+ t e !arnival spirit and t e abilit' to dream 3Baneigem+ 19#$ T1994U: 1114.

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?iBek offers no clear al&erna&i)e,ca%i&alis$ is ine)i&able/ (obinson 02 32ndre&+ = G+ politi!al t eor'+ ?niversit' of Cotting am+ 05ntrodu!tion: E e Lasi! Vizekian Aodel+1 E eor' Llog+ ttp:))and'robinsont eor'blog.blogspot.!om)2004)11)zizek(notes(and(&ork(in(progressY1". tml4 5t is b' no means !lear t at Vizek t inks alternatives to !apitalism are possible+ or t at e &ants t em. >e seems to &ant to destro' !apitalism+ on is definition of it 3see 72=5E2859A+ 7@C9N6B2E59A4+ & i! sets up a rat er !onservative target 3liberalism+ permissiveness+ de!aden!e+ KflabbinessK+ et!.4. 5t is less !lear t at e &ants to destro' it b' an' ot er !riterion: e endorses &ork et i!s and aut oritarianism+ and e as posited so mu! of t e deep stru!ture of so!iet' as un! angeable as to render t e spa!e for ! ange ig l' limited. 8a!lau atta!ks Vizek on t is sub/e!t. Gespite Ir(r( revolutionar' zealI+ Vizek is no more proposing a t oroug l' different e!onomi! and politi!al regime t an 8a!lau. Vizek lets us kno& not ing about is alternative+ 8a!lau sa's 3a!tuall'+ t is is not stri!tl' true+ t oug e does tell us ver' little4F e onl' tells us t at it isnKt liberal demo!ra!' or !apitalism. 8a!lau is !on!erned it !ould mean 9talinism+ despite VizekKs earlier resistan!e against t is 3CL Vizek dislikes late+ post(9talin 9talinism &it a uman fa!e+ but distinguis es t is from t e earlier 9talinism ( & at e resisted &as t e former4F 8a!lau suspe!ts Vizek simpl' doesnKt kno& & at is alternative is 37>? 2%94. >o& does Vizek respond to t isR >e uses it to pat ologise 8a!lau+ !laiming e !annot imagine an alternative and so t inks t ere isnKt one 3& i! 8a!lau a!tuall' never states4.

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?iBek9s al&erna&i)e fails,he clai$s &ha& ca%i&alis$ $+s& be o)er &hro<n b+& has no $eans of acco$%lishing &his goal/ Bo*n&on. 95 3Gire!tor of CX?Ks Draduate Aagazine ;ournalism =rogram+ 6obert+ INn/o' Xour Zi[ekJI Lingua 5ranca+ @!tober+ ttp:))&&&.robertbo'nton.!om)arti!leGispla'.p pRarti!leYid,434 I2ut enti! politi!s is t e art of t e impossible+I e &rites. I5t ! anges t e ver' parameters of & at is !onsidered IpossibleK in t e existing !onstellation.I E is is a noble vision+ but & en Vizek turns to istor'+ e finds onl' fleeting examples of genuine politi!s in a!tion: in an!ient 2t ensF in t e pro!lamations of t e E ird Nstate during t e <ren! 6evolutionF in t e =olis 9olidarit' movementF and in t e last+ ead' da's of t e Nast Derman 6epubli! before t e Hall !ame do&n and t e !ro&ds stopped ! anting IHir sind das BolkI 3IHe are t e peopleJI4 and began ! anting IHir sind ein BolkI 3IHe are a)one peopleJI4. E e s ift from definite to indefinite arti!le+ &rites Vizek+ marked It e !losure of t e momentar' aut enti! politi!al opening+ t e reappropriation of t e demo!rati! impetus b' t e t rust to&ards reunifi!ation of Derman'+ & i! meant re/oining Hestern Derman'Ks liberal(!apitalist poli!e)politi!al order.I 5n arti!ulating is politi!al !redo+ Vizek attempts to s'nt esize t ree unlikel'.per aps in!ompatible.sour!es: 8a!anKs notion of t e sub/e!t as a Ipure voidI t at is Iradi!all' out of /ointI &it t e &orld+ AarxKs politi!al e!onom'+ and 9t. =aulKs !onvi!tion t at universal trut is t e onl' for!e !apable of re!ognizing t e needs of t e parti!ular. Vizek is fond of !alling imself a I=auline materialist+I and e admires 9t. =aulKs mus!ular vision. >e believes t at t e post(politi!al deadlo!k !an be broken onl' b' a gesture t at undermines I!apitalist globalization from t e standpoint of universal trut in t e same &a' t at =auline 7 ristianit' did to t e 6oman global empire.I >e adds: IA' dream is to !ombine an extremel' dark+ pessimisti! belief t at life is basi!all' orrible and !ontingent+ &it a revolutionar' so!ial attitude. 29 =>58@9@=>X+ VizekKs argument is breat taking+ but as so!ial pres!ription+ IdreamI ma' be an apt &ord. E e onl' &a' to !ombat t e dominan!e of global !apitalism+ e argues+ is t roug a Idire!t so!ialization of t e produ!tive pro!essI.an agenda t at is unlikel' to pla' &ell in 9lovenia+ & i! is no& en/o'ing man' of t e fruits of Hestern !onsumer !apitalism. H en pressed to spe!if' & at !ontrolling t e produ!tive pro!ess mig t look like+ Vizek admits e doesnKt kno&+ alt oug e feels !ertain t at an alternative to !apitalism &ill emerge and t at t e publi! debate must be opened up to in!lude sub/e!ts like !ontrol over geneti! engineering. 8ike man' & o !all for a return to t e prima!' of e!onomi!s+ Vizek as onl' t e most tenuous grasp of t e sub/e!t. ?iBek9s al&erna&i)e is %oli&ical nihilis$ K he s+%%lies no $e&ho- for o)er &hro<ing ca%i&alis$/ Lacla+ 02 Nrnesto 8a!lau+ =rofessor of =oliti!al E eor' at t e ?niversit' of Nssex and Bisiting =rofessor of 7omparative 8iterature at 9?CX(Luffalo+ 2004+ ?mbr3a4: Har+ p. 33(34 >ere &e rea! t e !rux of t e diffi!ulties to be found in Vizek. @n t e one and+ e is !ommitted to a t eor' of t e full revolutionar' a!t t at &ould operate in its o&n name+ &it out being invested in an' ob/e!t outside itself. @n t e ot er and+ t e !apitalist s'stem+ as t e dominating+ underl'ing me! anism+ is t e realit' &it & i! t e eman!ipator' a!t as to break. E e !on!lusion from bot premises is t at t ere is no valid eman!ipator' struggle ex!ept one t at is full' and dire!tl' anti(!apitalist. 5n is &ords: 05 believe in t e !entral stru!turing role of t e anti(!apitalist struggle.1 E e problem+ o&ever+ is t is: e gives no indi!ation of & at an anti(!apitalist struggle mig t be. Vizek qui!kl' dismisses multi!ultural+ anti(sexist+ and anti(ra!ist struggles as not being dire!tl' anti(!apitalist. Cor does e san!tion t e traditional aims of t e 8eft+ linked more dire!tl' to t e e!onom': t e demands for ig er &ages+ for industrial demo!ra!'+ for !ontrol of t e labor pro!ess+ for a progressive distribution of in!ome+ are not proposed as anti(!apitalist eit er. Goes e imagine t at t e 8uddites* proposal to destro' all t e ma! ines &ould bring an end to !apitalismR Cot a single line in Vizek*s &ork gives an example of & at e !onsiders an anti(!apitalist struggle. @ne is left &ondering & et er e is anti!ipating an invasion of beings from anot er planet+ or as e on!e suggested+ some kind of e!ologi!al !atastrop e t at &ould not transform t e &orld but !ause it to fall apart. 9o & ere as t e & ole argument gone &rongR 5n its ver' premises. 9in!e Vizek refuses to appl' t e egemoni! logi! to strategi!o(politi!al t oug t+ e is stranded in a blind alle'. >e as to dismiss all 0partial1 struggles as internal to t e 0s'stem1 3& atever t at means4+ and t e 0E ing1 being una! ievable+ e is left &it out an' !on!rete istori!al a!tor for is anti(!apitalist struggle. 7on!lusion: Vizek !annot provide an' t eor' of t e eman!ipator' sub/e!t. 2t t e same time+ sin!e is s'stemi! totalit'+ being a ground+ is regulated ex!lusivel' b' its o&n internal la&s+ t e onl' option is to &ait for t ese la&s to produ!e t e totalit' of its effe!ts. Nrgo: politi!al ni ilism.

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?iBek9s al&erna&i)e canno& -efea& ca%i&alis$ K he is H+s& Hoking aro+n- K &he nega&i)e9s arg+$en& is onl* s&ra&egic beca+se i& is so ri-ic+lo+s Kirsch. 5 . senior editor of E e Ce& 6epubli! 32dam+ E e Ce& 6epubli!+ 0E e Geadl' ;ester+1 ttp:))&&&.tnr.!om)stor'Yprint. tmlRid,09$a31f3(!440(4b10(%%94( 1419$d$a#eef4 ?iBek is a belie)er in &he (e)ol+&ion a& a &i$e <hen al$os& nobo-*. no& e)en on &he lef&. &hinks &ha& s+ch a ca&acl*s$ is an* longer %ossible or e)en desirable. This is his big problem, and also his big opportunity. H ile Iso!ialismI remains a favorite ate(&ord for t e 6epubli!an rig t+ t e prospe!t of !ommunism overt ro&ing !apitalism is no& so remote+ so fantasti!+ t at nobod' feels strongl' moved to oppose it+ as !onservatives and liberal anti!ommunists opposed it in t e 1930s+ t e 19"0s+ and even t e 19%0s. H en Vizek turns up speaking t e !lassi!al language of Aarxism(8eninism+ e profits from t e assumption t at t e return of ideas t at &ere on!e t e !ause of traged' !an no& o!!ur onl' in t e form of far!e. 5n t e visual arts+ t e denaturing of & at &ere on!e passionate and dangerous i!ons as be!ome !ommonpla!e+ so t at emblems of evil are transformed into perverse fun+ armless but ver' profitable statements of post(ideologi!al !ampF and t ere is a kind of intelle!tual equivalent of t is development in VizekKs &ork. E e !over of is book 8he Caralla& Kie- reprodu!es a 9o!ialist 6ealist portrait of I8enin at t e 9moln' 5nstitute+I in t e ironi!all' unironi! fas ion made familiar b' t e pseudo(i!ono!lasti! &ork of Qomar and Aelamid+ 7ai Duo(;iang+ and ot er post(9oviet+ post(Aao artists. >e+ too+ expe!ts 'ou to be in on t e /oke. Lut t ere is a differen!e bet&een Vizek and t e ot er /okesters. 5t is t at e is not reall' /oking.

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Lacan9s ex%lana&ion of &he (eal reD+ires a lea% of fai&h si$ilar &o religion/ Jo+ are aske- &o belie)e in i& beca+se i& is be*on- o+r +n-ers&an-ing/ (obinson L=h" =oli&ical Theor*. @ni)ersi&* of !o&&ingha$I 03 3E eor' and Nvent+ 2ndre&+ %:1+ E e =oliti!al E eor' of 7onstitutive 8a!k: 2 7ritique4. E is passage !ould almost ave been &ritten &it t e I8a!anian 6ealI in mind. E e ! ara!teristi! of t e 6eal is pre!isel' t at one !an invoke it &it out defining it 3sin!e it is Ibe'ond s'mbolizationI4+ and t at t e a!!idental failure of language+ or indeed a !ontingent failure in so!ial praxis+ is identified &it an ontologi!al resistan!e to s'mbolization pro/e!ted into Leing itself. <or instan!e+ Zi[ekKs !lassifi!ation of t e Cation as a E ing rests on t e !laim t at Kt e onl' &a' &e !an determine it is b'... empt' tautolog'K+ and t at it is a Ksemanti! voidK#3. 9imilarl'+ e !laims t at Kt e tautologi!al gesture of t e Aaster(9ignifierK+ an empt' performative & i! retroa!tivel' turns presuppositions into !on!lusions+ is ne!essar'+ and also t at tautolog' is t e onl' &a' istori!al ! ange !an o!!ur#4. >e even de!lares !onstitutive la!k 3in t is !ase+ termed t e Ideat driveI4 to be a tautolog'. 8a!anian referen!es to It e 6ealI or IantagonismI as t e !ause of a !ontingent failure are reminis!ent of 6obert EeflonKs definition of Dod: Kan explanation & i! means I5 ave no explanationIK. 2n Iet i!s of t e 6ealI is a minor et i!al salvation & i! sa's ver' little in positive terms+ but & i! !an pose in ma! o terms as a I ardI a!!eptan!e of terrif'ing realities. 5t aut orizes trut (!laims ( in 8a!lauKs language+ a Krealit'K & i! is Kbefore our e'es#$K+ or in Ce&manKs+ a K ars realit'K idden beneat a prote!tive veil#% ( &it out t e attendant risks. 9ome 8a!anian t eorists also s o& indi!ations of a !ommitment based on t e parti!ular kind of Ieup ori!I en/o'ment Lart es asso!iates &it m't s. 8a!lau in parti!ular emp asizes is belief in t e Kex ilaratingK signifi!an!e of t e present#9+ inting t at e is !ommitted to eup ori! investments generated t roug t e repetition of t e same.

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Their )ision of %oli&ics is a non>falsifiable $*&h' The roo& of &he Lacanian s+bHec& is s&r+c&+re- aro+n- &he :lack/; The %roble$ is &ha& &here is no&hing &o s+%%or& &his i-ea of a $issing reali&*/ (obinson L=h" =oli&ical Theor*. @ni)ersi&* of !o&&ingha$I 03 3E eor' and Nvent+ 2ndre&+ %:1+ E e =oliti!al E eor' of 7onstitutive 8a!k: 2 7ritique4. Aore pre!isel'+ 5 &ould maintain t at I!onstitutive la!kI is an instan!e of a Lart esian m't . 5t is+ after all+ t e fun!tion of m't to do exa!tl' & at t is !on!ept does: to assert t e empt' fa!ti!it' of a parti!ular ideologi!al s! ema & ile re/e!ting an' need to argue for its assumptions. KA't does not den' t ingsF on t e !ontrar'+ its fun!tion is to talk about t emF simpl'+ it purifies t em+ it makes t em inno!ent+ it gives t em a natural and eternal /ustifi!ation+ it is a !larit' & i! is not t at of an explanation but t at of a statement of fa!tK. E is is pre!isel' t e status of I!onstitutive la!kI: a supposed fa!t & i! is supposed to operate above and be'ond explanation+ on an ontologi!al level instantl' a!!essible to t ose &it t e !ourage to a!!ept it. A't s operate to !onstru!t eup ori! en/o'ment for t ose & o use t em+ but t eir operation is in !onfli!t &it t e so!ial !ontext &it & i! t e' intera!t. E is is be!ause t eir operation is !onnotative: t e' are Ire!eivedI rat er t an IreadI and open onl' to a Ireaderl'I and not a I&riterl'I interpretation. 2 m't is a se!ond(order signifi!ation atta! ed to an alread'(!onstru!ted denotative sign+ and t e ideologi!al message pro/e!ted into t is sign is !onstru!ted outside t e !ontext of t e signified. 2 m't is t erefore+ in 2lfred Qorz'bskiKs sense+ intensional: its meaning derives from a prior linguisti! s! ema+ not from intera!tion &it t e &orld in its !omplexit'. <urt ermore+ m't s ave a repressive so!ial fun!tion+ !arr'ing in Lart esKs &ords an Korder not to t inkK. E e' are ne!essaril' pro/e!ted onto or imposed on a!tual people and events+ under t e !over of t is order. E e Itriump of literatureI in t e Gomini!i trial !onsists pre!isel' in t is pro/e!tion of an externall'(!onstru!ted m't i!al s! ema as a &a' of avoiding engagement &it somet ing one does not understand. 8a!anian t eor'+ like Lart esian m't s+ involves a prior idea of a stru!tural matrix & i! is not open to ! ange in t e lig t of t e instan!es to & i! it is applied. Zi[ekKs &rites of a Kpre(ontologi!al dimension & i! pre!edes and eludes t e !onstru!tion of realit'K42+ & ile 8a!lau suggests t ere is a formal stru!ture of an' ! ain of equivalen!es & i! ne!essitates t e logi! of egemon'43. 9pe!ifi! anal'ses are referred ba!k to t is underl'ing stru!ture as its ne!essar' expressions+ &it out apparentl' being able to alter itF for instan!e+ Kt ose & o triggered t e pro!ess of demo!ratization in eastern Nurope... are not t ose & o toda' en/o' its fruits+ not be!ause of a simple usurpation... but be!ause of a deeper stru!tural logi!K44. 5n most instan!es+ t e m't i!al operation of t e idea of I!onstitutive la!kI is impli!it+ revealed onl' b' a r etori! of denun!iation. <or instan!e+ Aouffe a!!uses liberalism of an Kin!apa!it'... to grasp... t e irredu!ible ! ara!ter of antagonismK4"+ & ile Zi[ek !laims t at a KdimensionK is KlostK in LutlerKs &ork be!ause of er failure to !on!eive of ItroubleI as !onstitutive of IgenderI4#. E is language of IdenialI & i! is invoked to silen!e !riti!s is a !lear example of Lart esKs Iorder not to t inkI: one is not to t ink about t e idea of I!onstitutive la!kI+ one is simpl' to Ia!!eptI it+ under pain of invalidation. 5f someone else disagrees+ s) e !an simpl' be told t at t ere is somet ing !ru!ial missing from er) is t eor'. 5ndeed+ !riti!s are as likel' to be a!!used of being IdangerousI as to be a!!used of being &rong.

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Lacanian cri&icis$ is anal*&icall* ra-ical b+& breaks -o<n in&o )er* conser)a&i)e %oli&ics/ (obinson L=h" =oli&ical Theor*. @ni)ersi&* of !o&&ingha$I 03 3E eor' and Nvent+ 2ndre&+ %:1+ E e =oliti!al E eor' of 7onstitutive 8a!k: 2 7ritique4. E ere is more t an an a!!idental relations ip bet&een t e m't i!al operation of t e !on!ept of I!onstitutive la!kI and 8a!aniansK !onservative and pragmatist politi!s. A't is a &a' of redu!ing t oug t to t e present: t e isolated signs & i! are in!luded in t e m't i!al gesture are t ereb' atta! ed to extra( istori!al abstra!tions. @n an anal'ti!al level+ 8a!anian t eor' !an be ver' Iradi!alI+ uns!rupulousl' exposing t e underl'ing relations and assumptions !on!ealed beneat offi!iall'(san!tioned dis!ourse. E is radi!alism+ o&ever+ never translates into politi!al !on!lusions: as s o&n above+ a radi!al re/e!tion of anti(I!rimeI r etori! turns into an endorsement of punis ment+ and a radi!al !ritique of neo(liberalism turns into a pragmatist endorsement of stru!tural ad/ustment. 5t is as if t ere is a magi!al barrier bet&een t eor' and politi!s & i! insulates t e latter from t e former. @ne s ould re!all a remark on!e made b' Hil elm 6ei! : KXou plead for appiness in life+ but se!urit' means more to 'ouK133. 8a!anians ave a Iradi!alI t eor' oriented to&ards appiness+ but politi!all'+ t eir primar' !on!ern is se!urit'. 2s long as t e' are engaged in politi!all' ineffe!tual !ritique+ 8a!anians &ill denoun!e and !riti!ize t e so!ial s'stem+ but on!e it !omes to pra!ti!al problems+ t e Iorder not to t inkI be!omes operative. E is Imagi!I barrier is t e alibi fun!tion of m't . E e s ort(!ir!uit bet&een spe!ifi! instan!es and ig (level abstra!tions is politi!all' !onsequential. The -ee% nega&i)i&* &o<ar- %oli&ics $akes Lacanian anal*sis colla%se in&o reac&ionar* %oli&ics/ (obinson L=h" =oli&ical Theor*. @ni)ersi&* of !o&&ingha$I 03 3E eor' and Nvent+ 2ndre&+ %:1+ E e =oliti!al E eor' of 7onstitutive 8a!k: 2 7ritique4. E e politi!al fun!tion of 8a!anian t eor' is to pre!lude !ritique b' en!oding t e present as m't . E ere is a danger of a stultif'ing !onservatism arising from &it in 8a!anian politi!al t eor'+ e! oing t e Kterrif'ing !onservatismK Geleuze suggests is a!tive in an' redu!tion of istor' to negativit'13#. E e addition of an Ial&a'sI to !ontemporar' evils amounts to a Ipessimism of t e &illI+ or a Irepressive redu!tion of t oug t to t e presentI. 9tavrakakis+ for instan!e+ !laims t at attempts to find !auses and t ereb' to solve problems are al&a's fantasmati!13$+ & ile Zi[ek states t at an ob/e!t & i! is per!eived as blo!king somet ing does not ing but materialize t e alread'(operative !onstitutive la!k13%. H ile t is does not stri!tl' entail t e ne!essit' of a !onservative attitude to t e possibilit' of an' spe!ifi! reform+ it !reates a danger of dis!ursive slippage and ostilit' to IutopianismI & i! !ould ave !onservative !onsequen!es. Nven if 8a!anians believe in surplus)!ontingent as &ell as !onstitutive la!k+ t ere are no standards for distinguis ing t e t&o. 5f one !annot tell & i! so!ial blo!kages result from !onstitutive la!k and & i! are !ontingent+ o& !an one kno& t e' are not all of t e latter t'peR 2nd even if !onstitutive la!k exists+ 8a!anian t eor' runs a risk of ImisdiagnosesI & i! ave a neop obe or even rea!tionar' effe!t. Eo take an imagined example+ a 8a!anian living in <ran!e in 1$%% &ould probabl' !on!lude t at demo!ra!' is a utopian fantasmati! ideal and &ould settle for a pragmati! reinterpretation of t e an!i\n regime. 8a!lau and AouffeKs ostilit' to &orkersK !oun!ils and Zi[ekKs insisten!e on t e need for a state and a =art'139 exemplif' t is neop obe tenden!'. E e pervasive negativit' and !'ni!ism of 8a!anian t eor' offers little basis for !onstru!tive a!tivit'. 5nstead of radi!al transformation+ one is left &it a pragmati!s of I!ontainmentI & i! involves a !onservative de( problematization of t e &orst aspe!ts of t e status quo. E e ina!tivit' it !ounsels &ould make its !laims a self(fulfilling prop e!' b' a!ting as a barrier to transformative a!tivit'.

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The al&erna&i)e enco+rages o%%ressi)e social rela&ions,&he i-ea <e are -ri)en b* joussiance is essen&iall* a H+s&ifica&ion for sa-o$asochis$,incl+-ing acce%&ing &o&ali&arianis$/ (obinson L=h" =oli&ical Theor*. @ni)ersi&* of !o&&ingha$I 03 3E eor' and Nvent+ 2ndre&+ %:1+ E e =oliti!al E eor' of 7onstitutive 8a!k: 2 7ritique4. E e Ideat instin!tI is !onne!ted to an idea of primordial maso! ism & i! + in t e form of Iap anisisI or Isub/e!tive destitutionI+ re!urs t roug out 8a!anian politi!al t eor'. Zi[ek in parti!ular advo!ates maso! ism+ in t e guise of Is ooting atI or IbeatingI oneself+ as a radi!al gesture & i! reveals t e essen!e of t e self and breaks t e !onstraints of an oppressive realit'+ alt oug t e maso! isti! gesture is present in all 8a!anian t eorists. E e deat instin!t is t'pified b' Zi[ek as a pat ologi!al 3in t e Qantian sense4+ !ontingent attitude & i! finds satisfa!tion in t e pro!ess of self( blo!kage109. 5t is identi!al &it t e 8a!anian !on!ept of /ouissan!e or en/o'ment. <or im+ Ken/o'ment 3/ouissan!e4 is not to be equated &it pleasure: en/o'ment is pre!isel' Ipleasure in unpleasureIF it designates t e paradoxi!al satisfa!tion pro!ured b' a painful en!ounter &it a E ing t at perturbs t e equilibrium of t e pleasure prin!iple. 5n ot er &ords+ en/o'ment is lo!ated Ibe'ond t e pleasure prin!ipleIK110. 5t is also t e !ore of t e self+ sin!e en/o'ment is Kt e onl' Isubstan!eI a!kno&ledged b' ps'! oanal'sisK+ and Kt e sub/e!t full' IexistsI onl' t roug en/o'mentK111. =rimordial maso! ism is t erefore !entral to t e 8a!anian !on!ept of t e 6eal+ & i! depends on t ere being a universal moment at & i! a!tive desire ( sometimes given t e slig tl' misleading name of t e Ipleasure prin!ipleI ( is suspended+ not for a greater or dela'ed pleasure+ but out of a dire!t desire for unpleasure 3i.e. a primar' rea!tive desire4. <urt ermore+ t is rea!tive desire is supposed to be ontologi!all' prior to a!tive desire. Gomini!k 8a7apra offers a similar but distin!t !ritique to m' o&n+ !laiming t at 8a!anian and similar t eories indu!e a post(traumati! !ompulsion repetition or an Kendless+ quasi(trans!endental grieving t at ma' be indistinguis able from interminable melan! ol'K. 6ei! as alread' provided a rebuttal of Iprimordial maso! ismI+ & i! + paradoxi!all' given Zi[ekKs !laims to radi!alism+ &as denoun!ed b' ort odox <reudians as !ommunist propaganda. 5n 6ei! Ks vie&+ maso! ism operates as a relief at a lesser pain & i! operates as armouring against anxiet' about an underl'ing trauma113. 6egardless of & at one t inks of 6ei! Ks spe!ifi! a!!ount of t e origins of maso! ism+ & at is !ru!ial is is !ritique of t e idea of a deat drive. K9u! 'pot eses as are !riti!ised ere are often onl' a sign of t erapeuti! failure. <or if one explains maso! ism b' a deat instin!t+ one !onfirms to t e patient is Tsi!U alleged &ill to sufferK. E us+ 8a!anian metap 'si!s !on!eal 8a!aniansK en!ouragement of a variet' of neurosis !ompli!it &it oppressive so!ial realities. =oliti!all'+ t e t esis of primordial maso! ism provides a m'stif'ing !over for t e so!ial for!es & i! !ause and benefit from t e !ontingent emergen!e of maso! isti! atta! ments 3i.e. sadisti! po&er apparatuses4. @ne !ould !ompare t is remark to LutlerKs !laim t at Zi[ek Kdefends t e trauma of t e real... over and against a different kind of t reatK11"

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?iBek9s al&erna&i)e is %essi$is&ic an- a+&hori&arian K his &heor* %recl+-es -e$ocra&ic %oli&ics/ Breger. 00 2ssistant =rofessor of Dermani! 9tudies at 5ndiana+ 2001 37laudia+ Gia!riti!s 31.1 320014 $3(90+ IE e 8eaderKs E&o Lodies: 9lavo/ VizekKs =ostmodern =oliti!al E eolog'+I pro/e!t muse4 Aore t an ten 'ears later-after a de!ade of aut oritarian rule+ &ar+ and geno!ide in former Xugoslavia-re!ent revolutionar' events in 9erbia on!e more allo& one to ope for a t oroug demo!ratization of t e region. 5n a ne&spaper arti!le evaluating t e uprising+ o&ever+ Vizek &arned t at t ese opes mig t be premature: & ile Ailosevi! !ould find is ne& role as Ia 9erbian ;esus 7 rist+I taking upon im all t e IsinsI !ommitted b' is people+ Qostuni!a and is Idemo!rati!I nationalism mig t represent Inot ing but Ailosevi! in t e KnormalK version+ &it out t e ex!essI TVizek+ IDe&altIU. Vizek &as not alone in &arning t at t e ne& government in Xugoslavia mig t not bring an end to 9erbian nationalist politi!s. E e pessimisti! s!enario Vizek evoked on t is o!!asion+ o&ever+ &as not simpl' t e result of is evaluation of t e !urrent politi!al !onstellation in 9erbia. 6at er+ t e fantas' of t e ne!essar' return of t e leader is !onne!ted to is politi!al t eor'-a t eor' t at does not allo& for more optimisti! s!enarios of demo!ratization and t e diminution of nationalism in so!iet'. A' reading of VizekKs &ork t us argues for a reevaluation of is t eor' in terms of its impli!it aut oritarian politi!s. E e need for su! a reevaluation is also suggested b' 8a!lau to&ard t e end of is re!ent ex! ange &it ;udit Lutler and Vizek & en e admits t at It e more our dis!ussions progressed+ t e more 5 realized t at m' s'mpat ' for VizekKs politi!s &as largel' t e result of a mirageI T8a!lau+ I7onstru!ting ?niversalit'I 292U. 8a!lau no& !riti!izes VizekKs radi!al Aarxist r etori! b' suggesting t at e I&ants to do a&a' &it liberal demo!rati! regimesI &it out spe!if'ing a politi!al alternative T2%9U+ and des!ribes VizekKs dis!ourse as Is! izop reni!all' split bet&een a ig l' sop isti!ated 8a!anian anal'sis and an insuffi!ientl' de!onstru!ted traditional AarxismI T20"U. @n TNnd =age $3U t e ot er and+ e also problematizes VizekKs Ips'! oanal'ti! dis!ourseI as Inot trul' politi!alI T2%9U. A' argument primaril' starts from t is latter point: t e antidemo!rati!-and+ as 5 &ill argue+ bot antifeminist and anti(9emiti!-moment of VizekKs t eor' is to be lo!ated not onl' in t e &a' e performs Aarxism+ but also in t e &a' e performs 8a!anian ps'! oanal'sis. H ile+ in ot er &ords+ VizekKs skepti!ism vis(](vis demo!ra!' is obviousl' informed b'+ and inseparable from+ Aarxist !ritiques of Iliberal+I IrepresentativeI demo!ra!'+ is failure to elaborate alternative visions of politi!al ! ange to&ards egalitarian and)or plural s!enarios of so!iet' !annot be explained solel' b' is Aarxist perspe!tive..

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The al&erna&i)e links &o &he cri&iD+e' &he Lacanian no&ion of a :cons&i&+&i)e ele$en&; &ha& is a& &he roo& of all %oli&ical fan&as* is H+s& as essen&ialis& as &he* clai$ &he affir$a&i)e &o be/ (obinson L=h" =oli&ical Theor*. @ni)ersi&* of !o&&ingha$I 03 3E eor' and Nvent+ 2ndre&+ %:1+ E e =oliti!al E eor' of 7onstitutive 8a!k: 2 7ritique4. 8a!anians assume t at t e idea of a founding negativit' is not essentialist+ & ereas an' idea of an autonomous positive or affirmative for!e+ even if !onstru!ted as a!tive+ undefinable+ ! anging and)or in!omplete+ is essentialist. E e reason 8a!anians !an !laim to be Ianti(essentialistI is t at t ere is a radi!al rupture bet&een t e form and !ontent of 8a!anian t eor'. E e Ia!!eptan!e of !ontingen!'I !onstru!ted around t e idea of I!onstitutive la!kI is a !losing+ not an opening+ gesture+ and is itself IessentialistI and non(!ontingent. Aan' 8a!anian !laims are not at all !ontingent+ but are posited as a istori!al absolutes. Eo take an instan!e from AouffeKs &ork+ Kpo&er and antagonismK are supposed to ave an Kineradi!able ! ara!terK so t at Kan' so!ial ob/e!tivit' is !onstituted t roug a!ts of po&erK and &ill s o& tra!es of ex!lusions. @ne !ould ardl' find a !learer example an'& ere of a !laim about a fixed basi! stru!ture of Leing. @ne !ould also note again t e frequen!' of &ords su! as IallI and Ial&a'sI in t e 8a!anian vo!abular'. 8ud&ig Hittgenstein argues t at Kif someone &is ed to sa': IE ere is somet ing !ommon to all t ese !onstru!tions ( namel' t e dis/un!tion of all t eir !ommon propertiesI ( 5 s ould repl': Co& 'ou are onl' pla'ing &it &ordsK$$. 8a!anian t eor' seems+ indeed+ to be treating dis/un!tion as a basis for similarit'+ t us simpl' Ipla'ing &it &ordsI.I!ontingen!'I embra!ed in 8a!anian t eor' is not an openness & i! ex!eeds spe!ifiable positivities+ but a positivit' posing as negativit'. E e relations ip bet&een !ontingen!' and I!onstitutive la!kI is like t e relations ip bet&een Dermans and IDermannessI+ or tables and ItablenessI+ in t e &ork of Lart es. @ne !ould speak+ t erefore+ of a Ila!k(nessI or a I!ontingen!'(nessI or an Iantagonism(nessI in 8a!anian politi!al t eor'+ and of t is t eor' as a !laim to fullness &it t is reified Ila!k(nessI as one of t e positive elements &it in t e fullness. @ne sometimes finds dire!t instan!es of su! m't i!al vo!abular'+ as for instan!e & en 9tavrakakis demands a!kno&ledgement of Kevent(ness and negativit'K$%. 5ndeed+ it is an espe!iall' !losed variet' of fullness+ &it !ore ideas posited as unquestionable dogmas and t e entire stru!ture virtuall' immune to falsifi!ation.

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Their al&erna&i)e links &o &he cri&iD+e/ Their clai$ is &ha& &he aff is a D+es& for a ne<>$as&er signifier &ha& <ill fail beca+se of &he ine)i&able re>e$ergence of &he (eal/ Fo<e)er. &ha& s&a&e$en& is i&self. a ne< $as&er>signifier/ (obinson L=h" =oli&ical Theor*. @ni)ersi&* of !o&&ingha$I 03 3E eor' and Nvent+ 2ndre&+ %:1+ E e =oliti!al E eor' of 7onstitutive 8a!k: 2 7ritique4. E e gap bet&een t e t&o kinds of !ontingen!' is also suggested b' t e 8a!anian insisten!e on t e IneedI for a master( signifier 3or Inodal pointI4+ i.e. a parti!ular signifier & i! fills t e position of universalit'+ a Ks'mboli! in/un!tion & i! relies onl' on its o&n a!t of enun!iationK11#. 5t is t roug su! a gesture t at one establis es a logi! of sameness+ and su! a logi! seems to be desired b' 8a!anians. Lutler remarks t at Zi[ekKs text is a Kpro/e!t of master'K and a dis!ourse of t e la& in & i! Kt e I!ontingen!'I of language is mastered in and b' a textual pra!ti!e & i! speaks as t e la&K. >e demands a KICe& >armon'I+ sustained b' a ne&l' emerged Aaster(9ignifierK. E is insisten!e on a master(signifier is an anti( !ontingent gesture+ espe!iall' in its re/e!tion of t e multiordinalit' of language. 5t is+ after all+ t is multiordinalit' 3t e possibilit' of making a statement about an' ot er statement4 & i! renders language an open rat er t an a !losed s'stem. E e IneedI for a master(signifier seems to be a IneedI to restore an illusion of !losure+ t e IneedI for meta!ommuni!ation to operate in a repressive rat er t an an open &a'. E is IneedI arises be!ause t e m't i!al !on!ept of I!onstitutive la!kI is lo!ated in an entire m't i!al narrative in & i! it relates to ot er abstra!tions. 5n t e &ork of 8a!lau and Aouffe+ t is expresses itself in t e demand for a I egemoni!I agent & o !ontingentl' expresses t e idea of so!ial order Ias su! I. @ne s ould re!all t at su! an order is impossible+ sin!e antagonism is !onstitutive of so!ial relations+ and t at t e egemoni! gesture t erefore requires an ex!lusion. E us+ t e establis ment of a egemoni! master(signifier is merel' a useful illusion. E e alternative to demanding a master(signifier ( an illusion of order & ere t ere is none ( &ould be to re/e!t t e pursuit of t e ordering fun!tion itself+ and to embra!e a Ir izomati!I politi!s & i! goes be'ond t is pursuit. 5n 8a!lau and AouffeKs &ork+ o&ever+ t e IneedI for a so!ial order+ and a state to embod' it+ is never questioned+ and+ even in VizekKs texts+ t e I2!tI & i! smas es t e so!ial order is to be follo&ed b' a ne!essar' restoration of order11%. E is ne!essit' is derived ontologi!all': people are+ sa's Zi[ek+ Kin need of firm rootsK119. E e tautologi!al gesture of establis ing a master( signifier b' restrospe!tivel' positing !onditions of an ob/e!t as its !omponents+ t ereb' Kblo!king an' furt er inquir' into t e so!ial meaningK of & at it quilts 3i.e. repressive meta!ommuni!ation4+ is a stru!tural ne!essit'120. E is is be!ause Kdis!ourse itself is in its fundamental stru!ture Iaut oritarianIK. E e role of t e anal'st is not to ! allenge t e pla!e of t e master+ but to o!!up' it in su! a &a' as to expose its underl'ing !ontingen!'121. E e master(signifier+ also termed t e @ne+ demonstrates t e !entralit' of a logi! of pla!e in 8a!anian t eor'. 8a!anians assume t at !onstitutive la!k ne!essitates t e !onstru!tion of a positive spa!e & i! a parti!ular agent !an fill 3albeit !ontingentl'4+ & i! embodies t e emptiness)negativit' as su! . E erefore+ t e !ommitment to master(signifiers and t e state involves a !ontinuation of an essentialist image of positivit'+ &it Ila!kI operating stru!turall' as t e master(signifier of 8a!anian t eor' itself 3not as a subversion of positivit'+ but as a parti!ular positive element4. E e idea of I!onstitutive la!kI is supposed to entail a re/e!tion of neutral and universal standpoints+ and it is t is re/e!tion & i! !onstru!ts it as an Ianti(essentialistI position. 5n pra!ti!e+ o&ever+ 8a!anians restore t e idea of a universal frame&ork t roug t e ba!kdoor. Leneat t e idea t at It ere is no neutral universalit'I lurks a !laim to kno& pre!isel' su! a Ineutral universalit'I and to !laim a privileged position on t is basis. 2 !onsistent belief in !ontingen!' and Ianti(essentialismI entails s!epti!ism about t e idea of !onstitutive la!k. 2fter all+ o& does one kno& t at t e appearan!e t at Kexperien!eK s o&s la!k to be !onstitutive refle!ts an underl'ing universalit'+ as opposed to t e !ontingent or even simulated effe!ts of a parti!ular dis!ourse or epistemeR 2longside its opponents+ s ouldnKt 8a!anian t eor' also be aunted b' its o&n fallibilit' and in!ompletionR E ere is a paradox in t e idea of radi!al ! oi!e+ for it is un!lear & et er 8a!anians believe t is s ould be applied reflexivel'. 5s t e ! oi!e of 8a!anian t eor' itself an ungrounded Ge!isionR 5f so+ t e t eor' loses t e universalist status it impli!itl' !laims. 5f not+ it &ould seem to be t e kind of stru!tural t eor' it atta!ks. 2 !omplete stru!tural t eor' &ould seem to assume an extra( !ontingent standpoint+ even if t e stru!ture in!ludes a referen!e to !onstitutive la!k. 9u! a t eor' &ould seem to be a radi!al negation of t e in!ompletion of I5 donKt kno&I.

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?iBek9s arg+$en&s abo+& 9P00 fail &o recogniBe &ha& &he shock of &he a&&ack <as no& in i&s si$+la&e- na&+re b+& in i&s i$%ac& on real %eo%le/ We nee- &o foc+s on &he ac&+al effec&s of )iolence/ Eross<hi&e. 00 32sso!iate =rofessor of Nnglis at ?niversit' of @regon+ 2001 ;im+ 02 6esponse to 9lavo/ VizekKs IHel!ome to t e Gesert of t e 6ealJI+1 9eptember 2"+ ttp:))&&&.uoregon.edu)p/!ross)responseYtoYzizek. tm4 Lut to sa' t at & at appened on 9eptember 11 is like t e s!ene in t e Aatrix & ere Aorp eus introdu!es t e Qeanu 6eeves ! ara!ter to t e Idesert of t e realI is to sa' somet ing t at belongs on a <ox Cet&ork talk s o&. <or & at 2meri!ans is it true
t at t e events of 9eptember 11 broke into an Iinsulated artifi!ial universeI t at generated an image of a diaboli!al outsiderR 8etKs not !onsider t e "+000 in!inerated and dismembered men and &omen and ! ildren & o suffered from disease and in/ur' like all people+ & o !leaned toilets and !oug ed up p legm and ! anged diapers and a!tuall' o!!upied &it & at &as on!e t eir real bodies t ose to&ers & i! + for Vizek+ stand for virtual !apitalism. E e' !anKt be t e ones & ose delusions generated t e fantas' of a diaboli!al outsider. Cone of t em+ none of t eir surviving ! ildren+ none of t eir fello& !itizens fantasized Lin 8adenKs ruling t at it is an individual dut' for ever' Auslim & o !an do it in an' !ountr' in & i! it is possible to do it+ to kill t e 2meri!ans+ militar' and !ivilians. 9o for & om as t e fantasti! IoutsideI broken in and smas ed+ &it Is attering impa!t+I an immaterial &orld of delusionR <or & om does @sama Lin 8aden appear as a ! ara!ter from a ;ames Lond filmR <or & om did t e events of 9eptember 11 arrive &it t e painful a&areness t at &e &ere living in an artifi!ial insulated realit'R <or & om do t e people and events in t is massa!re of inno!ents appear solel' in t e s apes of

=er aps t ese are t e 2meri!ans Vizek is listening to+ &at! ing+ imagining. Lut ere is t e true Is attering impa!t:I t at "+000 inno!ent people & o lived real lives in real+ vulnerable uman bodies+ & o bore real ! ildren+ suffered real disease and in/ur' and pain+ bled real bloodF "+000 real people & o elped to sustain a !osmopolitan !it' of millions and millions of ot er real people of different et ni! groups and religions and languages+ real !itizens & o ad a! ieved a great measure of pea!e and ope+ & o ad been slo&l' and su!!essfull' bringing do&n t e Ce& Xork 7it' !rime rateF t at "+000 of t ese people &ould ave t eir real bodies and lives erased in a matter of minutes+ and t at onl' bod' parts+ t e vapors of t e in!inerated+ and t e grieving and t e sorro&ful and t e orp ans &ould remain. E is is t e s o!k. E is is t e disbelief. Cot t e s attering of an illusion but t e s attering of t ose real people and t eir real bodies. Cot t e s attering of a virtual realit'+ but t e erasing of & at
film and televisionR =er aps+ per aps t e 2meri!ans living in an insulated+ artifi!ial realit' are t e ! ara!ters in 2meri!an television s o&s and in in!reasingl' intertextual 2meri!an films. &as real. E is is & ' t e people of Ce& Xork &ept in t e streets+ & ' t e tears and grief &ill !ontinue. 2nd t is is & '+ in t eir grief+ t e survivors &ill struggle to preserve a memor' of & at &as real+ and to keep t is memor' of & at &as real from evanes!ing into someone elseKs s'mbol+ or fantas'+ or tool. Here t e real lives t e' led less real for an' appiness or pea!e t e' a! ievedR 2re t e unfat omable sufferings of 6&anda and & at appened in 9ara/evo to be t e measure of & at is most realR 2nd 'et in VizekKs &riting+ & at appened on 9eptember 11 is not real but s'mboli!+ as it seems to ave been for t e murderers+ too: It e a!tual effe!t of t ese bombings is mu! more s'mboli! t an real.I He are /ust Igetting a taste ofI & at goes on around t e &orld Ion a dail' basis.I @Q+ per aps &e are insulated and ignorant. Lut & ere are "+000 inno!ents being in!inerated b' murderers on a dail' basisR 5f Vizek is sa'ing t at 2meri!ans s ould be more kno&ledgeable about t e lives and sufferings of ot er peoples & ose lives and sufferings are entangled &it 2meri!aKs o&n istor'+ t en & o &ould disagreeR 5f Vizek is sa'ing t at 2meri!an po&er and its dire!t involvement in international affairs !reate a spe!ial responsibilit' for our edu!ational s'stems and our media to provide us &it a kno&ledge of global matters t at &e ave not 'et a! ieved+ t en & o &ould disagreeR 5f e is sa'ing t at 2meri!ans s ould !ompre end more deepl' o& people in ot er parts of t e &orld !ompre end us+ on!e more+ & o &ould disagreeR 5f e is sa'ing t at real understanding of geograp i!all' distant ot ers is endangered and distorted b' t e fantasies of film and television+ are t ere edu!ated 2meri!ans & o ave not eard t isR 5s t e struggle to edu!ate a demo!rati! !itizens ip adequate to our time and t e realities of globalization unique to t e ?nited 9tatesR E at &ould be ard to believe. >o&ever+ it must be !on!eded b' all t at t e ?.9. fa!es one spe!ial diffi!ult' and so a spe!ial but obligator' struggle ere. Aan' of its !itizens &ill never ave a first and experien!e of Nurope or t e Aiddle Nast or 2fri!a or 2sia or even 9out 2meri!a. 5 !an drive or fl' 3+000 miles and never leave m' !ountr'. 2t best+ 5 !an get to Aexi!o or 7anada. E is &ould take someone living in <ran!e t roug all of Nurope and into !entral 2sia+ or into t e !enter of 2fri!a. E e problems of trul' !ompre ending t ese ot ers & ose languages are

>e seems to kno& more t an most of us kno&. >e kno&s t at It e ultimate trut of t e !apitalist utilitarian de(spiritualized universe is t e de( materialization of t e Kreal lifeK itself+ its reversal into a spe!tral s o&.I E is is diffi!ult to !ompre end. 5s t is t e Iultimate trut I about a real nation+ about real people+ about a real+ existing e!onomi! s'stem+ about an et i!al t eor'+ about a fantas' of real people+ or about movies or television or & atR E e problem ma' be t at man' of us !annot imagine t at I!apitalismI 3is it one t ingR4+ & i! is after all somet ing istori!al+ as an Iultimate trut .I 2nd it is diffi!ult to understand & at e is asking at t e end: I@r &ill 2meri!a finall' risk stepping t roug t e fantasmati! s!reen separating it from t e @utside Horld+ a!!epting its arrival into t e 6eal &orld+ making t e long(overdue move from K2 t ing like t is s ould not appen >N6NJK to K2 t ing like t is s ould not appen 2CXH>N6NJK.I @f !ourse+ to abandon t e I ereI for t e Ian'& ereI &ould be foolis . He are in real bodies in real pla!es &it real limitations and &it real &ork to do. 5t is not simpl' a Ifantasmati! s!reenI t at deepl' atta! es people in a unique &a' to t e sufferings of t eir neig bors and t eir fello& !itizens. Lut t e demand t at Vizek makes is neit er unfamiliar nor inappropriate. 5t is more t an &ort pursuing. H at !an &e do to &ork to see t at & at t e people of Ce& Xork 7it' suffered on 9eptember 11 does not appen an'& ere+ neit er in t e ?.9. nor an'& ere elseR E e rea!tions of t e 2meri!an government no& t reaten regions all over t e &orld and seriousl' t reaten libert' and priva!' and toleran!e in t e ?nited 9tates. E e 2meri!an past !arries umanitarian su!!esses and !atastrop i! failures and geno!ide. =er aps fantasti! !ritique as a role to pla'. 7ertainl' &e must struggle to sustain serious so!ial !riti!ism t roug t reatening times+ but unless &e are simpl' displa'ing !riti!al virtuosit'+ &e must a! ieve a kind of !riti!ism t at is reasonabl' !on!rete+ less pretending to ultimate trut s of istor'+ more !apable of a!kno&ledging t e real suffering of real people+ !riti!ism t at is not too proud to des!end to t e pra!ti!able. H at do &e seek no&R <irst+ to avert a !atastrop e. He must undo t e terrorist net&orks and prevent 2meri!an anger and po&er from leading us into t e !atastrop i! roles t at seem to ave been s!ripted for us. <ive t ousand inno!ents are murdered in Ce& Xork 7it'. E at is more t an enoug . Nver' dead inno!ent fuels more anger+ eit er from t e po&erless or from t e po&erful. 2verting an es!alation of global violen!e is t e immediate and pressing task. ?ndoing and &eakening t e terrorist net&orks+ &it dra&ing support from t em+ arresting t e guilt'-ever'one & o is not alread' a monster must be persuaded to /oin in t is.
rarel' spoken an'& ere near 'ou and into & ose a!tual presen!e 'ou &ill never !ome are not trivial. Lut Vizek seems to be sa'ing somet ing more t an all of t is.

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AT LAEA!P? ?#K' !O EO!!#ET O! ALT A!" BALLOT There is no connec&ion be&<een &he ballo& an- &he al&era&i)e,?iBek arg+es &ha& &he al&erna&i)e canno& be conscio+sl* bro+gh& abo+&,i& can onl* be recogniBe- in hin-sigh&/ Tell. 02 7ommuni!ation 2rts and 9!ien!es at E e =enns'lvania 9tate ?niversit'+ 2004 3Gavid+ 0@n Lelief 36evie&4+1 Chilosophy and ,hetoric 3$.1 320044 9#(99+ =ro/e!t A?9N4 Aost s! olars of r etori!+ o&ever+ &ill not be satisfied &it VizekKs belief. <or alt oug t is belief provides t e ne!essar' sub/e!tive !onditions for publi! intervention+ it is diffi!ult to imagine it being publi!l' deplo'ed. E is belief is+ after all+ radi!all' privatizedF it is t e internal repetition of a Iprimordial de!ision+I or an Iun!ons!ious atemporal deedI 314$4. @ne must &onder about t e publi! possibilities of su! a private 3and sub!ons!ious4 experien!e. Aoreover+ most r etori!ians ma' &ell be troubled b' VizekKs !laim t at all Ia!ts properI-a!ts of a!tual freedom-o!!ur outside t e s'mboli! order. 5nsofar as r etori! !an be !onsidered s'mboli! a!tion+ t en+ its a!tion !an never provide for innovative intervention into t e publi! sp ere. Vizek admits as mu! in an endnote: Itrue a!ts of freedom are ! oi!es)de!isions & i! &e make & ile una&are of it-&e never de!ide 3in t e present tense4F all of a sudden+ &e /ust take note of o& &e ave alread' de!ided I 31"#n4#4. 5t is pre!isel' ere t at t e r etori!ian &ill not be satisfied: if 6ort' marginalized t e r etori!al pur! ase of TNnd =age 9%U belief b' banis ing it to t e private sp ere+ Vizek does so b' marginalizing r etori! itself.

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AT LAEA!P? ?#K' M#TA=FO( E EO!"#!SAT O! =#(M =er$ K The %lan can be -e%lo*e- as %ar& of a +ni)ersal s&ra&eg* &o res&r+c&+re social s%ace K &his isn9& in&rinsic beca+se i& is o+r %ar&ic+lar -e$an- &ha& gi)es <a* &o a +ni)ersal %oli&ics/ ?iBek. 95 . = G+ =rofessor of = ilosop ' at E e Nuropean Draduate 9! ool 39lavo/+ ;ournal of =oliti!al 5deologies+ 0<or a 8eftist 2ppropriation of t e Nuropean 8ega!'+1 ttp:))&&&.la!an.!om)zizek( leftist. tm4 2re &e t en !ondemned to t e debilitating alternative of ! oosing bet&een a knave or a fool. or is t ere a tertium daturR =er aps t e !ontours of t is tertium datur !an be dis!erned via t e referen!e to t e fundamental Nuropean lega!'. H en one sa's dNuropean lega!'K+ ever' self(respe!tful 8eftist intelle!tual as t e same rea!tion as ;osep Doebbels ad to !ulture as su! ( e rea! es for is gun and starts to s oot out a!!usations of proto(<as!ist Nuro!entrist !ultural imperialism. >o&ever+ is it possible to imagine a 8eftist appropriation of t e Nuropean politi!al traditionR Has it not politi!ization in a spe!ifi! Dreek sense & i! re(emerged violentl' in t e disintegration of Nastern Nuropean 9o!ialismR <rom m' o&n politi!al past+ 5 remember o&+ after four /ournalists &ere arrested and broug t to trial b' t e Xugoslav 2rm' in 9lovenia in 19%%+ 5 parti!ipated in t e d7ommittee for t e prote!tion of t e uman rig ts of t e four a!!usedK. @ffi!iall'+ t e goal of t e 7ommittee &as /ust to guarantee fair treatment for t e four a!!usedF o&ever+ t e 7ommittee turned into t e ma/or oppositional politi!al for!e+ pra!ti!all' t e 9lovene version of t e 7ze! 7ivi! <orum or Nast Derman Ceues <orum+ t e bod' & i! !oordinated demo!rati! opposition+ a de fa!to representative of !ivil so!iet'. E e program of t e 7ommittee &as set up in four itemsF t e first t ree dire!tl' !on!erned t e a!!used+ & ile t e devil & i! resides in t e detail + of !ourse+ &as t e fourt item+ & i! said t at t e 7ommittee &anted to !larif' t e entire ba!kground of t e arrest of t e four a!!used and t us !ontribute to !reating t e !ir!umstan!es in & i! su! arrests &ould no longer be possible(a !oded &a' to sa' t at &e &anted t e abolis ment of t e existing 9o!ialist regime. @ur demand d;usti!e for t e a!!used fourJK started to fun!tion as t e metap ori! !ondensation of t e demand for t e global overt ro& of t e 9o!ialist regime. <or t at reason+ in almost dail' negotiations &it t e 7ommittee+ t e 7ommunist =art' offi!ials &ere al&a's a!!using us of a d idden agendaK+ !laiming t at t e liberation of t e a!!used four &as not our true goal+ i.e. t at &e &ere dexploiting and manipulating t e arrest and trial for ot er+ darker politi!al goalsK. 5n s ort+ t e 7ommunists &anted to pla' t e KrationalK depoliti!ized game: t e' &anted to deprive t e slogan d;usti!e for t e a!!used fourJK of its explosive general !onnotation+ and to redu!e it to its literal meaning & i! !on!erned /ust a minor legal matterF t e' !'ni!all' !laimed t at it &as us+ t e 7ommittee+ & o &ere be aving dnon(demo!rati!all'K and manipulating t e fate of t e a!!used+ !oming up &it global pressure and bla!kmailing strategies instead of fo!using on t e parti!ular problem of t e plig t of t e a!!used. E is is politi!s proper: t is moment in & i! a parti!ular demand is not simpl' part of t e negotiation of interests+ but aims at somet ing more+ i.e. starts to fun!tion as t e metap ori! !ondensation of t e global restru!turing of t e entire so!ial spa!e. E e !ontrast is !lear bet&een t is sub/e!tivization
of a part of t e so!ial bod' & i! re/e!ts its subordinated pla!e in t e so!ial poli!e edifi!e and demands to be eard at t e level of egaliberte+ and toda'Ks proliferation of postmodern didentit'(politi!sK & ose goal is t e exa!t opposite+ i.e. pre!isel' t e assertion of oneKs parti!ular identit'+ of oneKs proper pla!e &it in t e so!ial stru!ture. E e postmodern identit'(politi!s of parti!ular 3et ni!+ sexual+ et!.4 life(st'les fits perfe!tl' t e depoliti!ized notion of so!iet' in & i! ever' parti!ular group is da!!ounted forK+ as its spe!ifi! status 3of a vi!tim4 a!kno&ledged t roug affirmative a!tion or ot er measures destined to guarantee so!ial /usti!e. E e fa!t t at t is kind of /usti!e rendered to vi!timized minorities requires an intri!ate poli!e apparatus 3for identif'ing t e group in question+ for punis ing t e offenders against its rig ts( o& legall' to define sexual arassment or ra!ial in/ur'+ et!.(for providing t e preferential treatment & i! s ould out&eig t e &rong t is group suffered4 is deepl' signifi!ant. E e postmodern didentit' politi!sK involves t e logi! of ressentiment+ of pro!laiming oneself a vi!tim and expe!ting t e so!ial big @t er to dpa' for t e damageK+ & ile egaliberte breaks out of t e vi!ious !'!le of ressentiment. H at is usuall' praised as dpostmodern politi!sK 3t e pursuit of parti!ular issues & ose resolution is to be negotiated &it in t e KrationalK global order allo!ating to its parti!ular !omponent its proper pla!e4 is t us effe!tivel' t e end of politi!s proper.

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AT LAEA!P? ?#K' L#TT#( OF TF# LAW =#(M T+rn K The %er$+&a&ion is $ore s+b)ersi)e beca+se i& $akes -e$an-s on &he s*s&e$ &ha& &he s*s&e$ ex%ec&s <ill ne)er be $a-e/ The al&erna&i)e9s ra-ical a&&e$%& &o i$%ose so$e&hing co$%le&el* -ifferen& is $ore easil* -efea&e-/ ?iBek. 95 . =rofessor of = ilosop ' at 5nstitute of 9o!ial 9!ien!es at ?niversit' of 8/ubl/ana 39lavo/+ 8a& and t e =ostmodern Aind+ 0H ' Goes t e 8a& need an @bs!ene 9upplementR1 =g 91(944 <inall'+ t e point about in erent transgression is not t at ever' opposition+ ever' attempt at subversion+ is automati!all' I!oopted/I @n t e !ontrar'+ t e ver' fear of being !oopted t at makes us sear! for more and more Iradi!al .T IpureI attitudes. is t e supreme strateg' of suspension or marginalization/ E e point is rat er t at true subversion is not al&a's & ere it seems to be. 9ometimes+ a small distan!e is mu! more explosive for t e s'stem t an an ineffe!tive radi!al re/e!tion. 5n religion+ a small eres' !an be more t reatening t an an outrig t at eism or passage to anot er religionF for a ard(line 9talinist+ a Erotsk'ite is infinitel'
more t reatening t an a bourgeois liberal or so!ial demo!rat. 2s le 7arre put it+ one true revisionist in t e 7entral 7ommittee is &ort more t an t ousand dissidents outside it. 5t &as eas' to dismiss Dorba! ev for aiming onl' at improving t e s'stem+ making it more effi!ient( e nonet eless set in motion its disintegration. 9o one s ould also bear in mind t e obverse of t e in erent transgression: one is tempted to parap rase <reudKs !laim from E e Ngo and t e 5d t at man is not onl' mu! more immoral t an e believes+ but also mu! more moral t an e kno&s(t e 9'stem is not onl' infinitel' more resistant and invulnerable t an it ma' appear 3it !an !oopt apparentl' subversive strategies+ t e' !an serve as its support4+ it is also infinitel' more vulnerable 3a small revision et!+ !an ave large unforeseen !atastrop i! !onsequen!es4. @r+ to put it in anot er &a': t e paradoxi!al role of t e un&ritten superego in/un!tion is t at+ &it regard to t e expli!it+ publi! 8a&+ it is simultaneousl' transgressive 3superego suspends+ violates+ t e expli!it so!ial rules4 and more !oer!ive 3superego !onsists of additional rules t at restrain t e field of ! oi!e b' &a' of pro ibiting t e possibilities allo&ed for+ guaranteed even+ b' t e publi! 8a&4. <rom m' personal istor'+ 5 re!all t e moment of t e referendum for t e independen!e of 9lovenia as t e exemplar' !ase of su! a for!ed ! oi!e: t e & ole point+ of !ourse+ &as to ave a trul' free ! oi!e(but nonet eless+ in t e pro(independen!e eup oria+ ever' argumentation for remaining &it in Xugoslavia &as immediatel' denoun!ed as trea! erous and dislo'al. E is example is espe!iall' suitable sin!e 9lovenes &ere de!iding about a matter t at &as literall' ItransgressiveI 3to break from Xugoslavia &it its !onstitutional order4+ & i! is & ' t e Lelgrade aut orities denoun!ed

E e obverse of t e omnipoten!e of t e un&ritten is t us t at. if one ignores t em+ t e' simpl' !ease to exist+ in !ontrast to t e &ritten la& t at exists 3fun!tions4 & et er one is a&are of it or not>or+ as t e priest in QafkaKs E e Erial put it+ la& does not &ant an't ing from 'ou+ it onl' bot ers 'ou if 'ou 'ourself a!kno&ledge it and address 'ourself to it &it a demand ... H en+ in t e late eig teent !entur'+ universal uman rig ts &ere pro!laimed+ t is universalit'+ of!ourse+
9lovene referendum as un!onstitutional(one &as t us ordered to transgress t e8a& ... !on!ealed t e fa!t t at t e' privilege & ite+ men of propert'F o&ever+ t is limitation &as not openl' admitted+ it &as !oded in apparentl' tautologi!al supplementar' qualifi!ations like Iall umans ave rig ts+ insofar as t e' trul' are. rational and free+I I & i! t en impli!itl' ex!ludes t e mentall' ill+ Isavages+I !riminals+ ! ildren+ &omen.K. . 9o+ if+ in t is situation+ a poor bla!k &oman disregards t is un&ritten+ impli!it+ qualifi!ation and demands uman rig ts+ also for erself+ s e /ust takes t e letter oft e dis!ourse of rig ts Imore literall' t an it &as meantI 3and t ereb' redefines its universalit'+ ins!ribing it into a different egemoni! ! ain4. I<antas'I designates pre!isel' t is un&ritten frame&ork t at tells us o& are &e to understand t e letter of 8a&. E e lesson of t is is t at(sometimes+ at least( t e trul' subversive t ing is not to disregard t e expli!it letter of 8a& on be alf of t e underl'ing fantasies+ but to sti!k to t is letter against t e fantas' t at sustains it. 5s(at a !ertain level+ at least(t is not t e out!ome of t e long !onversation bet&een ;osepf Q. and t e priest t at follo&s t e priestKs narrative on t e Goor of t e 8a& in E e ErialR(t e un!ann' effe!t of t is !onversation does not reside in t e fa!t t at t e reader is at a loss insofar as e la!ks t e un&ritten interpretive !ode or frame ofreferen!e t at &ould enable im to dis!ern t e idden Aeaning+ but+ on t e !ontrar'+ in t at t epriestKs interpretation of t e parable on t e Goor of t e 8a& disregards all standard frames of un&ritten rules and reads t e text in an Iabsolutel' literalI &a'. @ne !ould also approa! t is deadlo!k via. 8a!anKs notion of t e spe!ifi!all' s'mboli! mode of de!eption: ideolog' I! eats pre!isel' b' letting us kno& t at its propositions 3sa'+ on universal uman rig ts4K are not to be read a la lettre+ but against t eba!kground of a set of un&ritten rules. 9ometimes+ at least+ t e most effe!tive anti(ideologi!al subversion of t e offi!ial dis!ourse of uman rig ts !onsists in reading it in an ex!essivel' IliteralI &a'+ disregarding t e set of

E e need for un&ritten rules t us bears &itness to+ !onfirms+ t is vulnerabilit': t e s'stem is !ompelled to allo& for possibilities of ! oi!es t at must never a!tuall' take pla!e sin!e t e' &ould disintegrate t es'stem . and t e fun!tion of t e un&ritten rules is pre!isel' to prevent t e a!tualization of t ese ! oi!es formall' allo&ed b' t e s'stem. @ne
underl'ing un&ritten rules. !an see o& un&ritten rules are !orrelative to+ t e obverseof+ t e empt' s'mboli! gesture and)or t e for!ed ! oi!e: un&ritten rules prevent t e sub/e!t from effe!tivel' a!!epting & at is offered in t e empt' gesture+ from taking t e ! oi!e literall' and ! oosing t e impossible+ t at t e ! oi!e of & i! destro's t e s'stem. 5n t e 9oviet ?nion of t e 1930s and 1940s+ to take t e most extreme example+ it &as not onl' pro ibited to !riti!ize 9talin+ it &as per aps even more pro ibited to enoun!e publi!l' t is pro ibition+ i.e.+ too state t at one is pro ibited to !riti!ize 9talin(t e s'stem needed to maintain t e appearan!e t at one is allo&ed to !riti!ize 9talin+ i.e.+ t att e absen!e of t is !riti!ism 3and t e fa!t t at t ere is no opposition part' or movement+ t at t e=art' got 99.99` of t e votes at ele!tions4 simpl' demonstrates t at 9talin is effe!tivel' t e best and 3almost4 al&a's rig t. 5n >egelese+ t is appearan!e qua appearan!e &as essential. E is diale!ti!al tension bet&een t e vulnerabilit' and invulnerabilit' of t e 9'stem also enables us to denoun!e t e ultimate ra!ist and)or sexist tri!k+ t at of It&o birds in t e bus instead of a bird in andI: & en &omen demandK simple equalit'+ quasi(IfeministsI often pretend to offer t em Imu! moreI 3t e role of t e &arm and &ise I!ons!ien!e of so!iet'+I elevated above t e vulgar ever'da' !ompetition and struggle for domination ...4(t e onl' proper ans&er to t is offer+ of !ourse+ is ICo+ t anksJ Letter is t e enem' of t e DoodJ He do not &ant more+ /ust equalit'JI >ere+ at least+ t e last lines in Co& Bo'ager 3IH ' rea! for t e moon+ & en &e !an ave t e starsRI4 are &rong. 5t is omologous &it t e native 2meri!an & o &ants to be!ome integrated into t e predominant I& iteI so!iet'+ and a politi!all' !orre!t progressive liberal endeavors to !onvin!e im t at+ e is t ereb' renoun!ing is ver' unique prerogative+ t e aut enti! native !ulture and tradition(no t anks+ simple equalit' is enoug + 5

J ... 2 modest demand of t eex!luded group for t e full parti!ipation at t e so!iet'Ks universal rig ts is mu! more t reatening fort e s'stem t an t e apparentl' mu! more Iradi!alI re/e!tion of t e predominant Iso!ial valuesI andt e assertion of t e superiorit' of oneKs o&n !ulture. <or a true feminist+ @tto HeiningerKs assertion t at+ alt oug &omen are Iontologi!all' false+I la!king t e proper et i!al stature+ t e' s ould be a!kno&ledged t e same rig ts as men in publi! life+ is infinitel' more a!!eptable t an t e false elevationof &omen t at makes t em Itoo goodI for t e banalit' of menKs rig ts.
also &ouldnKt mind m' part of !onsumerist alienation

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A foc+s on -isco+rse s+bs&i&+&es %hiloso%hical $+sing for $a&erial %oli&ics/ Taf&>Ka+f$an. 93 ( =rofessor+ Gepartment of 9pee! 7ommuni!ation 2nd Gramati! 2rts+ 7entral Ai! igan ?niversit' . 199" 3;ill+ 0@t er &a's: =ostmodernism and performan!e praxis+1 E e 9out ern 7ommuni!ation ;ournal+ Bol.#0+ 5ss. 3F pg. 2224 5n its elevation of language to t e primar' anal'sis of so!ial life and its relegation of t e de(!entered sub/e!t to a set of language positions+ postmodernism ignores t e &a' real people make t eir &a' in t e &orld. H ile t e notion of de!entering does mu! to remed' t e idea of an essential+ un! anging self+ it also presents problems. 2!!ording to 7larke 319914: >aving establis ed t e material qualit' of ideolog'+ ever't ing else &e ad it erto t oug t of as material as disappeared. E ere is not ing outside of ideolog' 3or dis!ourse4. H ere 2lt usser &as !on!erned &it ideolog' as t e imaginar' relations of sub/e!ts to t e real relations of t eir existen!e+ t e !onne!tive qualit' of t is vie& of ideolog' as been dissolved be!ause it la's !laim to an outside+ a real+ an extra(dis!ursive for & i! t ere exists no epistemologi!al &arrant &it out lapsing ba!k into t e bad old &a's of empiri!ism or metap 'si!s. 3pp. 2"(2#4 7larke explains o& t e same dis!onne!tion bet&een t e dis!ursive and t e extra(dis!ursive as been performed in semiologi!al anal'sis: H ere it used to !ontain a relation bet&een t e signifier 3t e representation4 and t e signified 3t e referent4+ antiempiri!ism as taken t e formal arbitrariness of t e !onne!tion bet&een t e signifier and signified and repla!ed it &it t e abolition of t e signified 3t ere !an be no real ob/e!ts out t ere+ be!ause t ere is no out t ere for real ob/e!ts to be4. 3p. 2#4 Eo t e postmodernist+ t en+ real ob/e!ts ave vanis ed. 9o+ too+ ave real people. 9mit 319%%4 suggests t at postmodernism as !anonized doubt about t e availabilit' of t e referent to t e point t at It e real often disappears from !onsiderationI 3p. 1"94. 6eal individuals be!ome abstra!tions. 9ub/e!t positions rat er t an sub/e!ts are t e fo!us. E e emp asis on sub/e!t positions or !onstru!tion of t e dis!ursive self engenders an a!!ompan'ing !riti!al sense of iron' & i! re!ognizes t at Iall !on!eptualizations are limitedI 3<is! er+ 19%#+ p. 2244. E is postmodern position evokes & at 7onnor 319%94 !alls Ian absolute &eig tlessness in & i! an't ing is imaginativel' possible be!ause not ing reall' mattersI 3p. 22$4. 7larke 319914 dubs it a Ipla'fulness t at produ!es emotional and)or politi!al disinvestment: a refusal to be engagedI 3p. 1034. E e luxur' of being able to muse about & at !onstitutes t e self is a posture in keeping &it a !riti!al venue t at divor!es language from material ob/e!ts and bodil' sub/e!ts.

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S+%%ressing lang+age beca+se i& is offensi)e %reser)es i&s inH+rio+s $eaning K +sing &he <or-s in ne< <a*s $akes &he$ $ore h+$ane. K+r&B an- Oscarson 01 32nna and 7 ristop er+ Aembers of Cational 7oun!il of Eea! ers of Nnglis 7onferen!e on 7ollege 7omposition and 7ommuni!ation+ 0LookEalk: 6evising t e Gis!ourse of >ate+1 =ro_uest4 >o&ever+ Lutler also argues t at t e dail'+ repeated use of &ords opens a spa!e for anot er+ more empo&ering kind of performan!e. E is alternative performan!e+ Lutler insists+ !an be It e o!!asion for somet ing &e mig t still !all agen!'+ t e repetition of an original subordination for anot er purpose+ one & ose future is partiall' openI 3p. 3%4. Eo t ink of &ords as aving an IopenI future is to re!ognize t at t eir aut orit' lies less in t eir istori!al t an in t eir present usesF it is to a!kno&ledge t at people !an revise t e meaning of &ords even as &e repeat t emF it is to embra!e t e notion t at t e instabilit' of &ords opens t e possibilit' t at &e !an use t em to 3re4!onstru!t a more umane future for ourselves and ot ers. Le!ause &ords !an be revised+ Lutler !ontends t at it &ould be !ounterprodu!tive simpl' to stop using terms t at &e &ould deem in/urious or oppressive. <or & en &e ! oose not to use offensive &ords under an' !ir!umstan!e+ &e preserve t eir existing meanings as &ell as t eir po&er to in/ure. 5f as tea! ers+ for instan!e+ &e &ere simpl' to forbid t e use of spee! t at is urtful to 8DLE students &e &ould be effe!tivel' den'ing t e fa!t t at su! language still exists. Eo ignore &ords in t is &a'+ Lutler insists+ &onKt make t em go a&a'. Lutler t us suggests t at &e a!tuall' use t ese &ords in t oug tful !onversation in & i! &e &ork t roug t e in/uries t e' !ause 3p. 1.024. 5ndeed+ Lutler insists t at if &e are to re!laim t e po&er t at oppressive spee! robs from us+ &e must use+ !onfront+ and interrogate terms like Iqueer.I Eensorshi% <ill be co>o%&e- b* conser)a&i)e ele$en&s &o -es&ro* $inori&* righ&s K ins&ea- lang+age sho+l- be +se- &o s+b)er& &he con)en&ional $eanings of &he <or-s/ !*e 99 32ndrea+ =rofessor of = ilosop ' at t e ?niversit' of His!onsin H ite&ater+ 0Nx!itable 9pee! : 2 =oliti!s of t e =erformativeF 5n =ursuit of =riva!': 8a&+ Nt i!s+ and t e 6ise of Ee! nolog'+1 ;stor4 @n!e t e state as t e po&er to legislate & at !an be said and not said+ s e argues+ t at po&er &ill be !oopted b' !onservative elements to defeat liberal !auses and minorit' rig ts. 9tate po&er &ill also !urtail t e freedom of spee! of private individuals t at is t e ver' basis for effe!tive antidotes to derogator' name !alling. Ge7e&+ o&ever+ painstakingl' revie&s t e legal and p ilosop i!al istor' of priva!' rig ts as &ell as !urrent debates about its s!ope and status before s e takes on t e question of & et er feminists ave an' interest in preserving a private sp ere. <or Ge7e&+ too+ a ma/or target is Aa!Qinnon+ spe!ifi!all' er argument t at leaving alone t e priva!' of ome and famil' means leaving men alone to abuse and dominate &omen. Ge7e& argues t at de!isions t at prote!t t e use of sexuall' expli!it materials in t e ome+ !onsensual sex pra!ti!es in private+ and personal de!isions about abortion are in t e interest of &omen as &ell as men+ even t oug in some !ases+ su! as &ife beating+ t ere ma' be overriding !onsiderations t at /ustif' state intervention. Lot aut ors argue persuasivel' for a more !areful look at t e dangers lurking be ind !alls for state a!tion. <or Lutler+ t e danger is t at t e state be!omes arbiter of & at is and is not permissible spee! + allo&ing rulings t at t e ere!tion of burning !rosses b' t e Qu Qlux Qlan is prote!ted spee! but t at artisti! expressions of ga' sexualit' or statements of ga' identit' are a!tions rat er t an spee! and so are not prote!ted. E e danger Ge7e& sees is t at on!e t e rig t to priva!' is denied or narro&l' defined+ t e state !an+ on t e grounds of immoralit'+ move into &omenKs personal lives to interfere &it sexual expression+ & et er omosexual or eterosexual+ or &it t e rig t to ! oose an abortion establis ed in 6oe v. Hade. Lot Ge7e& and Lutler+ o&ever+ provide alternative remedies for t e admitted arm t at state a!tion is intended to redress. <or Ge7e&+ t e rig t to priva!' is not absoluteF like freedom+ it !an be overridden b' ot er rig ts -t us t e state !an intervene in domesti! abuse !ases be!ause of t e p 'si!al arm being done. LutlerKs remed' for armful ate language is more deepl' rooted in postmodern t eories of t e speaking sub/e!t. Diven t e postmodern vie& t at t e sub/e!t !an never magisteriall' use a language &it fixed meanings a!!ording to !lear intentions+ it is al&a's possible to subvert t e !onventional meanings of &ords. H at is said as a derogator' slur-Inigger+I I! i!k+I Ispi!+I or Iga'+I for example -!an be Iresignified+I t at is+ returned in su! a manner t at its !onventional meaning in pra!ti!es of dis!rimination and abuse is subverted. Lutler gives as examples t e revalorization of terms like Ibla!kI or Iga'+I t e satiri!al !itation of ra!ial or sexual slurs+ reappropriation in street language or rap musi!+ and expressions of omosexual identit' in art depi!ting grap i! sex. E ese are expressions t at an' erosion in <irst 2mendment rig ts mig t endanger.

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=lacing re%resen&a&ions an- -isco+rse firs& &ra-es off <i&h concre&e %oli&ical change an- $akes no -ifference &o &hose engage- in %oli&ical s&r+ggles/ Taf&>Ka+f$an+ 93 ;ill 9pee! prof M 7A?+ 9out ern 7omm. ;ournal+ 9pring+ v. #0+ 5ss. 3+ 0@t er Ha's1+ p pq E e postmodern pass&ords of Ipol'vo!alit'+I I@t erness+I and Idifferen!e+I unsupported b' substantial anal'sis of t e !on!rete !ontexts of sub/e!ts+ !reates a solipsisti! quagmire. E e politi!al s'mpat ies of t e ne& !ultural !riti!s+ &it t eir ostensible !on!ern for t e la!k of po&er experien!ed b' marginalized people+ aligns t em &it t e politi!al left. Xet+ despite t eir adversarial posture and talk of opposition+ t eir dis!ourses on intertextualit' and inter(referentialit' isolate t em from and ignore t e !onditions t at ave produ!ed leftist politi!s((!onfli!t+ ra!ism+ povert'+ and in/usti!e. 5n s ort+ as 7larke 319914 asserts+ postmodern emp asis on ne& sub/e!ts !on!eals t e old sub/e!ts+ t ose & o ave limited a!!ess to good /obs+ food+ ousing+ ealt !are+ and transportation+ as &ell as to t e media t at depi!t t em. Aerod 319%$4 de!ries t is situation as one & i! leaves no vision+ &ill+ or !ommitment to a!tivism. >e notes t at a!ademi! lip servi!e to t e oppositional is unders!ored b' t e absen!e of fo!used !olle!tive or politi!all' a!tive intelle!tual !ommunities. =rovoked b' t e a!ademi! manifestations of t is problem Gi 8eonardo 319904 e! oes Aerod and laments: >as t ere ever been a istori!al era ! ara!terized b' as little radi!al anal'sis or a!tivism and as mu! radi!al(! i! &riting as oursR Aaundering on about @t erness: p allo!entrism or Nuro!entri! tropes as be!ome a laz' a!ademi! substitute for a!tual engagement &it t e detailed istories and !ontemporar' realities of Hestern ra!ial minorities+ & ite &omen+ or an' E ird Horld population. 3p. "304 7larkeKs assessment of t e postmodern elevation of language to t e Isine qua nonI of !riti!al dis!ussion is an even stronger indi!tment against t e trend. 7larke examines 8'otardKs 319%44 E e =ostmodern 7ondition in & i! 8'otard maintains t at virtuall' all so!ial relations are linguisti!+ and+ t erefore+ it is t roug t e !oer!ion t at t reatens spee! t at &e enter t e Irealm of terrorI and so!iet' falls apart. Eo t is assertion+ 7larke replies: 5 !an t ink of fe& more striking indi!ators of t e politi!al and intelle!tual impoveris ment of a vie& of so!iet' t at !an onl' re!ognize t e dis!ursive. 5f t e &orst terror &e !an envisage is t e t reat not to be allo&ed to speak+ &e are appallingl' ignorant of terror in its elaborate !ontemporar' forms. 5t ma' be t e intelle!tualKs !on!eption of terror 3& at else do &e do but speakR4+ but its pro/e!tion onto t e rest of t e &orld &ould be !alamitous....3pp. 2(2$4 E e realm of t e dis!ursive is derived from t e requisites for uman life+ & i! are in t e p 'si!al &orld+ rat er t an in a &orld of ideas or s'mbols.344 Cutrition+ s elter+ and prote!tion are basi! uman needs t at require !olle!tive a!tivit' for t eir fulfillment. =ostmodern emp asis on t e dis!ursive &it out an a!!ompan'ing anal'sis of o& t e dis!ursive emerges from material !ir!umstan!es ides t e !omplex task of envisioning and &orking to&ards !on!rete so!ial goals 3Aerod+ 19%$4. 2lt oug t e material !onditions t at !reate t e situation of marginalit' es!ape t e purvie& of t e postmodernist+ t e situation and its !onsequen!es are not overlooked b' s! olars from marginalized groups. 6obinson 319904 for example+ argues t at It e /usti!e t at &orking people deserve is e!onomi!+ not /ust textualI 3p. "$14. 8opez 319924 states t at It e starting point for organizing t e program !ontent of edu!ation or politi!al a!tion must be t e present existential+ !on!rete situationI 3p. 2994. Hest 319%%4 asserts t at borro&ing <ren! post(stru!turalist dis!ourses about I@t ernessI blinds us to realities of 2meri!an differen!e going on in front of us 3p. 1$04. ?nlike postmodern Itextual radi!alsI & o 6abino& 319%#4 a!kno&ledges are Ifuzz' about po&er and t e realities of so!ioe!onomi! !onstraintsI 3p. 2""4+ most &riters from marginalized groups are !lear about o& dis!ourse inter&eaves &it t e !on!rete !ir!umstan!es t at !reate lived experien!e. =eople & ose lives form t e material for postmodern !ounter( egemoni! dis!ourse do not s are t e optimism over t e ne& re!ognition of t eir dis!ursive sub/e!tivities+ be!ause su! an a!kno&ledgment does not address suffi!ientl' t eir !olle!tive istori!al and !urrent struggles against ra!ism+ sexism+ omop obia+ and e!onomi! in/usti!e. E e' do not appre!iate being told t e' are living in a &orld in & i! t ere are no more real sub/e!ts. 5deas ave !onsequen!es. Nmp asizing t e dis!ursive self & en a person is ungr' and omeless represents bot a !ultural and umane failure.

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=er$ K co$bining -isc+rsi)e change <i&h ac&ion is ke* &o acc+ra&e re%resen&a&ion an- s+ccessf+ll* a--ressing $a&erial ineD+ali&ies/ S<ar&B. 04 = .G. in 7ommuni!ation from =urdue ?niversit' in 199"+ 200#+ 3@mar+ 09o!ial /usti!e and !ommuni!ation s! olars ip+1 pg. 43(444 E e reason su! r etori!al !riti!ism does not ne!essaril' produ!e so!ial ! ange is be!ause of t e great divide bet&een t e s'mboli! and material &orlds. 2s 7loud 319944 persuasivel' argued+ alt oug t e stud' of r etori! is 0vital to t e pro/e!ts of !ritique and so!ial ! ange a dis!ourse is not t e onl' t ing t at Pmatters* in t ese pro/e!ts1 3p. 1414. 9 e !autioned against falling vi!tim to t e 0materialit' of dis!ourse 'pot esis1: t e belief t at 0dis!ourse itself is influential or even !onstitutive of so!ial and material realit'1 3p. 1414. E e materialit' of dis!ourse 'pot esis dra&s no distin!tion bet&een s'mboli! and material a!ts+ be!ause realit' is vie&ed as being a dis!ursive formation. >o&ever+ as A!Dee 319%#4 pointed out: 2!tion is doing to t e &orld+ t e ! opping of trees. a E ere is a tremendous gulf bet&een a!tion and dis!ourse+ t e distan!e bet&een murder+ for example+ and t e 0s'mboli! killing1 of name(!alling. 5n trut + t e onl' a!tions t at !onsist in dis!ourse are performed on dis!ourse itself. 9pee! &ill not fell a tree+ and one !annot &rite a ouse to d&ell in. @ne !an a!t t roug dis!ourse on dis!ourse to guide or !ontrol t e meaning people see in sele!ted representations of t e &orld. Gis!ursive a!tion+ o&ever+ al&a's stands in anti!ipation of its !onsequen!es+ an a!t t at requires additional a!ts before one is !lear t at it &as ever more t an 0mere talk.1 3p. 1224 >en!e+ as 7loud 319944 maintained+ H en dis!ourse !ounts as material+ eman!ipation is seemingl' possible in 0mere talk1 3p. 1"44+ but it is not onl' dis!ourses and !odes from & i! man' people need liberation. 2 politi!s of dis!ourse a assumes t at t ose & o are oppressed or exploited need dis!ursive redefinition of t eir identities+ rat er t an transformation of t eir material !onditions as a primar' task 3p. 1"$4. 7loud pointed out t at 0to sa' t at unger and &ar are r etori!al is to state t e obviousF to suggest t at r etori! is all t e' are is to leave !ritique be ind1 3p. 1"94. E us+ !riti!ism alone+ t e textualizing of politi!s+ as <arrell 319934 !alled it+ does not produ!e so!ial ! ange unless it leads 0to some kind of !on!rete oppositional a!tion . a su!!essful strike+ a demonstration t at builds a mass movement+ or ot er !olle!tive and effe!tive refusal of t e prevailing so!ial order1 37loud+ 1994+ p. 1"14F t at is+ a!tion t at results in ! anges in t e material &orld. 2s Hander 319%44 ex!laimed+ 07ries of elp !all for mu! more t an appre!iation1 3p. 1994 O%%osing -isc+rsi)e in&er%re&a&ions res+l& in a -ea-lock K onl* reaching a consens+s &hro+gh &he %er$ allo<s for s+ccessf+l sol+&ions an- effec&i)e cri&ical anal*sis/ Earr. 59 =rof of = ilosop ' of Ndu M ?. of 9 effield ?Q+ %9 3Hilfred+ 0E e 5dea of an Ndu!ational 9!ien!e+1 ;ournal of = ilosop ' of Ndu!ation+ Bd. 23+ Co. 1+ p 34 19%9 ttp:))&&&3.inters!ien!e.&ile'.!om)/ournal)119440%29)abstra!t4 Lut su! dis!ourse+ >abermas notes+ !an onl' pro!eed if parti!ipants are satisfied t at !ertain !laims about t e validit' of & at is being said are being met. E ese 0validit' !laims1(t at & at is being said is !ompre ensible+ t at an' fa!tual assertions being made are true+ t at & at is being said is in t e !ontext appropriate and /ustified+ and t at a speaker is being sin!ere and not tr'ing to de!eive t e listener(are t us built into t e ver' stru!ture of dis!ursive language. >en!e+ t e ver' a!t of engaging in dis!ourse presupposes a 0!ommuni!ative rationalit'1 su! t at an' agreement rea! ed t roug a dis!ussion in & i! t ese four validit' !laims are met !onstitutes & at >abermas !alls a 0rational !onsensus1(an agreement arising pre!isel' be!ause 0t e for!e of t e better argument1 as been allo&ed to prevail. >abermas re!ognises+ of !ourse+ t at t is kind of purel' rational dis!ourse does not des!ribe t e &a' in & i! disagreements are a!tuall' resolved. 5t nevert eless+ !reates t e image of & at >abermas !alls an 0ideal spee! situation1(a so!ial !ontext in & i! !onstraints on free and open dialogue ave been ex!luded and in & i! impediments to rational argumentation and deliberation ave been removed. E us+ b' t eir ver' use of language+ individuals reveal an unavoidable allegian!e to t ose forms of so!ial life in & i! uman reason as been 0eman!ipated1 from t e !orrupting influen!e of tradition and ideolog'(pre!isel' t e form of so!ial life & i! a !riti!al so!ial s!ien!e seeks to !reate.

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Their effor&s &o re%resen& &hose har$e- b* o+r lang+age is #A@ALLJ )iolen& as o+r +se of cer&ain <or-s/ The al& canno& sol)e/ Sha%iro. 95+ =rofessor of =oliti!al 9!ien!e . ?niversit' of >a&aii+ 06epresentational Biolen!e+1 =ea!e 6evie& v. 10 i. 4+ Ai! ael ;. @f late+ !riti!al and polemi!al !ommentaries aimed at politi!izing language ave been fo!used on t e damaging effe!ts of & at ;udit Lutler as !alled Iex!itable spee! +I utteran!es intended to in!ite violen!e to&ard persons &it re!ognizable so!ial identities: religious groups+ et ni! groups+ and ga's and lesbians+ among ot ers. 2part from t e problem of negle!ting t e meaning slippage involved in assigning an unmediated !ausal effe!t to spee! a!ts+ t e position of t ose & o are arguing+ for example+ in favor of /uridi!al responses to !ensor ate spee! !onfronts a paradox. 5n order to militate against one kind of linguisti! violen!e(t e damaging effe!ts of utteran!es on persons((t e' ave to !ommit anot er kind of violen!e. L' assigning a unitar' identit' to t e targets of ate spee! + t e prote!tors of vulnerable bodies engage in a violen!e of representation. E e' must attribute to spee! (a!t vi!tims a unitar' and unambiguousl' !o erent identit'F t e' must dissolve 'bridities+ turning pluralisti! and !ontingent istori!al affiliations into essential ! ara!teristi!s. 2s a result+ t eir arguments in favor of prote!ting t e vulnerable reinfor!e t e identit' perspe!tives presupposed in t e dis!ourses t e' oppose. E e paradox evident in /uridi!all' oriented attempts to san!tion ate spee! is part of a more pervasive istori!al p enomenon to&ard & i! ;a!ques Gerrida as pointed in is &arning about attempts at definitivel' expunging violen!e. 2s e as famousl' put it+ a !ommitment to total non(violen!e risks t e I&orst violen!eFI it perpetuates t e illusion t at an absolute pea!e is possible. 9trategies for attaining su! a pea!e ave varied from t e stru!tural approa! + e.g. t e >obbesian idea of !on!entrating violen!e at one point above t e so!ial formation+ to t e !on!eptual approa! + e.g. t e Qantian !ommitment to a universalizing !ognitive enlargement at t e levels of bot t e individual and global so!iet'. "isc+ssions of ling+is&ic )iolence ha)e &he %o&en&ial &o insigh& )iolence/ A%ress*an. 95+ 6uben D.+ 7 air . Gepartment of Nt i!s . 5nstitute of = ilosop ' in Aos!o&+ Gire!tor . 6esear! and Ndu!ation 7enter for t e Nt i!s of Conviolen!e+ and =rofessor of Aoral = ilosop ' . Aos!o& 8omonosov 9tate ?niversit'+ =ea!e 6evie&+ v. 10 i. 4+ Ge!ember+ 7829957 AH)Q8 E e issue of linguisti! violen!e is an issue of linguisti! !ulture. >en!e+ an' dis!ussion of linguisti! violen!e ma' be t e !ause for violen!e itself. E is is t e !ase be!ause t e language of violen!e !an also be !onstru!ted+ !ultivated and exer!ised !ulturall'. <inall'+ t e issue of linguisti! violen!e in t e politi!al sp ere is ultimatel' an issue of openness and demo!ra!' in politi!al dis!ourse+ in & i! various voi!es must be in!orporated and & ere an' politi!al group and ever' !itizen ave an equal rig t to speak. Lut for su! purposes+ politi!al dis!ourse s ould be organized as a !olloquium in t e original sense of t e &ord I!olloqu'.I

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Lang+age isn9& inheren&l* )iolen& K )iolence exis&s in-e%en-en& of i& A%ress*an. 95+ 6uben D. 7 air . Gepartment of Nt i!s . 5nstitute of = ilosop ' in Aos!o&+ Gire!tor . 6esear! and Ndu!ation 7enter for t e Nt i!s of Conviolen!e+ and =rofessor of Aoral = ilosop ' . Aos!o& 8omonosov 9tate ?niversit'+ =ea!e 6evie&+ v. 10 i. 4+ Ge!ember+ E ere is anot er aspe!t+ o&ever. 8anguage per se is not violentF alt oug + it easil' ma' be!ome an ob/e!t of violen!e. E is defenselessness against violen!e+ means t at violen!e exists be'ond language. 9pee! is a prerogative of reason: violen!e is spee! less. E is means t at violen!e as no need of language. Hit t e elp of language+ violen!e ma' mark itself+ give itself a kind of /ustifi!ation+ allude to itself+ or ide itself in various forms of reserve and a&esomeness. =otential violen!e ma' resolve into spee! or disembodied &ords. Lut in turn+ &ords t emselves+ or &ords inserted into !ertain !ontexts or arti!ulated &it a !ertain intonation ma' appear as potentiall' violent. E us language be!omes a means of violen!e & i! Ikeeps silen!e.I

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Free s%eech is cri&ical,censorshi% <ill backfire on &he lef&/ Wilson. 2000 . Nditor and =ublis er of 5llinois 2!ademe . 2000 3;o n Q. Hilson+ 0>o& t e 8eft !an Hin 2rguments and 5nfluen!e =eople1 p. 1#34 E e left must stand strongl' on t e side of free spee! . Le!ause t ere is so mu! !ensors ip of progressive ideas+ it !an be tempting for t e left to turn t e tables and to tr' to silen!e far rig t advo!ates. Lut repression is unne!essar': progressive ideas are more popular t an !onservatives ones+ and all t e left needs to do is get a fair and open earing. 7ensors ip is not onl' &rong+ it*s also a losing strateg' for t e left. =rogressive attra!t more attention if t e'*re t e !ensors. Le!ause !onservative !ensors ip is largel' taken for granted+ ne&s about intoleran!e on t e rig t isn*t usuall' publi!ized. Lut & en someone on t e left seems guilt' of !ensors ip+ t e rig ts publi!it' ma! ine qui!kl' starts up. E at*s & ' t e rig t &as able to pus t e m't of politi!al !orre!tness in t e 1990s and invent t e idea of a &ave of left(&ing oppression s&eeping !ollege at a time & en t ere &as more freedom of t oug t t an ever before+ and infringement of free spee! on !ampuses b' !onservative for!es &as more prevalent t an an't ing !ommitted b' t e left. =rogressives !ertainl' need to better publi!ize in!idents of !ensors ip+ but t e left must also realize t at t e rig t &ill al&a's &in t e suppression battles. 5t as all t e resour!es and t e media on its side. H en some leftists are &illing to make ex!eptions to t e <irst 2mendment to silen!e !onservative ate mongers+ it be!omes even more diffi!ult for progressive to dra& attention to t e !ensors ip of left(&ing ideas. E e onl' &inning strateg' is to maintain a !onsistent !ommitment to freedom of spee! . =re)en&ing &he +se of re%resen&a&ions %recl+-es &he %ossibili&* of gi)ing &he$ ne< $eaning/ B+&ler. 97+ =rofessor of 6 etori! and 7omparative 8iterature . ?niversit' of 7alifornia(Lerkele'+ Nx!itable 9pee! : 2 =oliti!s of t e =erformative p. 3% ;udit E is stor' unders!ores t e limits and risks of resignifi!ation as a strateg' of opposition. 5 &ill not propose t at t e pedagogi!al re!ir!ulation of examples of ate spee! al&a's defeats t e pro/e!t of opposing and defusing su! spee! + but 5 &ant to unders!ore t e fa!t t at su! terms !arr' !onnotations t at ex!eed t e purposes for & i! t e' ma' be intended and !an t us &ork to affli!t and defeat dis!ursive efforts to oppose su! spee! . Qeeping su! terms unsaid and unsa'able !an also &ork to lo!k t em in pla!e+ preserving t eir po&er to in/ure+ and arresting t e possibilit' of a re&orking t at mig t s ift t eir !ontext and purpose. E at su! language !arries trauma is not a reason to forbid its use. E ere is no purif'ing language of its traumati! residue+ and no &a' to &ork t roug trauma ex!ept t roug t e arduous effort it takes to dire!t t e !ourse of its repetition. 5t ma' be ! at trauma !onstitutes a strange kind of resour!e+ and repetition+ its vexed but promising instrument. 2fter all+ to be rained b' anot er is traumati!: it is an a!t t at pre!edes m' &ill+ an a!t t at brings me into a linguisti! &orld in & i! 5 mig t t en begin to exer!ise agen!' at all. 2 founding subordination+ and 'et t e s!ene of agen!'+ is repeated in t e ongoing interpellations of so!ial life. E is is & at 5 ave been !alled. Le!ause 5 ave been !alled somet ing+ 5 ave been entered into linguisti! life+ refer to m'self t roug t e language given b' t e @t er+ but per aps never quite in t e same terms t at m' language mimes. E e terms b' & i! &e are ailed ar! rarel' t e ones &e ! oose 3and even & en &e tr' to impose proto!ols on o& &e are to be named+ t e' usuall' fail4F but t ese terms &e never reall' ! oose ar! t e o!!asion for somet ing &e mig t still !all agen!'+ t e repetition of an originar' subordination for anot er purpose+ one & ose future is partiall' open.

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Eensorshi% is -econs&r+c&i)e an- regressi)e an- &+rns &he cri&icis$ K blocking &he free-o$ of s%eech <ill onl* g+aran&ee &he -o$ina&ion of c+rren& %re)ailing -isc+rsi)e %rac&ices/ War-. 90 3 Gavid B. = .G. =rofessor of = ilosop ' at Hidener ?niversit' in =enns'lvania. 08ibrar' Erends1 = ilosop i!al 5ssues in 7ensors ip and 5ntelle!tual <reedom+ Bolume 39+ Cos 1 : 2. 9ummer)<all 1990. =ages %#(%$4 9e!ond+ even if t e opinion some &is to !ensor is largel' false+ it ma' !ontain some portion of trut + a portion denied us if &e suppress t e spee! & i! !ontains it. E e t ird reason for allo&ing free expression is t at an' opinion 0 o&ever true it ma' be+ if it is not full'+ frequentl'+ and fearlessl' dis!ussed+ ... &ill be eld as a dead dogma+ not a living trut 1 3Aill+ 19"1+ p. 024I/ Aerel' believing t e trut is not enoug + Aill points out+ for even a true opinion eld &it out full and ri! understanding of its /ustifi!ation is 0a pre/udi!e+ a belief independent of+ and proof against+ argument(t is is not t e &a' in & i! trut oug t to be eld b' a rational being. E is is not kno&ing t e trut . Erut + t us eld+ is but one superstition t e more+ a!!identall' !linging to t e &ords & i! enun!iate a trut 1 3p. 027I/ <ourt + t e meaning of a do!trine eld &it out t e understanding & i! arises in t e vigorous debate of its trut + 0&ill be in danger of being lost+ or enfeebled+ and deprived of its vital effe!t on t e ! ara!ter and !ondu!t t e dogma be!oming a mere formal profession+ ineffi!a!ious for good+ but !umbering t e ground+ and preventing t e gro&t of an' real and eartfelt !onvi!tion+ from reason or personal experien!e1 3p. 1494. 7ensors ip+ t en+ is undesirable a!!ording to Aill be!ause+ & et er t e ideas !ensored are true or not+ t e !onsequen!es of suppression are bad. 7ensors ip is &rong be!ause it makes it less likel' t at trut &ill be dis!overed or preserved+ and it is &rong be!ause it as destru!tive !onsequen!es for t e intelle!tual ! ara!ter of t ose & o live under it. Geontologi!al arguments in favor of freedom of expression+ and of intelle!tual freedom in general+ are based on !laims t at people are entitled to freel' express t eir t oug ts+ and to re!eive t e expressions made b' ot ers+ quite independentl' of & et er t e effe!ts of t at spee! are desirable or not. E ese entitlements take t e form of rig ts+ rig ts to bot free expression and a!!ess to t e expressions of ot ers. #)er* in)asion of free-o$ $+s& be reHec&e=e&ro. 72 9'lvester =etro+ professor of la&+ Hake <orest ?niversit'+ 9pring 19$4+ E@8NG@ 82H 6NB5NH+ p. 4%0. >o&ever+ one ma' still insist+ e! oing Nrnest >eming&a' . 05 believe in onl' one t ing: libert'.1 2nd it is al&a's &ell to bear in mind Gavid >ume*s observation: 05t is seldom t at libert' of an' kind is lost all at on!e.1 E us+ it is una!!eptable to sa' t at t e invasion of one aspe!t of freedom is of no import be!ause t ere ave been invasions of so man' ot er aspe!ts. E at road leads to ! aos+ t'rann'+ despotism+ and t e end of all uman aspiration. 2sk 9olz enits'n. 2sk Ailovan G/ilas. 5n sum+ if one believes in freedom as a supreme value+ and t e proper ordering prin!iple for an' so!iet' aiming to maximize spiritual and material &elfare+ t en ever' invasion of freedom must be emp ati!all' identified and resisted &it und'ing spirit.

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Eensorshi% -es&ro*s righ&s K &his sho+l- &ake %rece-ence o)er -isc+rsi)e conseD+ences War-. 90 3 Gavid B. = .G. =rofessor of = ilosop ' at Hidener ?niversit' in =enns'lvania. 08ibrar' Erends1 = ilosop i!al 5ssues in 7ensors ip and 5ntelle!tual <reedom+ Bolume 39+ Cos 1 : 2. 9ummer)<all 1990. =ages 90(914 E is line of reasoning as !onsequen!es for & at 5 take to be a more important issue t an t e subsid' of !ontroversial &orks of art. E at is t e issue of removal or banning of books from publi!l' supported libraries 3in!luding publi! s! ool libraries4 be!ause of t eir politi!al+ sexual+ ra!ial+ or et ni! !ontent. H at is t e et i!al position for t e librarian in su! !asesR E e libraries in question are publi!l' supported. Goesn*t t is give t e publi! t e rig t to determine & i! books &ill and &ill not be in!luded in t e !olle!tionR 5sn*t t e librarian a publi! emplo'ee+ obligated to !arr' out t e publi!*s &ill+ as expressed t roug t e appropriate ele!ted offi!ialsR E e ans&er to t ese questions is 0'es+1 but an importantl' qualified 0'es.1 5t is true t at no one*s rig ts are violated if t e taxpa'ers remove >u!kleberr' <inn or 9oul on 5!e from a tax( supported librar'. E e taxpa'ers are exer!ising t eir a!kno&ledged rig t to de!ide & at t e' &ill and &ill not support+ /ust as in t e Aapplet orpe)9errano !ase. 2nd t e librarian+ if e or s e is to remain in t at position+ must a!kno&ledge t e publi!*s rig ts to be sele!tive about & at it &ants in libraries it pa's for. E is does not mean t at &e+ or t e librarian+ must agree &it t e publi!*s position. H at librarians !an do in su! !ases is to arti!ulate t e important !onsequentialist reasons for not removing books. 5n t e passion of t e moment+ t e publi! mig t ras l' ! oose to ban & at it regards as a parti!ularl' outrageous book from t e publi! librar' &it no t oug t to t e diffi!ult to dis!ern and serious long(term !osts imposed b' a poli!' & i! allo&ed su! removals. E e librarian is in a spe!ial position to aid t e publi! in understanding t at+ & ile it as t e rig t to remove or ban books from publi!l' supported institutions+ doing so is un&ise. 9u! removals are &rong and !onstitute bad publi! poli!' /ust be!ause t e long(term !onsequen!es ma' be disastrous. E e points of t is arti!le !an be summarized in a fe& su!!in!t ideas. Geontologi!al rig ts(based arguments for intelle!tual freedom and against !ensors ip are stronger t an+ and take pre!eden!e over+ !onsequentialist !onsiderations. ?tilitarian !ounter arguments fail against arguments based on /usti!e or rig ts. E is pre!eden!e o&ever must not serve as a motive for attempting to turn all t at is desirable into a rig t. E e inflation of rig ts+ b' !onflating t e merel' desirable &it t e obligator'+ dilutes t e rig ts & i! prote!t us all. Lut & en rig ts issues are not at stake+ or & en !onfli!ting plausible rig ts !laims produ!e a 0deontologi!al stand(off+1 !onsequentialist arguments+ espe!iall' t ose of Aill+ are aut oritative. Eo sa' t at su! arguments are se!ondar' to deontologi!al !onsiderations in no &a' diminis es t eir validit' in t ose situations & ere t e' !orre!tl' appl'.

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Lack of free-o$ of s%eech enables genoci-e an- &he -ea&h of -e$ocrac* "RSo+Ba. 94 Nxe!utive Gire!tor of 2rti!le 19+ t e 5nternational 7entre 2gainst 7ensors ip. =ubli! >earing 7ommittee on <oreign 2ffairs+ 9e!urit' and Gefen!e =oli!' 9ub!ommittee on >uman 6ig ts Lrussels+ 2" 2pril 199#. 0<reedom of Nxpression: E e <irst <reedomR1 2rti!le 19+ 5nternational 7entre 2gainst 7ensors ip. ttp:))&&&.europarl.europa.eu) earings)199#042")droi)freedomYen. tm+ <ran!es E ere are undoubted !onne!tions bet&een a!!ess to information+ or rat er t e la!k of it+ and &ar+ as indeed t ere are bet&een povert'+ t e rig t to freedom of expression and development. @ne !an argue t at demo!ra!' aims to in!rease parti!ipation in politi!al and ot er de!ision(making at all levels. 5n t is sense demo!ra!' empo&ers people. E e poor are denied a!!ess to information on de!isions & i! deepl' affe!t t eir lives+ are t us po&erless and ave no voi!eF t e poor are not able to ave influen!e over t eir o&n lives+ let alone ot er aspe!t of so!iet'. Le!ause of t is essential po&erlessness+ t e poor are unable to influen!e t e ruling elite in & ose interests it ma' be to initiate !onfli!t and &ars in order to !onsolidate t eir o&n po&er and position. @f t e 12# developing !ountries listed in t e 1993 >uman Gevelopment 6eport+ &ar &as ongoing in 30 !ountries and severe !ivil !onfli!t in a furt er 33 !ountries. @f t e total #3 !ountries in !onfli!t+ "" are to&ards t e bottom s!ale of t e uman development index & i! is an indi!ator of povert'. E ere seems to be no doubt t at t ere is a !lear asso!iation bet&een povert' and &ar. 5t is reasonabl' safe to assume t at t e vast ma/orit' of people do not ever &el!ome &ar. E e' are normall' !oer!ed+ more often t an not b' propaganda+ into fear+ extreme nationalist sentiments and &ar b' t eir governments. 5f t e ma/orit' of people ad a demo!rati! voi!e t e' &ould undoubtedl' ob/e!t to &ar. Lut voi!es are silen!ed. E us+ t e freedom to express oneKs vie&s and to ! allenge government de!isions and to insist upon politi!al rat er t an violent solutions+ are ne!essar' aspe!ts of demo!ra!' & i! !an+ and do+ avert &ar. Dovernment sponsored propaganda in 6&anda+ as in former Xugoslavia+ su!!eeded be!ause t ere &erenKt t e means to ! allenge it. @ne as t erefore to !on!lude t at it is impossible for a parti!ular government to &age &ar in t e absen!e of a !ompliant media &illing to indulge in government propaganda. E is is be!ause t e government needs !ivilians to fig t &ars for t em and also be!ause t e media is needed to re(infor!e government poli!ies and intentions at ever' turn. 5n a totalitarian state & ere t e expression of politi!al vie&s+ let alone t e possibilit' of politi!al organisation+ is strenuousl' suppressed+ one as to ask & at ot er options are open to a genuine politi!al movement intent on introdu!ing /usti!e. 2ll too often t e onl' per!eived option is terrorist atta!k and violen!e be!ause it is+ quite literall'+ t e onl' met od available to !ommuni!ate t e need for ! ange. "e$ocrac* %re)en&s ex&inc&ion "ia$on-. 93 8arr' Giamond+ >oover 5nstitution+ 9tanford ?niversit'+ Ge!ember+ =6@A@E5CD GNA@7627X 5C E>N 19909+ 199"+ p. ttp:))&&&.!arnegie.org))sub)pubs)deadl')diamYrpt. tml )) Cu!lear+ ! emi!al and biologi!al &eapons !ontinue to proliferate. E e ver' sour!e of life on Nart + t e global e!os'stem+ appears in!reasingl' endangered. Aost of t ese ne& and un!onventional t reats to se!urit' are asso!iated &it or aggravated b' t e &eakness or absen!e of demo!ra!'+ &it its provisions for legalit'+ a!!ountabilit'+ popular sovereignt' and openness. E e experien!e of t is !entur' offers important lessons. 7ountries t at govern t emselves in a trul' demo!rati! fas ion do not go to &ar &it one anot er. E e' do not aggress against t eir neig bors to aggrandize t emselves or glorif' t eir leaders. Gemo!rati! governments do not et ni!all' I!leanseI t eir o&n populations+ and t e' are mu! less likel' to fa!e et ni! insurgen!'. Gemo!ra!ies do not sponsor terrorism against one anot er. E e' do not build &eapons of mass destru!tion to use on or to t reaten one anot er. Gemo!rati! !ountries form more reliable+ open+ and enduring trading partners ips. 5n t e long run t e' offer better and more stable !limates for investment. E e' are more environmentall' responsible be!ause t e' must ans&er to t eir o&n !itizens+ & o organize to protest t e destru!tion of t eir environments. E e' are better bets to onor international treaties sin!e t e' value legal obligations and be!ause t eir openness makes it mu! more diffi!ult to brea! agreements in se!ret.
=re!isel' be!ause+ &it in t eir o&n borders+ t e' respe!t !ompetition+ !ivil liberties+ propert' rig ts+ and t e rule of la&+ demo!ra!ies are t e onl' reliable foundation on & i! a ne& &orld order of international se!urit' and prosperit' !an be built.

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An* risk &ha& &he aff &+rns are righ& $akes censorshi% a )iola&ion of righ&s K righ&s are a %rior D+es&ion &o <he&her lang+age is in&rinsicall* <rong/ War-. 90 3 Gavid B. = .G. =rofessor of = ilosop ' at Hidener ?niversit' in =enns'lvania. 08ibrar' Erends1 = ilosop i!al 5ssues in 7ensors ip and 5ntelle!tual <reedom+ Bolume 39+ Cos 1 : 2. 9ummer)<all 1990. =ages %"(%#4 E e first task is to la' out t e et i!al t eories under & i! issues of !ensors ip and free expression !an be evaluated. E ere are t&o basi! t'pes of moral t eories: !onsequentialist t eories and deontologi!al t eories. E is dis!ussion &ill regard utiltarianism+ t e pre(eminent !onsequentialist t eor'+ and a variet' of deontologi!al !on!erns. 7onsequentialist moral t eories are t ose & i! old t at t e rig tness of an a!tion is determined solel' b' t e degree to & i! it produ!es good !onsequen!es. ?tilitarianism is a !onsequentialist t eor' & i! olds t at t e best a!tions are t ose & i! produ!e t e greatest amount of good 3understood as pleasure or appiness4 for t e greatest number of people. 5t is t e moral t eor' underl'ing modern !ost(benefit and risk(benefit anal'sis+ a!!ording to & i! &e are dire!ted to ! oose t e a!tion &it t e most favorable ratio of !ost or risks to benefits. Geontologi!al t eories+ t e most important alternative to !onsequentialism+ old t at t e rig tness of an a!tion depends upon fa!tors ot er t an t e !onsequen!es of t e a!tion. E ese in!lude su! t ings as & et er t e intentions &it & i! t e a!t is done &ere good+ & et er t e a!tion is /ust+ & et er it respe!ts t e rig ts of t ose affe!ted b' it+ & et er t e a!tion is !onsistent &it t e demands of dut'+ and & et er+ & atever its !onsequen!es+ somet ing in t e nature of t e a!tion makes it intrinsi!all' &rong. E ere are a variet' of deontologi!al t eorists+ from t e first deontologist+ 5mmanuel Qant+ to H. G. 6oss in t e t&entiet !entur'. E is dis!ussion is neutral among t em for our interest is in t e deontologi!al form of argument rat er t at in t e spe!ifi!s of an' parti!ular deontologi!al t eor'. @ur first ma/or problem is & et er issues of intelle!tual freedom are to be de!ided primaril' b' appeal to utilitarianism or to deontologi!al !onsiderations. E at is+ &e must determine & i! of t e t&o et i!al t eories expresses t e more fundamental and overriding moral !on!erns. E e !lassi!al ob/e!tion to utilitarianism is t at it makes insuffi!ient provision for !onsiderations of rig ts and /usti!e. ?tilitarianism+ it is argued+ &ould !ountenan!e+ even mandate+ a!tions & i! violated individuals* rig ts or & i! &ere un/ust in ot er &a's+ so long as t ose a!tions maximized utilit'. E is ob/e!tion is a sound one. 6ig ts take pre!eden!e over utilit'F t us+ deontologi!al t eories take pre!eden!e over !onsequentialist t eories. E is is not to sa' t at utilitarian arguments are &rong or &ort less+ onl' t at t e' do not express t e most fundamental trut s about et i!al issues. 5n disputes in & i! in/usti!e or violation of rig ts is not at issue+ or in & i! equall' balan!ed rig ts !laims offset ea! ot er+ it is often t e !ase t at utilitarian arguments determine t e issue. 2dditionall'+ utilitarian arguments !an be used in support of deontologi!al arguments. E e !laim t at deontologi!al !on!erns take pre!eden!e over !onsiderations of utilit' means onl' t at in !ases of !onfli!t+ rig ts and /usti!e are more important t an is maximization of utilit'. Geontologi!al arguments !annot be ans&ered b' utilitarian !ounter(arguments+ but need to be dealt &it dire!tl' in deontologi!al terms. E is &ill prove of great pra!ti!al signifi!an!e & en &e begin to appl' t ese et i!al t eories to a number of re!ent !ontroversies involving freedom of expression. <irst+ o&ever+ &e must la' out t e arguments !on!erning freedom of expression from bot et i!al perspe!tives. 5n ?tilitarianism+ 8ibert'+ and 6epresentative Dovernment+ ;. 9. Aill 319"04+ t e leading proponent of utilitarianism+ gives an elegant and detailed defense of freedom of expression. >e offers four arguments against !ensors ip. E e first is t at: t e opinion & i! it is attempted to suppress b' aut orit' ma' possibl' be true. E ose & o desire to suppress it+ of !ourse den' its trut F but t e' are not infallible. E e' ave no aut orit' to de!ide t e question for all mankind+ and ex!lude ever' ot er person from t e means of /udging. Eo refuse a earing to an opinion+ be!ause t e' are sure t at it is false+ is to assume t at t eir !ertaint' is t e same t ing as absolute !ertaint'. 2ll silen!ing of dis!ussion is an assumption of infallibilit'. 3pp. 104(0"4

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Sec+ring life is a %rereD+isi&e &o -e&er$ining )al+e/ Sch<ar&B. 02 38isa+ Aedi!al Nt i!s+ ttp:))&&&.fles andbones.!om)readingroom)pdf)399.pdf4 E e se!ond assertion made b' supporters of t e qualit' of life as a !riterion for de!ision( making is !losel' related to t e first+ but &it an added dimension. E is assertion suggests t at t e determination of t e value of t e qualit' of a given life is a sub/e!tive determi(nation to be made b' t e person experien!ing t at life. E e important addition ere is t at t e de!ision is a personal one t at+ ideall'+ oug t not to be made externall' b' anot er person but internall' b' t e individual involved. Qat erine 8e&is made t is de!ision for erself based on a !omparison bet&een t&o stages of er life. 9o did ;ames Lrad'. Hit out t is element+ de!isions based on qualit' of life !riteria la!k salient information and t e patients !on!erned !annot give informed !onsent. =atients must be given t e opportunit' to de!ide for t emselves & et er t e' t ink t eir lives are &ort living or not. Eo ignore or overlook patients* /udgement in t is matter is to violate t eir autonom' and t eir freedom to de!ide for t emselves on t e basis of relevant informa( tion about t eir future+ and !omparative !on( sideration of t eir past. 2s t e deontologi!al position puts it so &ell+ to do so is to violate t e imperative t at &e must treat persons as rational and as ends in t emselves. T+rn>>ele)a&ing o&her )al+es o)er ex&inc&ion -es&ro*s &he )al+e &o life an- $akes ex&inc&ion cer&ain,&heir re%resen&a&ion &ha& &he* kno< &he absol+&e &r+&h of &he )al+e &o life $akes i& easier &o en- i& Schell. 52 3;onat an+ &riter for t e Ce& Xorker and nu!lear &eapons expert+ E e <ate of t e Nart 4 <or t e generations t at no& ave to de!ide & et er or not to risk t e future of t e spe!ies+ t e impli!ation of our spe!ies* unique pla!e in t e order of t ings is t at & ile t ings in t e life of mankind ave &ort + &e must never raise t at &ort above t e life of mankind and above our respe!t for t at life*s existen!e. Eo do t is &ould be to make of our ig est ideals so man' s&ords &it & i! to destro' ourselves. Eo sum up t e &ort of our spe!ies b' referen!e to some parti!ular standard+ goal+ or ideolog'+ no matter o& elevated or noble it mig t be+ &ould be to prepare t e &a' for extin!tion b' !losing do&n in t oug t and feeling t e open(ended possibilities for uman development & i! extin!tion &ould !lose do&n in fa!t. E ere is onl' one !ir!umstan!e in & i! it mig t be possible to sum up t e life and a! ievement of t e spe!ies+ and t at !ir!umstan!e &ould be t at it ad alread' died+ but t en+ of !ourse+ t ere &ould be no one left to do t e summing up. @nl' a generation t at believed itself to be in possession of final+ absolute trut !ould ever !on!lude t at it ad reason to put an end to uman life+ and onl' generations t at re!ognized t e limits to t eir o&n &isdom and virtue &ould be likel' to subordinate t eir interests and dreams to t e as 'et unformed interests and undreamed dreams of t e future generations+ and let uman life go on.

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!ie&Bsche9s affir$a&ion of chaos is <illf+l aban-on$en& of all reason,<e beco$e $ere %a<ns of fa&e. re-+ce- &o silence/ Wolin. 04 3E e 9edu!tion of ?nreason: E e 5ntelle!tual 6oman!e &it <as!ism from Cietzs! e to =ostmodernism+ 6i! ard Holin+ =rofessor of >istor' and 7omparative 8iterature at t e Draduate 7enter+ 7it' ?niversit'4. @n!e Cietzs! e realized t e illusor' ! ara!ter of all language and uman ends+ silen!e be!ame t e onl' viable and onest response. 6e!ourse to I!ons!iousnessI and IreasonI &ould onl' falsif' t is profound realization. E e Ivi!ious !ir!leI Qlosso&ski alludes to
in is title expresses t is dilemma. E e a!t of turning t e eternal return into a Ido!trineI risks falsif'ing it+ risks translating an unfat omable insig t into t e a!kne'ed terms of linguisti! !onvention or I!ulture.I E e t eor' of eternal re!urren!e embodies a ne& Ilu!idit'IF 'et+ paradoxi!all'+ t is lu!idit' must remain inexpressible. <or if su! a lu!idit' is impossible+ & at t e do!trine of t e vi!ious 7ir!le tends to demonstrate is t at IbeliefI in t e 6eturn+ ad eren!e to t e non(sense of life+ in itself implies an ot er&ise impra!ti!able lu!idit'. He !annot renoun!e language+ nor our intentions+ nor our &illingF

. E e vi!ious !ir!le expresses t e fundamental paradox of t e uman !ondition: It e onl' &a' &e !an over!ome our servitude is b' kno&ing &e are not free.1 He !annot es!ape t e essential determinism of all being. Cevert eless+ insig t into t is !ondition permits a measure of tragi! superiorit' for a spiritual elite+ t e Ilu!id fe&.I E e anti(intelle!tual impli!ations of Qlosso&skiKs Iparod'I of Cietzs! e are stunning. E e' are tantamount to a &illful abandonment of reason+ istor'+ and freedom.
but &e !ould evaluate t is &illing and t ese intentions in a different manner t an &e ave it erto evaluated t em(namel'+ as sub/e!t to t e Ila&I of t e vi!ious 7ir!le

!ie&Bsche9s ra-ical ske%&icis$ is nihilis&ic beca+se &o gi)e +% on &he r+les of logic is &o aban-on cri&ical &hinking/ Eo$&e> S%on)ille 90 32ndre+ =rofessor of = ilosop ' at t e 9orbonne. 0E e Lrute+ t e 9op ist+ and t e 2est ete 02rt in t e 9ervi!e of 5llusion*+ :hy :e are !ot !ietzscheans4. Lut Cietzs! e !annot t en es!ape from t e aporia of logi!al ni ilism: if t ere is no trut + t e proposition t at states t at t ere is no trut is not true. He must t erefore !on!lude eit er t at t ere is a trut 3in & i! !ase t e proposition It ere is no trut I is false+ and Cietzs! e is mistaken4+ or t at &e !annot t ink at all an' more 3sin!e t e proposition It ere is no trut I is simultaneousl' true and false+ & i! violates t e prin!iple of non!ontradi!tion+ or neit er true nor false+ & i! transgresses t e prin!iple of t e ex!luded t ird4. 5n a &ord: &e ave eit er to save logi! and give up Cietzs! e or to save Cietzs! e and give up on logi!. E e genealogists
ma' ask us: IH ' are 'ou so atta! ed to logi!RI He ave our reasons+ to & i! 5 &ill !ome ba!k. Lut &e also ave to return t e question to t em: and 'ou+ & ' are 'ou so little atta! ed to itR Cietzs! e !laims t at atta! ment to logi! is a sign of &eakness+ t at it betra's a plebian or ;e&is origin 3H=+ 431 ff.F D9+ 34%+ 3$04. 9 ould &e t en !on!lude t at ever' illogi!alit' is a sign of aristo!rati! or 2r'an for!eR @r &ould t is !on!lusion be itself too logi!alR Eoo plebeianR Eoo ;e&is R @r are logi! and genealog' legitimate onl' & en !orning from Cietzs! ean pensR Lut letKs leave t at aside. 2not er+ more solid ob/e!tion t at !ould be made against me is t at t e aporia 5 ave /ust evoked 3t e self !ontradi!tion of logi!al ni ilism4 is t at of an' radi!al skepti!ism+ and t at 5 !anKt take Cietzs! e to task for it more t an 5 &ould ='rr on+ Aontaigne+ or >ume+ & om 5 nevert eless profess to admire.

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The &rans>)al+a&ion of )al+es <ill res+l& in one of &<o &hings' a $oral %hiloso%h* si$ilar &o &he aff or an i$$oral al&erna&i)e &ha& <o+l- allo< for ra%e. racis$. cr+el&* e&c/ Eo$&e> S%on)ille 90 32ndre+ =rofessor of = ilosop ' at t e 9orbonne. 0E e Lrute+ t e 9op ist+ and t e 2est ete 02rt in t e 9ervi!e of 5llusion*+ :hy :e are !ot !ietzscheans4. 5f 5 ad no moralit'+ as 5 so aug til' !laimed+ t en in t e name of & at did 5 !ondemn rape or forbid it to m'selfR 5n t e name of & at !ould 5 de!ide & at &as &rong or notR 5n t e name of & at+ for instan!e+ fig t against ra!ism+ in/usti!e+ or barbarit'R 5n t e name of & at s ould 5 even prefer sin!erit' to menda!it' or s&eetness to !ruelt'R <or a time 5 tried to ans&er: I5n t e name of an et i!.I Lut t is kind of purel' verbal solution is satisfa!tor' onl' for a & ile. E is et i! still ad to be t oug t out+ and t e strange fa!t a!!ounted for t at a supposedl' amoral et i! most often !orresponds quite &ell+ and t is on all t e serious problems+ to & at an' onest man &ould !all moralit'. 9o 5 took up m' 9pinoza again+ and & at 5 sa& t ere is t at t ere is no
9pinozist immoralism+ or rat er onl' a t eoreti!al immoralism+ and t at . . . but letKs get ba!k to Cietzs! e. E ere is a Cietzs! ean immoralism+ not onl' t eoreti!al but pra!ti!al+ and t e more 5 got to kno& it+ t e more 5 found it(5 barel' dare to &rite t e &ord+ so mu! does it go &it out sa'ing+ and so mu! &ill it make our great &its smile

. E e more 5 got to kno& t is immoralism+

t e more 5 found it immoral. 9impl'+ stupidl'+ inadmissibl' immoral. Mo-ern &echnologies. s+ch as WM"s. $eans &ha& <e can no longer affor- &o li)e be*on- goo- an- e)il. e&hical nor$s are a necessar* check on a%ocal*%se/ Fasching. 91 ( professor in ?9<Ks religious studies department . 1993 3Garrell+ E e Nt i!al 7 allenge of 2us! &itz and >iros ima : 2po!al'pse or ?topiaR+ =g. 2%4 @ur modern te! nologi!al !ivilization offers us seemingl' infinite utopian opportunities to re!reate ourselves 3e.g.+ geneti! engineering+ be avioral engineering4 and our so!ieties 3so!ial engineering4 and our &orld 3! emi!al engineering+ atomi! engineering4. Lut aving trans!ended all limits and all norms+ &e seem bereft of a normative vision to govern t e use of our utopian te! niques. E is normlessness t reatens us &it demoni! self(destru!tion. 5t is t is dark side of te! ni!al !ivilization t at &as revealed to us not onl' at 2us! &itz and but also at >iros ima. 2us! &itz represents a severe ! allenge to t e religious
traditions of t e Hest: to 7 ristians+ be!ause of t e !ompli!it' of 7 ristianit' in t e anti(;udai! pat t at led to 2us! &itz renders its t eologi!al !ategories et i!all' suspe!tF to ;e&s+ be!ause t eir vi!tim status presses fait in t e Dod of istor' and in umanit' to t e breaking point. Lut t e pat to 2us! &itz+ and from 2us! &itz to >iros ima+ represents a ! allenge+ equall' severe+ for t e s!ientifi! and te! ni!al+ se!ular !ulture of t e Nnlig tenment. He do not seem to ave fared an' better under a se!ular et i! t an &e did under a religious one. 5ndeed &e ave fared &orse. Deno!ide it seems is a unique produ!t of t e modern se!ular &orld and its te! ni!all' !ompetent barbarians. 2us! &itz stands for a demoni! period in modern Hestern !ivilization in & i! t e religious+ politi!al and te! nologi!al developments !onverged to !reate a so!iet' & ose primar' purpose &as t e most effi!ient organization of t at entire so!iet' for t e purpose of exterminating all persons & o &ere regarded as aliens and

. E e Cazi vision of t e pure 2r'an so!iet' represents a utopian vision of demoni! proportions-a vision t at inspired an apo!al'pti! revolutionar' program of geno!ide. 5t reveals at on!e bot a time of IE e Geat of DodI in t e Cietzs! ean sense and 'et t e resurgen!e of religion+ t at is+ a demoni! religiosit' t at !reates a ne& publi! order in & i! all pluralism is eliminated from t e publi! square and in & i! virtuall' not ing is sa!red-not even uman life. E e period of t e >olo!aust stands as prop eti! &arning to a te! nologi!al !ivilization t at as no ot er norm t an t e -ill to po-er. 5f 2us! &itz embodies t e demoni! use of te! nolog' against targeted populations to !ommit geno!ide+ >iros ima and Cagasaki represent t e last su! use of te! nolog'. <or &it t e !oming of Cu!lear &arfare+ te! nolog' as outstripped uman intentionalit' so t at if t e bomb is ever used again+ geno!ide &ill be transformed into !olle!tive sui!ide or omnicide-t e destru!tion of all life. >aving enemies is a luxur' no !ommunit' on t e fa!e of t e eart !an an' longer afford
strangers-espe!iall' t e ;e&s

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!ie&Bsche a-)oca&e- ex&er$ina&ing &hose <ho he &ho+gh& of as <eak an- es&ablishing a $as&er race Wolin. 04 3E e 9edu!tion of ?nreason: E e 5ntelle!tual 6oman!e &it <as!ism from Cietzs! e to =ostmodernism+ 6i! ard Holin+ =rofessor of >istor' and 7omparative 8iterature at t e Draduate 7enter+ 7it' ?niversit'4. >o& mig t one translate t e !onvi!tion t at ierar! ' is benefi!ial and equalit' s'mptomati! of &eakness(beliefs Cietzs! e eld(into t e terms of a !onsistent politi!al et osR E is &as t e dilemma !onfronting Cietzs! e as a politi!al p ilosop er+ and t e solution e found &as an endorsement of Igreat politi!s.I >is belief in t e ne!essit' of ierar! ' ad profound politi!al impli!ations+ & i! found expression in is !onvi!tion t at t e I&ell(being of t e ma/orit' and t e &ell(being of t e fe& are opposite vie&points of value.I 5f one &ere passionatel' !ommitted to greatness+ as &as Cietzs! e+ one !ouldnKt s ' a&a' from dra&ing t e ne!essar' !on!lusions+ ars as t e' mig t seem from a umanitarian point of vie&. Cietzs! e+ of !ourse+ &as an't ing but timorous in t is regard. 2s e observes in 9! open auer as Ndu!ator+ 2 =eople is a detour of nature to get six or seven great men.I 2nd in t e notes for E e Hill to =o&er+ e flirts seriousl' &it t e idea of a Imaster ra!eI: <rom no& on t ere &ill be more favorable pre!onditions for more !ompre ensive forms of dominion+ & ose like as never 'et existed. . . . E e possibilit' as been establis ed for t e produ!tion of international ra!ial unions & ose task &d be to rear a master ra!e+ t e future Imasters of t e eart (a ne&+ tremendous aristo!ra!'+ based on t e severest self(legislation+ in & i! t e &ill of p ilosop i!al men of po&er and artist t'rants &ill be made to endure for millennia . 5n N!!e >omo Cietzs! e openl' spe!ulates on & at a Isu!!essfulI realization of is do!trines 3Im' attempt to assassinate t&o millennia of antinature and uman disfigurationI4 mig t mean. E e s!enario e envisions !annot but make one s udder: IE at ig er =art' of 8ife & i! &ould take t e greatest of all tasks into its ands+ t e ig er breeding of umanit'+ in!luding t e mer!iless extermination TBerni! tungU of ever't ing degenerate and parasiti!al+ &ould make possible again t at ex!ess of life on eart from & i! t e Gion'sian state &ill gro& again.I

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!ie&Bsche9s celebra&ion of cr+el&*. )iolence. an- a+&hori&arianis$ are corners&ones of his %hiloso%h*/ Wolin. 04 ( =rofessor of >istor' and 7omparative 8iterature at 7it' ?niversit' 36i! ard+ E e 9edu!tion of ?nreason: E
6oman!e &it <as!ism from Cietzs! e to =ostmodernism4.

e 5ntelle!tual

5roni!all'+ & ereas an earlier generation of !riti!s took Cietzs! eKs p ilosop ' to task for its repugnant politi!al message+ t e postmodern approa! is fond of !elebrating is apoliti!ism. Lut no spe!ial interpretive talent is needed to see t at t e remarks /ust quoted+ far from being Iapoliti!al+I are fraug t &it politi!al dire!tives and impli!ations. E e postmodernists exaggerate
Cietzs! eKs status as an aest ete and s'stemati!all' do&npla' t e !omponents of is &ork t at are politi!all' !onsequential. Cietzs! e &as+ admittedl'+ an unrelenting !riti! of !ontemporar' Nuropean

5nstead+ Cietzs! eKs unabas ed embra!e of ierar! '+ violen!e+ and t e virilit' of t e I&arrior t'pe+I !ombined &it is vis!eral distaste for t e values of altruism and politi!al egalitarianism+ suggests t at is do!trines fores ado&ed nolm volens some of t e more unsavor' dimensions of t&entiet (!entur' Aa! tpolitik !um total &ar. 2n' serious attempt to reassess Cietzs! eKs p ilosop i!al lega!' must ultimatel' !onfront t e distasteful ! ara!ter of is moral and politi!al vie&s. 7onversel'+ an' dis!ussion of Cietzs! e t at fo!used ex!lusivel' on t is
politi!s+ & i! in is estimation &reaked of medio!rit' and !onformit'. Lut t at ardl' makes im an apoliti!al t inker. aspe!t of is t oug t &ould be extremel' limited. Cietzs! eKs influen!e on modern t oug t and literature as been in!al!ulable. Hriters as diverse as 6illre+ Xeats+ Baler'+ G. >. 8a&ren!e+ and Deorge Lernard 9 a& embra!ed is tea! ings. 5n Go!tor <austus E omas Aann used Cietzs! e as t e model for t e !omposer 2drian 8everkii n. <or a period of five 'ears during t e late 1930s Aartin >eidegger le!tured ex!lusivel' on Cietzs! e. =er aps t e &riter Dottfried Lenn said it best & en in t e late 1940s e observed to a friend+ I6eall'+ 'ou kno&+ TCietzs! eU as anti!ipated and formulated ever't ing+ absolutel' ever't ing &e poke around in(& at else ave &e done t ese last fift' 'ears but trot out and vulgarize is giganti! t oug ts and suffering.I >is st'listi! brillian!e aside+ no ot er &riter arti!ulated t e spiritual disorientation of fin(de(sie!le Nurope as !onsummatel' as Cietzs! e. 2s a !ultural anal'st+ a diagnosti!ian of Nuropean moral !ollapse+ is a!umen &as unparalleled. 2 self(des!ribed Igood Nuropean+I e sensed+ in a manner t at &as almost un!ann'+ t e ab'ss to&ard & i! Nurope &as un!ontrollabl' eading. H o !ould den' t e preternatural !lairvo'an!e of t e follo&ing prop eti! !laim from N!!e >omo: H en t e trut enters into a fig t &it t e lies of millennia+ &e s all ave up eavals+ a !onvulsion of eart quakes+ t e like of & i! as never been dreamed of. . . . E e !on!ept of politi!s &ill ave merged entirel' &it a &ar of spiritsF all po&er stru!tures of t e old so!iet' &ill ave been exploded.. . E ere &ill be &ars t e like of & i! ave never 'et been on eart . 5t is onl' beginning &it me t at t e eart kno&s great politi!. Co one gave voi!e to t e dilemmas of Nuropean ni ilism &it as mu! for!e and !larit' as Cietzs! e. >e realized t at t e religious+ moral+ and politi!al values t at ad been t e mainsta' of t e old Nurope &ere moribund and t at t e ne& values destined to supplant t em ad not 'et arisen. Cietzs! e vie&ed imself as t e mid&ife of t ese ne& values. Lut e &as also a&are t at e &as a man a ead of is time. 2s a prop et of ni ilism+ Cietzs! e re!ognized t at Nurope ad lost its moral !ompass+ t at it &as et i!all' adrift. 5n t e opening se!tions of E e Hill to =o&er+ e offered a su!!in!t definition of ni ilism+ IE e ig est values devaluate t emselves. E e aim is la!kingF K& 'RK finds no ans&er.I Hit t e advent of t e modern age+ !ondemned to labor in t e s ado& of Varat ustraKs ! illing pro!lamation !on!erning t e deat of Dod+ Nurope ad seemingl' begun an irreversible !ourse of existential meaninglessness

. 5n Cietzs! eKs vie&+ its onl'

salvation la' &it t e birt of t e 9uperman. 2s Cietzs!

&ould soon materialize. Has Cietzs! e reall' apoliti!alR E oug

e pro!laims in E e Hill to =o&er: 5n opposition to t e d&arfing and adaptation of man to a spe!ialized utilit'+ a reverse movement is needed(t e produ!tion of a s'nt eti!+ summarizing+ /ustif'ing man for & ose existen!e t e transformation of mankind into a ma! ine is a pre!ondition+ as a base on & i! e !an invent is ig er form of being. . . . 2 dominating ra!e !an gro& up onl' out of terrible and violent beginnings. H ere are t e barbarians of t e t&entiet !entur'R E e ans&er to Cietzs! eKs provo!ative question e mer!ilessl' !riti!ized t e dominant politi!al movements of is da' + e &as also a tireless advo!ate of Igreat politi!s+I a veritable leitmotif of is later &ritings. <or Cietzs! e+ !ultural and politi!al greatness &ere ne!essar' !orollaries. Cot onl' &as e an ent usiast of >omer+ Doet e+ and HagnerF e &as also a profound admirer of ;ulius 7aesar+ 7esare Lorgia+ and Capoleon. 5n man' respe!ts+ is refle!tions on Igreat politi!sI &ere as !o erent and s'stemati! as is musings on !ultural and p ilosop i!al t emes. IE e time for pett' politi!s is over+I Cietzs! e !onfidentl' announ!es in Le'ond Dood and NvilF It e ver' next !entur' &ill bring t e fig t for t e dominion of t e eart (t e !ompulsion to great politi!s.I >ere+ too+ Cietzs! eKs orientation &as s aped b' is training in t e !lassi!s. 9urve'ing t e &orld of antiquit'+ t e HestKs unsurpassed !ultural pinna!le+ e !on!luded t at a ierar! i!al organization of so!iet' and politi!s &as entirel' natural. >e subs!ribed to is ?niversit' of Lase1 !olleague ;a!ob Lur!k ardtKs opinion t at t e rise of demo!ra!' ad pre!ipitated 2t ensK do&nfall. @ne of t e most feli!itous des!riptions of is politi!al orientation

I 5n Cietzs! eKs vie&+ it &as onl' natural t at It e best(t e strongest and most po&erful natures(s ould rule(and rule rut lessl'. 2s e remarks in E e Denealog' of Aorals+ IEo expe!t t at strengt &ill not manifest itself as strengt + as t e desire to over!ome+ to appropriate+ to ave enemies . . . is ever' bit as absurd as to expe!t t at &eakness &ill manifest itself as strengt . . . . Co a!t of violen!e+ rape+ exploitation+ destru!tion+ is intrinsi!all' Kun/ust+K sin!e life itself is violent+ rapa!ious+ exploitative+ and destru!tive.I @nl' t e ;udeo(7 ristian Islave revoltI in et i!s ad dared to assume ot er&ise+ insidiousl' turning t e tables on t e masters b' de!laring t at strengt &as evil and &eakness good. Cietzs! e vie&ed demo!ra!' as merel' t e politi!al !orollar' of t e pusillanimous 7 ristian vie& t at all persons &ere equal in t e e'es of Dod.
&as provided b' is Ganis admirer+ Deorg Lrandes+ & o spoke of Cietzs! eKs Iaristo!rati! radi!alismI(a ! ara!terization t at Cietzs! e A ' approved of. 2risto!ra!' means Irule of t e best.

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f &here is no &r+&h. &hen &here is no $eans of resis&ing lies,<e <o+l- be %o<erless in &he face of holoca+s& -enial or con)ic&ion of an innocen& %erson a& &rial/ Tr+&h an- $orali&* go han- in han-/ Eo$&e> S%on)ille 90 32ndre+ =rofessor of = ilosop ' at t e 9orbonne. 0E e Lrute+ t e 9op ist+ and t e 2est ete 02rt in t e 9ervi!e of
5llusion*+ :hy :e are !ot !ietzscheans4.

5f t ere is no trut + o& are 'ou going to resist liesR H at &ould be t e sense of asking+ for instan!e+ & et er Gre'fus &as reall' guilt' or & o reall' set t e 6ei! stag on fireR 5f t ere is no kno&ledge+ o& &ill 'ou fig t obs!urantism and ignoran!eR 5f t ere are no fa!ts but onl' interpretations+ & at ob/e!tions &ill 'ou make to t e revisionists & o maintain t at t e gas ! ambers are not+ pre!isel'+ a fa!t+ onl' a point of vie&+
a mere 'pot esis+ a mere interpretation b' !ertain istorians !onne!ted to t e ;e&is lobb'R 5t ma' be ob/e!ted t at t at &as not Cietzs! eKs point of vie&. 7ertainl'+ t ose &ere not is examples. 2s for is point of vie&+ 5 &ouldnKt kno&. 5n E e 2nti! rist+ after aving praised =ontius =ilateKs attitude 3I@ne ;e& more or less(& at does it matterRI4+ Cietzs! e adds: E e noble s!orn of a 6oman+ !onfronted &it

RI. 5ndeed+ an' /udge !an sa' t at & en e needs to !ondemn an inno!ent man. Lut !an &e a!!ept t atR 9 ould &e a!!ept itR 2nd o& do &e prevent it+ if t ere are neit er fa!ts nor trut sR 5n ap orism of Le'ond Dood and Nvil+ after aving announ!ed+ 'ou &ill re!all+ t at t e falseness of a /udgment &as not for im an ob/e!tion against t at /udgment sin!e t e onl' t ing t at !ounts is its vital utilit'+ Cietzs! e !on!ludes: Eo re!ognize untrut as a !ondition of life(t at !ertainl' means resisting a!!ustomed value feelings in a dangerous &a'F and a p ilosop ' t at risks t is &ould b' t at token alone pla!e itself be'ond good and evil. 8ogi! and moralit' go toget er.
an impudent abuse of t e &ord Itrut +I as enri! ed t e Ce& Eestament &it t e onl' sa'ing that has value one & i! is its !riti!ism+ even its annihilation: IH at is trut

!ie&Bsche9s e$bracing of -isor-er necessi&a&es an aban-on$en& of &ra-i&ional $orali&* an- H+s&ifies $ass $+r-er . Whi&e. 90 32lan+ online book+ Hit in Cietzs! e*s 8ab'rint + =rofessor of = ilosop '+ Hilliams 7ollege+ ttp:))&&&.&illiams.edu)p ilosop ')fa!ult')a& ite)HC8`20&eb)beaut'YandYgoodness. tm4. to Cietzs! e an insisten!e t at t e assessment of a spe!ifi! lifeKs beaut' is a matter+ primaril'+ for t e individual living t at life. <rom t ese tea! ings a serious problem emerges: if beaut' is t e !riterion for goodness+ and if t ere are no universal !riteria for beaut'+ is t ere an't ing to prevent t e mass murderer and t e ! ild molester on t e one and+ or t e !ou! potato on t e ot er+ from vie&ing t eir lives as beautiful+ and t us as good (( even as idealR E is question leads me to one of Ce amasKs !entral !on!erns: ICietzs! e is !learl' mu! more !on!erned &it t e question of
Cietzs! e ex orts us to live beautifull'F on t is point+ Ce amas and 5 agree. 2 se!ond point of our agreement is in attributing o& oneKs a!tions are to fit toget er into a !o erent+ self(sustaining+ &ell(motivated & ole t an e is &it t e qualit' of t ose a!tions t emselvesI 31##4F for t is reason+ It e un!omfortable feeling persists t at someone mig t a! ieve Cietzs! eKs ideal life and still be not ing s ort of repugnantI 31#$4. E is un!omfortable feeling arises+ for Ce amas+ from t e tea! ing t at life is literature. 2!!ording to Ce amasKs Cietzs! e+ Ione s ould not take oneKs misdeeds seriousl' for long+ Tbe!auseU virtue does not depend on -hat one does but on -hether & at one does is an expression of oneKs & ole self+ of oneKs Ko&n &ill.KI E is position makes sense+ Ce amas adds+ be!ause It ese are exa!tl' t e !onsiderations t at are relevant to t e evaluation of literar' ! ara!tersI 31##4. 7ontinues... Cietzs! e re/e!ts t e notion t at t ere are uman obligations deriving from a different &orldF 'et e is not one of Aar!elKs fools. Ce amas stresses+ and 5 stress+ t at Cietzs! e does not &ant to take t e position of en!ouraging sadists and egotists. ?nbridled egotism+ e insists+ &ould lead onl' to Iuniversal &ars of anni ilationI 3 B8:1"4. >is position is made 'et more expli!it in a passage quoted above+ but &ort repeating: 5 den' moralit' as 5 den' al! em'+ t at is+ 5 den' t eir premises: but 5 do not den' t at t ere ave been al! emists & o believed in t ese premises and a!ted in a!!ordan!e &it t em. (( 5 also den' immoralit': not t at !ountless people 'eel t emselves to be immoral+ but t at t ere is an' true reason so to feel. 5t goes &it out sa'ing t at 5 do not den' (( unless 5 am a fool (( t at man' a!tions !alled immoral oug t to be avoided and resisted+ or t at man' !alled moral oug t to be done and en!ouraged (( but 5 t ink t e one s ould be en!ouraged and t e ot er avoided 'or other reasons than hitherto. 39:1034 Cietzs! e does not &ant to den' It at man' a!tions !alled immoral oug t to be avoided and resisted+ and t at man' !alled moral oug t to be done and en!ouragedIF e agrees &it Aar!el t at onl' fools !ould t ink ot er&ise. Xet e re/e!ts ot er(&orldl' sour!es of obligationF o& t en !an e ans&er Aar!elKs questionsR H at is to be said+ or done+ to t e mass murderer and t e ! ild molester+ or to t e !ou! potatoR Ce amas responds to t is question on Cietzs! eKs be alf+ but is response strikes me as in part ina!!urate and in part dangerous+ and t us+ on t e & ole+ una!!eptable. 5n responding+ Ce amas first suggests t at Cietzs! e severel' restri!ts t e audien!e to & om e addresses is transvaluative tea! ings: Nxemplif'ing t e ver' attitude t at prompts im to re/e!t un!onditional !odes+ Cietzs! e does not re/e!t t em un!onditionall'. >is demand is onl' t at p ilosop ers+ and not all people+ Itake t eir stand beyond good and evil and leave t e illusion of moral /udgment beneath t emI 38BB55:14 >ere+ Ce amas suggests t at onl' p ilosop ers (( & o+ e seems to assume+ are not IfoolsI of t e sort Aar!el and Cietzs! e are &orried about (( are to re!ognize t at moral /udgment is illusor'. 5n t is !entral respe!t+ Ce amasKs Cietzs! e seems to remain a =latonist: e tells noble lies to t e masses in order to keep t em in line+ reserving t e trut for t e intelle!tuall' privileged fe&. Co doubt+ Cietzs! e does restri!t t e s!ope of some of is tea! ingsF e as Varat ustra announ!e+ for example+ I5t is a disgra!e TSchmachU to pra'J Cot for ever'one+ but for 'ou and me and & oever else as is !ons!ien!e in is ead. <or you it is a disgra!e to pra'I 3A555:%.2F 22$.2$(294. 5 grant in addition t at Cietzs! e points p ilosop ers be'ond dogmati! moralit'F e agrees &it Aar!el t at not ing on t is eart obliges us to be t oug tful or kind. Xet even in t e passage Ce amas !ites+ Cietzs! e does not present is tea! ings to p ilosop ers alone. 2nd if &e distinguis more generall' bet&een esoteri! and exoteri! strains in

Cietzs! eKs tea! ings+ t en is immoralism+ is apparent advo!a!' of violen!e and oppression+ must !ertainl' be in!luded among is tea! ings for t e man'. Continues... 2s long as t e illusion of moral /udgment olds s&a'+ Cietzs! eKs question !annot be m' guiding question+ for as long as t at illusion olds+ Varat ustraKs minotaur rules: good for all+ evil for all. 2 post(moral &orld+ one & erein t e minotaur &as silen!ed+ &ould be one in & i! ea! of us !ould determine is or er o&n goodF t at &ould ave to be a &orld &it in & i! diversit' &ould be en!ouraged rat er t an in ibited. Lut t at+ it mig t seem+ &ould entail a ne& form of moral dogmatism+ one &it t e paradoxi!al form+ It e good for all is t at t ere be no Kgood for allKIR >o& !ould Cietzs! e defend su! a perspe!tive+ or su! affirmation+ as one appropriate for ever'one R

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AT ! #T?SEF#' AT' W# "O!9T A"8OEAT# TF# FASE ST =A(T OF !# T?SEF# & is i$%ossible &o se%ara&e !ie&Bsche9s celebra&ion of cr+el&*. )iolence. an- hierarch* fro$ his o&her conce%&s,&he* are +&&erl* cen&ral &o his %hiloso%h*/ Wolin. 04 3E e 9edu!tion of ?nreason: E e 5ntelle!tual 6oman!e &it <as!ism from Cietzs! e to =ostmodernism+ 6i! ard Holin+ =rofessor of >istor' and 7omparative 8iterature at t e Draduate 7enter+ 7it' ?niversit'4. Cietzs! e &as an apostle of !ultural grandeur+ but e &as also a dogged defender of po&er+ !ruelt' and t e &arrior et os as personified b' several of istor'Ks more sanguinar' t'rants: 2lexander t e Dreat+ ;ulius 7aesar+ and Capoleon. E e problem for interpreters & o seek to aest eti!ize 3and t ereb'+ as it &ere+ anest etize4 Cietzs! eKs do!trines is t at+ as t e follo&ing quote from t e Ca! lass s o&s+ in his $in- conD+es& an- c+l&+ral flo+rishing <en& han- in han- : IE e ne& p ilosop er !an arise onl' in !on/un!tion &it a ruling !aste+ as its ig est spiritualization. Dreat =oliti!s+ rule of t e eart + are at and.I @f !ourse Cietzs! e &as an't ing but a s'stemati! t inker+ and t e result as been t e predi!table ermeneuti! feeding frenz' t at as al&a's surrounded is &ork. Cevert eless+ I&ill to po&erI and Igreat politi!sI &ere mainsta's of is later t oug t. 2n' attempt to interpretivel' brus t ese !on!epts aside risks distorting Cietzs! eKs !entral p ilosop i!al intentions. !ie&Bsche9s <ri&ing <as ins&r+$en&al in !aBis$/ Their arg+$en& &ha& his :grea& %oli&ics; <as onl* a $e&a%hor ignores &he fac& &ha& he -i- hel% &o ins%ire one of &he <ors& %hases in h+$an his&or* an- &ha& o&her a+&hors canno& be a%%ro%ria&e- in &ha& <a*/ Wolin. 04 3E e 9edu!tion of ?nreason: E e 5ntelle!tual 6oman!e &it <as!ism from Cietzs! e to =ostmodernism+ 6i! ard Holin+ =rofessor of >istor' and 7omparative 8iterature at t e Draduate 7enter+ 7it' ?niversit'4. 2fter all+ t e Cational 9o!ialists vie&ed t e do!trine of Itotal &arI and t e unpre!edented geno!ide and !arnage it ad unleas ed in quintessentiall' Cietzs! ean terms: as a Dotzendiimmmng or It&ilig t of t e idols+I a ma!abre aest eti! spe!ta!le of t e first order. Go!umentar' eviden!e !orroborates t e extent to & i! t e 99 39! utz 9taffel4 adopted as its !redo(and t ereb' found ideologi!al inspiration to !arr' out t e I<inal 9olutionI(Cietzs! eKs admonitions to Ilive dangerousl'I and to pra!ti!e Iself(over!oming.I 2s <ren! fas!ist Aar!el Geat remarked at t e eig t of Horld Har 11+ ICietzs! eKs idea of t e sele!tion of Kgood NuropeansK is no& being realized on t e battlefield+ b' t e 8<B and t e Haffen 99. 2n aristo!ra!'+ a knig t ood is being !reated b' t e &ar & i! &ill be t e ard+ pure nu!leus of t e Nurope of t e future.I E e Cazis found Cietzs! eKs self(understanding as a Igood NuropeanI eminentl' servi!eable for t eir belli!ose+ imperialist ends: as an ideologi!al /ustifi!ation for !ontinental politi!al egemon'. E e E ird 6ei! Ks ideolog' planners !onsidered onl' t ree books fit for in!lusion at t e Eannenberg Aemorial !ommemorating Derman'Ks Horld Har 5 triump over 6ussia: Aein Qampf 2lfred 6osenbergKs A't of t e E&entiet 7entur'+ and Cietzs! eKs Varat tra. 2lt oug t e Cazis also tried to render Derman poets su! as Doet e and 9! iller servi!eable for t eir !ause+ t eir atta! ment to t e traditional ideals of Nuropean umanism represented a formidable urdle. 5n Cietzs! eKs !ase+ o&ever+ no su! obsta!les existed. 2s 9teven 2s! eim observes in E e Cietzs! e 8ega!' in Derman': >ere &as a Derman t inker &it & at appeared to be genuinel' t emati! and tonal links+ & o &as able to provide t e Cazis &it a ig er p ilosop i!al pedigree and a rationale for !entral tenets of t eir &eltans! auung. 2s <ranz Ceumann noted in 1943+ Cietzs! e Iprovided Cational 9o!ialism &it an intelle!tual fat er & o ad greatness and &it+ & ose st'le &as beautiful and not abominable+ & o &as able to arti!ulate t e resentment against bot monopol' !apitalism and t e rising proletariat.I Has it reall' so far(fet! ed+ as Cietzs! eKs defenders ave !laimed+ t at a t inker & o !elebrated Aa! tpolitik+ flaunted t e anni ilation of t e &eak+ to'ed &it t e idea of a Aaster 6a!e+ and despised t e ;e&s for aving introdu!ed a !o&ardl' Islave moralit'I into t e eretofore aristo!rati! dis!ourse of Nuropean !ulture(&as it reall' so far(fet! ed t at su! a t inker &ould be!ome t e CazisK !ourt p ilosop erR 6efle!ting on Cietzs! eKs fas!ination &it breeding+ extermination+ and !onquest(all in t e name of a Ira!ial 'gieneI designed to produ!e superior Leings(t e istorian Nrnst Colte spe!ulates t at t e s!ope and extent of t e &ars envisioned b' t e p ilosop er mig t &ell ave surpassed an't ing >itler and !ompan' &ere !apable of ena!ting: H at Cietzs! e ad in mind &as a IpureI !ivil &ar. Xet & en one t inks t e idea t roug to its logi!al !on!lusion+ & at needs to be anni ilated Tverni! tetU is t e entire tenden!' of uman development sin!e t e end of !lassi!al antiquit' . . .: 7 ristian priests+ vulgar ! ampions of t e Nnlig tenment+ demo!rats+ so!ialists+ toget er &it t e s ep erds and erds of t e &eak and degenerate. 5f Ianni ilationI TBerni! tungU is understood literall'+ t en t e result &ould be a mass murder in !omparison &it & i! t e CazisK I<inal 9olutionI seems mi!ros!opi!.

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AT ! #T?SEF#' AT' W# "O!9T A"8OEAT# TF# FASE ST =A(T OF ! #T?SEF# We conce-e &ha& &here are an&i>a+&hori&arian rea-ings of !ie&Bsche b+& &he al&erna&i)e <ill be $isa%%ro%ria&e- as an exc+se for )iolence/ 7olo$b an- Wis&rich L=rofessors a& &he Febre< @ni)ersi&*I. 02 3Cietzs! e+ Dodfat er of <as!ismR @n t e ?ses and 2buses of a = ilosop '+ ttp:))&&&.pupress.prin!eton.edu)! apters)i$403. tml4. Cietzs! e &as !learl' an elitist & o believed in t e rig t to rule of a Igood and ealt ' aristo!ra!'+I one t at &ould+ if ne!essar'+ be rea-* &o sacrifice +n&ol- n+$bers of h+$an beings. >e sometimes &rote as if nations primaril' existed for t e sake of produ!ing a fe& Igreat men+I & o !ould not be expe!ted to s o& !onsideration for Inormal umanit'.I Cot suprisingl'+ in t e lig t of t e !ruel !entur' t at as /ust ended+ one is bound to regard su! statements &it grave misgivings. <rom Aussolini and >itler to 9talin+ Aao+ =ol =ot+ and 9addam >ussein+ t e last eig t' 'ears ave been riddled &it so(!alled politi!al geniuses imagining t at t e' &ere Ibe'ond good and evilI and free of an' moral !onstraints. @ne as to ask if t ere is not somet ing in Cietzs! eKs p ilosop ' &it its unin ibited !ultivation of a eroi! individualism and t e &ill to po&er+ & i! ma' ave tended to favor t e fas!ist et os. Ausssolini+ for example+ raised t e Cietzs! ean formulation Ilive dangerousl'I 3vivi pericolosamente4 to t e status of a fas!ist slogan. >is reading of Cietzs! e &as one fa!tor in !onverting im
from Aarxism to a p ilosop ' of sa!rifi!e and &arlike deeds in defense of t e fat erland. 5n t is mutation+ Aussolini &as pre!eded b' Dabriele dK2nnunzio+ & ose passage from aest eti!ism to t e politi!al a!tivism of a ne&+ more virile and &arlike age+ &as 3as Aario 9zna/der points out in is essa'4 greatl' influen!ed b' Cietzs! e. Nquall'+ t ere &ere ot er representatives of t e <irst Horld Har generation+ like t e radi!al Derman nationalist &riter+ Nrnst ;qnger+ & o &ould find in Cietzs! eKs &ritings a legitimization of t e &arrior et os 3as Gavid @ ana makes !lear4. E ere ave also been Aarxist !riti!s like Deorge 8ukt!s+ & o sa& in Cietzs! eKs p ilosop ' not ing more t an an ideologi!al apologia for t e rapa!ious plunder of Derman !apitalist imperialism and a parti!ularl' destru!tive form of irrationalism. 8ukt!s insisted bot on t e rea!tionar' !o eren!e of Cietzs! eKs Is'stemI and on t e Ibarren ! aosI of is arbitrar' language+ singling im out as one of t e most dangerous Iintelle!tual !lass(enemiesI of so!ialism. 8ukt!sKs o&n miserable re!ord as an apologist 3for t e !rimes of 9talinism4+ gave is one(sided reading of Cietzs! e 3& i! equated ostilit' to egalitarian so!ialism &it fas!ist imperialism4 transparentl' propagandist !oloring+ 'et it is an interpretation t at ad !onsiderable influen!e in its da'. Aan' !ommentators ave raised t e question as to & et er t e vulgar exploitation of Cietzs! e b'

H ile almost an' p ilosop ' !an be propagandisti!all' abused 3as >ans 9luga as s o&n+ Qant &as a parti!ular favorite among a!ademi! p ilosop ers of t e E ird 6ei! J4+ Cietzs! eKs pat os+ is imaginative ex!esses as &ell as is image as a prop etseer and !reator of m't s+ seems espe!iall' !ondu!ive to su! abuse b' fas!ists. E e radi!al manner in & i! Cietzs! e t rust imself against t e boundaries of !onventional 3;udeo(7 ristian4 moralit' and dramati!all' pro!laimed t at Dod 3meaning t e bourgeois 7 ristian fait of t e nineteent !entur'4 &as dead+ undoubtedl' appealed to somet ing in Cazism t at &is ed to transgress and trans!end all existing taboos. E e totalitarianism of t e t&entiet !entur' 3of bot t e 6ig t and 8eft4 presupposed a breakdo&n of all aut orit' and moral norms+ of & i! Cietzs! e &as indeed a !lear(sig ted prop et+ pre!isel' be!ause e ad diagnosed ni ilism as t e !entral problem of is so!iet'((t at of fin de side!le Nurope.
fas!ists+ militarists+ and Cazis !ould indeed be altoget er arbitrar'.

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AT ! #T?SEF#' AT' W# "O!9T A"8OEAT# TF# FASE ST =A(T OF ! #T?SEF# #)en if e)er* arg+$en& &ha& &he* $ake abo+& !ie&Bsche resis&ing fascis$ is righ&. &he fac& re$ains &ha& his an&i> -e$ocra&ic ran&s f+ele- one of &he <ors& regi$es in his&or*/ Eo$&e> S%on)ille 90 32ndre+ =rofessor of = ilosop ' at t e 9orbonne. 0E e Lrute+ t e 9op ist+ and t e 2est ete 02rt in t e 9ervi!e of 5llusion*+ :hy :e are !ot !ietzscheans4. He ave to stop ere for a moment to rule out some false trails and one false !on!lusion. He kno& t at t e Cazis often !laimed to be inspired b' Cietzs! e and t at+ for example+ >itler made a gift to Aussolini of a luxur' edition 3t at t e former ad ad printed in 193" of our aut orKs 7omplete Horks. 9u! fa!ts+ and ot ers one !ould !ite+ prove not ing. 5t is doubtful t at >itler ever read Cietzs! e+ or read more an'&a' t an s!attered quotes. 2nd t at Cietzs! e is in no &a' suspe!t of Cazism is a !ertaint' to & i! bot ! ronolog' and t e reading of t e texts are enoug to lead us. Lut t e dis!iples are a little ast' & en t e' !on!lude t at t erefore t ere is no problem and t at an'one &ould definitel' ave to be ill intentioned to see t e least relation bet&een Cietzs! e and >itler. Hit out+ obviousl'+ being one of CazismKs !auses+ or even one of its real sour!es+ Cietzs! e belongs nevert eless to t e same spiritual &orld(antidemo!rati!+ anti(;e&is + antirationalist Derman t oug t t at &ill also produ!e Cazism+ and t at fa!t explains to some extent t e Cietzs! ean pretentions of t is or t at Cazi as &ell as t e Cazi stra'ings of t is or t at Cietzs! ean &it out in an' &a' aut orizing t em. I2 do!trine+I ;ankirlirvit! said about Cazism+ Iin & i! >eidegger immediatel' found imself and & i! so visibl' !arries Cietzs! eKs mark.I 5n bot !ases+ t atKs going too far. Aa'be. Lut it &ould not be going far enoug (in bot !ases(to attribute to ! an!e or to misunderstanding t e monstrous proximit' t at made of >eidegger a Cazi and seemed+ t oug erroneousl'+ to give t e Cazis Cietzs! eKs blessing. IE e porks &ill &allo& in m' do!trineI t e latter ad foreseen+ and t at+ indeed+ is & at appened. Lut & 'R He !an ardl' imagine t e Cazis la'ing !laim to Qant or >usserl in t e same &a'+ and ever' do!trine+ &e ma' sa'+ as t e porks it deserves. IE ere &ill be &ars t e like of & i! ave never 'et been seen on eart +I Cietzs! e also announ!ed+ bragging about it. I5t is onl' beginning &it me t at t e eart kno&s great politi!s. 5t is of !ourse !lear t at t ere is a great deal of derision in t ese s&aggering. Lut a p ilosop er turns prop et at is o&n risk. H ose fault is it if+ no& t at istor' as gone on furt er do&n t e road+ &e ave t e ! oi!e onl' bet&een t e ridi!ulous and t e odiousR

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!ie&Bsche reHec&ion of )al+es in fa)or of acce%&ing -isor-er has f+ele- !aBis$/ O+r arg+$en& is no& &ha& his <ri&ing <as ex%lici&l* an&i>Se$e&ic. b+& &he his&or* of $isa%%ro%ria&ion %ro)es &ha& &he al&erna&i)e is %oli&icall* +n-esirable/ 7olo$b an- Wis&rich 02 3Cietzs! e+ Dodfat er of <as!ismR 3=rofessors at t e >ebre& ?niversit'4+ @n t e ?ses and 2buses of a = ilosop '+ ttp:))&&&.pupress.prin!eton.edu)! apters)i$403. tml4. 2t first sig t+ t is s arp re/e!tion of anti(9emitism mig t seem a good enoug reason to ans&er negativel' and de!isivel' t e question !on!erning Cietzs! eKs responsibilit' for Cazism. 7ertainl'+ a t inker & o eld a ig opinion of ;e&is qualities+ looked to t em as a spear ead for is o&n free(t inking Gion'sian Irevaluation of all values+I and soug t t eir full integration into Nuropean so!iet' !ould ardl' be blamed for t e Cazi >olo!aust. @n t e ot er and+ in is s&eeping re/e!tion of ;udeo(7 ristian values 3as t e' &ere mirrored in Derman =rotestantism4 Cietzs! e !onstantl' referred to t eir origin in t e sublime IvengefulnessI of 5srael and its alleged exploitation of so(!alled movements of Ide!aden!eI 3like earl' 7 ristianit'+ liberalism+ and so!ialism4 to ensure its o&n self(preservation and survival 3Aena em Lrinker4. Nven t oug Cietzs! eKs prime target &as !learl' 7 ristianit'((& i! e also blamed for t e suffering of t e ;e&s((t e sour!e of t e infe!tion ultimatel' la' in t at fateful transvaluation of values initiated b' priestl' ;udaism t&o millennia ago. 5t &as a sele!tive reading of t is Cietzs! ean indi!tment of ;udeo(7 ristianit' t at led t e late ;a!ob Ealmon+ an 5sraeli istorian+ some fort' 'ears ago to see in Cietzs! e a ma/or intelle!tual signpost on t e road to 2us! &itz. Aoreover+ even & en des!ribing t e I;udaizationI of t e &orld in terms t at mixed admiration &it disapprobation+ Cietzs! e seemed inadvertentl' to be feeding t e m't of ;e&is po&er+ so beloved of 7 ristian and ra!ist anti(9emites. E oug is intentions &ere profoundl' ostile to anti(9emitism+ t is provo!ative te! nique &as undoubtedl' a dangerous game to pla'. H ile it &ould be senseless to old Cietzs! e responsible for su! distortions+ one !an find troubling e! oes of a vulgarized and debased Cietzs! eanism in t e later diatribes of >itler+ >immler+ Lormann+ and 6osenberg against ;udeo( 7 ristianit'.

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AT ! #T?SEF#' AT' AFF (M !7 " FF#(#!E# ALT#(!AT 8# Their &heor* sho+l- be reHec&e- beca+se of -is$al e$%irical res+l&s,&he %oli&ics of -ifference ha)e H+s&ifie- racial se%ara&is$ <hile $o-ernis$ has $obiliBe- egali&arian social $o)e$en&s/ Wolin. 04 3E e 9edu!tion of ?nreason: E e 5ntelle!tual 6oman!e &it <as!ism from Cietzs! e to =ostmodernism+ 6i! ard Holin+ =rofessor of >istor' and 7omparative 8iterature at t e Draduate 7enter+ 7it' ?niversit'4. =aradoxi!all'+ & ereas a vis!eral re/e!tion of politi!al modernit' 3rig ts of man+ rule of la&+ !onstitutionalism4 &as on!e standard fare among !ounterrevolutionar' t inkers+ it as no& be!ome fas ionable among advo!ates of t e !ultural left. =ostmodernists equate demo!ra!' &it Isoft totalitarianism.I E e' argue t at b' privileging publi! reason and t e !ommon good+ liberal demo!ra!' effe!tivel' suppresses ot erness and differen!e. @f !ourse+ one !ould ver' easil' make t e !onverse argument: istori!all' speaking+ demo!ra!' and rule of la& ave proved t e best guarantors of !ultural diversit' and politi!al pluralism. Guring t e 19%0s t e debate on Idifferen!eI &ould take an insidious turn as t e Nuropean Ce& 6ig t+ led b' <ran!eKs ;ean(Aarie 8e =en+ embra!ed t e Irig t to differen!eI as a /ustifi!ation for ra!ial separatism. E e s o!k of re!ognition resulting from 8e =enKs ele!toral su!!esses pus ed t e Nuropean left firml' ba!k into t e demo!rati! republi!an !amp. 2lt oug Gerrida as re!entl' professed a sl' interest in a nebulous Idemo!ra!' to !omeI 3Idemo!rati! a venir)avenirI4+ & at e mig t ave in mind b' t is metapoliti!al de!ree(long on r etori! and s ort on empiri!al substan!e(is an'bod'Ks guess. L' den'ing t e basi! eman!ipator' potentials of demo!ra!'+ b' do&npla'ing t e signifi!ant differen!es bet&een it and its totalitarian anat esis+ t e postmodern left as openl' !onsigned itself to t e politi!al margins. <or+ & atever t eir empiri!al failings+ states predi!ated on rule of la& !ontain a basi! !apa!it' for internal politi!al ! ange fundamentall' absent from illiberal politi!al regimes. @ver t e last fort' 'ears+ t e qualified su!!esses of t e &omenKs+ anti&ar+ e!ologi!al+ !ivil+ and ga' rig ts movements ave testified to t is politi!al rule of t umb. Affir$a&ion of -ifferences +&&erl* inco$%a&ible <i&h &he co$%ro$ises nee-e- for -e$ocrac*,a+&hori&arianis$ is &he onl* go)ern$en& &ha& can con&rol a %o%+lace &ha& no longer belie)es in %l+ralis$/ Tag+ieff. 90 3=ierre(2ndr\+ dire!tor of resear! at 7C69 3in an 5nstitut dKNtudes =olitiques de =aris E e 0Eraditionalist =aradigm( >orror of Aodernit' and 2ntiliberalism* :hy :e are !ot !ietzscheans3. @ne !annot be a Cietzs! ean t e &a' one !an be a Qantian+ a >egelian+ or a Aarxist. =ositions and anal'ses !ount less t an t e manner+ or t e st'le+ & i! is led b' t e po&er to destro' and t e !apa!it' to assert &it absoluteness. E e destru!tive aim is dire!ted first of all against pluralist)liberal demo!ra!'+ t e ob/e!t of supreme detestation. E en it is turned against t e so!ialist utopias t at intend to full' realize t e virtual possibilities of modern egalitarian demo!ra!'. 2fter t e devastating dem'stifi!ation t at is effe!ted b' Cietzs! eKs p ilosop '+ from t e moment &e attempt to follo& it in its ultimate !onsequen!es on t e politi!al terrain+ no expe!tations be!ome possible t at !ould be fulfilled &it in t e limits of modern demo!ra!'. Cot ing remains but t e exalted !all for t e I!oup de for!eI and t e dream of a redemptive di!tators ip. Barious generations of Cietzs! eanizing aest etes and pious interpreters ave made an effort not to see t is terrible logi!al !on!lusion+ to ide or mask it. 5t is time to re!ognize t at Cietzs! eKs pluralism+ is 'perrelativisti! perspe!tivism+ is+ far from being !onsonant &it t e regulated pluralism implied b' liberal demo!ra!'+ its total negation. 6adi!al relativism is for Cietzs! e but a destru!tive &eapon intended to !ompletel' disqualif' t e value s'stems and t e beliefs of t e modern &orld. Cietzs! e does not !all for us to settle do&n !omfortabl' into skepti!al doubt+ !ultural relativism+ or doxi! pluralism. E e I ardnessI t at is t inking requires+ at least in its prop eti! mood+ is of t e kind implied b' t e assertion of irredu!ible differen!es or of ierar! i!al distan!es t at are also destinies. Go &e need to insist on t e in!ompatibilit' of su! an absoluteness of ierar! i!al differen!e &it t e foundational egalitarian requirements of t e modern demo!rati! sp ereR Eo be !onvin!ed of t is+ &e need to read in t eir entiret'+ &it out evading t e letter of t e text t roug t is or t at angeli! re!onstru!tion+ fragments as expli!it as t e follo&ing one+ of & i! t ere are plent': @ne of t e tenden!ies of evolution is+ ne!essaril'+ t at & i! levels umanit' . . . E e ot er tenden!'+ m' tenden!'+ on t e !ontrar' tends to a!!entuate differen!es+ &iden distan!es+ suppress equalit'+ and !reate monsters of po&er. E e absolute affirmation of differen!e+ t e total negation of equalit'+ t e !ult of ierar! ies based on nature: t ese are t e pat s t at lead to t e eroi! road+ & i! lead us to t e straig t road t oug t out b' t e Iimmoralist.I 5t is t e onl' road pointed to b' t e radi!al+ sovereign negations(t e Ino of t e 'esI(uttered against t e modern &orld b' t e p ilosop er of t e Hill to =o&er. E e' ardl' need to be added to.

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!ie&Bsche is ex%lici&l* racis&,he %raises Ar*ans an- calls o&hers -egenera&es/ The* <ill sa* &ha& i& is onl* a $e&a%hor b+& &ha& flies in &he face of his re%ea&e- e$%hasis on biological -e&er$inis$/ Eo$&e> S%on)ille 90 32ndre+ =rofessor of = ilosop ' at t e 9orbonne. 0E e Lrute+ t e 9op ist+ and t e 2est ete 02rt in t e 9ervi!e of 5llusion*+ :hy :e are !ot !ietzscheans4. Cietzs! eKs t inking is ra!ist in its essen!e t roug its !on/un!tion 3under !over of eredit'4 of elitism &it biologism. I@ne
pa's a pri!e for being t e ! ild of oneKs parents+I Cietzs! e &rote in E e Da' 9!ien!e 334%4+ but e is more pre!ise in Le'ond Dood and +vil 3u 2#44: I5t is simpl' not possible t at a uman being s ould not ave t e qualities and preferen!es of is parents and an!estors in is bod'+ & atever appearan!es ma' suggest to t e !ontrar'. E is is t e problem of ra!e. 5f one kno&s somet ing about t e parents+ an

.I <or Cietzs! e+ be!ause of t at ever' uman a!tivit' depends on & at e !alls IbloodI 3Deblut4+ and even p ilosop ' doesnKt es!ape from t is: <or ever' ig &orld one must be bornF or to speak more !learl'+ one must be !ultivated for it: a rig t to p ilosop '(taking t at &ord in its great sense(one as onl' b' virtue of oneKs originsF oneKs an!estors+ oneKs IbloodI de!ide ere+ too. Aan' generations must ave labored to prepare t e origin of t e p ilosop erF ever' one of is virtues must ave been a!quired+ nurtured+
inferen!e about t e ! ild is permissible in erited+ and digested singl'. 3LDN+ 21 34 E e same illumination is+ as &e mig t ave supposed+ also valid for t e general istor' of umanit'. 5n E e Denealog' of Aorals 35+ 4+ /4+ after aving noted t at t e Iveritable met od to follo&I &as t e genealogi!al one+ Cietzs! e &rites: 5n t e 8atinmalus 3& i! 5 pla!e next to Dreek melas4 !ould indi!ate t e !ommon man as t e dark one+ espe!iall' as t e bla!k( aired one 3I i! niger est (I4+ as t e pre(2r'an d&eller of t e 5talian soil & i! distinguis ed itself most !learl' t roug is !olor from blonds & o be!ame t eir masters+ namel' t e 2r'an !onquering ra!e.

2nd e gravel' asks imself: H o !an sa' & et er modern demo!ra!'+ even more modern anar! ism and espe!iall' t at in!lination for I!ommune+I for t e most primitive form of so!iet'+ & i! is no& s ared b' all t e so!ialists of Nurope+ does not signif' in t e main a tremendous !ounteratta!k(and t at t e !onqueror and master ra!e+ t e 2r'an+ is not su!!umbing p 'siologi!all'+ tooR 3DA+ 5+ "4 2nd e drives t e nail in t e &all: IE ese !arriers of t e most umiliating and vengean!e(seeking instin!ts+ t e des!endants of all Nuropean and non(Nuropean slaver'+ espe!iall' of t e pre(2r'an people(t e' represent mankindKs regressionJ E ese Kinstruments of !ultureK are a s ame for uman beings+ and a !ause for suspi!ion+ a !ounterargument against K!ultureK in generalJI 3DA+ 5+ 114. 2nd e praises+ on t e !ontrar'+ It e blond beast at t e bottom of all t e predominant ra!es+I all t e
2nd t en e adds t is remark 3& ose status in a p ilosop ' book leads one to &onder4: IE e 7elts+ b' t e &a'+ &ere definitel' a blond ra!e.I I/ubilant monsters+ & o per aps !ame out of a terrible sequen!e of murders+ burnings+ rapes+ tortures &it ig spirits and tranquilit' of soul+ as if it ad all been a !ase of student ig /inksF !onvin!ed t at t e poets &ould no& ave somet ing to sing and to praise for a long timeI 3ibid.4J 2nd+ per aps influen!ed b' Dobineau+ & om e greatl' admired. 2t eart in t ese predominant ra!es &e !annot mistake t e beast of pre'+ t e blond beast & o lusts after boot' and vi!tor' . . . E e deep+ i!' mistrust t e Derman brings fort & en e !omes to po&er+ even toda'+ is an e! o of t e indelible outrage &it & i! Nurope looked on t e rage of t e blond Dermani! beast for undreds of 'ears31 2ll of t ese texts+ and man' ot ers one !ould quote+ /ustif' m' title+ or at least its first qualifier. Cot of !ourse t at Cietzs! e &as a brute as an individual 3t e poor man didnKt ave t e meansJ4F but e is t e p ilosop er(and t e onl' one to m' kno&ledge 3for t oug Aa! iavelli legitimizes immoralit' politi!all'+ e doesnKt t ereb' !ondemn moralit' as su! 4(& o /ustifies brutes and !ons!iousl' makes models out of t em

. 2t t is point it &ill be said(t e Cietzs! eans &ill sa' t at t ese

texts s ould not be taken literall'+ t

at t e' ave but a metap ori!al meaning+ t at t e Ifor!eI t e' extol is of an intelle!tual kind+ and finall' t at 3as >eidegger is supposed to ave

Eo &ant to absolve Cietzs! e of is barbari! or ra!ist remarks on t e pretext t at+ in is !ase 3and !ontrar'+ it is spe!ified+ to & at &e see in Aein Qampf or among t e t eoreti!ians of national so!ialism4+ it is metap 'si!s is to be mistaken from beginning to end about t e status of Cietzs! ean metap 'si!s+ & i! + far from es!aping from t e bod'Ks vital order 3and t erefore from biologism4+ is but one of its expressions 3a Is'mptomI4+ neit er t e most dignified nor t e most important one+ and one+ most of all+ t at remains de fa!to and de /ure dependent on t e bod'. E is is put !learl' in one of t e post umousl' publis ed notes: 2ll our religions and p ilosop ies are t e s'mptoms of our bodil' state:
demonstratedJ4 t ere is in Cietzs! e no biologism+ and t at t erefore t e Ira!esI e evokes are not reall' ra!es. a7ontinuesa t at 7 ristianit' a! ieved vi!tor' &as t e result of a generalized feeling of listlessness and of a mixture of ra!es 3t at is+ of !onfli!t and disarra' in t e organism4. (Kroner, b555+ u #004 E us &e must take It e bod' and p 'siolog' TasU t e starting pointI 3H=+ f4924F !onsider Iall t at is K!ons!iousK . . . onl' of se!ondar' importan!eI 3Qroner+ b555+ f 3%24+ and !onsequentl' revise Iour beliefs and our ver' prin!iple of evaluationI and onl' old on to t e intelle!t 3das Deistige4 as It e bod'Ks sign languageI 3ibid.F see also H=+ f $0$+ #$#4. E is is & ere Cietzs! e is !losest to materialism(and & ere t e

4+ if t e soul is onl' t e s'mptom of t e bod' and if t is s'mptomatolog' is itself+ as Cietzs! e never !eases to repeat+ biologi!all' determined+ o& !an &e not pro!eed from p 'si!al differen!es 3t ose t at result from eredit'4 to intelle!tual differen!es(and & at is t at !alled if not ra!ism R E e most
materialist must t erefore be t e most vigilant. 5f Iin man t ere is materialI 3LDN+ 22" radi!al materialisms es!ape+ or !an es!ape+ from t is b' subordinating life to somet ing ot er t an itself+ from a point of vie& eit er t eoreti!al 3t e true is not a s'mptom4 or p 'si!al 3matter is neit er ra!ist nor ra!ial4+ or pra!ti!al 3it is not moralit' & i! must subordinate itself to lifeF it is life+ in uman beings+ & i! must subordinate itself to moralit': even if t e notion of ra!e &ere biologi!all' pertinent+ ra!ism &ould still be morall' damnable4. 6a!ism is+ in a &ord+ a ermeneuti!s of t e epidermis 3t at is its t eoreti!al error4 t at mistakes eredit' for a moralit' 3t at is its pra!ti!al fla&4. 5t is a barbarous and superfi!ial materialism. 5 !anKt dra& out t e anal'sis of all t is to t e extent t e topi! demands. Lut it &ill alread' be understood at t is point t at+ re/e!ting as e does bot idealism 3& i! is a nonsense for t e bod'4 and+ in t e end+ materialism itself 3be!ause+ e makes !lear+ I5 do not believe in KmatterKI4+ 44 Cietzs! e !an onl' fall into vitalism 3in a large sense: e doesnKt believe in t e existen!e of an' kind of vital prin!iple eit er4 or+ if 'ou prefer+ into biologism. E at is is ontolog'+ & at separates im from materialism: ILeing(&e ave no idea of it apart from t e idea of Kliving.K(>o& !an an't ing dead KbeKRI4" Lut It e organi! &as not generatedI 3Qroner+ b555+ f "#04. @rgani! life is essentiall' &ill to po&er+ as Cietzs! e ammers on repeatedl'+ and &ill to po&er is+ as &e kno&+ t e basis of realit'.

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AT ! #T?SEF#' AT' ! #T?SEF#9S K OF (#ASO! !ie&Bschean cri&iD+es of reason are -ee%l* -ise$%o<ering,+ni)ersalis$ has e$%iricall* been s+ccessf+l in &he figh& agains& social inH+s&ice/ Wolin. 04 3E e 9edu!tion of ?nreason: E e 5ntelle!tual 6oman!e &it <as!ism from Cietzs! e to =ostmodernism+ 6i! ard Holin+ =rofessor of >istor' and 7omparative 8iterature at t e Draduate 7enter+ 7it' ?niversit'4. Cietzs! e !ertainl' &as a radi!al !riti! of reason. >e &is ed to s o& t at t e modern Hest+ b' emp ati!all' opting for t e values of instrumental rationalism+ ad s'stemati!all' pre!luded ot er+ more distinguis ed value options. Cietzs! e for!efull' soug t to demonstrate t e opportunit' !osts of(t e one(sidedness and partialit' of+ as &ell as t e losses entailed b'(I!ultural rationalizationI 3Aax Heber4. >e on!e lamented t at t e modern Hest suffered from a K 'pertrop ' of t e intelle!t+I to t e detriment of ot er venerable and &ort ' uman fa!ulties(and on t is point & o &ould disagreeR Xet in t e rus to radi!alize Cietzs! e+ to enlist is servi!es in a series of bitter+ interne!ine intelle!tual disputes+ t e Dalli! re!eption &illfull' suppressed t e subtleties and nuan!es of is position. 5n <ren! ands Cietzs! e &as transformed from a prin!ipled !riti! of reason into a devout foe of t e same. Leginning &it 9o!rates and !ulminating &it t e Nnlig tenment+ t e !riti!al emplo'ment of reason ig lig ted t e tension bet&een t e !laims of reason and t e unreasonable ! ara!ter of existing so!ial institutions. 2s su! + reasonKs !laims &ere al&a's inimi!al to illegitimate so!ial aut orit'. 6eason soug t to illuminate t e !left bet&een un/ustifiable !laims to aut orit' and its o&n more general+ IuniversalI standpoint. 5f+ as later istorians !ontended+ t e !ollapse of t e an!ien regime &as a foregone !on!lusion+ its demise ad been pre!ipitated b' t e labor of !riti!ism undertaken b' lumieres and p ilosop es+ t e so(!alled part' of reason. (eHec&ion of all reason is $en&al s+ici-e an- risks re%ea&ing &he <ors& %oli&ics of &he 20 &h cen&+r*/ Wolin 95 36i! ard+ Gistinguis ed =rofessor of >istor' M 7it' ?. of Ce& Xork Draduate 7enter+ 0E e anti(2meri!an revolution+1 E e Ce& 6epubli!+ Has ington+ 2ug 1$(2ug 24+ 199%+ Bol. 219+ 5ss. $)%F pg. 3"(424 5n t e postmodernist demonolog'+ it is t e Nnlig tenment t at bears dire!t istori!al responsibilit' for t e Dulag and 2us! &itz. 5n t e e'es of t ese !onvin!ed misologists+ or enemies of reason+ modern totalitarianism is merel' t e ups ot of t e universalizing impetus of Nnlig tenment reason. @r+ as <ou!ault on!e observed+ Ireason is torture.I 2!!ording to t e Ipoliti!s of differen!e+I moreover+ reason is little more t an t e ideologi!al &indo&(dressing for Nuro!entrism and its orrors. E ese &ild !laims are istori!all' ina!!urate. E e' are also self(defeating: if &e abandon rational argument+ &e ave little left to rel' on but t e Irig t of t e strongestI or Iidentit' politi!s.I 3Cational 9o!ialism &as a monumentall' monstrous instan!e of Iidentit' politi!s.I4 2nd t e' are also self !ontradi!tor'. <or t e enemies of reason !an onl' advan!e t eir position t roug for!e of t e better argumentF t at is+ b' giving reasons t at aim to !onvin!e ot ers. Eo !riti!ize reasonKs failings is one t ing. Eo re/e!t it in its entiret' is not antirationalism but antiintelle!tualism+ or mental sui!ide.

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AT ! #T?SEF#' AT' ! #T?SEF#9S K OF (#ASO! Tr+&h -oes no& enable -o$ina&ion,&he i-ea &ha& an*one can be <rong is ra-icall* -e$ocra&ic/ Bo*er 90 32lain+ =rofessor at ?niversit' of =aris 5B T9orbonneU. 0>ierar! ' and Erut *$ :hy :e are !ot !ietzscheans4. 2 se!ond+ no less serious error !onsists in suspe!ting t e 5dea of absolute Erut of all sorts of aut oritarian and liberti!ide effe!ts. 2 pragmatist and relativist !on!eption &ould be better suited to our tolerant and pluralist demo!rati! epo! . Consense. E at trut is+ properl' speaking+ in uman+ meaning t at it in no &ise depends on uman desire or &ill(an' more t an t e existen!e of oil under t e soil of 9audi 2rabia depends on t e desires it brings about(does not in and of itself ave an' dogmati! effe!ts+ quite t e !ontrar'. 5t is t is in umanit' & i! permits t e assertion t at an'one+ me+ 'ou+ all of us per aps are &rong+ be!ause &e ave not arrived at a trut t at does not depend on our means for getting to it. Erut is not an epistemologi!al !on!ept.

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The %er$+&a&ion is &he onl* <a* &o sol)e &he case an- sa)e ELS/ An* &heor* &ha& is so s&rong &ha& is can onl* a-)oca&e in-i)i-+al re>conce%&+aliBa&ion is -oo$e- &o fail/ F+&chinson LJork @ni)ersi&* La< SchoolI 52 32llan+ and =atri!k ;. Aona an+ also from @sgoode >all 8a& 9! ool of Xork ?niversit'+ Eoronto+ ;anuar'+ 3# 9tan. 8. 6ev. 1994. L' reassuring people t at t ings need not al&a's be as t e' no& are+ t e 789 movement !an inspire t e !onfiden!e ne!essar' to re/e!t prevailing arrangements. 2nd be!ause t e 789ers believe t at It e strengt to live &it t e sober trut &ill be!ome general Tonl' & enU t e !auses of untrut are removed+I Itras ingI is vie&ed as a valid form of legal s! olars ip. 5ndeed+ to some of t e 7riti!al s! olars+ it is t e Imost valid formI: E at tras ing ma' reveal trut seems signifi!ant if oneKs mission as a s! olar is to tell t e trut . 5f telling t e trut requires one to engage in delegitimation+ t en t at is & at one oug t to be doing . . . E e point of delegitimation is to expose possibilities more trul' expressing realit'+ possibilities of fas ioning a future t at mig t at least partiall' realize a substantive notion of /usti!e instead of t e abstra!t+ rig ts'+ traditional+ bourgeois notions of /usti!e t at generate so mu! of t e !ontradi!tor' s! olars ip. @ne must start b' kno&ing & at is going on+ b' freeing oneself from t e m'stified delusions embedded in our !ons!iousness b' t e liberal legal &orld vie&. 5 am not defending a form of s! olars ip t at simpl' offers anot er affirmative presentationF rat er+ 5 am advo!ating negative+ 7riti!al a!tivit' as t e onl' pat t at mig t lead to a liberated future. TEU e task of a s! olar is t us to liberate people from t eir abstra!tions+ to redu!e abstra!tions to !on!rete istori!al settings+ and+ b' so doing+ to expose as ideolog' & at appears to be positive fa!t or et i!al norm. . . . @ne must step outside t e liberal paradigm+ into a realm & ere trut ma' be experiential+ & ere kno&ledge resides in &orld vie&s t at are t emselves situated in istor'+ & ere po&er and ideas do not exist separatel'. n12% H ile su! 7riti!al a!tivit' ma' be indispensable+ it !an onl' be preparator'. Aoreover+ tras ing ma' itself prove to be an obsta!le to t e mapping out of an' future vision of so!iet'. E e ob/e!t of tras ing is to expose and s&eep a&a' t e prevailing stru!tures of t oug t t at persuade people t at present so!ial arrangements are ne!essar' and natural+ rat er t an arbitrar' and !ontingent. Xet+ in line &it t is goal+ 789ers must be !areful to avoid foisting t eir o&n stru!ture of t oug t on ot ersF to do so &ould open t emselves to t e same ! arges t e' so vigorousl' level at ot ers. 2n' attempt to offer its o&n vision of a re!onstituted so!iet' &ould merel' result in t e repla!ement of one form of !ons!iousness &it anot erF Iliberal !ons!iousnessI &ould simpl' be ex! anged for I7riti!al !ons!iousness.I E e 789 vision &ould be equall' illegitimate and &ould amount to /ust anot er form of domination. E e impli!ation of t is insig t for t e 7riti!al s! olars seems to be t at ea! individual must be left to a!t alone+ free from t e !onstraints of an' in ibiting !ons!iousness. ?nder su! a p ilosop ' of istor'+ t e individual is bot vi!tim and liberator. E e transformation of so!iet' must be effe!ted b' spontaneous individual a!tion. 5t !annot be or! estrated in tune &it an' s!ore+ no matter o& elaborate or simple. 2s a t eor' for politi!al a!tion+ t erefore+ 7riti!al t eor' alone is impotent. E e most it !an do is put t e individual in t e rig t frame of mind to a! ieve is or er o&n eman!ipation.

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The %er$+&a&ion is %ossible' &o&all* %+ris& rea- of ELS is sill*,*o+ can bo&h a-)oca&e on behalf of refor$s &o ana-$i& &ha& &hose refor$s are li$i&e-/ Kel$an. L=rofessor of La<. S&anfor-I 52 3Aark+ 3# 9tan. 8. 6ev. 293+ 765E5728 8ND28 9E?G5N9 9XA=@95?A: Eras ing4. ;ust as t e Duild la&'er ma' frequentl' a!t in a role t at makes it ard to distinguis er &ork from t at of a pra!titioner &it ver' different politi!al beliefs+ so t ere &ill be times & en a 789 s! olarKs &ork is fundamentall' indistinguis able from t at of !olleagues &it ver' different agendas. E is !onfusion is most likel' & en t e 789 a!ademi! addresses t e IliveI poli!' issues of t e da'. @f !ourse+ &e !an also adopt roles in & i! our &ork looks more Idifferent+I but t is &ork is no less !onstru!tive or !on!rete. 2t times+ for instan!e+ &e &ill+ in a more radi!al mode+ advo!ate parti!ular legal reforms+ oping bot to better t e s ort(term position of t e reformKs benefi!iaries and to expose t e limits of legal reform. E is se!ond aim+ politi!al edu!ation+ is perfe!tl' !on!rete and !onstru!tive+ even t oug it is far less relevant to t ose onl' interested in & et er t e reform oug t to be ena!ted to elp t e benefi!iaries. 2t ot er times+ in our role as purel' des!riptive a!ademi!s+ oping to explain t e legal !ulture &e all live in+ &e ma' simpl' de!onstru!t arguments in a &a' t at is of no obvious immediate elp & atsoever to t ose tr'ing to pi!k and ! oose parti!ular institutions t e' mig t find most desirable+ ex!ept insofar as t e' are freed to evaluate t eir ! oi!es differentl' & en t eir !urrent !ultural blinders are labeled+ exposed+ and+ per aps as a result+ partl' lifted. Hit t e preliminar' points about role restri!tion in mind+ letKs take a qui!k surve' of 789 &ork done in various roles. n13 789 a!ademi!s often address t e t'pi!al legal(politi!al !ontroversies bet&een liberals and !onservatives+ generall'+ t oug not al&a's+ tending to argue for relativel' traditional liberal positions+ usuall' in reasonabl' traditional &a's. <or instan!e+ a!ademi!s & o ave asso!iated t emselves &it t e 789 ave used traditional neo!lassi!al e!onomi! anal'sis to question t e a priori !onservative assumption t at ousing !ode enfor!ement or !ompulsor' 3non&aivable4 &arranties &ill eit er be of no momment to or detrimental to t eir purported benefi!iariesF n14 offered arguments against repla!ing t e in!ome tax &it an almost inevitabl' less redistributive !onsumption taxF n1" been &ar' of efforts to trun!ate t e in!ome tax base in &a's t at &ould !ontravene T*300U progressivit'F n1# defended affirmative a!tion programsF n1$ urged t e adoption of universalized !lini!al legal edu!ation programs so as to empo&er students to avoid traditional la& firm /obs and to raise t e issue of t e validit' of t e model of t e la&'er as advo!ate(as(agent for a presumed(to(be selfis &illF n1% argued against t e LarKs attempts to solidif' an un&arranted monopol' t roug unaut orized pra!ti!e prose!utionsF n19 and pressed for state reforms of &ork rules and ! ild !are programs t at &ould better permit &orking mot ers to maintain t eir !areers. 2s Ipoli!' anal'stsI &it a !on!ern for redefining t e proper s!ope of IliveI legal and politi!al issues+ 789 people ave been able to !onne!t inevitabl' partial legal reform efforts &it more radi!al !ons!iousness(raising programs. E us+ some of our proposals ave bot met s ort( term meliorist goals and expanded our understanding t at t e meliorist programs are limited (( t at t ere are problems t at t e legal remedies &ill not address. =er aps most notable among t ese efforts as been t e &ork of feminist la&'ers)a!ademi!s in developing legal t eories of sexual arassment+ & i! &ere designed not onl' to reform pra!ti!e so as to enable &omen to use state po&er to squel! one of t e most extreme forms of exploitation 3quid pro quo sex(for( advan!ement4 but also to trigger !olle!tive exploration into t e more general issue of sexual ob/e!tifi!ation as t e form of t e expropriation of female sexualit'.

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The %er$+&a&ion is &he bes& <a* &o access ELS. &he <a* %eo%le crea&e a be&&er %oli&ical co$$+ni&* is no& H+s& &o &hink abo+& i& b+& &o ac& on i&/ S%arer. LLa< =rofessor. @ni)ersi&* of =enns*l)aniaI 52 3Nd+ 3# 9tan. 8. 6ev. "09+ ;anuar'4. <rom t is ba!kground+ Dordon tra!es an emerging IinterpretativeI 7riti!al legal t eor' t at emp asizes t e role of legal do!trine in Ibelief(s'stems t at people ave externalized and allo&ed to rule t eir lives.I n121 5t is Ibelief s'stemsI t at !ount+ even t oug Iman' !onstraints on uman so!ial a!tivit'+I su! as finite resour!es+ do exist. Diven t ese belief s'stems+ not even t e Iorganization of t e &orking !lass or !apture of t e state apparatus &ill automati!all'I produ!e !onditions & i! lead to It e utopian possibilities of so!ial life.I >e t en !on!ludes: @f !ourse+ t is does not mean t at people s ould stop tr'ing to organize t e &orking !lass or to influen!e t e exer!ise of state po&erF it means onl' t at t e' ave to do so pragmati!all' and experimentall'+ &it full kno&ledge t at t ere are no deeper logi!s of istori!al ne!essit'. . . . Xet+ if t e real enem' is us (( all of us+ t e stru!tures &e !arr' around in our eads+ t e limits on our imagination (( & ere !an &e even beginR E ings seem to ! ange in istor' & en people break out of t eir a!!ustomed &a's of responding to domination+ b' a!ting as if t e !onstraints on t eir improving t eir lives &ere not real and t at t e' !ould ! ange t ingsF and sometimes t e' !an+ t oug not al&a's in t e &a' t e' ad oped or intendedF but t e' never kne& t e' !ould ! ange t em at all until t e' tried. DordonKs !on!lusion is profound. Lut it !ontradi!ts t e vie& t at a negative atta!k on liberal legal do!trine is t e ke' pat to a liberated future. =eople break out of t eir a!!ustomed &a's of responding to domination b' a!ting as if t e' !ould ! ange t ings. I2!ting as if t e' !ould ! ange t ingsI does not mean !onfining s! olarl' endeavor to negative do!trinal anal'sis+ even t oug negative do!trinal anal'sis ma' be one elpful step to&ards a!ting. 2!ting means struggling for and living a different &a'+ even if onl' Iexperimentall'+I and t is requires praxis+ t eor' & i! guides and is in turn influen!ed b' a!tion. 7ontinues... 5 agree &it Qarl Qlare & en e &rites: I5 regard as ina!!urate t e vie& t at . . . it is possible to des!ribe t e &orking !lass as in an' sense satisfied &it !urrent standards of living in eit er t e material or !ultural aspe!ts.I n12$ Lut if t is is so+ t en it s ould be possible to struggle no& over t e !onditions & i! Dabel des!ribes. Cevert eless+ neit er DabelKs &ork nor t at of most ot er 7riti!al legal t eorists provides t eor' t at !an aid su! struggle. 5ndeed+ it does not even re!ognize t e need for ne& dire!tions in s! olars ip & i! T*"#0U &ould aid su! struggle. 5n t e !ourse of !onstant efforts at delegitimation+ some 7riti!al legal t eorists begin to t ink and talk about It e la&I as if it &ere no more t an litigation+ do!trines+ and !ase out!omes (( pre!isel' t e narro& vie& of most !onventional legal t eorists. 7riti!al t eorists rarel' !on!eive of legal strategies to emplo' outside t e !ourtroom for t e purpose of building so!ial movement. 9ome o&+ t e affirmative relations ip of la& to so!ial movement be!omes lost. n12%

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The %er$ can sol)e' Liberal legal &ho+gh& %ro)i-es s%ace for ELS/ Al&$an. L=rofessor of =hiloso%h*Q 7eorgia S&a&e @ni)ersi&*I 90 32ndre&+ Critical Legal Studies: A Liberal Criti)ue+ page %4 5n addition+ it &ould be a distortion of liberal t eor' to suggest t at it as no pla!e for nonlegal modes of so!ial regulation+ su! as mediation. 8iberals !an and do a!kno&ledge t e value of su! nonlegal me! anisms in !ertain so!ial !ontexts and !an !onsis t at t e liberal vie& requires us to re!ognize t at su! pro!edures and rules ave a !entral role to pla' in resolving fairl' and effe!tivel' t e !onfli!ts t at arise in a so!iet' ! ara!terized b' moral+ religious+ and politi!al pluralism. E us+ t e liberal endorsement of legalism does not ne!essaril' involve a !ommitment to legalism in t e sense t at ;udit 9 ldar defines t e term: 0t e et i!al attitude t at olds moral !ondu!t to be a matter of rule follo&ing+ and moral relations ips to !onsist of duties and rig ts determined b' rules.1 9 ldar+ 8egalism 37ambridge: >arvard ?niversit' =ress+ 19%#4+ p. 1. 9 l!lar understands full &eli t at a !ommitment to t e liberal rule of la& does not entail an a!!eptan!e of legalism in er sense of t e term. 9ee 8egalism+ pp. xi(xli. 2nd t ose & o re/e!t t e rule of la& !an argue in t e politi!al arena for extending t e role of su! informal me! anisms. @f !ourse+ a liberal state !ould not allo& t e antinomians to eradi!ate legal institutionsF in t at sense+ one mig t sa' t at t e liberal rule of la& is not neutral. Lut t e kind of politi!al neutralit' & i! t e liberal defends does not aim to guarantee t at an' normative vie& as an opportunit' to remake so!iet' & oll' in its vision. 5t does guarantee an opportunit' to negotiate and !ompromise &it in a frame&ork of individual rig ts+ and t ere is no reason & ' t ose & o defend non( legal modes of so!ial regulation !annot seize t e opportunit' under a liberal regime to !arve out a signifi!ant role for nonlegal modes of so!ial regulation &it in t e liberal state. E e liberal ver sion of politi!al neutralit' demands t at antinomians ave su! an opportunit'+ but t ere is not ing remotel' in!onsistent in liberal t oug t in making t at demand or pro ibiting antilegalism from going so far as to destro' all legal institutions.

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The affir$a&i)e is be&&er &han &he al&erna&i)e beca+se i& &akes in&o acco+n& &he ine)i&abili&* of a share- social reali&* an- &he nee- for refor$/ F+&chinson LJork @ni)ersi&* La< SchoolI 52 32llan+ and =atri!k ;. Aona an+ also from @sgoode >all 8a& 9! ool of Xork ?niversit'+ Eoronto+ ;anuar'+ 3# 9tan. 8. 6ev. 1994. <urt ermore+ people in an ?ngerian or Qennedian &orld+ !ompletel' purged of t e naturalisti! impulse+ &ould re!ognize an' I/ustI so!ial order as simpl' t e !ontingent intera!tion of for!e and !ir!umstan!e. E us+ unlike t e tragi! liberal or Aarxist+ t e' &ould appre!iate t e transformabilit' of so!iet'. E e' T789ersU &ould re!ognize t at an' attempt to establis stable so!ial relations &as onl' transitor'F individuals &ould onl' !ease struggling if t e' &ere in a relativel' po&erful position or if t e' needed time to reload. 9o!ial life &ould be an unmitigated Cietz! ean battle in & i! ever'one struggled to make is &ill dominant and to avoid being subordinated to t e &ill of ot ers. @ne !an onl' !on!lude+ t erefore+ t at if t e 7riti!al s! olars are serious about pus ing t e notion of so!ial !ontingen!' to its outermost limits+ an' form of so!ial order must be identified and !ondemned as t e produ!t of interrupted fig ting. Nven ?ngerKs ingenious s! eme ensures t at so!ial !ontingen!' is I!abinKd+ !ribbKd+ !onfinKd+ bound in.I E us+ an' 789 attempt to des!ribe so!iet' as it !on!retel' !ould be !omes up against severe ideologi!al diffi!ulties. E e' aspire to liberate man from an' stru!ture of dominating I!ons!iousnessI so as to enable im to pursue and fulfill is essential nature. E is seems to suggest t at man !an fun!tion in t e &orld &it out an' ideolog' or !ons!iousness. E is assumption is questionable. n1"9 5t !an be plausibl' argued t at ideolog' is ne!essar' bot for t e existen!e of uman so!iet' and for t e !ons!ious fun!tioning of individuals.

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ELS cri&iD+e fails beca+se i& bo&h clai$s &ha& i-eolog* is inesca%able an- &ha& &he* &ranscen- i-eolog*/ F+&chinson LJork @ni)ersi&* La< SchoolI 52 32llan+ and =atri!k ;. Aona an+ also from @sgoode >all 8a& 9! ool of Xork ?niversit'+ Eoronto+ ;anuar'+ 3# 9tan. 8. 6ev. 1994. Aoreover+ t e 789ersK aspiration is tantamount to a pro!lamation of t e end of ideolog'. n1#0 E is+ of !ourse+ is itself an ideologi!al stan!e and makes 7riti!al legal s! olars ip an ideolog'F Ian' t'pe of politi!al dis!ourse . . . & i! anti!ipates an end to ideolog' !arries t ereb' t e potentialit' of be!oming itself ideologi!al.I n1#1 2nd be!ause 789 insists t at all ideologies are so!iall' !ontingent+ It e end of ideolog'I is simpl' anot er illegitimate form of !ons!iousness rat er t an a trut about t e uman !ondition. 2lso+ in being able to identif' and label t e prevailing stru!tures of legal and politi!al t oug t as Ifalse !ons!iousness+I t e' are impli!itl' !laiming t at t e' are able to trans!end t e parti!ular so!ial situation. 5n effe!t+ t e' !laim to ave a!!ess to a nonso!ietall' !onditioned and t erefore absolute trut . Xet t eir & ole so!ial t eor' seems to be premised on t e vie& t at trut is so!iall' relative. E is undermines t e entire 7riti!al enterprise+ not /ust its !onstru!tive dimension. TheoriBing &he lack of &r+&h is H+s& as $+ch of a &r+&h clai$ as &he 0AE' ELS s&r+c&+rall* fails beca+se i&s &heor* is &oo s&rong &o allo< for al&erna&i)e %oli&ical s%ace/ F+&chinson LJork @ni)ersi&* La< SchoolI 52 32llan+ and =atri!k ;. Aona an+ also from @sgoode >all 8a& 9! ool of Xork ?niversit'+ Eoronto+ ;anuar'+ 3# 9tan. 8. 6ev. 1994. Xet if t e 789ers re/e!ted t is Itrans!endental stan!e+I t e' &ould ave to !on!ede t at 7riti!al t oug t &as itself simpl' anot er form of ideolog'. Co doubt+ t e 7riti!al s! olars &ould argue t at t is Iideolog'I &as some o& truer t an t e existing Ifalse !ons!iousness.I Xet t is move &ould require t em to appeal ta!itl' to some so!ietall' external mete&and of Itrue !ons!iousness.I E e a!!eptan!e of an' su! external standard seems pre!luded b' t e ver' premises of t eir o&n so!ial t eor'. E e 7riti!al s! olars argue t at all so!ial &orlds are never natural+ but rat er t e !ontingent result of interrupted fig ting. 2n' proposal for a future so!iet' &ould onl' be possible if &e &ere prepared to den' or to edge on t e premise of !ontingen!'. 5t &ould require t e 7riti!al s! olars to !laim t at t eir proposed so!iet' &as not merel' !ontained fig ting+ but &as in fa!t a vision endo&ed &it enduring normative value. 2!!ordingl'+ t e 7riti!al s! olars !annot offer a vision of a re!onstituted so!iet' & ile remaining fait ful to t eir o&n basi! t eoreti!al assumptions. 5f t e' old t at uman existen!e is possible+ and indeed !an attain its finest fulfillment+ &it out an ideolog'+ t e' must !on!ede t at so!ial transformation is a ver' personal+ instin!tive+ and individual a!t. @t er&ise+ in planning su! transformative a!tivit'+ t e' &ould simpl' be ex! anging one form of !ons!iousness for anot er. Xet if t e' old t at uman existen!e requires some ideolog'+ t e' must !on!ede t at t eirs is merel' one more !ons!iousness !ompeting in t e un&innable !ontest over & i! is t e best ideolog' for man.

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n-e&er$inac* clai$s $ake social change nearl* i$%ossible,e)en if ELS frees +s fro$ belie)ing in a %erfec& la<. i& s&ill -oes no&hing &o hel% &he o%%resse-/ Sol+$. LLa< =rofessor a& Lo*olaI 57 38a&ren!e L.+ ?niversit' of 7 i!ago 8a& 6evie&+ 0@n t e 5ndetermina!' 7risis: 7ritiquing 7riti!al Gogma+1 9pring+ "4 ?. 7 i. 8. 6ev. 4#24. <ar from enabling a progressive transformation of legal pra!ti!e+ t e indetermina!' t esis+ at least t e strong version+ disempo&ers t e !ritique of legal ideolog' t at !riti!al s! olars ope &ill fa!ilitate eman!ipator' so!ial ! ange. 9een in broad terms+ t eir !ritique as t&o parts. <irst+ t e m'stifi!ation t esis &ill unveil t e stru!tures of domination masked b' legal do!trine. 9e!ond+ t e indetermina!' t esis &ill explain o& domination !ir!umvents t e apparent autonom' of t e la& and frees legal a!tors from t e apparent !onstraints imposed b' t e existing rules. E us+ m'stifi!ation and indetermina!' are t e intelle!tual foundations bot for a program of external !ritique t at &ill reveal t e la& to t e la'man for & at it is+ and for an internal !ritique t roug & i! progressive legal a!tors &ill freel' use legal pra!ti!e to a! ieve eman!ipator' ends. A' !ontention is t at t e strong indetermina!' t esis under!uts+ rat er t an advan!es+ t e pro/e!ts of bot internal and external !ritique. Le!ause t e strong indetermina!' t esis !alls for disengagement from t e form and !onventions of dis!ourse t at makes legal pra!ti!e possible+ t e t esis blunts an internal !ritique of t e la&. 9tanle' 7avell puts t e point as follo&s: E e internal t'rann' of !onvention is t at onl' a slave of it !an kno& o& it ma' be ! anged for t e better+ or kno& & ' it s ould be eradi!ated. @nl' masters of a game+ perfe!t slaves to t at pro/e!t+ are in a position to establis !onventions & i! better serve its essen!e. E is is & ' deep revolutionar' ! anges !an result from attempts to !onserve a pro/e!t+ to take it ba!k to its idea+ keep it in tou! &it its istor'. Eo demand t at t e la& be fulfilled+ ever' /ot and tittle+ &ill destro' t e la& as it stands+ if it as moved too far from its origins. @nl' a priest !ould ave !onfronted is set of pra!ti!es &it its origins so deepl' as to set t e terms of 6eformation. 7avellKs idea !an be put into a legal !ontext b' examining t e !riti!al legal t eor' of 6oberto ?nger. ?nger identifies Ideviationalist do!trineI as t e positive alternative for legal s! olars ip. E e pro/e!t of deviationalist do!trine must maintain It e minimal ! ara!teristi!s of do!trineI t at is It e &illingness to take t e extant T*499U aut oritative materials as starting points.I n10# 8ike t e 6eformation+ ?ngerKs program a!kno&ledges t e stru!ture from & i! it opes to deviate. E e indetermina!' t esis+ o&ever+ under!uts t e pro/e!t of deviationalist do!trine at its starting point. 5f t ere is a measure of determina!' in t e la&+ and legal dis!ourse and reasoning are more t an mere apologies for domination+ t en ?ngerKs deviationalist do!trine begins &it a fla&ed+ but at least fun!tional+ language &it & i! to embark on t e !reation of a more umane legal order. Lut if t e la& is indeterminate+ and legal reasoning a s am+ t en t e' !annot serve as t e ra& material for !onstru!ting a bod' of do!trine &it eman!ipator' potential (( deviationalist do!trine itself &ould be in!apable of effe!ting real ! ange. 5nstead+ t e so!ial order &ould remain governed b' t e underl'ing ideolog' or politi!al and e!onomi! for!es (( and if t e for!es &ere to ! ange+ t en t e do!trine &ould not need to do so. ?nder t e strong indetermina!' t esis+ legal do!trine be!omes Ia & eel t at !an be turned t oug not ing else moves
&it it+I and so it Iis not part of t e me! anism.I 2not er argument made in favor of t e liberating potential of t e indetermina!' t esis is t at it frees legal a!tors from t e !onstraint of legal rules. @ne interpretation of t is !on!ept of liberation !losel' resembles 9artreKs existentialist !on!eption of uman freedom: n10% legal a!tors must be made to realize t at t e' are radi!all' free to make de!isions un!onstrained b' legal do!trine. E us 9inger argues t at a!!eptan!e of t e indetermina!' t esis &ill Iallo& us !ons!iousl' to assume responsibilit' for & at &e do.I n109 9imilarl'+ t e de!onstru!tionist version of t e indetermina!' t esis ma' be liberating in t e sense of enabling & at Gerrida !alls Ifree pla'.I n110 8egal a!tors realize t at t e' (( and ever'one else (( al&a's ave been free to do as t e' please &it out bot ering to !onstru!t interpretations of legal do!trine to /ustif' t eir a!tions. E is is not t e pla!e for extended !onsideration of t is !on!eption of freedom. 5 do &is + o&ever+ to make an

: t e sort of freedom broug t about b' a!!eptan!e of t e strong indetermina!' t esis disasso!iates internal !ritique from programmati! so!ial ! ange. E is radi!al sort of freedom mig t enable individual legal ad/udi!ators+ pra!titioners+ and s! olars to undergo I!onversions+I liberating t em from t e !onstraints of do!trine. Lut t e nature of su! a liberation is ambiguous. 5t is ardl' !lear t at liberating t ose & o &ield legal po&er from t e ImistakenI belief t at legal do!trine !onstrains t eir a!tions &ill ave a progressive effe!t.
observation T*"00U about its impli!ations

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n-e&er$inac* arg+$en&s +n-erc+& &he %ossibili&* of &he al&erna&i)e an- &heir i$%ac&s &o &he sa$e -egree &ha& i& i$%ac&s &he affir$a&i)e,i& o+gh& &o be &rea&e- as an FJ / Sol+$. LLa< =rofessor a& Lo*olaI 57 38a&ren!e L.+ ?niversit' of 7 i!ago 8a& 6evie&+ 0@n t e 5ndetermina!' 7risis: 7ritiquing 7riti!al Gogma+1 9pring+ "4 ?. 7 i. 8. 6ev. 4#24. E is dis!ussion leads us to t e impli!ations of indetermina!' for t e ot er side of t e !riti!al agenda for reform: external !ritique of t e la&. 7riti!al s! olars often rel' on t e argument t at t e indetermina!' t esis delegitimizes t e legal pro!ess. n11# Eo t e extent t at legal do!trine !onstitutes a r etori! t at legitimizes relations of domination+ t e indetermina!' t esis under!uts t e effe!tiveness of t e legitimation. Lut t e indetermina!' t esis also under!uts t e m'stifi!ation t esis. <or example+ t e !laim t at legal dis!ourse reifies so!ial relations ips loses mu! of its !riti!al bite & en !onsidered in tandem &it t e indetermina!' t esis. ;ames Lo'le points out t is !ontradi!tion: I5f t e frozen metap ors Tof legal dis!ourseU trul' do !onstrain our understanding of texts or our vision of politi!al possibilities+ o& !an do!trine be per!eived as indeterminateRI n11$ 5f t e indetermina!' t esis is true+ t en legal reifi!ation does not produ!e t e pra!ti!al ill of bad out!omes in parti!ular !ases. E us+ & ile Dar' =eller takes great pains to make it !lear t at t e reifi!ation of t e publi! and private sp eres+ & i! e argues pervaded legal dis!ourse in t e 8o! ner era+ did not a!tuall' determine t e result in an' of t e !ases t at stru!k do&n reformist legislation impinging on t e libert' of !ontra!t+ n11% it is not !lear & at effe!t+ if an'+ =eller believes t e p enomenon e des!ribes did ave. 5f t e m'stifi!ation t esis &ere &eakened so as to be !ompatible &it t e indetermina!' t esis+ its !riti!al bite &ould also be &eakened. E e evil of m'stifi!ation &ould produ!e onl' false !ons!iousness+ not bad de!isions. 5n response+ it !ould be argued t at t e false !ons!iousness t at results from legal m'stifi!ation prevents t e mobilization of ! ange from outside t e /udi!ial s'stem. Lut t is &ill be ard to prove. 2s ;a' <einman as observed+ I=eople must be a&are of ideolog' if it is to serve as an effe!tive legitimation devi!e. E e penetration of !ontra!t la& do!trines into so!iet' is not greatF first('ear la& studentsK !ommon ignoran!e of its prin!iples is annual eviden!e of t is.I n119 5ndeed+ one of t e fe& &a's t at la' a!tors do learn about t e legal s'stem is t roug de!isions in parti!ular !ases. 5f t ese de!isions fail to !onve' t e ideologi!al message of legal dis!ourse+ t en legal ideolog' is not likel' to be transmitted to t e !ulture at large. 2rguments !an be made about t e effe!t of legal do!trine on elite groups+ but if t e indetermina!' t esis is true+ t e ill effe!ts of legal ideolog' on so!iet' as a & ole &ould appear to be quite modest.

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T+rn' -e>legi&i$a&ing &he liberal s&a&e is H+s& as likel* &o res+l& in a ne<. $ore o%%ressi)e regi$e,o+r sol)enc* $a* be so$e<ha& in-e&er$ina&e b+& i& is $ore concre&e &han a &o&all* +nkno<n al&erna&i)e/ Sol+$. LLa< =rofessor a& Lo*olaI 57 38a&ren!e L.+ ?niversit' of 7 i!ago 8a& 6evie&+ 0@n t e 5ndetermina!' 7risis: 7ritiquing 7riti!al Gogma+1 9pring+ "4 ?. 7 i. 8. 6ev. 4#24. 2ll t is is not to sa' t at t e idea of indetermina!' is unimportant. 7riti!al s! olars+ like t ose & o pre!eded t em (( t e realists+ sop isti!ated positivists su! as >.8.2. >art+ and even rig ts t eorists su! as G&orkin (( are rig t to identif' signifi!ant zones of underdetermination and !ontingen!' in legal do!trine. E is modest version of t e t esis !an be pressed onestl' and produ!tivel' and+ to t e extent t e polit' is una&are of t is state of affairs+ per aps it s ould be pressed. 2s a matter of politi!al strateg'+ t e !laim t at a large number of !ases presented to /udges are underdetermined ma' ave a delegitimizing effe!t. 5ndeed+ one strateg' of t e politi!al rig t in t e ?nited 9tates as been to !all attention to t e politi!al nature of de!isions made b' t e Harren 7ourt and t e 7alifornia 9upreme 7ourt in order to delegitimize t e !ourts and t ereb' under!ut liberal reforms. =er aps !riti!al s! olars are rig t to /oin t e rea!tionaries in t is regard. Lut delegitimizing t e !ourts s ould not !arelessl' be equated &it delegitimizing t e liberal state. 5ndeed+ it is at least possible t at quite t e opposite is true: delegitimizing t e /udi!iar' mig t ave t e effe!t of in!reasing t e legitima!' of ot er institutions of t e liberal state+ su! as bureau!ra!ies and legislatures+ t at ma' possess a greater potential t an !ourts to be!ome instruments of repression. Hit out a notion of t e possibilit' of ! ange+ no t eor' of la& !an !laim to be trul' !riti!al. 2s t e !riti!al s! olar 2lan <reeman put it+ IE e point of delegitimation is to expose possibilities more trul' expressing realit'+ possibilities of fas ioning a future t at mig t at least partiall' realize a substantive notion of /usti!e.I n121 E e indetermina!' t esis does not ave a signifi!ant role to pla' in t at enterprise. 7riti!al s! olars s ould put a&a' t e dogma of indetermina!'+ and tr' t eir ands at tasks more diffi!ult t an de!onstru!tion. He must imagine a progressive and umane so!ial order+ and &e must imagine a &a' to get t ere from ere.

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The al&erna&i)e fails' @nger9s i-ea of :s&r+c&+re of no>s&r+c&+re; is H+s& as )+lnerable &o ELS cri&icis$ as an* o&her liberal &heor*/ F+&chinson LJork @ni)ersi&* La< SchoolI 52 32llan+ and =atri!k ;. Aona an+ also from @sgoode >all 8a& 9! ool of Xork ?niversit'+ Eoronto+ ;anuar'+ 3# 9tan. 8. 6ev. 1994. 5n sum+ ?ngerKs Istru!ture of no(stru!tureI is an institutional mode of so!ial life designed to prote!t freedom better+ & ile guarding against tenden!ies to naturalize an arbitrar' vision of so!iet'. Xet+ despite t e grand st'le and s&eep of ?ngerKs t eor'+ it appears to suffer from a !entral and potentiall' fatal fla&. 2ll attempts at !onstru!tive t eor' seek to des!ribe t e &orld as it !ould and oug t to be. 7onsequentl'+ t e ma/or urdle for an' serious t eorist is to provide some normative /ustifi!ation for is or er vision. Xet+ t e ver' premises underl'ing 7riti!al legal t oug appear to pre!lude su! a /ustifi!ation: Eo sustain an' definite vision of future so!iet'+ t e 7riti!al s! olars must renege on t eir basi! !ommitment to so!ial !ontingen!' and istori!al relativit'. 789 is ultimatel' oisted on its o&n 7riti!al petard. E e 7riti!al s! olars pro!eed from an extremel' sub/e!tive epistemolog'. E e' re/e!t !lassi!al Aarxism and modern liberalism for equivo!ating & en !onfronted &it t e istori!al !ontingen!' of all so!ial &orlds. 5ndeed+ t e' build t eir & ole intelle!tual program on t is Inonnaturalisti!I premise: 2ll so!ieties are vie&ed as not ing more t an t e produ!t of interrupted fig ting. Xet+ ?ngerKs IsuperliberalismI falls into t e ver' trap t at e !laims as !aptured liberals and marxists. >is Istru!ture of no( stru!tureI !abins t e so!ial fig ting it is intended to fa!ilitate. 5t is as illegitimate and ob/e!tionable as an' ot er so!ial order. The al&erna&i)e fails' @nger9s &heor* is as fla<e- as &he affir$a&i)e refor$,&he basic &r+&hs &ha& he -escribes are H+s& as )+lnerable &o an in-e&er$inac* cri&iD+e as &he affir$a&i)e/ F+&chinson LJork @ni)ersi&* La< SchoolI 52 32llan+ and =atri!k ;. Aona an+ also from @sgoode >all 8a& 9! ool of Xork ?niversit'+ Eoronto+ ;anuar'+ 3# 9tan. 8. 6ev. 1994. ?ngerKs ob/e!tive is to a! ieve a so!iet' in & i! individuals are free and independent+ but also ave guaranteed a!!ess to t e means ne!essar' to develop t eir unique personal potentialities. n1"" 7ertain institutional parap ernalia are ne!essar' to a! ieve t at ideal. E e state+ t e market+ and t e s'stem of rig ts are pla!ed be'ond t e rea! of transformative politi!sF t e' !annot be!ome an ob/e!t of so!ial fig ting. <or instan!e+ ?ngerKs destabilization rig ts !ould not be relied upon to demand t e dismantling of t e stru!ture of nostru!ture. E us+ a rut less !ommitment to t e nonnaturalisti! premise renders ?ngerKs re!onstituted so!iet' a false ood and an illusionF it is onl' anot er in an endless series of tru!es t at masquerades as a natural order of rig t. ?ngerKs vision !ould be dismissed as /ust anot er ideolog' !on!o!ted b' t e &eak to fetter t e strong+ t ereb' depriving t em of t e ! an!e to fulfill t eir o&n self ood. @n t is vie&+ ?ngerKs s! eme is simpl' anot er variation on t e natural la& t eme: >e presents an alleged trut about uman personalit' and pro!eeds to use t at trut to /ustif' a parti!ular so!ial order.

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7able9s al&erna&i)e of +n>aliena&e- rela&e-ness is &oo abs&rac&,+nless &he* can -escribe <ha& &he al&erna&i)e <o+llook like in s%ecific cases. i& <ill be o)er<hel$e- b* &heir o<n cri&iD+e of in-e&er$inac*/ Kel$an. L=rofessor of La<. S&anfor-I 52 3Aark+ 3# 9tan. 8. 6ev. 293+ 765E5728 8ND28 9E?G5N9 9XA=@95?A: Eras ing4. E e !ontent of =eter DabelKs ideal is so elusive as to be nondis!ernible. >e sa's t ings like ITtU e pro/e!t is to realize t e unalienated relatedness t at is immanent &it in our alienated situation.I Lut 5 see too fe& !on!rete referen!es to lived experien!e in t is Ispe!ifi!ationI to kno& if e is a!tuall' des!ribing a blissful state(of(mind or a small ouse old applian!e. Eo t e extent t at one !an dis!ern !ontent+ t e perils of tautolog' loom: 5f & at &e seek is simpl' I uman fulfillment+I t e group !an qui!kl' ad/ourn+ bot unanimous and grogg'. <urt ermore+ =eterKs te! nique seems almost !ruell' ironi!+ given t at is primar' !ritique of ImainstreamI /udi!ial t oug t is t at it la!ks !on!reteness (( t at b' !on!eiving of t e parties to a dispute as idealized role(pla'ers in a Ifa!t situationI 3for instan!e+ Ibu'ersI and IsellersI in a brea! of !ontra!t suit assumed to be a!ting in a!!ord &it idealized+ so!ial expe!tations of su! a!tors4+ it elevates t eir abstra!t ! ara!teristi!s. n11$ Lut =eterKs IrealI ! ara!ters+ lurking be ind t e /uridi!al abstra!tions+ feel at least equall' abstra!t and lifeless to me. A' mind goes utterl' blank & en 5 tr' to pi!ture =eterKs ! ara!ters glimpsing liberation b' &a' of unalienated relatedness. 7able9s al&erna&i)e of +n>aliena&e- rela&e-ness is &oo abs&rac&,+nless &he* can -escribe <ha& &he al&erna&i)e <o+llook like in s%ecific cases. i& <ill be o)er<hel$e- b* &heir o<n cri&iD+e of in-e&er$inac*/ Kel$an. L=rofessor of La<. S&anfor-I 52 3Aark+ 3# 9tan. 8. 6ev. 293+ 765E5728 8ND28 9E?G5N9 9XA=@95?A: Eras ing4. E e !ontent of =eter DabelKs ideal is so elusive as to be nondis!ernible. >e sa's t ings like ITtU e pro/e!t is to realize t e unalienated relatedness t at is immanent &it in our alienated situation.I Lut 5 see too fe& !on!rete referen!es to lived experien!e in t is Ispe!ifi!ationI to kno& if e is a!tuall' des!ribing a blissful state(of(mind or a small ouse old applian!e. Eo t e extent t at one !an dis!ern !ontent+ t e perils of tautolog' loom: 5f & at &e seek is simpl' I uman fulfillment+I t e group !an qui!kl' ad/ourn+ bot unanimous and grogg'. <urt ermore+ =eterKs te! nique seems almost !ruell' ironi!+ given t at is primar' !ritique of ImainstreamI /udi!ial t oug t is t at it la!ks !on!reteness (( t at b' !on!eiving of t e parties to a dispute as idealized role(pla'ers in a Ifa!t situationI 3for instan!e+ Ibu'ersI and IsellersI in a brea! of !ontra!t suit assumed to be a!ting in a!!ord &it idealized+ so!ial expe!tations of su! a!tors4+ it elevates t eir abstra!t ! ara!teristi!s. n11$ Lut =eterKs IrealI ! ara!ters+ lurking be ind t e /uridi!al abstra!tions+ feel at least equall' abstra!t and lifeless to me. A' mind goes utterl' blank & en 5 tr' to pi!ture =eterKs ! ara!ters glimpsing liberation b' &a' of unalienated relatedness.

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7able9s al&erna&i)e <ill fail,changes in&er>%ersonal rela&ions canno& &ransla&e in&o broa-er socie&al changes/ =olle&a. LEol+$bia =rofessorI 2000 3<ran!es!a =olletta+ 0E e 9tru!tural 7ontext of Covel 6ig ts 7laims: 9out ern 7ivil 6ig ts @rganizing+ 19#1(19##+1 2000+ 34 8a& : 9o!K' 6ev. 3#$+ 8exis4. 7ertainl' movements ave multiple and ! anging ob/e!tives. Lut one problem &it DabelKs ! ara!terization is t at it ignores tensions among t e various goals e identifies. <or example+ as t eorists from 6obert Ai! els 3T191"U 19#24 to Hini Lreines 319%94 ave re!ognized+ bids for Ipo&erI are often /eopardized b' & at is required of t e prefigurative impulse t at Dabel seems to ave in mind & en e refers to I!reating an experien!e of publi! !ommunit' t at !ould dissolve peopleKs belief in and obedien!e to t e 9tate itselfI 319%4:1"9#4. E e obsta!les bet&een a!tivistsK experien!e of !ommunit' and !ommuni!ating t at experien!e to a &ider publi! are like&ise una!kno&ledged. H ile man' a!tivists &ould speak fondl' of t e ! ara!ter of interpersonal relations among an intensel' !ommitted movement group+ fe& &ould privilege t ose relations over se!uring ! anges t at !an be en/o'ed outside movement gat erings and after t e movement is over. 2nd+ indeed+ resear! s o&s t at people are better able to sustain parti!ipator' and egalitarian relations among t emselves & en t e' believe t e movement is transitor' 36ot s! ild(H itt 19$94. E e survival of t e group+ DabelKs first goal+ ma' t us run !ounter to t e movementKs personall' transformative and prefigurative t rusts. DabelKs ambiguit' about t e aims of movements stems from t e set of oppositions on & i! is understanding bot of a rig ts(orientation and its alternative depend: on one side+ real+ aut enti!+ instrumental+ effe!tive+ determinedl' informal+ state(! allenging+ po&er( oriented politi!sF on t e ot er+ inaut enti!+ falsel' !ons!ious+ enervating+ formalisti!+ state(dependent+ rig ts(oriented !laimsmaking. 9u! oppositions a!!ount for DabelKs !onfusing use of t e term Ipo&erI 3meaning+ variousl'+ politi!al leverage+ t e exposure of ideologi!al distortions+ and t e experien!e of unalienated so!iabilit'4. E e' also a!!ount for is failure to explain o& experien!es of so!iabilit' are translated into relations outside t e movement+ o& ! anges in interpersonal relations lead to ! anges in peopleKs material !ir!umstan!es+ and & ' movements s ould endure on!e t e' ave se!ured t e rig ts vi!tories t at broug t t em into being. 7abel9s :a+&hen&ic; $o)e$en& <ill no& sol)e,i& <ill be ca+gh& +% in s+s&aining i&self an- no& achie)e social change/ =olle&a. LEol+$bia =rofessorI 2000 3<ran!es!a =olletta+ 0E e 9tru!tural 7ontext of Covel 6ig ts 7laims: 9out ern 7ivil 6ig ts @rganizing+ 19#1(19##+1 2000+ 34 8a& : 9o!K' 6ev. 3#$+ 8exis4. 5ndeed+ one mig t ask & et er so!ial movements fill t e same pla!e in DabelKs s! eme as rig ts do in t e legal s! eme t at e !riti!izes. H et er Ibefore t e la&I or in protest+ &e seem to experien!e a !onne!tedness &it ot ers t at is absent in our dail' lives+ but in neit er !ase is t ere an' indi!ation t at t at experien!e &ill extend be'ond t e immediate setting and its !urrent parti!ipants. @ur devotion to maintaining & at passes as sub/e!t ood+ & et er Irig ts(bearing !itizenI or Ia!tivist+I t reatens to over& elm t e aims t at dre& us to protest in t e first pla!e. 9ustaining t e movement+ /ust like battling in !ourtrooms for rig ts+ ma' be!ome t e movementKs purpose. 5t ma' substitute for+ rat er t an !ontribute to+ effe!ting so!ial ! ange. 5n ot er &ords+ Dabel !annot support is !laim t at experien!e in so!ial movements is Itrue+I Iaut enti!+I and transformative ot er t an b' positing it as t e opposite of a Ifalse+I Iinaut enti!+I and demobilizing rig ts orientation.

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n-e&er$inac* is ine)i&able b+& onl* in &he sense &ha& a goo- go)ern$en& nee-s so$e flexibili&* in &he a%%lica&ion of r+les/ Al&$an. L=rofessor of =hiloso%h*Q 7eorgia S&a&e @ni)ersi&*I 90 32ndre&+ Critical Legal Studies: A Liberal Criti)ue+ page %4 Aan' liberal t inkers+ o&ever+ ave taken a different approa! in responding to t e features of t e t&entiet (!entur' legal lands!ape. E e' ave been un&illing to /oin >a'elRs !ondemnation of !ontemporar' liberal demo!ra!ies and ave soug t to s o& o& su! states !an be said to !onform to t e prin!iple of t e rule of la&. @ne line of t inking !on!edes t e existen!e of signifi!ant 3t oug not extensive4 areas of publi! and private a!tion t at are not !losel' regulated b' t e rule of la&. Lut t is !on!ession is tempered b' t ree !ollateral points. <irst+ in an' s'stem of rules t ere &ill ne!essaril' be signifi!ant areas of indetermina!' be!ause of t e ver' nature of uman language and so!ial rules. 9e!ond+ t e area of legal indetermina!' in !ontemporar' liberal states is signifi!ant but perip eral in t e overall operation of t e la&. E ird+ some signifi!ant degree of legal indetermina!' and government dis!retion to promote t e publi! good is desirable be!ause it gives t e organs of t e politi!al !ommunit' a valuable flexibilit' in responding to t e problems and needs of t e !ommunit'. 5n lig t of t ese points+ t is line of liberal t inking argues t at a sound t eoreti!al model of t e rule of la& must ave more room for indetermina!' t an t e generi! model &ould allo&. 5t &ould be a mistake to demand+ as t e generi! model does+ t at indetermina!' be redu!ed to t e smallest degree umanl' possible and an equall' serious mistake to build one*s t eoreti!al model around su! a demand so t at an' signifi!ant departure from it appears to do damage to t e rule of la&. E is line of liberal t inking !ontends t at a sound model &ould leave liberal states signifi!ant flexibilit' in responding to so!ial problems+ t oug not so mu! as to destro' vital liberal freedoms. Cot ever' departure from legal determina!' damages t e rule of la&+ and a t eoreti!al model is needed & i! does not make demands for t e redu!tion of indetermina!' and government dis!retion t at are as stringent as t e demands of t e generi! model.

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Eon&ra-ic&or* H+s&ifica&ions -o no& necessaril* crea&e in-e&er$ina&e a%%lica&ions,&he* are o)ers&a&ing &he in-e&er$inac* arg+$en&/ Sol+$. LLa< =rofessor a& Lo*olaI 57 38a&ren!e L.+ ?niversit' of 7 i!ago 8a& 6evie&+ 0@n t e 5ndetermina!' 7risis: 7ritiquing 7riti!al Gogma+1 9pring+ "4 ?. 7 i. 8. 6ev. 4#24. 5t is eas' to agree t at existing legal rules are not full' determined b' an' unified and !onsistent so!ial t eor'. Nven if &e ad a full' satisfa!tor' t eor' /ustif'ing t e broad outlines of t e modern state+ it &ould be ard to argue t at an' su! t eor' required a parti!ular set of legal rules+ mu! less t e pre!ise set of rules &e ave no&. >o&ever+ it does not follo& from t is admission t at !riti!al s! olars ave made out a !ase for !omplete indetermina!' of /ustifi!ation. 9ome spe!ifi! legal rules ma' ne!essaril' follo& from a broad so!ial t eor'F man' legal rules ma' be in!ompatible &it a given t eor'. Aoreover+ indetermina!' of /ustifi!ation does not entail indetermina!' in a set of legal rules. 2 number of !ompeting t eories !ould be used to /ustif' or !ritique a &ide range of legal do!trines+ & ile t e legal do!trines t emselves nonet eless &ould !onstrain t e out!ome of parti!ular !ases. <or example+ one !ould make !onsequentialist arguments for and against t e do!trine of promissor' estoppel+ & ile t e do!trine itself remained determinate in appli!ation.

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#)en if &he la< is in-e&er$ina&e. &ha& concl+sion has no %ar&ic+lar exis&en&ial force,cases are s&ill -eci-e- base- on %rac&ical a%%lica&ions &ha& can be consis&en& e)en if &he* are no& base- on an +nshakable fo+n-a&ion/ Sol+$. LLa< =rofessor a& Lo*olaI 57 38a&ren!e L.+ ?niversit' of 7 i!ago 8a& 6evie&+ 0@n t e 5ndetermina!' 7risis: 7ritiquing 7riti!al Gogma+1 9pring+ "4 ?. 7 i. 8. 6ev. 4#24. A' argument+ t erefore+ relies on t e distin!tion bet&een logi!al and pra!ti!al possibilit'. E is distin!tion !an be illuminated b' a brief dis!ussion of an analogous problem &it epistemologi!al skepti!ism. 2n epistemologi!al skepti! mig t !laim t at &e !an never reall' kno& an't ing. 2n anti(skepti! mig t respond &it an example of an Ieas' !aseI of kno&ledge: 'ou kno& t at 'ou are !urrentl' sitting in a ! air and reading t is pe!uliar arti!le. E e skepti! mig t respond b' raising a skepti!al possibilit': for all 'ou kno& 'ou are onl' a brain in a vat being manipulated b' an evil s!ientist to t ink 'ou are sitting and reading t is essa'+ & en in fa!t 'ou are doing neit er of t ese t ings. Ber' roug l'+ it is m' vie& t at rule(skepti!ism !an be s o&n to be toot less for t e same reason t at t is sort of epistemologi!al skepti!ism is toot less: &orr'ing about being a brain in a vat &ill not ave an' effe!t on & at 'ou do. 8ike&ise+ &orr'ing about rule( skepti!ism &ill not ave an' effe!t on t e &a' !ases are de!ided. E e skepti!al possibilities invoked b' bot rule( skepti!ism and epistemologi!al skepti!ism are not pra!ti!al possibilities+ and onl' pra!ti!al possibilities affe!t t e &a' one a!ts. E is is not to sa' t at t ere is no point to rule(skepti!ism. 6ule(skepti!s are quite rig t to insist t at not ing about verbal formulations of rules requires or guarantees t at t e' be applied in a
parti!ular+ determinate fas ion. Eus net appre!iates t is point & en e notes t at expe!tations about eas' !ases Iare so!iall' !onstru!ted rat er t an in erent+ even to some small degree+ in t e verbal formulationsI of t e legal rules. n"9 8egal rules in parti!ular+ like languages in general+ develop meaning in a so!ial !ontext. Le!ause of t e trut of t is observation+ !riti!al s! olars are !orre!t & en t e' !laim t at t ere is a Ipossibilit'I t at t e legal rules &ill ! ange meanings if t e so!ial !ontext ! anges dramati!all'F not ing magi!al about t e verbal formulation of legal rules ex!ludes su! a possibilit'.

t e question &e s ould ask is & et er t is possibilit' !reates t e sort of indetermina!' t at as existential for!e. Goes t e possibilit' of legal rules ! anging in response to ! anges in so!iet' I old terrors in our dail' livesIR 2s far as t e sort of skepti!al possibilities needed to make a !ase for t e strong indetermina!' t esis+ t e ans&er to t is question is !learl' ICo.I
>o&ever+

The cri&iD+e o)er>s&a&es in-e&er$inac*' e)en if legal %rinci%les conflic&. legal &heor* can s&ill ac& as an effec&i)e g+i-e/ Al&$an. L=rofessor of =hiloso%h*Q 7eorgia S&a&e @ni)ersi&*I 90 32ndre&+ Critical Legal Studies: A Liberal Criti)ue+ page %4 5f t ere &ere a single !onsistent set of prin!iples in terms of & i! do!trine !ould be rationall' re!onstru!ted+ t en t e /udge !ould appeal to it in resolving some apparent !onifi!t &it in t e settled la&. Lut be!ause t ere is no su! set of prin!iples+ /udges !an onl' ! oose one or anot er of t e in!ompatible prin!iples t at underlie t e settled do!trine. Gifferent /udges !an and &ill ! oose different prin!iples+ but none !an provide a !onvin!ing legal argument t at er ! oi!e is t e legalit' !orre!t one. Na! /udge !an. E ere are serious problems &it t is 78" vie& of t e impli!ations of t e pat! &ork t esis. Nven if t ere are in!ompatible prin!iples t at underlie different segments of do!trine+ it does not follo& t at t e /udge is free to ! oose & i! prin!iple to rel' on in de!iding a !ase. 6e!all from t e dis!ussion in ! apter 2 t at our legal !ulture in!orporates a !onvention t at requires t at !ases be de!ided in a &a' t at provides t e greatest degree of logi!al !o eren!e &it t e settled rules and de!isions. 9uppose t at in most !ases a de!ision rel'ing on a parti!ular prin!iple fits better &it t e settled materials t an one rel'ing on a !ompeting prin!iple. E e supposition is not in!onsistent &it t e pat! &ork t esis+ but if it is true+ t en it &ould be &rong to daim+ as Galton does+ t at equall' for!eful legal arguments !ould be given for bot sides in almost an' !ase. E e better legal argument &ould be t e one t at displa's t e better fit &it t e settled de!isions and norms+ and t e la& itself &ould be ig l' determinate+ even if t e pat! &ork t esis &ere true.

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#)en if -econs&r+c&ion re)eals &ensions <i&hin liberal socie&*. i& -oes no& follo< &ha& all a%%lica&ions of &he la< <ill be in-e&er$ina&e,la<s can be a%%lie- consis&en&l* e)en if &he* are base- on socie&al &ensions/ Sol+$. LLa< =rofessor a& Lo*olaI 57 38a&ren!e L.+ ?niversit' of 7 i!ago 8a& 6evie&+ 0@n t e 5ndetermina!' 7risis: 7ritiquing 7riti!al Gogma+1 9pring+ "4 ?. 7 i. 8. 6ev. 4#24. 2not er external line of defense for t e strong indetermina!' t esis invokes t e de!onstru!tionist te! niques of t e <ren! post(stru!turalist ;a!ques Gerrida. n#2 2s appropriated b' literar' !riti!s+ de!onstru!tion is a te! nique t at permits ne& readings of familiar texts. n#3 2s pra!ti!ed b' Gerrida imself+ de!onstru!tion represents an assault on t e & ole &estern p ilosop i!al tradition. n#4 8ike t e relations ip of t e rule(skepti!Ks defense to HittgensteinKs paradox+ t e Ide!onstru!tionI pra!ti!ed b' !riti!al legal s! olars ma' bear little more t an a famil' resemblan!e to Ide!onstru!tionI as pra!ti!ed b' Gerrida. E e de!onstru!tionist version of t e indetermina!' t esis makes t e ambitious !laim t at t e indetermina!' of legal rules is a fun!tion of deep !ontradi!tions &it in liberal so!iet'+ or of t e failure of liberal so!iet' to re!on!ile or mediate a deep !ontradi!tion &it in t e !olle!tive and individual uman self. 7ontinues... Aore fundamentall'+ t e de!onstru!tionist defense of strong indetermina!' falters be!ause it does not provide an' real ans&er to t e argument from eas' !ases. 8et us !on!ede+ for t e moment+ t at some legal do!trines embod' a tension bet&een !ommunit' and autonom' resulting in indetermina!'. Co matter o& man' su! examples !an be proffered+ t e' do not prove t at all+ or even most+ of t e la& is indeterminateF t e' do not offer a re/oinder to t e argument from eas' !ases. E e legal de!onstru!tionist &ould ave to take all !ases+ in!luding t e easiest ones offered in t is essa'+ and demonstrate bot t at t e' are indeterminate and t at t is indetermina!' is a fun!tion of some deep !onfli!t bet&een self and ot er. Ceit er demonstration as been made. 5nstead+ t e de!onstru!tionist defense simpl' provides anot er !o erent explanation of & ' some legal rules are underdetermined over t e set of all !ases. #)en if &he la< is in-e&er$ina&e. i& is consis&en& eno+gh &o $ake legal refor$s -esirable,non>legal ac&ors can s&ill infl+ence &he la</ Kellogg. L7eorge Washing&on @ni)ersi&* !a&ional La< Een&erI 90 3#" Eul. 8. 6ev. 1"+ <rederi!+ Covember4. E e pragmati! position+ on t e ot er and+ does not require legal t eor' to provide a rationale for t e ! oi!e of institutional stru!ture. 5f t e ! oi!e &as a sound one+ it most likel' &as not made b' legal p ilosop ers or even /ust la&'ers. 5nstead+ it &as made in un!ountable in!remental steps b' a!tors in ever' realm of so!ial life. E e ! oi!es made ma' ave+ to some degree+ be!ome embedded in t e !ommon la& b' a pro!ess of su!!essive approximation+ in & i! stri!tl' IlegalI institutions did not impose a IlegalI rationale on t e ! oi!es. E e pro!ess must permit a !ontrolling role for nonlegal ! oi!es+ albeit one in & i! t e ! oi!es be!ome refle!ted in suffi!ientl' determinate language to be applied !onsistentl' (( language t at &ill unavoidabl' take on a life of its o&n+ but not intolerabl' so+ if kept fait ful to t e !on!rete !ir!umstan!es it &as designed to address. E e primar' obligation of legal institutions is one of fa!ilitating+ and not obstru!ting+ nonlegal means of addressing t e indetermina!ies of so!ial life (( in!luding t ose involving t e /ust and rig t. E is is true also of t e 7onstitution+ & i! for 8earned >and &as to be regarded as an istori!al !ompromise+ not a set of durable prin!iples or a resour!e from & i! to strengt en or modif' t e morals of so!iet'. n14% 2s >olmes said in is 8o! ner dissent+ Ia !onstitution . . . is made for people of fundamentall' differing vie&s.I n149 >en!e it is altoget er natural t at t e 7onstitution s ould tolerate+ refle!t+ or even in!orporate+ !onfli!ting prin!iples.

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The nega&i)e exaggera&es &heir in-e&er$inac* clai$s,ELS a+&hors -o no& arg+e &ha& &here are no %re-ic&able o+&co$es fro$ la<. onl* &ha& &he la< is arbi&rar* in &he sense &ha& -ifferen& %oli&ics %ro-+ce -ifferen& o+&co$es/ 7or-on. LLa< =rofessor. S&anfor-I 52 33# 9tan. 8. 6ev. "$+ ;anuar'+ 6obert+ 765E5728 8ND28 9E?G5N9 9XA=@95?A: 7riti!al 8egal >istories4. E e 7riti!s & o do intelle!tual( istor'(of(do!trinal(stru!tures avenKt got an' t eor' of t e !ausal relations bet&een legal)do!trinal ! ange and ot er so!ial ! ange+ ex!ept t eir !laim t at t e !ontradi!tions &it in legal stru!tures make su! relations !ompletel' indeterminate. Lut t is !laim of indetermina!' is surel' exaggerated (( t ere are lots of regularities in legal)so!ial relations. E is argument as to be broken do&n a bit to be responded to. 5 t ink t at+ at t is stage+ t e response !an be ver' s ort be!ause mu! of it as been ans&ered alread'. 5tKs true t at+ for example+ t e 7riti!s ave not produ!ed an anal'sis along t e lines of t e traditionalist fun!tionalist istories or of instrumental Aarxism t at relates ! anges in t e legal s'stem to ! anges in t e e!onom'. E e & ole point+ re!all+ of t e 7riti!sK !ritique is t at t e Ie!onom'I isnKt somet ing separate from t e Ila&+I & i! rea!ts on la& and is in turn rea!ted upon b' itF t e idea of t eir separation is a allu!inator' effe!t of t e liberal reifi!ation of IstateI and ImarketI 3or Ipubli!I and IprivateI4 into separate entities. Le!ause t e e!onom' is partiall' !omposed of legal relations+ legal and e!onomi! istories are not istories of distin!t and intera!ting entities but simpl' different !ross(!utting sli!es out of t e same organi! tissue. 2gain+ if t e 7riti!s T*12"U &ant to make t is point !onvin!ingl'+ t e' &ill ave to start sli!ing t eir narratives out of field(level uses of la&. E e ot er argument rests+ 5 t ink+ on a misunderstanding of & at t e 7riti!s mean b' indeterminan!'. E e' donKt mean (( alt oug sometimes t e' sound as if t e' do (( t at t ere are never an' predi!table !ausal relations bet&een legal forms and an't ing else. 2s argued earlier in t is essa'+ t ere are plent' of s ort( and medium(run stable regularities in so!ial life+ in!luding regularities in t e interpretation and appli!ation+ in given !ontexts+ of legal rules. 8a&'ers+ in fa!t+ are !onstantl' making predi!tions for t eir !lients on t e basis of t ese regularities. E e 7riti!al !laim of indetermina!' is simpl' t at none of t ese regularities are ne!essar' !onsequen!es of t e adoption of a given regime of rules. E e rule(s'stem !ould also ave generated a different set of stabilizing !onventions leading to exa!tl' t e opposite results and ma'+ upon a s ift in t e dire!tion of politi!al &inds+ s&it! to t ose opposing !onventions at an' time.

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The charge &ha& i& is logocen&ric &o %re-ic& legal o+&co$es is like sa*ing &ha& &here can be no $ore arg+$en&s $a-e in &he -eba&e,i& is a &a+&olog* &ha& <o+l- also -es&ro* &he arg+$en&s $a-e b* ELS cri&ics/ Sol+$. LLa< =rofessor a& Lo*olaI 57 38a&ren!e L.+ ?niversit' of 7 i!ago 8a& 6evie&+ 0@n t e 5ndetermina!' 7risis: 7ritiquing 7riti!al Gogma+1 9pring+ "4 ?. 7 i. 8. 6ev. 4#24. Galton offers onl' poetr' in a footnote as explanation. n#9 E e data (( t at is+ our abilit' to predi!t legal de!isions (( !ontradi!t t e 'pot esis t at fundamental dualities make all su! predi!tions impossible. Cevert eless+ it is possible to postulate t at t ere is some idden explanation t at onl' a&aits dis!over' to !lear up t e seeming in!onsisten!'. Lut a belief t at is made uns akeable in t is &a' is dogma (( Iirrefutable and be'ond t e rea! of atta!k.I E e de!onstru!tionist defender of strong indetermina!' as T*4%4U 'et anot er re/oinder: 5 am emplo'ing t e ver' Ilogo!entri!I standards t at are at issue (( t at is+ 5 am also resorting to dogma. 5n a sense+ no repl' !an be given to t e argument t at t ere !an be no arguments. 5 &ill+ o&ever+ offer t&o observations. E e first is t at !riti!al legal s! olars ip as not abandoned logo!entri! standards: t e !riti!al s! olars do not make t e punning+ irrationalist arguments ! ara!teristi! of Gerrida. n$1 A' se!ond observation is t at t e legal de!onstru!tionistKs attempt to argue against rationalit' is self(defeating. E e a!t of arguing assumes t e standards of rationalit' t at t e de!onstru!tionist attempts to !all into question. n$2

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(eifica&ion of &he la< is no& ba- if &he %rinci%les in)ol)e- con&rib+&e &o h+$an free-o$ an- righ&s,&he affir$a&i)e reifica&ion he-ges agains& grea&er o%%ression/ S%arer. LLa< =rofessor. @ni)ersi&* of =enns*l)aniaI 52 3Nd+ 3# 9tan. 8. 6ev. "09+ ;anuar'4. Lut is it bad to Ireif'IR 5n Aarxist t inking+ to reif' a !on!ept su! as a rig t is to invest it &it qualities over and above t ose of t e parti!ular uman beings & o !reated or use it. 5t is as if t e rig t ad a life of its o&n. 5t exists independentl' of t e parti!ular so!ial setting from & i! it !ame and !ontinues regardless of t e !ons!ious ! oi!es of t e people in a later setting. 6eifi!ation+ as a general proposition+ !an ave serious and negative !onsequen!es but not all Ireif'ingI is ne!essaril' bad. 5t is true t at & en &e ! ara!terize a !ertain legal rig t as IuniversalI or Iinalienable+I &e are reif'ing it. Lut t is ma' ave a legitimate purpose. <or example+ &e ma' fear t at some group ma' in t e future dominate our so!iet' and attempt to stifle all dissent. He s ould prote!t as best &e !an against su! an event b' toda' a!kno&ledging t at dissent is a uman value t at needs prote!tion. 5n so doing+ &e reif' t e legal rig t to dissent in order to prote!t t e uman rig t of self(expression and free !ons!ien!e. He s ould do t e same &it !ertain rig ts of &orking people. 5n spite of t e diffi!ulties of dra&ing a I!o erentI line as to & at is IinalienableI and & at is not+ !on!ern for t e uman values of free !ons!ien!e and mutual asso!iation+ !oupled &it a dedu!tion from istor' about & at appens in t e absen!e of su! legal rig ts+ /ustifies su! an effort. n42

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The cri&iD+e o)er>s&a&es &he role of &he s&a&e' &he* are righ& &ha& nor$a&i)e )al+es co$e fro$ in-i)i-+als an- a li$i&e- s&a&e is %recisel* <ha& enables &ha& ex%ression/ Al&$an. L=rofessor of =hiloso%h*Q 7eorgia S&a&e @ni)ersi&*I 90 32ndre&+ Critical Legal Studies: A Liberal Criti)ue+ page %4 E e modern liberal defense of t e+ rule of la& severs t e !onne!tion bet&een la& and personal virtue. E e notion t at t e su preme aim of politi!al so!iet' is to promote some restri!tive !on !eption of t e best uman life is re/e!ted. 2 liberal politi!al so!iet' is one in & i! t ere is a s arp distin!tion bet&een t e state and so!iet'. 9o!iet' is t e domain of intera!tion &it in and bet&een groups+ ea! organized around a distin!tive set of interlo!king be liefs+ dispositions+ and values. E e intera!ting groups ave !om peting !on!eptions of t e good+ t e virtuous+ t e divine+ t e sa !red+ t e rig t+ t e /]st+ and t e beautiful. E e state is t e institutional po&er t at is to stand above t ese diverse groups and regulate t eir intera!tion. 7itizens do not ne!essaril' see t e state as a & oll' alien po&er+ 'et neit er !an t e' embra!e it as t e full embodiment of t eft normative vision of t e &orld. 5t is in t eir parti!ular so!ial groups t at !itizens find an ob/e!tive embodiment of t eft normative visions. E e value of t e state resides prin!ipall' in prote!ting so!ial groups from one anot er and preserving t e freedom of t e individual to mold a normative vision and to /oin ot ers &it a similar vision in pursuing it.

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The iss+e is no& :la< is goo-; )s :la< is ba-; b+& is <he&her or no& s%ecific a%%lica&ions of &he la< are -esirable/ S%arer. LLa< =rofessor. @ni)ersi&* of =enns*l)aniaI 52 3Nd+ 3# 9tan. 8. 6ev. "09+ ;anuar'4. Gespite su! a &arning+ t e pra!ti!al relations ip of 7riti!al legal t eor' to so!ial movement and struggle in t e ?nited 9tates toda' is+ at best+ ver' limited. Ceit er la&'ers nor politi!al a!tivists re!eive mu! enlig tenment from 7riti!al legal t eor' &it regard to t eir a!tual &ork. Cor is 7riti!al legal t eor' itself mu! affe!ted b' t e pra!ti!al &ork of su! people. H ile t ere are ex!eptions to t ese generalizations+ n112 t e absen!e of praxis in !urrent 7riti!al legal &ork seems to be one of its most marked features. Dordon+ a 7riti!al legal t eorist+ &rites: 2t ever' meeting of t e 7onferen!e on 7riti!al 8egal 9tudies+ one !an sense t ese barriers of puzzlement or irritation being raised bet&een politi!al allies & o see t emselves for t e o!!asion mainl' as It eoristsI or Ipra!titioners.I 5t is not (( not at all (( t at t e Ipra!titionersI are against t eor'. E e' are ungr' for t eor' t at &ould elp make sense of t eir pra!ti!esF t at &ould order t em meaningfull' into larger patterns of istori!al ! ange or stru!tures of so!ial a!tionF t at &ould elp resolve t e perpetual dilemma of & et er it is or is not a !ontradi!tion in terms to be a Iradi!al la&'er+I & et er one is inevitabl' !orrupted b' t e medium in & i! one &orks+ & et er oneKs vi!tories are in t e long run defeats+ or oneKs defeats vi!toriesF or t at &ould suggest & at ta!ti!s+ in t e boundless o!ean of meanness and !onstraint t at surrounds+ us+ to tr' next. Dordon attempts to explain & ' t e Ipra!titionersI do not get & at t e' are looking for and & ' & at is produ!ed b' t e It eoristsI is appropriate. A' !ontention+ o&ever+ is t at t e It eoristsI s ould be attempting to give t e Ipra!titionersI t eor' & i! is relevant to t eir !on!erns. Le!ause t e' are not+ t e It eor'I as &ell t e Ipra!ti!eI suffers. Horse+ if 7riti!al legal t eor'Ks underl'ing so!ial !on!erns about domination and exploitation are valid (( and 5 believe t e' are (( &e all suffer from t is failure in praxis. 5 do not approa! t e matter of & ' 7riti!al legal t eor' is so divor!ed from so!ial pra!ti!e &it a sense of impatien!e or eas' !ondemnation. 5t is ver' diffi!ult for an' !omplex so!ial t eor' to relate elpfull' to pra!ti!e and+ in turn+ b' illumined b' pra!ti!e. 7riti!al legal t eor' is !on!erned &it radi!al so!ial ! ange at a time & en even liberal so!ial movements appear to be at a standstill. 2nd+ of !ourse+ it is parti!ularl' diffi!ult for & at is essentiall' a nas!ent legal t eor' to a!!omplis a praxis & i! as istori!all' eluded most ot er radi!al t eor' in t e ?nited 9tates. Cevert eless+ m' argument is t at 7riti!al legal t eor' is frequentl' divor!ed from and useless to so!ial pra!ti!e for reasons & i! are !losel' related to t e atta!k on rig ts dis!ussed in =art 5. E e first reason for 7riti!al legal t eor'Ks separation from pra!ti!e is t e vie& of some leading 7riti!al s! olars t at so s&eeping is t e old of liberalismKs belief s'stems and so instrumental are rig ts notions to t e maintenan!e of dominan!e and oppression t at onl' negative !ritique aimed at delegitimation !onstitutes a useful pat for t eor' toda'. E is fo!us on delegitimation+ in!luding t e atta!k on rig ts+ inders 7riti!al t eorists from pursuing affirmative programs. T*"""U 2 se!ond reason for t e pra!ti!e(t eor' separation is t at+ despite t e emp asis on dualities and !ontradi!tions in 7riti!al legal t eor'+ 7riti!al t eorists ave not grasped t e dual nature and potential of legal rig ts and entitlement programs. 2s mu! as rig ts are instruments of legitimizing oppression+ t e' are also affirmations of uman values. 2s often as t e' are used to frustrate so!ial movement+ t e' are also among t e basi! tools of so!ial movement.

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We %ercei)e la<. <hich $akes i& real/ Earlson 999 3Gavid Dra'+ =rofessor of 8a&+ Len/amin C. 7ardozo 9! ool of 8a&+ 06evie& Nssa': Guellism 5n Aodern 2meri!an ;urispruden!e1+ 7olumbia 8a& 6evie&+ Covember 1999+ 99 7olum. 8. 6ev. 190%+ 8exisCexis4 8a& resists manipulation b' a single sub/e!t. 5t ma' not be perfe!tl' determinate+ but neit er is t e ro!k. 2s t ings+ bot la& and ro!k are negative unities t at !annot be kno&n dire!tl' and !an be kno&n onl' indire!tl' t roug t e per!eptions of spe!ifi! properties. n102 5ndeed+ 9! lag imself+ at times+ Iper!eivesI la& n103 and en!e !on!edes its existen!e+ as & en e &rites: I8a& is quite obviousl' a ri! amalgamation of feudal so!ial aest eti!s+ nineteent (!entur' /uristi! s!ien!e+ earl' t&entiet !entur' legal realist poli!' anal'sis+ legal pro!ess pro!eduralisms+ Harren 7ourt normativit'....I n104 >ere on displa' are la&Ks various properties and t e !osmologi!al unit' n10" !alled Ila&I t at organizes t is set of parti!ulars. 5n t is formulation+ 9! lag !onfesses t e existen!e of la&. T*192"U Le!ause of t e negativit' of t is unif'ing essen!e+ la& and ro!ks are meton'mi! entities+ n10# as even anal'ti! p ilosop ' as dis!overed. n10$ He !an name onl' t e !ontext and properties of t e t ing. He !annot name t e t ing itself. n10% E is is true of ro!ks and of la&. @ne exists /ust as surel' as does t e ot er. Giogenes liked to defeat =lato b' ki!king a ro!k and t ereb' proving it Iexisted.I Lut all t is s o&ed &as t e utilit' of t e ro!k ( its status as an ob/e!t for a!tual !ons!iousness+ n109 or t e Ibeing(for(ot erI of t e ro!k. n110 9u! a realit' is one(sided+ in t at it emp asizes t e negativit' 3being(for(ot er4 of t e t ing and ex!ludes t e side of being(for( self. n111 9u! an insisten!e on t e fa!tum brutum ( t e Ibeing(for(usI of t e ro!k ( paradoxi!all' renders t e ro!k entirel' sub/e!tive and denies t e ro!k t e ver' integrit' t at t e attribute of Irealit'I s ould ave provided for it. n112 Eangibilit' is not a propert' of la& in t e first pla!e+ and t is makes la& a different kind of t ing t an a ro!k or tree. Cevert eless+ la& as an ob/e!tive ( i.e.+ inter(sub/e!tive ( existen!e. n113 5t exists in t e minds of t e multitude. 5t is Iso!ial substan!e.I n114 La< exis&s. &he effec&s of i& can be seen/ Earlson 999 3Gavid Dra'+ =rofessor of 8a&+ Len/amin C. 7ardozo 9! ool of 8a&+ 06evie& Nssa': Guellism 5n Aodern 2meri!an ;urispruden!e1+ 7olumbia 8a& 6evie&+ Covember 1999+ 99 7olum. 8. 6ev. 190%+ 8exisCexis4 5n assessing & et er la& exists+ t&o points ave been made: 314 Eo identif' la& as a It ingI one must postulate & at !annot be per!eived dire!tl' ( t e negative unit' of propertiesF 324 <ree &ill+ like negative unit'+ !an onl' be postulated. 5n t is se!tion+ b' &a' of disagreeing &it 9! lagKs a!!usation t at la& does not exist+ 5 &ould like to s o& t at+ if la& !auses a!tions in t e &orld+ t en la& exists and t erefore en/o's an ob/e!tive status. 9! lag does not often des!ribe & at e takes la& to be. n14# 5n is t&o ne& books+ e generall' relies on t e readerKs !ommon sense to provide a definitionF and t en+ & atever !ommon sense produ!es+ e asserts t at la& does not exist n14$ or t at it is a fantas'. 5n I8a& and = renolog'+I n14% o&ever+ 9! lag suggests t at la& refers to t&o distin!t !on!epts+ & i! e takes to be !ontradi!tor'. 314 8a& refers to & at !ourts do. E at is+ it refers to a!tion+ observable in t e &orld. 324 8a& simultaneousl' refers to a !ause of a!tion. n149 7ausation is stri!tl' a temporal relation. 5t is not ing more t an t e observation t at 9tate 2 ne!essaril' pre!edes 9tate L. n1"0 2nd so+ in its se!ond dimension 3la& !auses a!tion4+ la& is a pre(existing t ing t at !auses /udi!ial a!tion ( or takes itself to be su! . 2 /udge as !ons!ious kno&ledge of & at t e la& requires and a!ts a!!ordingl'. n1"1 2!tion+ in 9! lagKs p ilosop '+ is a real t ing. He !an kno& la&Ks passage a lKa!te T*1930U be!ause &e !an feel la&Ks potent !onsequen!es. n1"2 5t is violent. n1"3 5t imprisons+ impoveris es and senten!es to deat . n1"4 H at !aused t e legal a!tion+ o&ever+ &ould appear to be supersensual ( i.e.+ not verifiable. E ese points are probabl' best read as follo&s: 2!tions are real+ but t e !auses of a!tions are fi!tions. >en!e 39! lag makes !lear4 la&(as(!ause is overdetermined: IE is ambiguit'... enables legal t inkers to !laim for t emselves rat er remarkable po&ers to sa' & at t e la& is: given enoug &ill+ it al&a's remains possible to affirm t at intelligent kno&ledge governs aut oritative a!tion.I n1"" 9! lag refers to t is diale!ti!al stru!ture of la& as I!ir!ular ambiguit'.I n1"# 5n fa!t+ if la& !auses a!tion+ t e stru!ture t at 9! lag lo!ates is not !ir!ular but linear. n1"$ 2!tion+ real and kno&able+ pro/e!ts infinite !auses ( i.e.+ infinitel' possible la&s t at !aused t e kno&able a!tion. 5t is at least possible+ in 9! lagKs logi!+ t at t e true !ause &as t at t e /udge read a spe!ifi! pre(existing la&+ &orked it in er mind into a !o erent !ommand+ and t en follo&ed t at !ommand.

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AT !O(MAT 8 TJ' !O(MAT 8# TFO@7FT 7OO" !or$a&i)e legal &ho+gh& is effec&i)e a& crea&ing or-er. sal)a&ion. an- %rogress/ Earlson 999 3Gavid Dra'+ =rofessor of 8a&+ Len/amin C. 7ardozo 9! ool of 8a&+ 06evie& Nssa': Guellism 5n Aodern 2meri!an ;urispruden!e1+ 7olumbia 8a& 6evie&+ Covember 1999+ 99 7olum. 8. 6ev. 190%+ 8exisCexis4 =er aps =ierre 9! lagKs most famous point is is imperative+ IGonKt be normative.I E e values of t e legal a!adem' are little better t an advertising purve'ors n192 ( 'po!rites & o tr' Ito a! ieve strategi! advantages largel' 3if not entirel'4 unrelated to t e observan!e or realization of t ose professed values.I n193 Balues are used as totems or tools to indu!e guilt or s ame. n194 9tifling and narro&+ n19" normativit' is not even a t oug t ( onl' an unt inking abit. n19# Cormativit' argues t at+ if it does not old s&a'+ terrible so!ial !onsequen!es &ould follo&. n19$ Cormative t oug t is designed to s ut do&n !riti!al inquir' into t e not ingness of la&. n19% Cot onl' are values de!eitfull' strategi!+ but t e' are ineffe!tive. n199 E e' are too vague to be self(determining. n200 ICormative legal t oug tKs onl' !onsumers are legal a!ademi!s and per aps a fe& la& students ( persons & o are virtuall' never in a position to put an' of its &onderful normative advi!e into effe!t.I n201 ;udges are not listening. n202 Nven if /udges ad t e time to read and stud' all of a!ademiaKs suggestions+ t e' &ould be unlikel' to implement an' & i! &ould require radi!al ! anges in t e status quo+ sin!e+ 9! lag notes+ Ionl' t ose kinds of norms t at alread' !onform to t e audien!eKs belief are likel' to meet &it an' sort T*193$U of &ide(s!ale approval.I n203 E us+ 9! lag !on!edes+ sometimes normativit' is empiri!all' effe!tive after all ( but not be!ause of intrinsi! aut enti!it'. Cormativit' is effe!tive be!ause it tra!ks and in!orporates Ifolk(ontologies+I su! as order+ salvation+ or progress. n204 8ike 2nton'+ norms tell t e people onl' & at t e' alread' kno&. Corms and values are lies+ 9! lag sa's+ & en proffered b' legal a!ademi!s+ but it &as ot er&ise &it 9op o!les n20" or t e Harren !ourt+ n20# & o &ere aut enti!all' in tou! &it real pain. L' impli!ation+ values are aut enti! & en immediatel' !onne!ted to feelings. n20$ Balues+ properl' used+ are &ort ' of !ommendation. n20% Lut t e mere invo!ation of values does not guarantee t eir aut enti!it'. E e proof of values is in !ontext. n209

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Al&erna&i)e Fails> i& is i$%ossible &o break -o<n &he $aBe of legal nor$a&i)i&*/ Moo&B 992 3<ran!is ;.+ 2sso!iate =rof. of 8a& at Hestern Ce& Nngland 7ollege 9! ool of 8a&+ 0E e =aranoid 9t'le in 7ontemporar' 8egal 9! olars ip1+ >ouston 8a& 6evie&+ 31 >ous. 8. 6ev. %$3+ 1994(199"+ >ein @nline4 E e epistemologi!al problems posed b' modernist !riti!al pro/e!ts are onl' partiall' ans&ered b' adding a postmodern gloss. 9! lag*s effort to anal'ze legal s! olars ip 'rom outside the maze is extremel' problemati!. 9! lag believes t at most s! olars reside &it in a maze ! ara!terized b' 0dreariness+1 but t at a sele!t fe& ave found a &a' out+ gained perspe!tive on t e maze+ and no& engage in a fruitful questioning t at reveals rat er t an obs!ures t e la&. 20 5n s arp !ontrast+ 5 re/e!t t e idea t at su! a dramati! es!ape !an take pla!e. ;ust & en a s! olar believes t at s e as s!aled t e last &all of t e maze+ s e &ill be !onfronted b' a boundless orizon of pat s endlessl' !ir!ling &it in t e ambit of t e same maze. >ope for es!ape must al&a's be das ed in t e end+ but t is does not mean t at an individual*s !omportment &it in t e maze is &it out et i!al or politi!al signifi!an!e. E e !entral problem for !ontemporar' /urispruden!e is not t e maze of normative legal dis!ourse+ but t e failure to re!ognize t e maze as an avoidable !ondition t at is produ!tive of kno&l(edge. Talking abo+& nor$a&i)i&* canno& con)ince an*one an- <ill H+s& be seen as con&ra-ic&or*/ (a-in an- Michel$an 990 3Aargaret and <rank+ =rofessor of 8a& at 9tanford ?niversit' and =rofessor of 8a& at >arvard ?niversit'+ 0=ragmatist and =oststru!turalist 7riti!al 8egal =ra!ti!e1+ E e ?niversit' of =enns'lvania 8a& 6evie&+ Bol. 139+ Co. 4 32pr.+ 19914+ pp. 1019(10"%+ ;9E@64 IHe s ould talk more normativel'I 3H9EAC+ for s ort4 is t e name of a !ertain senten!e(t e one t at sa's &e s ould talk more normativel'. 5f uttering H9EAC is !ontemptible as /ust talk or as normative talk 3and+ to boot+ as naivel' presupposing t at o& &e talk+ & at &e do+ is &it in our po&er to de!ide1"4+ t en & at is a reader supposed to make of t e senten!e t at sa's t at uttering H9EAC is !ontemptible on t ose groundsR 5t seems t at sa'ing t at !annot 3!o erentl'4 be an argument about & et er or o& &e s ould 3or s ould not4 talk. >o& !an one argue t at & at makes an utteran!e 3or a genre4 un&ort ' of attention or respe!t is t at it is normative talkR Eo argue is to invoke t e pra!ti!e of argument+ and t at pra!ti!e !onsists of normative talk. 3Aa'be 'ou !ould tr' b' some ot er means to remove t at pra!ti!e from so!iet'Ks repertoire+ but 'ou !anKt &ell do t at b' arguing about it.4 Lut if t is utteran!e of 9! lagKs is not argument+ t en & at is itR He believe t at too man' in t e !ommunit' to & om t ese &ritings are addressed &ill see 9! lag ere doing t e ver' t ing is utteran!e sa's s ould not be done(arguing pres!riptivel'(and so ! arge im &it a lapse of logi! or !onsisten!'. He t ink su! a ! arge &ould be too ast'. 9! lag as not onl' been t e first in t ese pages to !all attention to t e issue+ e as been expli!itl' 3and elpfull'4 attentive to t e deli!a!' of is position as an ardent assailant of normativit' in s! olars ip.K# >e dire!ts our attention to t e ubiquit' and pertina!it' of t e problem e per!eives.1$

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Schlag9s %aranoia forces hi$ &o a-)oca&e a %hiloso%h* &ha& is &oo ra-ical K -es&ro*s sol)enc*/ Moo&B 992 3<ran!is ;.+ 2sso!iate =rof. of 8a& at Hestern Ce& Nngland 7ollege 9! ool of 8a&+ 0E e =aranoid 9t'le in 7ontemporar' 8egal 9! olars ip1+ >ouston 8a& 6evie&+ 31 >ous. 8. 6ev. %$3+ 1994(199"+ >ein @nline4 2s des!ribed b' 9! lag+ t e postmodern legal !riti! bears an un!ann' resemblan!e to a paranoid individual. 5 ave no doubts t at 9! lag+ as a person dealing &it ever'da' life+ is entirel' free from paranoid tenden!ies. H '+ t en+ does is asserted intelle!tual persona assume su! a !ounterprodu!tive postureR _uite simpl'+ t e imperative to radi!alize t e !ritique of foundationalism and formalism eventuall' !arries t eor'+ and t e persona adopted b' t e t eorist+ be'ond t e realm of ordi(nar' dis!ourse. 9! lag does not engage is readers in a s ared quest for de!en!' and appiness in an often brutal and trau(mati! &orld+ but instead ! allenges su! a normative quest as being s'mptomati! of deeper(seated problems. 9! lag*s radi!al(ism is extended to t e point of !annibalizing its o&n presuppo(sitions. 02 !olle!tion of dis!ourses t at in t eir strategi! maneu(vering ave pre!luded t e possibilit' of being dis!ursive+ ave su!!eeded not /ust in being destru!tive+ but in being self(de(stru!tive.13" H en t e ermeneuti!s of suspi!ion is pus ed to t e point of paranoia+ t e !riti!al effort dissolves into a self(des!ribed irrelevan!e.

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Schlag is <rong Kse)en reasons/ Earlson. 99 37olumbia 8a& 6evie&+ Gavid Dra'+ 99 7olum. 8. 6ev. 190%+ 3=rofessor+ 7ardozo 9! ool of 8a&44. 5f t is ps'! oanal'ti! suggestion explains t e angr' tone of 9! lagKs &ork+ it also explains t e basi! errors into & i! e falls. H en one !onsiders t is &ork as a & ole+ most of t ese errors are obvious and patent. 5ndeed+ most of t ese errors ave been laid b' 9! lag imself at t e doorstep of ot ers. Lut+ in surrendering to feeling or+ as per aps 9! lag &ould put it+ to !ontext 3i.e.+ t e pre(t eoreti!al state4+ 9! lag !annot elp but make t ese ver' same errors. 9ome examples: 314 9! lagKs program+ indu!ed from is !ritiques+ is t at &e s ould rel' on feeling to tell us & at to do. Xet 9! lag denoun!es in ot ers an' relian!e on a pre(t eoreti!al self. 324 9! lag &arns t at+ b' definition+ t eor' abstra!ts from !ontext. >e &arns t at assuming t e rig t ans&er &ill arise from !ontext unmediated b' t eor' is Ifeeble.I Xet+ e rigorousl' and repetitivel' denoun!es an' departure from !ontext+ as if an' su! attempt is a !astration ( a &ren! ing of t e sub/e!t from t e natural realm. >e usuall' implies t at !ontext alone !an provide t e rig t ans&er ( t at moral geniuses like 9op o!les or Narl Harren !an find t e ans&er b' !onsulting !ontext. 334 9! lag !omplains t at !ommon la& /udges are Iva!uous fello&sI & en t e' erase t emselves so t at la& !an speak. Xet+ 9! lag+ a natural la&'er+ like&ise erases imself so t at !ontext !an speak &it out distortion. 344 9! lag &arns t at merel' reversing t e valen!es of polarities onl' reinstates & at &as !riti!ized. Xet e does t e same in is o&n &ork. 5n atta!king t e sovereignt' of t e liberal self+ e merel' asserts t e sovereignt' of t e romanti! self. Ceit er+ ps'! oanal'ti!all'+ is a valid vision. @ne polarit' is substituted for anot er. 3"4 9! lag s!orns t e postulation of ontologi!al entities su! as free &ill+ but makes moral arguments to is readers t at depend entirel' on su! postulation. 3#4 9! lag denoun!es normativit' in ot ers+ but fails to see t at e imself is normative & en e advises is readers to stop being normative. E e pretense is t at 9! lag is an invisible mediator bet&een is reader and !ontext. 2s su! + 9! lag+ t e anti(Qantian+ is more Qantian t an Qant imself. E us+ !ontext supposedl' announ!es+ I9top doing normative &ork.I Xet !ontext sa's not ing of t e sort. 5t is 9! lagKs o&n normative t eor' t at !alls for t e &ork slo&do&n. 3$4 9! lag urges an end to legal s! olars ip & en e imself !ontinues to do legal s! olars ip. >e ma' &is to den' t at is &ork is s! olars ip+ but is denial must be overruled. He ave before us a legal s! olar+ like an' ot er.

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!o al&erna&i)e' Lang+age i&self is &he real c+l%ri& of Schlag9s fr+s&ra&ion <i&h &he la</ The i-ea &ha& &here is %+re co$$+nica&ion o+&si-e of &he la<. is &o ignore ho< all lang+age o%era&es/ Earlson. 99 37olumbia 8a& 6evie&+ Gavid Dra'+ 99 7olum. 8. 6ev. 190%+ 3=rofessor+ 7ardozo 9! ool of 8a&44. 9! lag blames la&+ !on!eived ere as a istori!all' situated+ vaguel' defined 2meri!an linguisti! pra!ti!e+ for its &ant of a Irobust referent.I 5nstead of delivering an' su! referent+ as it promises to do+ la& tenders an endless set of signifiers 3& i! 9! lag likes to !all Iontologi!al entitiesI4+ ea! of & i! disappointingl' refers onl' to ot er signifiers. 5n t e end+ la& signifies not ing. 5t literall' does not exist. 8a& engages in t e pett' pa!e of an infinite regress ( a bad infinit' ( &it out ever rea! ing t e ultimate signified. 8a&+ in 9! lagKs opinion+ is pseudos!ien!eF nonsense rendered plausibleF madnessF defi!ient in its aut orit' and ontolog'FIfaked+ bluffed+ or simulatedFI mere belief and not kno&ledge of a 6eal E ingF a Aobius stripF a language game !ir!ling around not ing at all. 5n 2ustinian terms+ it pretends to be !onstative 3i.e.+ reporting a pre(existing realit'4+ but is merel' performative. 5t illegitimatel' reifies 3i.e.+ It ingifiesI4 imaginar' !on!epts. 9! lag ex!oriates legal pra!ti!e for its &ant of a Irobust referent+I but never quite defines & at e means b' t is. H at &ould !ount as a Irobust referentIR He !an onl' infer is meaning b' stud'ing & at e t inks la& is not. E us+ &e learn from 9! lag t at natural t ings ave robust referents. n2$ >en!e+ one ma' infer t at t e absent robust referent is some InaturalI t ing be'ond language. 8a& !annot signif' t e t ing(be'ond(language. E is is a good 8a!anian insig t. Lut does t is fault differentiate la& from an' ot er linguisti! pra!ti!e t at &e mig t identif'R 5s la& different from politi!s or mat emati!s or geolog'R Co. E ese pra!ti!es like&ise do not ing but refer to ot er signifiers in t e same infinite regress t at la& does.@ne must !on!lude t at la& is not and never &as t e !ulprit. 8anguage is. 5f language al&a's redu!es to a ! ain of signifiers &it out end+ & ' single la& out for abuseR

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Schlag arg+es &ha& &he la< is ba- beca+se i& fails &o -eli)er H+s&ice/ Schlag $a* be righ& &ha& %erfec& H+s&ice is no& %ossible in &he la< b+& i& is ac&+all* ne)er %ossible beca+se lang+age is i$%erfec&/ Earlson. 99 37olumbia 8a& 6evie&+ Gavid Dra'+ 99 7olum. 8. 6ev. 190%+ 3=rofessor+ 7ardozo 9! ool of 8a&44. ;usti!e is la&Ks Aaster 9ignifier ( its Iex!eptional element.I n33 Xet /ust be!ause /usti!e is ex!eptional+ la& !annot deliver it. E e inabilit' of la& to deliver & at it promises !an best be appre!iated in t e !ontext of 8a!anian t eor'. 2!!ording to 8a!an+ t e uman sub/e!t is angr' at language itself. E is anger is ins!ribed in a false autobiograp '+ n3" a!!ording to & i! t ere on!e &as a time in & i! t e uman sub/e!t felt no pain or desireF but somet ing bad intervened to arm+ maim or redu!e our integrit'. E is stor' as been told a t ousand times in m't + in t e do!trine of @riginal 9in+ in romanti! nostalgia+ in !onservative or radi!al politi!s+
even in >egelian p ilosop '+ & ere t e uman sub/e!t is portra'ed as t e diremption of 9pirit into t e &orld. 5n 8a!anian t eor'+ a sub/e!t & o enters t e s'mboli! realm of language !an speak &ords re!ognized b' ot er sub/e!ts & o !an speak ba!k. E e ver' idea of speaking presupposes some ot er sub/e!t & o !an listen and understand. >en!e+ our abilit' to
differentiate 3and t us identif'4 ourselves in language !an onl' be besto&ed on us b' ot er speaking sub/e!ts. @n t is diale!ti!al vie& of uman sub/e!tivit'+ &e are+ b' definition+ not & ole ( not entirel' present to ourselves. 2 basi! part of ourselves is be'ond us. He are alienated in language. n3% He suffer from Ibeing(for(ot er.I <rom t is basi! position of depending on linguisti! material for self( identifi!ation+ &e are not+ and !annot be+ app' !ons!iousnesses. L' entering t e s'mboli! realm+ &e feel I!astrated.I 7astration+ in 8a!anian terms+ is It e understanding t at &e onl' exist as sub/e!ts &it in la& and language+ 'et la& and language are external to+ and imposed on+ our sub/e!tivit'.I n40 7astration refers to It e sub/e!tKs alienation b' and in t e @t er and separation from t e @t er.I E e !astrated sub/e!t t us experien!es a split bet&een its s'mboli! existen!e 3being(for(ot er4 and t at part of t e self t at language fails to express 3being(for(self4. 5ndeed+ self(!ons!iousness is not ing but t e experien!e of a s!issiparous intervention ( a gap bet&een t e p enomenal and noumenal &orlds. 5t is not merel' t at t e 8a!anian sub/e!t as a split as one of its ! ara!teristi!s. 6at er+ It e sub/e!t is not ing but t is ver' split.I n42 E e sub/e!t is+ if 'ou &ill+ t e ver' absen!e of a robust referent t at mig t under&rite linguisti! pra!ti!e. n2!!ording to 8a!an+ t is submission to t e realm of t e s'mboli! is experien!ed as a kind of failed bargain. E e sub/e!t supposes t at e &as for!ed to give up t e primeval unit' &it ot erness & en e submitted to t e s'mboli! realm. n44 E e sub/e!t !onstantl' &ants to go ba!k to a state of & oleness+ n4" 'et t e s'mboli! realm seems to forbid t is 3impossible4 retreat into I/ouissan!e.I n4# E e sub/e!t as submitted to t e painful dis!ipline of t e s'mboli! ( t e Iuniversal initiation rite of sub/e!tivit'.I n4$ E e pain experien!ed is pre!isel' t e sense t at /ouissan!e as been lost. 2!!ordingl'+ t e sub/e!t feels t at t e s'mboli! realm o&es restitution. n4% E is t ing allegedl' being &rongl' &it eld+ t is missing part+ 8a!an !alls t e p allus ( t at & i! &ould render & ole t e !astrated sub/e!t. n49 E is metap or !omes from t e !on!eit t at a man I asI t e p allus. E at is+ a T*191$U man is !omplete and & ole+ and is p allus is eviden!e of it. n"0 Lut man of ne!essit' does not ave t e p allus. E e sub/e!t is b' is ver' !onstitution !astrated ( an

9! lag is angr' at la& 3i.e.+ language4. 5n parti!ular+ la& does not deliver a robust referent ( a signified. ;usti!e is & at la& signifies. ;usti!e is t e robust referent ( t e p allus. 5f la& !ommitted a primordial !rime on t e sub/e!t b' !astrating im+ t e sub/e!t demands /usti!e ( t e restitution of t e missing parts. E e p allus purports to be a Isignified.I Lut t ere is no signified as su! F onl' t e mere va!ant pla!e & ere t e signified s ould be. H en !alled upon to define t e signified+ &e !an onl' fill t e air &it additional signifiers about it. E is+ as 9! lag !orre!tl' emp asizes+ is all t e pra!ti!e of la& redu!es to. E e p allus+ o&ever+ is pre!isel' & at is be'ond all t ese signifiers. 5t !annot be redu!ed to propositional form. <or t is ver' reason+ /usti!e is quite opaque to general definition. Leing a p alli! trope+ /usti!e never as been and never &ill be defined. An* -efini&ion of H+s&ice co+l- onl* occ+r b* +se of signifiers. *e& H+s&ice is %recisel* <ha& is be*on- significa&ion/ n30 So concei)e-. i& is clear &ha& H+s&ice $+s& al<a*s fail. Going /usti!e is t erefore al&a's an a!t of IsublimationI ( in sublimation+ 5 Ielevate an ob/e!t to t e dignit' of t e E ing.I n"3 ;usti!e+ as t is void bet&een legal
Iemas!ulate !on!eption.I 6eturning to 9! lagKs brief against la&+ !on!epts+ parti!ipates in & at 9lavo/ Vizek !alls t e Iet i!s of t e 6eal+I & i! is t e moral 8a& in its impenetrable aspe!t+ as an agen!' t at arouses anxiet' b' addressing me &it t e empt'+ tautologi!al and+ for t at ver' reason+ enigmati! in/un!tion KGo 'our dut'JK+ leaving it to me to translate t is in/un!tion into a determinate moral obligation ( 5+ t e moral sub/e!t+ remain forever plagued b' un!ertaint'+ sin!e t e moral 8a& provides no guarantee t at 5 Igot it rig tI... ;usti!e+ 5 !ontend+ is =rofessor 9! lagKs Irobust referent.I

& at 9! lag does not !onsider is t at /usti!e al&a's ne!essaril' fails. ;usti!e is a negative lo!ated in t e intersti!es of la&. 2n' attempt to legislate /usti!e is mere sublimation. Eo deliver on t is promise of /usti!e+ la& &ould ave to fill t e legal universe and !ro&d out t e negative moment of /usti!e. Eo t e extent la& fails to deliver on its promise ( & en it fails to fill t e legal universe ( it pre!isel' leaves open t e possibilit' of /usti!e itself. ;usti!e is designed to failJ 2!!ording to t e false 8a!anian autobiograp '+ la& as promised /usti!e+ but it !annot deliver. 8a& as !astrated t e sub/e!t but as not lived up to its side of t e bargain. 5t as defaulted on its promise of restitution. 8a& onl' fills t e field of /usti!e &it more signifiers+ on a
Xet logi! b' & i! la& is remade &it ever' instan!e of legal pra!ti!e. 6evealingl'+ 9! lag &rites: IEo be reall' good at Kdoing la&+K one as to ave serious blind spots and a stunningl' sele!tive sense of !uriosit'.I =rofessor 9! lag !aptures t e pra!ti!e of la& a!utel' in t is remark. IGoing la&I is filling t e gap &it signifiers+ a pra!ti!e t at does indeed require serious blind spots in t e performan!e of it. Eo speak or to a!t is literall' to forget ( t at t e !astrated sub/e!t is not & ole .

There is no sense. ho<e)er. in being angr* abo+& H+-icial fail+re/ La< canno& be bla$e- for <ha& i& canno& -eli)er/

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AT !O(MAT 8 TJ' TF#O(J TOO TOTAL ? !7 !o al&erna&i)e' f &he la< is a &o&aliBing &heor* <i&h no concre&e exis&ence. &hen so is &he free <ill &ha& he %os&+la&es as his al&erna&i)e/ Earlson. 99 37olumbia 8a& 6evie&+ Gavid Dra'+ 99 7olum. 8. 6ev. 190%+ 3=rofessor+ 7ardozo 9! ool of 8a&44. 7osmolog' is postulation &rit large. 5t refers to t e totalit' of all p enomena. 2 !osmologi!al solution is a totalization of all of t e !onditions or properties given in an ob/e!t. n12# <or 9! lag+ !osmologi!al solutions to infinite regresses are doubl' una!!eptable. 2n' attempt to end t e infinite regress in a !osmologi!al proposition !reates ne& !ontradi!tions. n12$ Co su! proposition is an' better t an an' ot er. n12% Nven Hittgenstein is ! astised for merel' produ!ing anot er una!!eptable postulative T*192$U turtle. n129 2 ! apter in 8a'ing Go&n t e 8a& is spent on !riti!izing 9tanle' <is for !onstantl' imposing !osmologi!al solutions to fix meaning. E us+ b' asserting t at an' interpretive rule must itself be interpreted ad infinitum+ <is ultimatel' !on!edes t at meaning exists. 9u! a solution is !osmologi!al and en!e una!!eptable. 9in!e e insists on tangibilit'+ 9! lag as no patien!e & atever for su! ideas as Dod+ !ons!ien!e+ or reason 3even & ile e insists on t e robust realit' of /usti!e4. 6eason+ la& and moralit' are+ like Dod+ quite dead. Leing supersensible+ t e' are be'ond t e domain of feeling+ and so are disqualified from t e field of romanti! realit'.5n lieu of postulation+ 9! lag favors t oug t t at is not totalizing+ but rat er is !onfli!ted+ and interstitial. n13" 7o eren!e is but an aest eti! n13# T*192%U !riterion+ and en!e not aut enti!. n13$ Le!ause a given person modulates bet&een different !ognitive modes+ !o eren!e a!!ording to an' one mode prevails onl' b' ignoring and suppressing t e ot er !ognitive modes. E is entire position+ o&ever+ is a misinterpretation. <irst+ &e ave alread' seen t at 9! lag imself refers to la& as Ia ri! amalgamation of feudal so!ial aest eti!s+ nineteent (!entur' /uristi! s!ien!e+ earl' t&entiet (!entur' legal realist poli!' anal'sis+ legal pro!ess pro!eduralisms+ Harren 7ourt normativit'.I n139 E is is pre!isel' a !osmologi!al !on!lusion about la& as a totalit'. 5ndeed+ 9! lag !ould not speak of la& &it out indulging in su! totalizing be avior. Eotalization is a ne!essar' 3but inadequate4 moment in s'mboli! existen!e. Aore fundamentall'+ if 5 ave !orre!tl' inferred t at 9! lagKs program is a romanti! Ila& of t e eart+I t en t is ver' program is a !osmologi!al postulation. 9u! a program+ as &e ave seen+ is based on t e 'pot esis t at t e sub/e!t &as on!e a & ole+ and mig t be a & ole again. E is postulation ( to & i! feeling testifies ( is /ust as mu! a ItotalizationI or Iontologi!al entit'I as la& is. 5ndeed+ postulation is ne!essar' to t e ver' program t at 9! lag impli!itl' promotes ( liberation of t e !on!rete self from legal s! olars ip+ la&+ and language. <or t e !on!rete sub/e!t to be free+ it must ave a t&o(sided nature ( one natural and one supersensible. E e supersensible side ( free &ill+ or t e moral !apa!it' to ! oose ( is presupposed b' 9! lag in is ver' appeal against legal s! olars ip. 5f is readers &ere in!apable of eeding is appeal+ t ere &ould be little point in making it. E ere &ould be not ing to liberate. @n!e free &ill is abolis ed+ t e self &ould be a mere automaton in t e t rall of legal s! olars ip. E e supersensible side of personalit' !an onl' be postulated. n143 5f+ o&ever+ &e postulate free &ill+ as somet ing separate and apart from in!lination+ t en it is possible to presuppose a pre(existing la& t at a /udge+ in t e exer!ise of er moral !apa!it'+ is free to follo& 3in lieu of er in!lination4.

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AT !O(MAT 8 TJ' TF#O(J TOO TOTAL ? !7 There is no i$%ac& &o &he legal con&ra-ic&ions arg+$en&/ Schlag is righ& &ha& &here are con&ra-ic&ions in &he la< b+& is <rong abo+& <ha& &ha& $eans/ Eon&ra-ic&ions allo< for &he %osi&i)e e)ol+&ion of &he la</ Earlson. 99 37olumbia 8a& 6evie&+ Gavid Dra'+ 99 7olum. 8. 6ev. 190%+ 3=rofessor+ 7ardozo 9! ool of 8a&44. 9! lag offers t is !ritique of t e la&Ks inabilit' to &it stand its internal !ontradi!tion: E is stratagem for t e denial of !ontradi!tion seems to be a 'brid of VenoKs paradox and marginal anal'sis. E e idea be ind se!torization Ti.e.+ s'nt esisU is t at if one produ!es distin!tions Ti.e.+ re!on!ilationsU at a rate marginall' faster t an t e produ!tion of !ontradi!tion+ t en t e sum of t ese !urves &ill al&a's 'ield !o eren!e+ not !ontradi!tion. E is is a great denial strateg'+ and it &ould &ork /ust fine ex!ept for one t ing: it is ardl' self(evident t at t e produ!tion of distin!tion Ti.e.+ s'nt esisU and t e produ!tion of !ontradi!tion are independent fun!tions. E is !riti!ism properl' re!ognizes t e internalit' of !ontradi!tion+ but+ in t e end+ it is not &ell taken. H en a /udge re!on!iles !onfli!ting a!!ounts of & at t e la& is+ la& en/o's a moment of !o eren!e ( one t at &ill not last but one t at nevert eless validl' !laims its moment+ t anks to t e free &ill of t e onest /udge. 5t follo&s+ t en+ t at t e /udge(as(tortoise sta's ever a ead of t e de!onstru!tive 2! illes. n1%1 Lut t e pre!ise solution rea! ed b' t e /udge is onl' a moment. E is moment &ill be sub/e!ted to future interpretation and en!e furt er ! ange. n1%2 2nd t e reason & ' t e la& must ! ange is t at it !ontains !ontradi!tion. E is is so in t&o senses. 5t bot restrains and suffers from !ontradi!tion. 5n >egelKs s'stem+ a It ingI is pre!isel' t at & i! !ontains !ontradi!tion over time. 7ontradi!tion is t e ver' essen!e of t ings t at !ome to be and !ease to be ( t e enduring aspe!t to & i! all It ingsI refer. n1%3 Xet+ be!ause t ings are finite 3and en!e !ontradi!tor'4+ t e' must be!ome somet ing ot er t an & at t e' are. <initude implies t at & at a t ing oug t to be is alread' impli!it in t e t ing. 2!!ordingl'+ if la& is a t ing+ impli!it in la& is & at it oug t to be!ome. 7ontradi!tion is b' no means an evil in >egelKs s'stem. Leing t e ground of t ings+ t ere is no possibilit' of abolis ing it. 7ontradi!tion is & at makes la& a d'nami! It ing.I 8a& is t erefore al&a's in a state of be!oming ( of gro&t . H en a /udge follo&s t e la&+ la& is presented in a ne!essar' moment of stasis and s'nt esis. 8a& is transformed at t e moment it is pronoun!ed and performed. Lut la& !annot remain in t is stati! state. E e next /udge to !onfront t e la& must like&ise transform it+ produ!ing a stati! moment t at !annot entirel' repli!ate t e previous stati! moment. 5n t is &a' la& ! anges+ but remains a It ingI nevert eless. E is is la& in its autopoieti! mode. n &his acco+n&. an- con&rar* &o Schlag. s*n&hesis an- con&ra-ic&ion are -e%en-en& for$s > logical correla&i)es/ S*n&he&ic ac&i)i&* is %ossible onl* beca+se -ialec&ical o%%osi&ion %rece-es i&/ Eon&ra-ic&ion ca+ses s*n&hesis. an- so s*n&hesis is e)er $arginall* ahea- of i& > %recisel* &he o%%osi&e of <ha& Schlag con&en-s.

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AT !O(MAT 8 TJ' LAW S@==O(TS F(##"OM !o al&erna&i)e an- no i$%ac&' erasing nor$a&i)i&* is i$%ossible beca+se i& %os&+la&es &he )er* &*%e of Kan&ain s+bHec& &ha& Schlag cri&iD+es/ Earlson. 99 37olumbia 8a& 6evie&+ Gavid Dra'+ 99 7olum. 8. 6ev. 190%+ 3=rofessor+ 7ardozo 9! ool of 8a&44. =er aps =ierre 9! lagKs most famous point is is imperative+ IGonKt be normative.I E e values of t e legal a!adem' are little better t an advertising purve'ors n192 ( 'po!rites & o tr' Ito a! ieve strategi! advantages largel' 3if not entirel'4 unrelated to t e observan!e or realization of t ose professed values.I n193 Balues are used as totems or tools to indu!e guilt or s ame. 9tifling and narro&+ normativit' is not even a t oug t ( onl' an unt inking abit. n19# Cormativit' argues t at+ if it does not old
s&a'+ terrible so!ial !onsequen!es &ould follo&. n19$ Cormative t oug t is designed to s ut do&n !riti!al inquir' into t e not ingness of la&. Cot onl' are values de!eitfull' strategi!+ but t e' are ineffe!tive. n199 E e' are too vague to be self(determining. n200 ICormative legal t oug tKs onl' !onsumers are legal a!ademi!s and per aps a fe& la& students ( persons & o are virtuall' never in a position to put an' of its &onderful normative advi!e into effe!t.I n201 ;udges are not listening. n202 Nven if /udges ad t e time to read and stud' all of a!ademiaKs suggestions+ t e' &ould be unlikel' to implement an' & i! &ould require radi!al ! anges in t e status quo+ sin!e+ 9! lag notes+ Ionl' t ose kinds of norms t at alread' !onform to t e audien!eKs belief are likel' to meet &it an' sort T*193$U of &ide(s!ale approval.I n203 E us+ 9! lag !on!edes+ sometimes normativit' is empiri!all' effe!tive after all ( but not be!ause of intrinsi! aut enti!it'. Cormativit' is effe!tive be!ause it tra!ks and in!orporates Ifolk(ontologies+I su! as order+ salvation+ or progress. n204 8ike 2nton'+ norms tell t e people onl' & at t e' alread' kno&. Corms and values are lies+ 9! lag sa's+ & en proffered b' legal a!ademi!s+ but it &as ot er&ise &it 9op o!les n20" or t e Harren !ourt+ n20# & o &ere aut enti!all' in tou! &it real pain. L' impli!ation+ values are aut enti! & en immediatel' !onne!ted to feelings. n20$ Balues+ properl' used+ are &ort ' of !ommendation. n20% Lut t e mere invo!ation of values does not guarantee t eir aut enti!it'. E e proof of values is in !ontext. 2t first impression+ 9! lagKs imperative against normativit' seems startlingl' !ontradi!tor'. 5s it not a norm t at one s ould not be normativeR 5f so+ o& is it t at t e norms of t e legal a!adem' are lies+ & ile 9! lagKs ver' meta(norm is

. Corms and values are defined b' 9! lag as !on!epts & i! are severed from & at 9! lag likes to !all I!ontextI ( understood as nature+ or t e state t at pre!edes t e introdu!tion of legal distortion. n210 5n fa!t+ norms and values are t e same non(t ing or non(sense as la&. E e' are t e !orruptions and mutilations t at destro' !ontext. E e' are !astration itself. 5f+ o&ever+ !ontext !ould speak dire!tl'+ & at it &ould sa' &ould not be a norm. H en !ontext sa's+ IGonKt be normative+I t en !ontext is not itself normative. 6at er+ !ontext &ould be speaking a natural+ &ell(grounded+ immediate trut ( not a mere norm. E is is+ 5 t ink+ & at organizes 9! lagKs !ritique of norms. E e norms offered b' legal a!ademi!s are inaut enti! be!ause t e' are universals+ standing apart from !ontext. 9! lag+ 9op o!les+ and 7 ief ;usti!e Narl Harren+ o&ever+ are in tou! &it !ontext 3t roug sense(!ertaint' or immediate feeling4+ and & at t e' speak is t e !on!rete trut + not a norm. 5n s ort+ 9! lag appeals to a natural la& & i! is+ & ile ot er legal a!ademi!s appeal to mere Iontologi!al identities+I & i! merel' oug t to be. E is is pre!isel' t e !laim of t e romanti!+ & o+ Iexempt from publi! aunt+ <inds tongues in trees+ books in t e running brooks+ 9ermons in stones+ and good in ever' t ing.I 5n t e &orld of t e romanti!+ t ings speak dire!tl'. E us+ & en 9! lag reports & at natural !ontext sa's+ no t oug t or InormI enters to distort t e message sent b' nature itself. 9! lag t us puts imself fort as & at as been !alled a Irational observerI of natural la& ( a vanis ing mediator+ in Vizekian terms. 9! lag !omplains t at positive la&'ers are empt' vessels. E us+ G&orkinKs >er!ules is said to be a Iva!uous fello&.I 5roni!all'+ it turns out t at 9! lag imself is /ust as va!uous. n or-er for con&ex& &o s%eak. Schlag $+s& erase hi$self an- be &he )anishing $e-ia&or be&<een na&+re Li/e/. con&ex&I an- legal a+-ience/ n shor&. Schlag. <ho )ocifero+sl* o%%oses &he Kan&ian s+bHec&. %+&s hi$self for&h as &he %erfec& Kan&ian.
legitimateR 9! lagKs vie& is not at all !ontradi!tor' &it in t e !ontext of romanti! ps'! olog'

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AT !O(MAT 8 TJ' LAW S A! #X#(E S# ! MO(AL M@"7M#!T !o i$%ac&' Schlag is <rong abo+& &he rela&ionshi% be&<een &he la< an- $orali&*/ We are able &o choose a$ong $oral arg+$en&s. s+ch as &hose %osi&e- b* &he la</ The la< is an exercise in h+$an free-o$/ Earlson. 99 37olumbia 8a& 6evie&+ Gavid Dra'+ 99 7olum. 8. 6ev. 190%+ 3=rofessor+ 7ardozo 9! ool of 8a&44. = ilosop ies t rive and ripen for a reason+ and one of t e reasons liberal p ilosop ' t rives is t at it en/o's some degree of des!riptive a!!ura!'+ albeit one(sided. E e ver' idea of self(!ons!iousness suggests a negativit' to&ard t e natural self. E e positive aspe!ts of t is natural self are pla!ed on one side and treated as alien+ external ob/e!ts. 9elf(!ons!iousness stands in utter negativit' to !ontemplate t at natural material. E e moral position in liberal p ilosop ' emp asizes t e disentanglement of t e universal part of personalit' at t e expense of t e parti!ular. H en free of in!lination 3natural passion4+ t e self is able to follo& t e moral la&. @nl' t en !an t e sub/e!t enun!iate full' & o e is ( & en all !ontent as been abolis ed. @n t is vie&+ in!lination is morall' arbitrar' and imposed b' nature. >en!e+ to listen to in!lination is to renoun!e our freedom. Eaken to its extreme+ our natural side &ould submerge self(!ons!iousness and make it disappear ba!k into nature. E e self be!omes indistinguis able from t e ob/e!t &orld. Lut taken to its o&n extreme+ t e moral or universal position like&ise deprives t e sub/e!t of an' distin!tion from t e ob/e!t &orld. <rom t e position of pure reason+ t e person is &it out visible properties. 5ndeed+ in t e extreme of abstra!tion+ t ere is onl' one person. E ere are not t e materials to distinguis bet&een persons at all. 5f self(!ons!iousness is to perpetuate itself+ it must exist bet&een t ese extremes of pure being and pure not ing. 5t must a!t and t ereb' prove it exists+ but+ on t e ot er and+ it must a!t from t e position of IrelativeI autonom'. 9elf(!ons!iousness is t erefore al&a's in a diale!ti! relation bet&een t e pure negativit' of moralit' and t e pure being of in!lination ( &it t e proviso t at+ in >egelian t oug t+ pure being and pure not ing are t e same t ing. Eon&rar* &o SchlagRs acco+n&. abs&rac&ion fro$ he&erono$* $+s& be seen as a legi&i$a&e an- necessar* si-e &o &he h+$an s&or*/ & is fro$ &his si-e &ha& &he h+$an being lis&ens &o reason . E e empiri!al self as su! is not li!ensed to legislate universall'. 2s Qant put it: @ur pat ologi!all' affe!ted self+ alt oug it is in its maxims quite unfit for universal legislationF 'et+ /ust as if it !onstituted our entire self+ strives to put its pretensions for&ard first+ and to ave t em a!kno&ledged as t e first and original. E is propensit' to make ourselves... serve as t e ob/e!tive determining prin!iples of t e &ill generall' ma' be !alled self(love+ and+ if t is pretends to be legislative as an un!onditional pra!ti!al prin!iple+ it ma' be !alled self(!on!eit. E e !on!rete self+ t erefore+ la!ks t e perspe!tive of t e universal. H at it produ!es is mere self(!on!eit. 9! lag as stated t at reason is a tri!k upon t e prerogative of t e !on!rete self. Lut t is is so onl' if t e natural self vie&s itself as !ompletel' divor!ed from its moral side. 5t is not so divor!ed. 5ts moral side is an essential part of t e !on!rete self. E e moral side speaks to its o&n !on!rete self & en it regulates in!lination a!!ording to moral la&. E e natural side drives t e self to makes its existen!e kno&n in t e &orld. (eason is no& a &rick. b+& a %rogra$ b* <hich &he self $igh& %osi& i&self in &he <orl- in a &a' t at is true to t e universal side of personalit'. 5ndeed+ if reason &ere abolis ed+ t e mind &ould lapse ba!k into It e 6eal+I and personalit' &ould submit to t e nig t of ps'! osis. E is is t e true result of abolis ing legal s! olars ip and of permitting t e romanti! self to !all t e s ots. The aboli&ion of legal scholarshi% Li/e/. lang+ageI is )er* $+ch a -ea&h <ish.

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AT !O(MAT 8 TJ' LAW S A! #X#(E S# ! MO(AL M@"7M#!T !o i$%ac&' La< a%%eals &o &he $oral -i$ension of h+$an free-o$,one can be bo&h la< abi-ing an- free beca+se &he la< s&ill allo<s for %ersonal choice/ Earlson. 99 37olumbia 8a& 6evie&+ Gavid Dra'+ 99 7olum. 8. 6ev. 190%+ 3=rofessor+ 7ardozo 9! ool of 8a&44. 5n fa!t+ tied into t e ver' idea of follo&ing t e la& is t e idea of a free &ill t at mig t ! oose not to follo& t e la&. E e free &ill t at aspires to follo& t e la& never trul' binds itself. 2 sub/e!t t at puts itself for&ard as la&ful !ould give into impulse tomorro& and is t erefore IfreeI 3in t e negative sense4 to violate t e la&. 8a&fulness is t erefore a !onstant struggle ( t e ongoing a! ievement of t e !on!rete self. <urt ermore+ it is a struggle in & i! t e sub/e!t must fail: <reedom realizes itself t roug a series of failures: ever' parti!ular attempt to realize freedom ma' failF from its point of vie&+ freedom remains an empt' possibilit'F but t e ver' !ontinuous striving of freedom to realize itself bears &itness to its Ia!tualit'.I <reedom is t us Ipo&erful.I 5t ex ibits t e Iprima!' of possibilit' over a!tualit'.I n2"3 <orever potential+ it is nevert eless a possibilit' t at transforms t e &orld. 5n !ontrast to t is vie&+ =rofessor 9! lag &ants to sa' t at freedom means t e !on!rete self !an do & at it feels like. Lut e s ould kno& better t an to exalt t e aut enti!it' of t e pre(legal natural self+ and e as on o!!asion ! astised ot ers for doing /ust t at. nEo exalt t e sovereignt' of su! a self 3t at ma' be in t e t rall of !riminal passion4 instead of t e liberal self is to permit t e !ontingent side of t e self to govern in its moral arbitrariness. 5n ot er &ords+ t e essen!e of personalit' is t e rationalit' of t e liberal self. !ega&i)e free-o$ -enies &he essence of %ersonali&* an- &herefore en-s +% -es&ro*ing i&s o<n self. Eo summarize+ 9! lagKs &ork is based on a romanti! ps'! olog'. 5f onl' t e !on!rete self &ere freed from la&+ 9! lag implies+ it &ould kno& & at to do. 8a& offers mere InormsI and presents t e sub/e!t &it empt' ! oi!es. 9u! a t eor' of t e self ignores t e fa!t t at uman nature as t&o sides ( t e natural and t e moral. @ne side !annot be privileged at t e expense of t e ot er. Eo be sure+ man' of 9! lagKs !riti!isms of liberal ps'! olog' are &ell taken. 8iberal ps'! olog' absolutel' denies a pla!e for t e un!ons!ious and irrational. >is a!!usation t at liberal p ilosop ' does not !onsider t e ! allenge of de!onstru!tion to liberal ps'! olog' is an ex!ellent !ontribution. 8iberal p ilosop ' in re!ent times deserves !riti!ism for not peering ver' deepl' into t e soul of t e legal sub/e!t. Lut liberal p ilosop ' is also on to somet ing: The $oral -i$ension of %ersonali&* is cons&i&+&i)e an- canno& be abolishe- <i&ho+& -es&ro*ing %ersonali&* en&irel* .

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T+rn' Schalg9s %ro&es& +l&i$a&el* f+els &he la</ The ballo& is an e$%&* ges&+re of &heore&ical resis&ance &ha& has no effec& on &he ac&+al o%era&ion of &he s*s&e$/ & si$%l* $akes *o+ feel be&&er abo+& *o+r %lace in i& as a cri&ical obHec&or/ Earlson. 99 37olumbia 8a& 6evie&+ Gavid Dra'+ 99 7olum. 8. 6ev. 190%+ 3=rofessor+ 7ardozo 9! ool of 8a&44. 9! lag presents a dark vision of & at e !alls It e bureau!ra!'+I & i! !rus es us and !ontrols us. 5t operates on Ia field of pain and deat .I n2"9 5t deprives us of ! oi!e+ spee! + n2#0 and !ustom. 2s bureau!ra!' !annot abide great minds+ legal edu!ation must suppress greatness t roug mind numbing repetition.
n2#2 5n fa!t+ legal t oug t is t e bureau!ra!' and !annot be distinguis ed from it. n2#3 5f legal t oug t tried to bu!k t e bureau!ra!'+ t e bureau!ra!' &ould instantl' !rus it. 9! lag observes t at /udges ave taken Ioat s t at require subordination of trut + understanding+ and insig t+ to t e preservation of !ertain bureau!rati! governmental institutions and !ertain sa!red texts.I n2#" 8egal s! olars ip and la&'ers generall' n2## are t e !raven tools of bureau!ra!'+ and t ose & o pra!ti!e la& or s! olars ip simpl' serve to /ustif' and strengt en t e bureau!ra!'. I5f t ere &ere no dis!ipline of 2meri!an la&+ t e liberal state &ould ave to invent it.I n2#$ I8egal t inkers in effe!t serve as a kind of =.6. firm for t e bureau!rati! state.I n2#% 8egal s! olars ip as sol- o+& &o &he b+rea+crac*' 5nsofar as t e expressions of t e state in t e form of Tstatutes+ et!.U !an be expe!ted to endure+ so !an t e dis!ipline t at so elpfull' organizes+ rationalizes+ and represents t ese expressions as intelligent kno&ledge. 2s long as t e dis!ipline s o&s obeisan!e to t e aut oritative legal forms+ it en/o's t e ba!king of t e state... Gis!iplinar' kno&ledge of la& !an be true not be!ause it is true+ but be!ause t e state makes it true. 9! olars ip produ!es a false I!onflation bet&een & at Ta!ademi!sU !elebrate as Kla&K and t e ugl' bureau!rati! noise t at grinds dail' in t e T*194#U T U !ourts....I n2$0 9! olars ip Ibe!omes t e mode of dis!ourse b' & i! bureau!rati! institutions and pra!ti!es re(present t emselves as sub/e!t to t e rational et i!al(moral !ontrol of autonomous individuals.I n2$1 IE e ?nited 9tates 9upreme 7ourt and its

.I 8a!anian t eor' allo&s us to interpret t e meaning of t is anti(Aasoni! vision pre!isel'. 9! lagKs bureau!ra!' must be seen as a Iparanoid !onstru!tion a!!ording to & i! our universe is t e &ork of art of unkno&n !reators.I 5n 9! lagKs vie&+ t e bureau!ra!' is in !ontrol of la& and language and uses it ex!lusivel' for its o&n purposes. E e bureau!ra!' is t erefore t e @t er of t e @t er+ Ia
a!ademi! groupies in t e la& s! ools ave su!!eeded in doing & at man'+ onl' a fe& de!ades ago+ &ould ave t oug t impossible. E e' ave su!!eeded in making Qafka look naive idden sub/e!t & o pulls t e strings of t e great @t er 3t e s'mboli! order4.I E e bureau!ra!'+ in s ort+ is t e superego 3i.e.+ absolute kno&ledge of t e ego4+ but rendered visible and pro/e!ted out&ard. E e

+ b' des!ribing 9! lagKs vision as a paranoid !onstru!tion+ 5 do not mean to suggest t at =rofessor 9! lag is mentall' ill or unable to fun!tion. =aranoid !onstru!tion is not in fa!t
superego+ t e egoKs stern master+ !ondemns t e ego and !ondemns & at it does. 9! lag as transferred t is fun!tion to t e bureau!ra!'. 2s is !ustomar' t e illness. 5t is an attempt at ealing & at t e illness is ( t e !onflation of t e domains of t e s'mboli!+ imaginar'+ and real. E is !onflation is & at 8a!an !alls Ips'! osis.I H ereas t e InormalI sub/e!t is split bet&een t e t ree domains+ t e ps'! oti! is not. >e is unable to keep t e domains separate. E e s'mboli! domain of language begins to lose pla!e to t e real domain. E e ps'! oti! raves in!o erentl'+

. E e paranoid vision olds toget er t e s'mboli! order itself and t ereb' prevents t e sub/e!t from slipping into t e ps'! oti! state in & i! It e !on!rete K5K loses its absolute po&er over t e entire s'stem of its determinations.I E is of !ourse means ( and ere is t e deep iron' of paraonia ( t at bureau!ra!' is t e ver' savior of romanti! metap 'si!s. 5f t e romanti! program &ere ever fulfilled > if &he b+rea+crac* <ere &o fol- +% sho% an- le& &he na&+ral si-e of &he s+bHec& ha)e i&s <a* > s+bHec&i)i&* <o+l- soon be en)elo%e-. s$o&here-. an- kille- in &he nigh& of %s*chosis/ =aranoid ambivalen!e to&ard bureau!ra!' 3or & atever ot er fantas' ma' be substituted for it4 is ver' !ommonl' observed. Aost re!entl'+ !onservatives Iorganized t eir en/o'mentI b' opposing !ommunism. L' !onfronting and resisting an all(en!ompassing+ sinister po&er+ t e sub/e!t !onfirms is existen!e as t at & i! sees and resists t e po&er. 2s long as !ommunism existed+ !onservatism !ould be per!eived. H en !ommunism disappeared+ !onservatives felt Ianxiet'I ( a la!k of purpose. 2lt oug t e' publi!l' opposed !ommunism+ t e' se!retl' regretted its disappearan!e. Hit in a s ort time+ a ne& enem' &as found to organize !onservative /ouissan!e ( t e !ultural left. 3@n t e left+ a similar stor' !ould be told about t e organizing fun!tion of ra!ism and sexism+ & i! + of !ourse+ ave not 'et
and t ings begin to talk to im dire!tl'. E e ps'! oti!+ Iimmersed in /ouissan!e+I n2%0 loses desire itself. =aranoia is a strateg' t e sub/e!t adopts to &ard off breakdo&n disappeared.4 E ese umble examples s o& t at t e romanti! 'earning for & oleness is al&a's t e opposite of & at it appears to be. He paranoids need our enemies to organize our en/o'ment. =aranoid !onstru!tion is+ in t e end+ a p ilosop i!al interpretation+ even in t e !lini!al !ases. n2%$ 2s 9! lag as per!eived+ t e s'mboli! order of la& is artifi!ial. 5t onl' exists be!ause &e insist it does. He all fear

/ =ara-oxicall*. i& is &his )er* Tanxie&*T &ha& shores +% &he s*$bolic. E e normal person kno&s e must keep insisting t at t e s'mboli! order exists pre!isel' be!ause t e person kno&s it is a fi!tion. E e paranoid+ o&ever+ assigns t is role to t e bureau!ra!' 3and t ereb' absolves imself from t e responsibilit'4. Th+s. %aranoi- -el+sion allo<s for &he $ain&enance of a Tc*nicalT -is&ance be&<een &he %aranoi- s+bHec& an- &he real$ of $a- %s*chosis/ n &r+&h. c*nicis$ &o<ar- b+rea+crac* sho<s no&hing b+& &he +nconfron&e- -e%&h &o <hich &he c*nic is ac&+all* co$$i&&e- &o <ha& o+gh& &o be abolishe-.
t at t e ouse of !ards ma' !ome !ras ing do&n

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Onl* &hro+gh re-is&rib+&ions of %o<er like &he aff can <e change &he %oli&ics of %o)er&*/ Far)e* an- (ee-. 94 >arve' as a p d from universit' of 5llinois+ as !o(aut ored several papers on a variet' of topi!s &it Gean Aike 6eed of ?C6Ks 7ollege of Lusiness 2dministration.
E e general fo!us of t eir &ork involves a ret inking of t e so!ial s!ientifi! signifi!an!e of Aarxist materialism+ Ai! ael >. 6eed is a partner in t e = iladelp ia offi!e of =epper >amilton 88=. >e is a member of t e firm*s 7orporate 6estru!turing and Lankrupt!' =ra!ti!e Droup. >e is a fello& of t e 2meri!an 7ollege of Lankrupt!' and a member of t e 2meri!an 8a& 5nstitute+ Hinter 199#+ 3Gavid 8. and Ai! ael >.+ E e 7ulture of =overt'+ an ideologi!al anal'sis1+ from 9o!ialogi!al =erspe!tives+ Bol 39 no. 4+ page 4%9(490+ ;9E@64

>en!e+ despite t e ne& te! nologies being instituted under !apitalKs auspi!es+ it s ould not be surprising to find t e e!onomi! situation of 2meri!ans+ bot in and out of t e a!adem'+ &orsening as a neomalt usian pessimism and resurgent individualism+ as &ell as a fis!al tig t(fistedness in matters of publi! poli!'+ takes old in almost ever' se!tor of 2meri!an life. 2nd as postmodern so!iolog' as in!reasingl' negle!ted !lass and !lass !onfli!t in favor of interpretative studies of !ulture and sub/e!tivit'+ its per!eption of t e poor and its assessment of t e possi( bilities of eliminating material povert'+ ave ! anged a!!ordingl'. 5n an age of diminis ed expe!tations+ t e poor remind us of t e possible fate a&aiting us in t is brave ne& &orld of flexible a!!umulation and /ust(in(time produ!tion. 5n !ontrast to t e eup oria of t e 19#0s+ & en povert' &as somet ing to be eliminated t roug !olle!tive effort+ povert' is regarded toda' as somet ing t at t reatens even t ose & o are presentl' &ell(off. 5t is no longer a problem from & i! &e !an safel' distan!e ourselves+ for no& povert' as assumed a dis!omfiting immedia!'. E e superfluit' and impoveris ment &e on!e identified as t e ex!lusive propert' of t e urban slum d&eller or rural proletarian is no& a pend( ing problem for t ose of us &orking in t e a!adem' as &ell. >en!e+ somet ing & i! ma' &ell be our future fate !an no longer be studied &it t e so!ial distan!e and !lini!al !alm it on!e &as. 2s so!iet' as ! anged in t e last t ree de!ades+ so as t e politi!s of s!ien!e t at undergird povert' resear! . 5nstead of being a problem to be eliminated b' t e mobilization of national resour!es+ povert' as be!ome a po&erful spe!ter to be feared b' all but t e ver' ri! . 5nstead of being vi!tims of a fla&ed s'stem of produ!tion+ t e poor toda' are !riminalized+ mu! as t e' &ere in t e 19"0s. >aving been res! ooled in t e old fears of t e Gepression Nra+ t&o ne& genera( tions of ri! and poor alike ave been indo!trinated in t e ideolog' of diminis ed expe!tations+ & ile simultaneousl' being anded ne& /ustifi!ations for individual greed and anti(so!ial aspirations. Cot immune to t is s ift in &orld vie&+ nor t e a!!ompan'ing reallo!ation in t e relative &ealt and po&er among t e !lasses+ a ne& ideologi!al lands!ape as taken s ape in t e a!adem' as publi! poli!' ques( tions ave been reformulated and debated on ne& grounds. E e general parame( ters of t at debate ave been egemoni!all' trun!ated so t at t e traditional left and its proa!tive !on!eption of government planning and programs ave been all but eliminated from Iserious dis!ourse.I 9u! a trun!ation as given neo!onservatives and bab' boomer liberals alike a virtual monopol' in staking out t e Irealisti! parametersI and limits of IreasonedI poli!' dis!ussions. 2nd given t e vested interests of t ese groups+ neit er !an !ountenan!e a t eor' of povert' grounded in an anal'sis of !apitalKs !lass(based !ontradi!tions. Ceit er bab'(boomers nor neo!onservatives+ given t eir present politi!al agen( das+ ave an interest in exploring t e possibilities made manifest b' a !lass(based anal'sis of povert'. Ceedless to sa'+ bot parties+ for &idel' differing reasons+ &ould find equall' ob/e!tionable t at part of 8e&isKs &ork !laiming t at t e !ulture of povert' !ontains a positive+ redemptive kernel. E e possibilit' t at t e poor !ould possess eit er alternative &isdoms or !ultural virtues !annot be !ountenan!ed. 5f t e poor &ere to appear as relativel' !ompetent partners in solving t eir predi!ament+ t e' &ould on!e again+ as t e' &ere in t e 19#0s+ ave to be given a signifi!ant voi!e(some degree of Imaximum feasible parti!ipationI(in ! arting t eir pat out of povert'. E is !ontingen!' &as unsettling enoug 30 'ears ago & en 2meri!a &as e!onomi!all' and morall' solvent. Eo suggest t e poor are somet ing more t an a pat ologi!al residue &ould require a redistribution of po&er and so!ial resour!es t at neit er fa!tion to t e !urrent povert' debate is &illing to !ountenan!e seriousl'+ mu! less implement.

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Jo+ can9& s&ick +s <i&h one $eaning of %o)er&*> =o)er&* $eans $an* -ifferen& &hings. b+& all -efini&ions s+rro+n&he nor$a&i)e conce%& &ha& i&9s an +nacce%&able har-shi% S%icker. 07 7 air of =ubli! =oli!' at t e 6obert Dordon ?niversit'+ 200$ 3=aul+ fe& more qualifi!ationsE e 5dea of =overt'+ ?niversit' of Lritain: E e =overt' =ress.+ Ndited t e book pg. "4. 52 E ese are !lusters of meaning+ rat er t an definitions in t emselves. Na! of t em refers to several different &a's of looking at t e issues of povert'+ and t ere are !ompeting definitions in ea! of t em. 9ome &ell(kno&n definitions like Eo&nsend*s idea of Prelative deprivation*+ or =augam*s Pso!ial disqualifi!ation*+ !ut a!ross man' of t e !ategories at t e same time. E e !lusters are not ver' s arpl' definedF ea! of t em overlaps &it some of t e ot ers. <igure 1.1 s o&s t is material in t e form of a diagram. Na! definition is similar to t e meanings next to it+ and t ere are some links a!ross t e !ir!le-for example+ la!k of resour!es is !losel' linked to t e la!k of entitlement. >o&ever+ as &e move around t e !ir!les+ t e definitions gro& furt er apart. 8a!k of entitlement is ver' different from e!onomi! distan!eF dependen!' is not t e same as a lo& standard of livingF patterns of deprivation !annot simpl' be identified &it e!onomi! !lass. E e normative !on!ept -t e vie& of povert' as una!!eptable ards ip-lies at t e !entre+ be!ause all t e ot er !on!epts are linked dire!tl' to t at kind of normative evaluation. !o Link K &he &er$ :%o)er&*; has e)ol)e- be*on- &he rhe&oric &he* cri&iciBe. sol)es &he K Bhalla C La%e*re. 02 7 ief of t e Ee! nolog' and Nmplo'ment Givision of t e 5nternational 8abor @ffi!e : =rofessor at t e 5nstitute of Gevelopment 9tudies of t e 7at oli! ?niversit' of 8ouvain+ 2004 32.9. : <rederi! 3member of t e ?nited Cations 5ntelle!tual >istor' =ro/e!t4+ =overt' and Nx!lusion in a Dlobal Horld+ 9e!ond Ndition. 0Gefining Nx!lusion1 pg. 12(13+ =ublis er: =algrave Aa!millanF Nditor: 2/it L alla4. 52 Con(e!onomists generall' believe t at t e e!onomistsK !on!ept of povert' is narro&l' fo!used on material aspe!ts su! as t e level+ size or distribution of in!omes. H ile t is ma' ave been true in t e 19$0s+ it is no longer t e !ase. 8ipton and Aax&ell 319924 s o& o& t e ne& !on!eptualization of povert' embra!es su! elements as t e importan!e of !ivil so!iet' 3besides /ust CD@s4 and se!urit' of liveli ood. 9en as also developed a !ompre ensive approa! to povert' & i! goes be'ond e!onomi!s. 2t t e eart of 9enKs t eor' is t e notion of individualsK K!apabilitiesK & i! are opportunities to a! ieve valuable Kfun!tioningsK or Kstates of beingK. E us Kliving ma' be seen as !onsisting of a set of interrelated Ifun!tioningsI+ !onsisting of beings and doingsK 39en+ 1992a+ p. 3%4. 5n addressing povert' issues+ 9en fo!uses on valuable fun!tionings & i! represent different fa!tors of &ell(being. <un!tionings ma' in!lude bot p 'si!al elements su! as being adequatel' fed and s eltered and Kmore !omplex so!ial a! ievements su! as taking part in t e life of t e !ommunit'+ being able to appear in publi! &it out s ame+ and so onK 39en+ 1992a+ p. 1104. 2s t e !apabilities set refle!ts t e various !ombinations of fun!tionings individuals !an a! ieve (and so t eir positive freedom to ! oose bet&een different &a's of living (it embra!es t e politi!al and so!ial dimensions of povert'.

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=er$ K co$bining -isc+rsi)e change <i&h ac&ion is ke* &o acc+ra&el* re%resen& &hose in %o)er&* an- s+ccessf+ll* a--ress $a&erial ineD+ali&ies/ S<ar&B. 04 = .G. in 7ommuni!ation from =urdue ?niversit' in 199"+ 200#+ 3@mar+ 09o!ial /usti!e and !ommuni!ation s! olars ip+1 pg. 43(444 E e reason su! r etori!al !riti!ism does not ne!essaril' produ!e so!ial ! ange is be!ause of t e great divide bet&een t e s'mboli! and material &orlds. 2s 7loud 319944 persuasivel' argued+ alt oug t e stud' of r etori! is 0vital to t e pro/e!ts of !ritique and so!ial ! ange a dis!ourse is not t e onl' t ing t at Pmatters* in t ese pro/e!ts1 3p. 1414. 9 e !autioned against falling vi!tim to t e 0materialit' of dis!ourse 'pot esis1: t e belief t at 0dis!ourse itself is influential or even !onstitutive of so!ial and material realit'1 3p. 1414. E e materialit' of dis!ourse 'pot esis dra&s no distin!tion bet&een s'mboli! and material a!ts+ be!ause realit' is vie&ed as being a dis!ursive formation. >o&ever+ as A!Dee 319%#4 pointed out: 2!tion is doing to t e &orld+ t e ! opping of trees. a E ere is a tremendous gulf bet&een a!tion and dis!ourse+ t e distan!e bet&een murder+ for example+ and t e 0s'mboli! killing1 of name(!alling. 5n trut + t e onl' a!tions t at !onsist in dis!ourse are performed on dis!ourse itself. 9pee! &ill not fell a tree+ and one !annot &rite a ouse to d&ell in. @ne !an a!t t roug dis!ourse on dis!ourse to guide or !ontrol t e meaning people see in sele!ted representations of t e &orld. Gis!ursive a!tion+ o&ever+ al&a's stands in anti!ipation of its !onsequen!es+ an a!t t at requires additional a!ts before one is !lear t at it &as ever more t an 0mere talk.1 3p. 1224 >en!e+ as 7loud 319944 maintained+ H en dis!ourse !ounts as material+ eman!ipation is seemingl' possible in 0mere talk1 3p. 1"44+ but it is not onl' dis!ourses and !odes from & i! man' people need liberation. 2 politi!s of dis!ourse a assumes t at t ose & o are oppressed or exploited need dis!ursive redefinition of t eir identities+ rat er t an transformation of t eir material !onditions as a primar' task 3p. 1"$4. 7loud pointed out t at 0to sa' t at unger and &ar are r etori!al is to state t e obviousF to suggest t at r etori! is all t e' are is to leave !ritique be ind1 3p. 1"94. E us+ !riti!ism alone+ t e textualizing of politi!s+ as <arrell 319934 !alled it+ does not produ!e so!ial ! ange unless it leads 0to some kind of !on!rete oppositional a!tion . a su!!essful strike+ a demonstration t at builds a mass movement+ or ot er !olle!tive and effe!tive refusal of t e prevailing so!ial order1 37loud+ 1994+ p. 1"14F t at is+ a!tion t at results in ! anges in t e material &orld. 2s Hander 319%44 ex!laimed+ 07ries of elp !all for mu! more t an appre!iation1 3p. 1994 =er$+&a&ion> (he&oric alone is irrele)an& K We all ha)e a share- res%onsibili&* &o ac& an- if <e -on9& &here are conseD+ences for &hose <ho s+ffer fro$ %o)er&*/ =oole 93 . Gennis 8.+ 0Le'ond t e r etori!: s ared responsibilit' versus t e 7ontra!t &it 2meri!a1+ >ealt and 9o!ial Hork+ Bol. 20+ 199" Q. Hard 3_ualifi!ations4 E e 6epubli!an Cational 7ommitteeKs 319944 7ontra!t &it 2meri!a reminds us t at so!ial &ork is a normative dis!ipline. E e t ings &e do and t e programs &e support ave !onsequen!es for people. H at &e regard as good and obligator'+ ot ers vie& as bad and irresponsible. E is is a time for a!tion. Lut it is also a time for refle!tion ( about our first prin!iples. He need to !ut t roug all r etori! ( rig t and left ( t at mig t blind us in our dis!ussion of t e 7ontra!t. He need to understand & ' t e 2meri!an publi! is disillusioned &it man' so!ial programs. 2nd &e need to be a!!ountable for our s are of t e problem. @ne first prin!iple t at 5 believe elps us sort out t e !urrent situation is s ared responsibilit'. H>2E 59 9>26NG 6N9=@C95L585EXR 9 ared responsibilit' refers to !ommon duties and obligations of !aring to & i! all members and institutions of so!iet' are morall' bound and ans&erable. 5n is t oug tful book on t e sub/e!t+ Aorone' 319%#4 pointed out t at s aring responsibilit' as al&a's been part of !ommunit' life+ in all !ultures and t roug out all istor'. <amilies+ neig bors+ and ot er extrafamilial institutions ave al&a's elped !are for people in need+ and governments ave al&a's assisted &it t ese efforts. >istor' also s o&s t at & en eit er part' fails to meet its s are of t e responsibilit'+ t e !onsequen!es for so!iet' are grim.

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Social excl+sion an- incl+sion are in&er$ingle- K &his obsc+res gen-er biases. %re)en&ing al& sol)enc* Lis&er. 02 =rofessor of 9o!ial =oli!' at 8oug boroug ?niversit'+ 2004+ 36ut + 0=overt'1+ 7 : =overt' and 9o!ial Nx!lusion+ p. 91(92+ =ub: =olit' =ress+ E>4 >o&ever+ t is re!ognition stands in tension &it t e !entralit' !ommonl' as!ribed to labour market parti!ipation in so!ial in!lusion poli!ies: t e possibilit' t at Kso!ial in!lusion !an take pla!e in !onditions of ex!lusionK is rarel' re!ognized 32002: 9%4. E us+ a lone mot erKs !are responsibilities+ for example+ !ould simultaneousl' be a sour!e of ex!lusion from t e labour market and of integration into lo!al so!ial net&orks. # 7onversel'+ so!ial ex!lusion !an take pla!e in !onditions of in!lusion & en long or unso!ial &orking ours impede so!ial and politi!al parti!ipation outside t e &orkpla!e 3Dordon et al.+ 20044. 2 gendered anal'sis of so!ial ex!lusion illuminates o& su! tensions affe!t &omen and men differentl'+ refle!ting t eir respe!tive positions in relation to famil' and labour market 3Gal' and 9ara!eno+ 2002F Lrads a& et al.+ 20034. 5t also reinfor!es and genders t e !on!lusion t at so!ial ex!lusion is better understood as a differentiated rat er t an monolit i! pro!ess+ as Kgendered sub/e!ts experien!e simultaneous ex!lusion and in!lusionK 3;a!kson+ 1999: 1324. 5n terms of &omenKs position more generall'+ t oug + Gal' and 9ara!eno !on!lude t at K& ile a !riti!al gender perspe!tive enri! es t e so!ial ex!lusion dis!ourse in referring to spe!ifi! gender(based risks and vulnerabilitiesK and & ile Kso!ial ex!lusion is !ertainl' genderedK+ it does not follo& t at &omen as a !ategor' are so!iall' ex!luded 32002: 1014. @verall+ t is dis!ussion suggests t at+ & ile so!ial ex!lusion provides a elpful !on!eptual link to t e so!ial divisions t at intera!t in different &a's &it material povert'+ it does not provide a broad Ks'nt esizing umbrellaK under & i! t ese divisions !an best be understood 3Dore and <igueiredo+ 199$: 4"F 2nt ias+ 20014. 2nal'sis needs to examine t e spe!ifi!ities of different forms of ex!lusion as &ell as an' !ommonalities.

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Social excl+sion is a <a* of looking a& %o)er&*. no& an al&erna&i)e &o &he <or- :%o)er&*; Lis&er. 02 =rofessor of 9o!ial =oli!' at 8oug boroug ?niversit'+ 2004+ 36ut + 0=overt'1+ 7 : =overt' and 9o!ial Nx!lusion+ p. $4+ =ub: =olit' =ress+ E>4 E e !on!ept of so!ial ex!lusion as partiall' e!lipsed t at of povert' in Nuropean politi!al and a!ademi! debate. Gespite its popularit'+ t ere is onl' limited !onsensus as to eit er its meaning or its relations ip to povert'. H ile some &rite of it as a novel empiri!al p enomenon des!ribing a parti!ular group of people+ a state or a pro!ess+ ot ers argue t at it is better understood purel' at t e level of !on!ept or politi!al dis!ourse. E e flexibilit' and ambiguit' of t e !on!ept ave tended to favour politi!al expedien!' over anal'ti!al !larit'. Cevert eless+ in t is ! apter 5 &ill pull out some !ommon t reads running t roug mu! of t e burgeoning literature on t e topi!. E e ! apter first tra!es its emergen!e before revie&ing t e range of dis!ourses and paradigms 3s ared frame&orks of understanding4 in & i! t e !on!ept is embedded. 5t t en fo!uses on t e relations ip ( empiri!al and !on!eptual ( bet&een povert' and so!ial ex!lusion. 5 &ill argue t at+ provided it is not used politi!all' to !amouflage povert' and inequalit'+ so!ial ex!lusion !an usefull' be understood and used as a lens t at illuminates aspe!ts of povert' dis!ussed in subsequent ! apters 3see also de >aan+ 19994. n o&her <or-s. i& is a <a* of looking a& &he conce%& of %o)er&* ra&her &han an al&erna&i)e &o i&. 5t is moreover a multi(fo!al lens t at !an en!ompass t e so!ial divisions t at &ere t e sub/e!t of t e previous ! apter+ t ereb' en!ouraging t e anal'ti! and poli!' integration argued for t ere. The %oli&ics of incl+sion lea)e ineD+ali&ies in&ac&,&he* H+s& in)i&e cer&ain %eo%le &o cross &he line &o :+s/; Lis&er. 02 =rofessor of 9o!ial =oli!' at 8oug boroug ?niversit'+ 2004+ 36ut + 0=overt'1+ 7 : =overt' and 9o!ial Nx!lusion+ p. %0(%1+ =ub: =olit' =ress+ E>4 <rom an empiri!al perspe!tive+ it is argued t at t e model represents an oversimplifi!ation of more !omplex so!ial stru!tures and d'nami!s 36osanvallon+ 2000F Lorn and ;ensen+ 20024. Nmpiri!al anal'sis in t e ?Q b' t e 7entre for 2nal'sis of 9o!ial Nx!lusion 3729N4+ for instan!e+ indi!ates Ka more fluid pi!ture of people along a !ontinuum of ex!lusion+ rat er t an a !lear division bet&een t ose & o are IinI and IoutKI 36i! ardson and 8e Drand+ 2002: 499F Lur! ardt et al.+ 2002a4. 5t is+ t oug + t e politi!al impli!ations of t e in)out model t at ave been t e sub/e!t of parti!ular !riti!ism+ for t e model aggravates an all(too(!ommon KusK and Kt emK relations ip bet&een Knon(poorK and KpoorK. 5n t is &a'+ groups defined as Kex!ludedK are !onstru!ted as problems outside mainstream so!iet'. 5t obs!ures t e d'nami!s of inequalit' and polarization at t e eart of so!iet'+ affe!ting t e Kin!ludedK ma/orit' also 38evitas+ 199%+ 20004. 2 preo!!upation &it t e boundar' bet&een Kin!ludedK and Kex!ludedK en!ourages a minimalist poli!' response of Ktreating marginal people marginall'K+ in & i! t e goal is merel' to move t em a!ross t e boundar'+ leaving underl'ing stru!tural divisions largel' undisturbed 3Doodin+ 199#: 3"$4.

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There is no e$%irical link be&<een social excl+sion an- %o)er&* K &he al&erna&i)e is +seless/ Lis&er. 02 =rofessor of 9o!ial =oli!' at 8oug boroug ?niversit'+ 2004+ 36ut + 0=overt'1+ 7 : =overt' and 9o!ial Nx!lusion+ p. %#(%$+ =ub: =olit' =ress+ E>4 E e dis!ussion so far as !ast doubt on t e strengt of t e empiri!al link bet&een material povert' and t e pivotal so!ial isolation dimension of so!ial ex!lusion. 2not er ke' question raised b' t e existing empiri!al eviden!e in t e ?Q is & et er it is even possible to identif' a signifi!ant group of people & o !an be !ategorized as so!iall' ex!luded. Lur! ardt et a1.Ks stud' found t at under alf a per !ent of t e population &ere ex!luded on all t e dimensions measured and none &ere so over t e full five 'ears of t e panel. E e !on!lusion rea! ed+ and endorsed b' ;o n >ills 320024 in a ma/or book on so!ial ex!lusion+ &as t at: given t e !omplexit' of t e asso!iations bet&een t e different dimensions of ex!lusion+ and t e relativel' ig proportions of t ose ex!luded on one dimension & o are not ex!luded on ot ers+ no !lear(!ut multidimensional !ategor' of so!iall' ex!luded people !an be identified using t ese indi!ators. E e results suggest t at t e dimensions of ex!lusion are best treated separatel' rat er t an amalgamated into a single !ategor' of t e Kso!iall' ex!ludedK. 3Lur! ardt et a5.+ 1999: 2414 2 stud' of 8ondon !omes to a similar !on!lusion and &arns against over(dramatizing so!ial ex!lusion at t e expense of overlooking Ka ver' great deal of old(fas ioned povert'K 3Lu!k et al.+ 2002: 3$14. E e eviden!e is not 'et !on!lusive ( for instan!e+ a different set of indi!ators mig t produ!e variant results and it is possible t at t e Ktrul' ex!ludedK are under(represented in t e kind of surve's undertaken. E e aut ors of a more in(dept stud' of 'oung people in a Kseverel' ex!ludedK lo!ale in nort (east Nngland+ for example+ suggest t at+ insofar as t e p enomenon of so!ial ex!lusion exists+ it !an be found in its Kmost entren! ed formsK among t e small number & ose lives revolve around t e Kpovert' drugK of eroin 3Aa!Gonald and Aars + 2002: 2$+3%4. :Social excl+sion; is a false conce%&+aliBa&ion of %o)er&* <hich le&s ineD+ali&* con&in+e an- %re)en&s %oli&ical ac&ion Lis&er. 02 =rofessor of 9o!ial =oli!' at 8oug boroug ?niversit'+ 2004+ 36ut + 0=overt'1+ 7 : =overt' and 9o!ial Nx!lusion+ p. %$(%%+ =ub: =olit' =ress+ E>4 >aving explored t e empiri!al relations ip bet&een povert' and so!ial ex!lusion+ &e turn no& to t e !on!eptual level. >ere+ t e debate largel' !entres on t e issue of t e Kvalue addedK t at so!ial ex!lusion brings to t e anal'sis of povert' 3Ai!kle&rig t+ 2002: 2%4. Ber' broadl'+ t ree main positions !an be identified. E e first is represented b' a relativel' small number & o are+ at best+ un!onvin!ed of t e value of t e !on!ept of so!ial ex!lusion and+ at &orst+ dismiss it as un elpful or even dangerous. @'en is parti!ularl' !riti!al of & at s e !onsiders to be a politi!al rat er t an anal'ti!al !on!ept+ &it Klimited t eoreti!al underpinningK. 5ts usage+ s e !ontends+ means t at Kpovert'+ t e real and nast' povert'+ be!omes invisible be!ause it is being idden under t e umbrella of so!ial ex!lusion & i! embra!es several ot er p enomenaK 3199$: #3+ #44. 2lt oug less ostile+ Colan and H elan are similarl' s!epti!al of t is Kamorp ousK !on!ept. H ile t e' !on!ede t at so!ial ex!lusion ma' sensitize resear! ers and poli!'(makers to important aspe!ts of povert'+ t e' fear t at t is is Kat a !ostK: loss of Kt e spark t at Ipovert'I ignites be!ause of its ever'da' usage and evaluative !ontentK 3199#: 190+ 19"4. E e' also argue t at t ose & o favour so!ial ex!lusion over povert' tend to base t eir !omparisons on a !ari!ature t at !onfuses t e !on!eptualization of povert' &it its narro&er+ often uni(dimensional+ measurement. =er!eptions of so!ial ex!lusionKs Kvalue(addedK are+ in part+ a fun!tion of o& povert' itself is !on!eptualized 39en+ 20004.

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Ja%a is <rong K his sol+&ions &o %o)er&* obsc+re -isc+rsi)e rela&ions an- his&orical reali&*. al& can9& sol)e Shres&ha. 97 professor of resour!e and !ultural management in t e 9! ool of Lusiness : 5ndustr' at <lorida 2:A ?niversit'+ 9$ 3Canda+ 0@n IH at 7auses =overt'R 2 =ostmodern Bie&I 2 =ostmodern Bie& or Genial of >istori!al 5ntegrit'R E e =overt' of XapaKs Bie& of1+ 2nnals of t e 2sso!iation of 2meri!an Deograp ers+ Bol. %$ Co. 4+ Ge!ember 199$+ pg. $104 5 raise t ese questions+ not be!ause 5 intend to explore t e dept of =oAo in t ese pages of t e 2nnals+ nor does t e s!ope of t is !ommentar' permit me to take on su! a task. 5 raise t em be!ause XapaKs revisionist =oAo vie& of povert' is a vie& t at is anal'ti!all' unsettling and istori!all' misleading. 7amouflaged in t e dense language of !omplex vo!abular' and s'ntax t at =oAos ave invented for t emselves as a medium of t eir ItribalI !ommuni!ation+ t ere is povert' in XapaKs postmodem vie& of povert'. 5t is not so mu! t e language+ o&ever+ t at !on!erns me most+ alt oug 5 do find it amusing+ espe!iall' & en /uxtaposed against t e ba!kdrop of povert' t at is t e fo!us of is arti!le. >o& !an su! a dense+ muddled language empo&er t e poor and t ose & o are fig ting against povert' da' and nig t in urban tren! es as &ell as rural fringesR >o& are t e' going to grasp its message 3if t ere is one4R 8anguage+ after all+ is not simpl' a set of &ords and senten!es &it parti!ular meanings. 5t also !ommuni!ates+ as Xapa imself notes+ distin!t messages. 5t is t e prevailing so!ial s!ien!e dis!ourse+ Xapa emp asizes+ t at lies at t e !ore of povert' and its perpetuation. =art of is argument+ t erefore+ !alls for t e de!onstru!tion of t is dis!ourse so t at povert' !an be addressed t roug Isubstantive a!tion+ ... Ti.e.U t e postmodemizing of so!ial s!ien!eI 3p. $214. Lut+ t e more =oAos rel' on su! dense language to break t e eav' ands of so!ial s!ien!e+ t e more impenetrable and ina!!essible t eir Idis!oursesI be!ome. =ostmodemism as an intelle!tual !urrent as gotten as t i!k and a!ademi! as it !an get 3Hood and <oster 199#:444. 2dmittedl'+ Xapa states t atI KA' solutionK is aimed at fello& a!ademi!s & o+ like m'self+ are deepl' impli!ated in t e problem and & ose po&er lies primaril' in our !apa!it' to engage t e dis!ourse !riti!all'I 3p. $23/ m' emp asis4. E is position is saddled &it t&o problems+ o&ever. <irst+ t is is no /ustifi!ation for !ompli!ating t e language of dis!ourse. 9e!ond+ is aim is tantamount not onl' to aimless intelle!tual pontifi!ation of t e povert' problem &it little abilit' to !apture its ground(level trut + but also to intelle!tual defeatism and en!e politi!al resignation. 5f t e primar' po&er of a!ademi!s is to engage t e dis!ourse+ t en &e ave trul' rea! ed t e pinna!le of a!ademi! priest ood & ere povert' be!omes a fas!inating intelle!tual to'. 2n' &onder & ' a!ademi!ians are+ to use Aars a >e&ittKs 319934 p rase+ often labeled t e Iverbal radi!alsI 3or s ould 5 sa'+ Iverbose ras!alsI4R Eo repeat+ m' !on!ern is mainl' &it XapaKs flirtation &it t e postmodemization of povert'+ a !on!eptual position t at represents a notable digression from is previous !riti!al and illuminating resear! on development and diffusionism. 2t an' rate+ la!king an' istori!al integrit'+ XapaKs postmodem vie& is suspe!t. 5t is like t e naked emperor & o &as profusel' praised for is nonexistent magnifi!ent !lot es until a little bo' broke t e !ode of silen!e t at ever'bod' s ared+ but nobod' dared to utter about t e emperorKs nakedness. 5 no& fo!us on XapaKs postmodem vie& of povert' and its fundamental dis!ord &it + and distan!e from+ t e istori!al realit' of povert'. A' dis!ussion is divided into t&o parts: XapaKs postmodem perspe!tive and is vie& of povert'.

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=os&$o-ernis$9s fail+re &o )ie< class rela&ions as a con&rib+&or &o %o)er&* e$braces gree- an- self>cen&ere-ness. in&ensif*ing %o)er&* &hro+gho+& &he <orlShres&ha. 97 professor of resour!e and !ultural management in t e 9! ool of Lusiness : 5ndustr' at <lorida 2:A ?niversit'+ 9$ 3Canda+ 0@n IH at 7auses =overt'R 2 =ostmodern Bie&I 2 =ostmodern Bie& or Genial of >istori!al 5ntegrit'R E e =overt' of XapaKs Bie& of1+ 2nnals of t e 2sso!iation of 2meri!an Deograp ers+ Bol. %$ Co. 4+ Ge!ember 199$+ pgs. $12($134 ADA @ne of XapaKs postmodern arguments+ to repeat+ relates to t e so!ial !onstru!tion of s!ar!it' and povert'+ a pro!ess & i! e ties to It e nexus of produ!tion relationsI 38e.+ multiple roots of s!ar!it' and povert'4. 2lso in!luded in t is nexus is t e a!ademi! dis!ourse. >e &rites about t e fundamental
inabilit' of !ontemporar' development to alleviate povert'. E ere is no substantial dispute ere+ for 5+ too+ ave made t ese arguments+ do!umenting o& s!ar!it' and povert' are so!iall' produ!ed+ o& t e' are !lass spe!ifi!+ o& t eir so!ial manifestations ave ! anged over time+ and o& t e gro&ing pressure of offi!ial development and intrusive global !apitalism as exa!erbated bot 39 rest a 199$4.

XapaKs failure to reveal povert'Ks dire!t !onne!tion to !lass relations. @ne ma'+ of !ourse+ argue t at+ sin!e Xapa re/e!ts a politi!al e!onom' or Aarxist perspe!tive on povert' and instead pursues a postmodern line+ t e question of !lass relations is moot in is dis!ourse. Lut su! an argument is fla&ed. >o& !an one talk about t e so!ial !onstru!tion of s!ar!it' and en!e povert' &it out dis!ussing !lass relationsR E e so!ial !onstru!tion of s!ar!it' itself is rooted in t e !lass pro!ess+ bot istori!all' and !urrentl'. H ile t e absolute s!ar!it' of resour!es ma' exist in !ertain geograp i!al areas due to p 'siograp i! limitations+ so!ial 3relative4 s!ar!it' rarel' o!!urs in t e absen!e of !lass relations & et er defined in terms of produ!tion or po&er. 9o+ to talk about t e so!ial !onstru!tion of s!ar!it' divor!ed from its !lass roots is t eoreti!all' marred and istori!all' m'opi!. Xapa does+ to be sure+ suggest t at !apitalist produ!tion is responsible for !reating &ants+ but e fails to expose its various sinister nodes at & i! !apitalist relations generate undue &ants and t us so!ial s!ar!it' ad nauseam. Cor does e s o& o& t e so!ial relations of !apitalist produ!tion are linked to t e various points in is nexus of produ!tion relations+ in!luding a!ademi!. Eo deal &it povert' so superfi!iall' from a !onsumerist angle 3p. $1"4 is+ t erefore+ fundamentall' problemati!. >is qui!k insertion of t e Isemioti! t eor' of signsI and t e I!on!ept of pol'sem'I adds little to is explanation of povert'. Co matter o& one !uts it+ is anal'sis is largel' a sort of intelle!tual massage &it little so!ial !onvi!tion to t e !ause of struggles against povert' . 9u! a postmodem dis!ursive approa! s eds little lig t
E e main problem is on t e istori!al role of !apitalist produ!tion in generating and regenerating povert'. 2lso !onspi!uousl' absent from is arti!le is an' !areful dis!ussion of o& !apitalist globalization as fra!tured lo!al

Xapa does not even pa' attention to o& t e postmodern tenden!ies of ex!essive greed and self(!enteredness 3self(absorption &it t e materialit' of life4 broug t on b' rabid !apitalist globalization ave intensified bot so!ial s!ar!it' and povert' a!ross t e &orld 3Lroad 199"F 7ox 199$F >en&ood 199#F =ol'ani 19"$F 6obinson 199#F 9 rest a 199$4. Cor does e furnis an' insig t into t e feudal)agrarian relations of produ!tion t at !onstru!t s!ar!it' and t erefore povert'+ ever deepening in man' agri!ulturall' dependent !ountries. Cor is t ere an't ing on t e !olonial relations of po&er and produ!tion t at reinfor!ed indigenous !lass relations and ravaged !olonized !ountries+ leaving t em in a sink ole of underdevelopment+ out of & i! man' ave 'et to !ra&l. >e ignores all t ese stories of t e so!ial !onstru!tion of s!ar!it' and povert'+ relegating t eir & ole istor' and profound so!ial realit' to !onvenientl' omitted memories. Eo express it simpl'+ !lass is a !on!rete so!ial stru!ture+ and !lass relations form t e meta roots of povert' no matter & ere it o!!urs in spa!e and time. Xet+ amazingl'+ !lass is entirel' missing from XapaKs fuzz' vie& of povert'. 5s Xapa read' to believe+ let alone prove+ t at !lass relations are no longer relevant to t e so!ial origin and perpetuation of povert'+ and to pronoun!e t e deat of !lass as a !entral so!ial !onstru!tR @r does e believe t at =oAo as totall' erased I!lassI from t e vast plain of povert'R Eo t e disma' of is tori!al realit' and !ommonsense+ XapaKs treatment of povert' personifies a dis!ursive spag etti of is Iideas+ matter+ dis!ourse+ and po&er.I 9o it is not t e politi!al or Aarxist e!onom' 3or t is genre of so!ial s!ien!e dis!ourse4 t at I!on!eals t e so!ial origin of s!ar!it'+I as e !ontends. 6at er it is is mu! (touted Ipostmodem dis!ursive approa! I t at fails to reveal t e so!ial origin of s!ar!it' in its totalit' and subsequentl' to outline a !on!rete plan of determined a!tion against t e !lass roots of povert' 3p. $0$4. E at is t e povert' of XapaKs vie& of povert'. Eo be blunt+ it is simpl' a misguided postmodem fias!o+ a istori!al foll'+ a pure diversion from is previous line of original and substantive s! olars ip.
produ!tion relations 3e.g.+ patron(!lient relations t at traditionall' provided some !us ion against povert'4+ as &ell as eig tened alread' existing so!ial s!ar!it' and !lass divides. 9urprisingl'+

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AT =O8#(TJ' =O8#(TJ L !#P"#F ! T O! 7OO" !ee-s are rela&i)e an- obsc+re an* %ossible conce%&+aliBa&ion of %o)er&* Ka %o)er&* line. e)en if fla<e-. is necessar* &o %olic* $aking/ Karelis. 07 resear! professor of p ilosop ' at Deorge Has ington ?niversit'+ 200$ 37 arles >. 3<ormerl' professor of p ilosop ' at Hilliams 7ollege+ dire!tor of t e <und for t e 5mprovement of =ostse!ondar' Ndu!ation+ and president of 7olgate ?niversit'4 E e =ersisten!e of =overt': H ' t e N!onomi!s of t e Hell(@ff 7an*t >elp t e =oor+ 0H at =overt' 5s1 pg. $(%+ =ublis er: Xale ?niversit' =ressF Nditor: 7 arles >. Qarelis4. Hit in a Diven 9o!iet' Bar'ing 7on!eptions of Lasi! Ceed >ave 8ittle 5mpa!t on H at 7ounts as =overt' E e !ase of var'ing vie&s of need in t e same so!iet' is t e simplest. E ere does seem to be a bit of variation &it in a given so!iet' in & at !ounts as being poor+ depending on variations in t e level of !onsumption & ere people begin to feel t e pin! . 5t makes some sense to sa' t at 9mit is poor at a !ertain level of resour!es+ t oug is neig bor ;ones &ould not be poor at t at same level of resour!es+ if 9mit and ;ones ave different needs. Lut t e !on!ept of povert' is su! t at an' variation in t e povert' t res olds bet&een individuals in t e same so!iet' is bound to be small+ even if t e variation in t eir pain t res olds is great. E at is be!ause+ as ot ers ave noted+ /udgments of povert' put a lot of &eig t on & at are t'pi!all' seen as basi! needs &it in t e so!iet'. <or instan!e+ a spoiled millionaire in modern 2meri!a & o as developed extraordinar' needs for material goods+ and & o is miserable for la!k of billions+ does not !ount as poor. 2nd a monk & o appens to be !ontented &it is standard of living is poor nonet eless. 9in!e t e millionaire as more t an enoug to meet & at &ould t'pi!all' be seen as basi! needs in modern 2meri!a+ e is not poor+ regardless of t e fa!t t at is o&n needs are unmet+ and e is miserable. 3Le ind t is semanti! fa!t t ere ma' lie t e moral /udgment t at su! a person does not deserve t e s'mpat ' implied b' t e label Ipoor.I <or !ould e not ave made imself less vulnerable to frustration b' sta'ing in t e !ultural mainstream and not letting imself develop t ese needs in t e first pla!eR4 2nd !onversel' for t e monk: e !ounts as poor be!ause a t'pi!al person in is position &ould !onsider is needs unmet+ & et er t e monk does or not. 5n t eor'+ t en+ it s ould be possible to dra& a line belo& & i! people !ount as poor in a given so!iet'+ even granting t at t e point at & i! individuals feel t e pin! of material s ortages &ill var'. E e povert' line for a parti!ular so!iet' &ill be t at level of !onsumption belo& & i! needs t at are t'pi!all' !onsidered basi! in t at so!iet' are unmet. @sing &he <or- :%o)er&*; is ke* &o %rag$a&ic sol+&ions an- -oesn9& %recl+-e recogniBing a$big+i&ies or %roble$s <i&h &he &er$ Karelis. 07 resear! professor of p ilosop ' at Deorge Has ington ?niversit'+ 200$ 37 arles >. 3<ormerl' professor of p ilosop ' at Hilliams 7ollege+ dire!tor of t e <und for t e 5mprovement of =ostse!ondar' Ndu!ation+ and president of 7olgate ?niversit'4 E e =ersisten!e of =overt': H ' t e N!onomi!s of t e Hell(@ff 7an*t >elp t e =oor+ 0H at =overt' 5s1 pg. %(9+ =ublis er: Xale ?niversit' =ressF Nditor: 7 arles >. Qarelis4. 5n t e end+ t ere seems to be no &a' to get around sa'ing t at Ipovert'I is al&a's s ort for Ipovert' in pla!e x and time '4 I and & at it means is I aving insuffi!ient resour!es to meet & at are t'pi!all' seen as basi! needs in t at pla!e and time:K E is is t e best &e !an do in defining povert'+ even if it leaves us in t e un!omfortable position of aving to sa' t at &e do not !are mu! about some of t e povert' t at exists in ri! er times and pla!es t an our o&n. Cote t at to a!!ept t is definition is not to grant t at Ipovert'I is ambiguous. 7ompare t e &ord Iedible:K INdibleI is not ambiguous /ust be!ause & at orses !an digest is different from & at umans !an digest. H at IedibleI is is ellipti!al: t e !laim t at somet ing is edible is al&a's s ort for Iedible b' su! (and(su! a spe!iesFK but it means t e same t ing in ea! !ontext. 8ike&ise+ povert' /udgments are not ambiguous but ellipti!al+ and on!e t e' are fles ed out t e meaning is perfe!tl' singular.

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The* are H+s& <rong,go)ern$en&s ha)e s&ar&e- +sing $+l&i-i$ensional %o)er&* anal*sis &ha& has been cr+cial in craf&ing effec&i)e %olic*/ (obb. 2000 &orks at t e 5nternational Aonetar' <und+ 2k 37aroline+ 0>o& t e =oor !an ave a voi!e in government poli!'1+ <inan!e and Gevelopment+ Ge!ember 2000+ 2!!essed via Deneral @ne<ile4 ADA Gevelopment t inking as ! anged signifi!antl' in re!ent 'ears. =oli!'makers ave re!ognized t e abilit' of t e poor to make a valuable !ontribution to t e anal'sis of povert' and are !onsulting t em dire!tl'. E is ne& parti!ipator' approa! as resulted in a broader definition of povert' and better(informed publi! poli!ies t at are more responsive to t e needs of t e poor. LX E>N NCG of t e 1990s+ t ere &as gro&ing re!ognition b' governments and !ivil so!iet' of t e need to ! ange t e &a' national strategies to redu!e povert' &ere developed and implemented . =revious strategies ad met &it little su!!ess in 8atin
2meri!a and 2fri!a+ and povert' &as on t e rebound in Nast 2sia after t e finan!ial !risis of 199$(9%. 5t ad be!ome !lear t at+ to su!!eed+ povert' redu!tion programs needed to be developed b' t e !ountries t emselves((rat er t an imposed from t e outside((and t at t e input of t e poor &as !riti!al to t e development of effe!tive povert' redu!tion strategies. 5n 9eptember 1999+ t e Horld Lank and t e ;A< agreed to ma/or ! anges in t eir operations to elp lo&(in!ome !ountries a! ieve sustainable povert' redu!tion. >en!efort + programs supported b' t e t&o institutions &ill be based on government(driven povert' redu!tion strategies 3=69s4 developed in !onsultation &it !ivil so!iet' and summarized in povert' redu!tion strateg' papers 3=69=s4. 5n addition+ t e en an!ed >eavil' 5ndebted =oor 7ountries 3>5=74 5nitiative+ laun! ed in 1999 b' t e Horld Lank and t e 5A<+ links debt relief &it povert' redu!tion. E e =69=s provide t e basis for debt relief under >5=7 as &ell as for all Horld Lank and 5A< !on!essional lending. 5n formulating povert' redu!tion strategies+ poli!'makers ave begun !onsulting t e poor dire!tl' t roug parti!ipator' povert' assessments 3==2s4+ a met odolog' developed during t e 1990s b' governments+ nongovernmental organizations 3CD@s4+ a!ademi! institutions+ and donors. 2lt oug man' met ods ave long existed for !onsulting t e poor on t e development of pro/e!ts+ ==29 are different in t at t eir findings are intended to be used in national poli!'making. Eo date+ more t an "0 !ountries ave undertaken ==2s &it assistan!e from t e Horld LankF an equal number of ==2s ave been !ondu!ted b' ot er agen!ies+ in!luding t e ?nited Cations Gevelopment =rogram+ bilaterals+ and CD@s. H at is a ==2R 2 ==2 is a tool t at allo&s us to !onsult

?nlike a ouse old surve'+ & i! !onsists of a predetermined set of questions+ a ==2 uses a variet' of flexible met ods t at !ombine visual te! niques 3mapping+ matri!es+ diagrams4 and verbal te! niques 3openended intervie&s+ dis!ussion groups4 and emp asizes exer!ises t at fa!ilitate information s aring+ anal'sis+ and a!tion. E e goal is to give t e intended benefi!iaries more !ontrol over t e resear! pro!ess. ==2s are usuall' !arried out b' intermediaries su! as CD@s+ a!ademi! institutions+ government extension &orkers+ and lo!al !onsulting firms. E e approa! Istresses ! anges in t e be avior and attitudes of outsiders to be!ome not tea! ers but fa!ilitators+ not le!turers but listeners and learnersI 37 ambers+ 199$4. Eo ensure follo&(up at t e !ommunit' level 3a prin!iple of parti!ipator' resear! 4+ man' ==2s 3for example+ t ose in E e Dambia+ Eanzania+ an d ?ganda4 ave involved t e development of !ommunit' a!tion plans subsequentl' supported b' lo!al governments or CD@s. ?sing ==2s to extra!t information /ust for resear! purposes+ &it limited parti!ipation and no link to poli!'making+ is !onsidered bad pra!ti!e. =oli!' anal'sis in t e past &as fo!used on a !lassi! statisti!al approa! to povert' based on indi!ators of in!ome+ ealt + and edu!ationF povert' itself &as measured b' a mone'metri! povert' line derived from traditional ouse old surve's. 5t as been re!ognized t at an approa! dominated b' e!onomi! anal'sis fails to !apture t e man' dimensions of povert'+ & ile a
t e poor dire!tl'F findings are transmitted to poli!'makers+ t ereb' enabling t e poor to influen!e poli!'. multidis!iplinar' approa! !an deepen our understanding of t e lives of t e poor. ==2s+ &it t eir fo!us on &ell(being and qualit' of life+ ave !onsistentl' s o&n t at su! problems as vulnerabilit'+ p 'si!al and so!ial isolation+ inse!urit'+ la!k of self(respe!t+ la!k of a!!ess to information+ distrust of state institutions+ and po&erlessness !an be as important to t e poor as lo& in!ome 3Lox 14. Aoreover+ be!ause ==2s go be'ond t e ouse old unit of traditional surve's to fo!us on individuals+ intra ouse old d'nami!s+ so!ial groups 3based on variables su! as gender+ et ni!it'+ !lass+ !aste+ age4+ and !ommunit' relations ips+ t e' !apture t e diversit' of povert'. E e' ave s o&n t at peopleKs priorities and experien!es are affe!ted b' su! variables as gender+ so!ial ex!lusion+ intra ouse old allo!ation

t e' in!rease our understanding of t e multidimensional nature of povert' and enable us to in!lude t e perspe!tive and priorities of poor people in our anal'sis of povert' and formulation of poli!ies. 9e!ond+ t e' promote &ider o&ners ip of resear! ersK findings and in!rease t e influen!e of t ese findings on poli!'making b' in!luding a !ross se!tion of ot er groups 3for example+ CD@s+ poli!'makers+ administrators+ !ivi! groups4 in t e pro!ess. E ird+ t e' !an elp !ountries in!rease t eir !apa!it' to anal'ze and monitor povert'+ as as appened+ for example+ in Aongolia+ Bietnam+ and Vambia. ==2s often take less time and !ost less t an ouse old surve's be!ause t e' use a sele!ted sample of !ommunities 3Lox 24. 2s a result+ t e' are not as extensive+ representative+ or standardized. E e' nonet eless provide more in(dept anal'sis of t e vie&s of t e poor and t e politi!al+ so!ial+ and institutional !ontext+ as &ell as insig ts into t e reasons people be!ome((or !ease being((poor and t eir survival strategies.
of resour!es+ t e in!iden!e of !rime and violen!e+ geograp i!al lo!ation+ a!!ess to net&orks of support+ and relations &it t ose in po&er. ==2s ave t ree ke' elements. <irst+

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The al& fails,rhe&orical s%ace is no& &he sa$e as real %oli&ical infl+ence/ Lis&er. 02 =rofessor of 9o!ial =oli!' at 8oug boroug ?niversit'+ 2004+ 36ut + 0=overt'1+ 7 : =overt'+ >uman 6ig ts and 7itizens ip+ p. 1$0(1+ =ub: =olit' =ress+ E>4 E e gro&ing a!!eptan!e of t e prin!iple of parti!ipation does not+ o&ever+ ne!essaril' translate into Kvoi!e &it influen!eK 3Daventa+ 2002: 24. E ere is often a relu!tan!e to a!!ept t at Ka uman rig ts perspe!tive on parti!ipation means moving be'ond and above lo!al(level pro!esses of !onsultation t roug to ensuring poor peopleKs parti!ipation in broader formal and informal s'stems of de!ision(makingK 3GflG+ 2000b: 194. Aore generall'+ t e literature identifies t&o main forms of parti!ipation. E e first !reates genuinel' demo!rati! and parti!ipator' Kspa!es for !itizen a!tionK+ in & i! t e role of !itizens is transformed from Kusers and ! oosers to makers and s apersK 37orn&all and Daventa+ 2000: "9+ "0F 7orn&all+ 20024. Aore !ommon+ t oug + are KinstrumentalK or K!onsumerist)managerialistK approa! es+ in & i! agendas are still set from above 37orn&all+ 2000F Leresford+ 20024. E ese !an too easil' be!ome Kdevi!es for managing rat er t an I earingI t e voi!es of t e poorK 36adema! er and =atel+ 2002: 1%04. @ne of t e !lear messages re!eived b' t e 7ommission on =overt'+ =arti!ipation and =o&er &as t at Kpeople experien!ing povert' see !onsultation &it out !ommitment+ and p one' parti!ipation &it out t e po&er to bring about ! ange+ as t e ultimate disrespe!tK 37o===+ 2000: 1%4. 8a!k of feedba!k on !onsultation invalidates t e pro!ess and !an leave parti!ipants feeling as if t e' do not matter 37ook+ 20024. 9u! p one' parti!ipation serves to reinfor!e t e distrust t at man' people in povert' ave of t e formal politi!al s'stem 3Lennett+ 1999F 2EG <ourt Horld+ 2000a4. Cot surprisingl'+ it !an mean t at people are relu!tant to parti!ipate & en offered t e opportunit'. 5t t us represents one of a number of institutional barriers to parti!ipation identified b' t e 7ommission and ot ers 3see also GH= 2003!: annexe <4. =rofessional !ultures and pra!ti!es !an mean t at parti!ipation exer!ises are experien!ed as ex!lusionar' 39!ottis Nxe!utive+ 19994. ;argonisti! and !omplex language Kt at doesnKt !onne!t !an simpl' !reate anot er barrierK 37o===+ 2000: 294. =rofessional norms of !ommuni!ation and Karti!ulatenessK !an intimidate and silen!e people & o feel t at t e' la!k t e ne!essar' !ommuni!ation skills to parti!ipate 3Xoung+ 2000: "#F 7 arles&ort + 2000F 6i! ardson and 8e Drand+ 2002

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(igh&s are no& %erfec& b+& can be effec&i)el* +se- &o le)erage &he s&a&e/ "al*. (esearch Fello< in =hiloso%h*. 02 3<ran!es+ 2ustralian Cational ?niversit'+ 0E e Con(!itizen and t e 7on!ept of >uman 6ig ts1+ borderlands+ ttp:))&&&.borderlandse/ournal.adelaide.edu.au)vol3no1Y2004)dal'Ynon!itizen. tm4
2t its most fundamental+ rig t is t e rig t to somet ing+ and &it in t e realm of natural rig ts or rig ts of t e uman being+ it as been prin!ipall' !on!erned &it rig ts against oppression and inequalit' in order to realize a potential for freedom. 7itizen rig ts ave at t eir basis quite different values+ namel'+ a range of politi!al and propert' rig ts to be realized &it in and not against t e 9tate. E is is not to sa' t at la& asso!iated &it uman rig ts is not+ at times+ itself an external form of oppression ( but natural or uman rig t is also able to offer somet ing quite different. E e term needs to be used advisedl'

t ere is a tradition of natural rig t !ontaining anti!ipator' elements of uman dignit' in & i! forms of /usti!e as et i!all'(based !ommunit' survive+ and it is t is tradition+ 5 &ould argue+ & i! needs to be rene&ed. He !an see t is in all struggles for uman dignit' in & i! unsatisfied demands exist for over!oming t e la!k of freedom of exploitation and !onstraintF t e inequalit' of degradation and umiliationF t e absen!e of !ommunit' in egoism and disunit'. 2nd so too !an &e vie& t is via t e ne!essar' referen!e point t at a !ritique of rig t provides: b' a!kno&ledging t e 'po!ris' of la& or t e distan!e bet&een intention and realization &e ave an important basis for distinguis ing bet&een t e problem of rig t and its !omplete negation+ su! as &e &ould see under despoti!+ fas!isti! rule. E e use and abuse of rig t is not t e same t ing as a !omplete absen!e of rig t+ and understanding t is is vital to being able to !ompre end & ere and in & at &a's demo!rati!+ !onstitutional 9tates be!ome+ or are+ fas!isti!. Catural rig t+ or t e rig t of t e uman being+ o!!upies a spa!e of interruption in t e divide bet&een la& and et i!alit' t at !an+ on o!!asion+ a!t as to reintrodu!e a radi!al pat os &it in rig t.
be!ause of t e problemati! !onnotations it as . but

(igh&s -o no& crea&e a fixe- i-en&i&*/ When <e a%%eal &o righ&s in &er$s of +ni)ersal H+s&ice &he* are -ee%l* ra-ical an- able &o crea&e o%en co$$+ni&ies/ "al*. 02 3 ttp:))&&&.borderlandse/ournal.adelaide.edu.au)vol3no1Y2004)dal'Ynon!itizen. tm+ E e non(!itizen and t e !on!ept of K uman rig tsK+ <ran!es Gal'+2ustralian Cational ?niversit' 20044.
8egal positivism assumes or sets out t e basis for rig ts &it in a normative frame&ork of t e 9tate t at merel' takes for granted /udi!ial postulates of t e inalienabilit' of rig ts+ t e basis of rig ts in propert'

&e !an dete!t unsatisfied demands t at ave not ing to do &it essentialist assumptions about KmanK or K!itizenK. E ese demands are !on!erned &it an understanding of uman freedom in relation to values of solidarit'+ /usti!e and t e over!oming of alienationF t e' are istori!al and !ontingent+ s ifting and alive+ and are not about a fixed+ stati!+ generi! essen!e of t e person+ or some a istori!al or super istori!al immutable totalit'. H at it is to be uman is open and ! angeable+ alt oug not &it out determinations+ !ommonalities and s ared properties t at !an emerge at various times. Hit t e rise of individualism in t e seventeent and eig teent !enturies+ t e idea of natural rig ts of t e individual+ of libert'+ fraternit'+ and equalit' of t e individual . of KinalienableK rig ts and normative ideals . &as quite !learl' !on!eived in terms of t e !itizen. H at persisted of a sense of natural /usti!e for all+ & ose standard ad been derived from various sour!es ( in nature+ Dod+ a vie& of reason or uman nature ( &as undoubtedl' distorted b' a sense of individualism defined in terms of possession and propert' rig ts. Lut t is sense &as not !ompletel' extinguis ed. 5t is !ertainl' on t e basis of a realm of legal positivism and its do!trines
and assumptions t at people are in fundamental a!!ord on matters of rig t. 5t is unable to imagine a realm of freedom against t e 9tate. Lut &it in rig ts+ 5 &ould argue+ of positive la&+ a realm & i! assumes t at no element of la& or rig t pre(exists an a!t of t e 9tate+ t at some of t e basi! !ontradi!tions t at 2gamben ig lig ts are likel' to emerge. <or it is t e 9tate t at

t ere are ot er pat &a's to rig ts+ ot er forms in & i! prin!iples of /usti!e ave been derived and ena!ted. 2nd if t is is t e !ase+ & ' must &e t en ne!essaril' !on!lude from a !ritique of legal positivism t at t ere !an be no et i!al basis to rig tsR
institutes t'pes of validit' for its la&s on t e basis of pro!edure rat er t an an' sense of moralit' or prin!iples of /usti!e. Lut

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(igh&s $+s& be H+-ge- b* &heir s%ecific -e%lo*$en&. no& abs&rac& &heor*/ #)en if &here are fla<s be&<een nor$s ana%%lica&ion. righ&s con&ain a ra-ical ele$en& of +ni)ersal -igni&* &ha& can be +se- &o le)erage real change/ "al*. 02 3 ttp:))&&&.borderlandse/ournal.adelaide.edu.au)vol3no1Y2004)dal'Ynon!itizen. tm+ E e non(!itizen and t e !on!ept of K uman rig tsK+ <ran!es Gal'+2ustralian Cational ?niversit' 20044. 2n a istori!al disdain for legal a!tion is merel' t e obverse of t e pro!ess of fetis izing legalit'. Au!
!on!epts. ?ndoubtedl'+ some sort of move be'ond !ategories unders!oring divisions &it in t e &a's people are entitled to live t eir lives is ne!essar'. Lut t eor' t at merel' substitutes t e idea of t e stati! essen!e of t e person to explain t e !onsequen!e of good and evil in t e &orld &it an equall' stati!+ invariant vie& of aut orit' and t e 9tate is+ 5 &ould argue+ ultimatel' eternalizing su!

mu! of t e po&er of an' su! !ritique must depend upon t e manner in & i! t e !ontext of t is life . t e possible experien!e of a!ting in t e &orld+ or Kform(of(lifeK ( is itself understood. 5n t e absen!e of an' su! !ontext+ & at tends to emerge is a return to t e problem of rig ts redu!ed to a division of form and !ontent+ rat er t an t e overturning of t is ver' problemati!. @nl' in t is !ase+ be!ause t e !ontent is seen to fall s ort of t e abstra!tion of+ for example+ a I& atever singularit'I+ t e form is & oll' dis!arded. Aore importantl'+ b' revisiting t is problem via a dismissal of t e !ontext of rig ts+ and more spe!ifi!all' of t e possibilit' of tra!es of t e intention to&ards uman dignit'+ a ri! eritage of !ritique is sidelined. 7ontinues... E e use and abuse of rig t is not t e same t ing as a !omplete absen!e of rig t+ and understanding t is is vital to being able to !ompre end & ere and in & at &a's demo!rati!+ !onstitutional 9tates be!ome+ or are+ fas!isti!. Catural rig t+ or t e rig t of t e uman being+ o!!upies a spa!e of interruption in t e divide bet&een la& and et i!alit' t at !an+ on o!!asion+ a!t as to reintrodu!e a radi!al pat os &it in rig t. (igh&s for ref+gees &a% in&o &he ra-ical core of righ&s,&he i-ea &ha& &here is a +ni)ersal h+$an -igni&*/ =as& fail+res of righ&s are no& reasons &o aban-on &he conce%&. &he* are reasons <h* righ&s $+s& be $ore aggressi)el* ex&en-e-/ "al*. 02 3 ttp:))&&&.borderlandse/ournal.adelaide.edu.au)vol3no1Y2004)dal'Ynon!itizen. tm+ E e non(!itizen and t e !on!ept of K uman rig tsK+ <ran!es Gal'+2ustralian Cational ?niversit' 20044. 8et us look t en at t e more spe!ifi! example of t e rig t of t e refugee or rig t of as'lum. 5n t e 1$%9 Ge!laration of t e 6ig ts of Aan and of t e 7itizen t ere is a per!eived need to set out & at are des!ribed as It e natural+ sa!red+ and inalienable rig ts of manI. E ese rig ts+ as is &ell kno&n+ !on!ern freedom+ equalit'+ t e rig t to libert'+ propert'+ se!urit' and resistan!e to oppression+ t e presumption of inno!en!e+ t e rig t to opinion and religious expression and free !ommuni!ation. 8ike&ise+ t e 194% ?niversal Ge!laration of >uman 6ig ts restates t ese rig ts and extends an understanding of rig t to e!onomi!+ so!ial and !ultural rig ts and+ per aps most importantl' from t e perspe!tive of t is paper+ t e rig t to a freedom of movement
and residen!e and t e rig t to seek and en/o' in ot er !ountries as'lum from perse!ution. He ave alread' mentioned t e institutionalization of t ese rig ts in !itizen rig ts+ and t at t is sense of rig t &as a !reation of t e nation(9tate. 2nd along &it t is is t e problemati! nature of t e in!lusion of t e rig t of propert' as an inalienable rig t+ & i! first arose as t e !onsequen!e of t e division of labour and as little to do &it an't ing in erentl' uman+ and t e basi! diffi!ult' t at arises &it a sense of innate rig ts+ as all rig ts ave been a!quired. He dete!t as &ell t e formalism of general /uridi!al equalit' &it t e mu! more normative !ontent of t e !onstitutional state of fundamental so!ial division . t ose & ose a!!ess to edu!ation+ se!urit'+ &ork and freedom from detention !an be assumed+ and t ose & ose

+ it &ould be a !lear distortion of t e struggles involved in t e emergen!e of !odified natural rig ts to not also mention t at an essential part of a sense of t e absolute inalienabilit' of t e person &as a vie& of individual freedom &it in !ommunit' 3t e sort of idea &e find 6ousseau+ for instan!e4 and t e attempt to exer!ise limits upon t e po&er of t'rants to !urtail t at freedom. E at t ere as been a ig l' variable degree of prote!tion of t ese rig ts+ or in !ertain !ases no prote!tion of t em at all+ is naturall' problemati! but !annot of itself be attributed to t e fa!t of rig ts t emselves. E e !ontext of rig ts is one t at is frequentl' unstable+ and+ as su! + it is important to !learl' assess t e pla!e of rig ts &it in our present !onditions of unfreedom. @ften as a result of t eir denial+ uman rig ts !urrentl' a!t so as to allo& a questioning of t e assumed aut orit' of t e 9tate. 5ndeed+ &it out a sense of rig ts it &ould be diffi!ult for us to understand t e !urrent absen!e of real freedom. 5f &e !onsider t e !ontemporar' struggles of t e K9ans =apiersK in <ran!e+ t e several undred t ousand people & ose refusal of t e label KillegalK and fig t for do!umentation is premised on t e basis t at t e undermining of rig ts is merel' a &a' of atta!king t e value of dignit' for all+ &e !an see a !lear example of t e possibilit' t at !an be realized t roug rig t. E e 9ans =apiers are &ell(kno&n for t eir questioning of t e assumptions of immigration poli!ies+ su! as t e existen!e of quotas+
la!k of t is assumption is outlined in t eir rig t to seek its guarantee. >o&ever detention !amps and deportations+ and t e' argue !ogentl' for an end to frontiers t emselves. Aad/iguSne 7iss\ argues t at t e initiatives of t ose !laiming t eir rig ts are basi! to t e survival of !ommunities 37iss\+ 199$: 34. E is is done on t e basis of an appeal to rig ts of /usti!e and egalitarianism. 5ndeed+ it is not possible to understand t is eman!ipator' struggle outside a !on!eption of rig ts. 2". 2gamben vie&s all su! setting out of rig ts as essentiall' reintegrating t ose marginalized from !itizens ip into t e fi!tion of a guaranteed !ommunit'. 8a& onl' I&ants to prevent and regulateI 32gamben+ 2001: 14 . and it is !ertainl' t e !ase t at mu! la& does . but 5n !ontrast+ 2gamben !ontends t at legal rig t and t e la& al&a's operate in a double apparatus of pure violen!e and forms of life guaranteed b' a 9! mittian Kstate of emergen!'K 32gamben+ 2000: 434. 2nd alt oug e re!ognizes t e dire !onsequen!es of a state of emergen!' &it t e eradi!ation of t e legal status of individuals+ e vie&s t is as t e for!e of la& &it out la&+ as a m'sti!al or fi!tional element+ a spa!e devoid of la&+ an Kempt' legal spa!eK+ or Kstate of ex!eptionK as 7arl 9! mitt refers to it+ t at is essential to t e legal order 37arl 9! mitt+ 19%": #4. H at is t en eliminated ere is an' sense of o& t e appeal to rig ts

&it in rig ts+ 5 argue+ &e !an also dete!t a potential for /usti!e.

E e problem &it t is strateg' for doing a&a' &it an' distin!tion and pla!ing t e refugee in a position of pure potentialit' is t at+ instead of liberating or revolutionizing t e pla!e of t e refugee+ it !reates an eternal present t at is unable to !onne!t t e ver' real realit' of differen!e &it a !ritique of t e so!iet' t at vi!timizes t e refugee in t e manner &it & i! &e are !urrentl' so familiar.
brings into question institutionalized unfreedom and & ' t is underl'ing insuffi!ien!' bet&een t e idea of rig t and real need is opposed b' t ose attempting to expand t e realm of uman rig ts.

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#)en if &he la< is no& %erfec& an- c+l&+re )al+es $a&&er. righ&s s&ill %ro&ec& +s fro$ o%%ression/ Al&$an. 90 32ndre&+ 3=rofessor of = ilosop 'F Deorgia 9tate ?niversit'4 Critical Legal Studies: A Liberal Criti)ue+ page %4 E ere are undoubtedl' elements of t e liberal tradition & i! exaggerate t e extent to & i! t e la& alone gives !ontemporar' liberal so!ieties t e degree of umanit' and de!en!' t e' ave. E ere are undoubtedl' elements of t e liberal tradition & i! exaggerate t e po&er of la& to &ork its &ill against t e entren! ed !ustoms and traditions of a !ulture. He &ould be &ise to keep in mind Eo!queville*s lesson about t e failures of la& in !ultural set tings & ere it as tried to operate in opposition to pervasive and deep(seated so!ial norms. Lut it &ould be equall' &rong to dismiss t e prote!tions offered b' t e la& as superfluous or useless. Let&een t e area in & i! la& is useless be!ause it re!eives insuffi!ient support from t e rest of t e !ulture and t e area in & i! la& is superfluous be!ause t e rest of t e !ulture provides all of t e prote!tions &e !an reasonabl' ask for+ t ere is a &ide expanse of territor'. 5t is &it in t e borders of t at territor' t at la& !an and does make a differen!e. 5t is &it in t e borders of t at territor' t at legal rig ts !an and do &ork to prote!t people from t e evils of intoleran!e+ pre/udi!e+ and oppression. E is is t e eart of t e liberal tradition in legal p ilosop '. 5t is a tradition &ort ' of allegian!e. (igh&s are &he bes& %a&h &o libera&ion,if *o+ &ake &heir al&erna&i)e serio+sl*. i& <o+l- reD+ire $assi)e coercion &o crea&e a collec&i)e )oice ca%able of challenging &he la</ S%arer. 52 3Nd+ 38a& =rofessor+ ?niversit' of =enns'lvania4 3# 9tan. 8. 6ev. "09+ ;anuar'4. He &ould do &ell to follo& t e radi!al approa! of building upon our !ore uman rig ts tradition+ demonstrating t e !ontradi!tion bet&een t at tradition and our so!ial institutions+ and developing &a's to fuse uman rig ts into ne& !ooperative institutions of our o&n making. 9u! &ork requires a !on!ern for t eor' & i! feeds so!ial movement+ but su!!essful so!ial movement !omes from t e struggle for t e realization of our basi! rig ts+ not from t eir disparagement. @ne
must step outside t e liberal paradigm into a realm & ere trut ma' be experiential+ & ere kno&ledge resides in &orld vie&s t at are t emselves situated in istor'+ & ere po&er and ideas do not exist separatel'. 7ontinues... 7entral to t e argument 5 ave made t us far is t e notion t at individual autonom' and !ommunit' are not !ontradi!tions at allF rat er+ t e' s ape and give meaning and ri! ness to ea! ot er. Qenned' and ot er 7riti!al legal t eorists of t e dominant s! ool re!ognize t e latter t oug t. 2t t e same time+ t e' argue t at t e ver' interdependen!e of t ese !on!epts leads to t e fundamental and seemingl' unresolvable !ontradi!tion t e' embod'. 5n an oft(quoted passage+ Qenned' states: Nven & en &e seem to ourselves to be most alone+ ot ers are &it us+ in!orporated in us t roug pro!esses of language+ !ognition and feeling t at are+ simpl' as a matter of biolog'+ !olle!tive aspe!ts of our individualit'. Aoreover+ &e are not al&a's alone. He sometimes experien!e fusion &it ot ers+ in groups of t&o or even t&o million+ and it is a good rat er t an a bad experien!e. Lut at t e same time t at it forms and prote!ts us+ t e universe of ot ers 3famil'+ friends ip+ bureau!ra!'+ !ulture+ t e state4 t reatens us &it anni ilation and urges upon us forms of fusion t at are quite plainl' bad rat er t an good. 2 friend !an redu!e me to miser' &it a single look. Cumberless !onformities+ large and small abandonments of self to ot ers+ are t e pri!e of & at freedom &e experien!e in so!iet'. 2nd t e pri!e is a ig one. E roug our existen!e as members of !olle!tives+ &e impose on ot ers and ave

. E e ki!ker is t at t e abolition of t ese illegitimate stru!tures+ t e fas ioning of an unalienated !olle!tive existen!e+ appears to impl' su! a massive in!rease of !olle!tive !ontrol over our lives t at it &ould defeat its purpose. @nl' !olle!tive for!e seems !apable of destro'ing t e attitudes and institutions t at !olle!tive for!e as itself imposed. 7oer!ion of t e individual b' t e group appears to be inextri!abl' bound up &it t e liberation of t at same individual. 5f one a!!epts t at !olle!tive norms &eig so eavil' in favor of t e status quo t at purel' Ivoluntar'I movement is in!on!eivable+ t en t e onl' alternative is t e assumption of responsibilit' for t e totalitarian domination of ot er peopleKs minds (( for Ifor!ing t em to be free.I
imposed on us ierar! i!al stru!tures of po&er+ &elfare+ and a!!ess to enlig tenment t at are illegitimate+ & et er based on birt into a parti!ular so!ial !lass or on t e a!!ident of geneti! endo&ment

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#)en if &he la< is no& %erfec& an- c+l&+re )al+es $a&&er. righ&s s&ill %ro&ec& +s fro$ o%%ression/ Al&$an. L=rofessor of =hiloso%h*Q 7eorgia S&a&e @ni)ersi&*I 90 32ndre&+ Critical Legal Studies: A Liberal Criti)ue+ page %4 E ere are undoubtedl' elements of t e liberal tradition & i! exaggerate t e extent to & i! t e la& alone gives !ontemporar' liberal so!ieties t e degree of umanit' and de!en!' t e' ave. E ere are undoubtedl' elements of t e liberal tradition & i! exaggerate t e po&er of la& to &ork its &ill against t e entren! ed !ustoms and traditions of a !ulture. He &ould be &ise to keep in mind Eo!queville*s lesson about t e failures of la& in !ultural set tings & ere it as tried to operate in opposition to pervasive and deep(seated so!ial norms. Lut it &ould be equall' &rong to dismiss t e prote!tions offered b' t e la& as superfluous or useless. Let&een t e area in & i! la& is useless be!ause it re!eives insuffi!ient support from t e rest of t e !ulture and t e area in & i! la& is superfluous be!ause t e rest of t e !ulture provides all of t e prote!tions &e !an reasonabl' ask for+ t ere is a &ide expanse of territor'. 5t is &it in t e borders of t at territor' t at la& !an and does make a differen!e. 5t is &it in t e borders of t at territor' t at legal rig ts !an and do &ork to prote!t people from t e evils of intoleran!e+ pre/udi!e+ and oppression. E is is t e eart of t e liberal tradition in legal p ilosop '. 5t is a tradition &ort ' of allegian!e.

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(ela&ionshi%s o+&si-e of &he la< onl* <ork in a <orl- <i&ho+& s*s&e$ic -iscri$ina&ion,righ&s are ke* &o %ro&ec&ions/ ?ie&lo<+ 3=rofessor. @ni)ersi&* of Tole-o La<I+ 94 30E&o Hrongs Gon*t 2dd up to 6ig ts: t e 5mportan!e of =reserving Gue =ro!ess in 8ig t of 6e!ent Helfare 6eform Aeasures+1 4" 2m. ?.8. 6ev. 1111+ 8exis+ 6ebe!!a N.4
=rofessor =atri!ia Hilliams tells a stor' about renting an apartment at t e same time as er !olleague+ =eter Dabel. n4" Hilliams re!ounts t at Dabel+ a & ite man & o &as sensitive about not alienating people &it is legal kno&ledge and status as a la&'er and la& professor+ &anted an informal relations ip &it is landlord. n4# >e did not sign a lease+ and gave a deposit in !as &it out re!eiving a re!eipt. n4$ 5n !ontrast+ Hilliams+ an 2fri!an(2meri!an &oman & o gre& up in lo&(in!ome neig bor oods & ere landlords refused to give t eir tenants t e prote!tion of a lease+ rented an apartment from a friend+ but still insisted on a detailed+ lengt il' negotiated lease t at establis ed an armKs lengt relations ip &it er landlord. n4% E at lease set fort t e stru!tured rig ts t at s e !onsidered important to er as an 2fri!an(2meri!an &oman. =ro!edural rig ts are parti!ularl' important for &omen of !olor be!ause &omen of !olor ave been istori!all' dis!riminated against in our so!iet'. n49 =oor &omen of !olor ave felt t e brunt of dis!rimination on man' levels. n"0 E e' en!ounter dis!rimination & en seeking /obs+ ousing+ and finan!ial assistan!e. n"1 2s a result+ T*1120U man' are relegated to t e most run(do&n+ dangerous neig bor oods in urban areas. n"2 >istori!all'+ t e government also as dis!riminated against &omen of !olor &it respe!t to &elfare benefits. <or example+ & en t e 9o!ial 9e!urit' 2!t &as first ena!ted in 1934+ states &ere allo&ed to set eligibilit' standards for re!eiving benefits+ and to set t e amount of benefits. n"3 2t t at time+ 7ongress !onsidered a provision t at &ould ave forbidden ra!ial dis!rimination in t e allo!ation of benefits+ but re/e!ted t at measure. n"4 2s a result+ man' sout ern states dis!riminated against bla!k &elfare appli!ants+ refusing t em benefits and)or setting benefit levels so lo& t at t e' &ere impra!ti!al+ in order to maintain t e lo&(&age market of &omen of !olor+ & o t'pi!all' performed domesti! and field &ork. n"" Gis!rimination against poor people of !olor+ in t e allo!ation of government benefits+ !ontinues to t is da'. 5n 1992+ a stud' !ondu!ted b' t e 9o!ial 9e!urit' 2dministration found eviden!e of dis!rimination against 2fri!an(2meri!an appli!ants for 9o!ial 9e!urit' and 9upplemental 9e!urit' 5n!ome benefits. n"# 2s a result of t e investigation+ t e 9o!ial 9e!urit' 2dministration !reated a spe!ial unit to pro!ess !omplaints of

Hilliams notes+ IH ile rig ts ma' not be ends in t emselves+ it remains t at rig ts r etori! as been and !ontinues to be an effe!tive form of dis!ourse for bla!ks.I n"% HilliamsK example+ !omparing er approa! to lease negotiation &it t at of =eter Dabel+ and t e ;udgment+ 8andlord stud'+ & i! s o&ed t at landlords did not need attorne's to &in t eir !ases+ illustrate an important point: E e po&erful ma' &illingl' ! oose to give up t eir stru!tured rig ts+ but t ose & o per!eive t emselves as less po&erful are less &illing to give up t e empo&erment of stru!tured rig ts+ su! as due pro!ess. 5n fa!t+ people not in po&er require stru!tured rig ts+ and !annot do &it out t em. Aan' 2fri!an 2meri!ans in t e !ivil rig ts movement risked t eir lives in t e fig t for t e stru!tured rig t to vote in sout ern states+ so t at t e' !ould parti!ipate in t e politi!al pro!ess. =eople & o are disempo&ered due to t eir ra!e+ !lass+ or gender need a formalized+ stru!tured pro!ess so t at t eir rig ts !an be prote!ted.
dis!rimination made b' appli!ants for 9o!ial 9e!urit' benefits. n"$ 2s =atri!ia

!on>legal rela&ions allo<s racis$ &o flo+rish,&hose <i&ho+& %o<er nee- &he la</ =olle&a. LEol+$bia =rofessorI 2000 3<ran!es!a =olletta+ 0E e 9tru!tural 7ontext of Covel 6ig ts 7laims: 9out ern 7ivil 6ig ts @rganizing+ 19#1(19##+1 2000+ 34 8a& : 9o!K' 6ev. 3#$+ 8exis4.
2not er anal'ti!al liabilit' of DabelKs vie& of so!ial movements as dire!ted Ifundamentall'I to forging ne& experien!es of aut enti! so!iabilit' is revealed in is preferen!es for informalit' over formalit' and appeals to empat ' over appeals to legal /usti!iabilit'. 5f progressive movements b' definition seek to expose t e illusoriness of t e stateKs !laim to aut orit'+ and if t at exposure is seen as adequate to

for people & o ave been &it out po&er+ appeals to formal pro!edures and standards are not so easil' dismissed. 5nformalit'+ like tradition and dis!retion+ is often /ust t e gentler fa!e of domination 36ollins 19%"F Aerr' 19904. =atri!ia Hilliams 319%$4 makes t is point in des!ribing er and DabelKs experien!es looking for apartments in Ce& Xork. Dabel found a sublet and+
t e task of politi!al transformation+ t en ! allenging rituals of formalit' makes eminent sense. Lut after a brief !onversation &it its tenants+ anded over f 900 in !as + &it no lease+ re!eipt+ or ke's. IE e ands ake and good vibes &ere for im indi!ators of trust more binding t an a distan!ing formal !ontra!tI 340#4. Hilliams se!ured an apartment in a building o&ned b' friends and Isigned a detailed+ lengt il' negotiated+ finel' printed lease firml' establis ing me as t e ideal armKs lengt transa!torI

2s a & ite man+ Dabel !ould afford t e informalit' of relations t at ad istori!all' provided li!ense for 2fri!an 2meri!ansK exploitation b' & ites+ Hilliams argues. H ere s e gre& up+ landlords ad often rented flats to poor bla!k tenants &it out leases and &it rent paid in !as + but t
340$4. given b' t is so!iet' a strong T*3$#U sense of m'self as alread' too familiar+ too personal+ too subordinate to & ite peopleI 340$4. He !an assume t at

ose arrangements &ere demands on t e part of landlords and signaled distrust not trust. Eo engage in formal+ legal transa!tions &as for Hilliams to assert er &ort as a legal person. I2s a bla!k+ 5 ave been

Dabel re!ognizes a distin!tion bet&een good informalit' and bad informalit'. 5ndeed+ e argues t at Ian alternative approa! to politi!s based on resolving differen!e t roug !ompassion and empat ' &ould presuppose t at people !an engage in politi!al dis!ussion and a!tion t at is founded upon a felt re!ognition of one anot er as uman beings+ instead of !on!eiving of t e politi!al realm as a !ontext & ere one abstra!t Klegal sub/e!tK !onfronts anot erI 3Dabel : >arris+ 19%2(%3:3$$+ m' emp asis4. Lut t e set of oppositions on & i! is definition of effe!tive politi!s rests elides it &it informalit' in a &a' t at obs!ures t at point. Hit out den'ing t at t e formalit' of t e !ourtroom !an buttress t e stateKs aut orit' and ins!rutabilit' at t e same time as it dis!ourages expressions+ and experien!es+ of !ompassion and empat '+ &e s ould be a&are t at formalit' !an also make visible dis!riminator' and exploitative pra!ti!es t at &ere previousl' uns!rutinized 3see Aassaro 19%9 on empat '4. 2nd &e s ould be a&are t at informalit' ma' !on!eal not illusor' but ver' real po&er.

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#)en if &he al&erna&i)e <ere enac&e-. %eo%le <o+l- nee- a <a* &o figh& in&r+sions fro$ &he s&a&e, righ&s are +sef+l e)en in &he <orl- of &he al&erna&i)e/ Forba&h. LLa< =rofessor. @ELAI 92 3 Hilliam N. <orbat + =rofessor of 8a&+ ?782+ 0L@@Q 6NB5NH: Eaking 8efts 9eriousl'+ E e =oliti!s of 8a&: 2 =rogressive 7ritique+1 92 Xale 8.;. 1041+ Aa'+ 19%3+ 8exis4.
5f <reeman leaves one !onfused about & at part la& ma' pla' in over!oming inequalit' and building t e good so!iet'+ =eter Dabel is more fort !oming. 5n a number of essa's+ in!luding t e one e !o( aut ored for t is volume+ Dabel as developed t e notion t at la& is a IreifiedI form of !ommuni!ation. n"% Eo !lot e a person in legal forms is to impose on er a self transformed or IalienatedI into a It ing(like fun!tion of t e Ks'stem.KI n"9 DabelKs response is to dispense &it la& and !ease talking about /usti!e and uman needs Iin abstra!t legal terms.I n#0 9in!e !apitalist produ!tion gives rise to Ialienation+I and sin!e la& is Ionl' a re!ast formI of Iunderl'ing so!io(e!onomi! relations+I &e must fo!us instead on t e produ!tion pro!ess to !reate It e possible !onditions for a !on!rete /usti!e.I n#1 Dabel as introdu!ed valuable ne& perspe!tives into 789+ but !ertain ke' formulations of is la&(as(reifi!ation t esis seem dis!on!ertingl' familiar. E e idea t at talking about /usti!e Iin legal termsI is a kind of false ne!essit' imposed b' !apitalism ultimatel' rests on t e !onvi!tion t at in t e good so!iet' (( one &it transformed relations of produ!tion((government &ill be!ome not ing more t an t e te! ni!al Iadministration of t ings.I n#3 5n t is vie&+ t e state (( and t erefore+ talk of la& and rig ts (( exists onl' be!ause in a !lass(based so!iet' government means ruling over people. n#4 5n ot er

t e argument for I/unkingI la& turns on t e trea! erous notion t at one !an rigorousl' distinguis administering t ings from governing or ruling people. E is notion mig t ave seemed plausible in t e nineteent !entur'+ but our subsequent experien!e suggests t at all stru!tures of Imerel' te! ni!alI or Ie!onomi!I administration are also po&er stru!tures. n#" E us+ it is foll' toda' to believe t at even t e good so!iet'+ &it its demo!rati! relations of produ!tion+ &ould require merel' t e Iadministration of t ingsI to !oordinate its affairs.
&ords+ E is belief assumes t at all t e various purportedl' te! ni!al de!isions entailed b' IadministrationI &ould enlist ever'oneKs spontaneous !onsent. @n!e &e a!kno&ledge t at po&er over people inevitabl' in eres in su! de!isions+ &e must add t at t e good so!iet' &ould require not merel' a frame&ork for !oordinating its e!onomi! affairs+ but also a means to !ontest and revise t at frame&orkKs organization+ pro!edures+ and results. Nven in t e sp ere of e!onomi! relations+ t e good so!iet' &ould t erefore need institutions mu! like la&(making and ad/udi!ation. >aving !on!eded t at IadministrationI entails po&er stru!tures+ &e must also !onfront t e problem of legitimating po&er. Aeans for !ontest and revision+ & ile ne!essar'+ are not suffi!ient. 8egitimate po&er arises onl' from !onsent+ and !onsent of t e a!tive sort t at t is radi!al+ demo!rati! s! eme obviousl' entails is generated onl' b' !itizens parti!ipating in a vital+ publi!+ politi!al sp ere. n## 9o+ t e good so!iet' &ould need measures to se!ure a sp ere or+ rat er+ man' Ispa!esI t roug out t e so!iet' for free and undominated politi!al involvement and deliberation. Aoreover+ aving enlarged t e publi! realm of parti!ipation to

+ t e good so!iet' &ould also need to se!ure t e private spa!es t at prote!t individuals from !oer!ed IinvolvementI and+ t ereb'+ make freedom aut enti!. 5t &ould need to provide & at ?nger as !alled Iimmunit' rig ts+I in!luding t ose traditional Iliberal rig ts+I & i! ensure personal freedom from external+ state+ or !olle!tive !oer!ion. E us+ t e good so!iet'+ t oug grounded in Itransformed relations of produ!tion+I ma' !ontain man' t ings t at look suspi!iousl' like Ila&I (( not onl' a!tivities t at resemble IlegislatingI and Iad/udi!ation+I but also a variet' of measures t at !an onl' be !alled Irig ts.I =er aps t en+ not all Irig ts talkI is redu!ible to an estranged+ reified individualism in t e manner t at Dabel+ Qenned'+ and ot ers often suggest.
embra!e produ!tive and e!onomi! affairs as &ell as ot er no& remote de!isionmaking

Legal )ic&ories are no& aliena&ing,&he* are ke* &o s%+rring ac&i)is$/ =olle&a. LEol+$bia =rofessorI 2000 3<ran!es!a =olletta+ 0E e 9tru!tural 7ontext of Covel 6ig ts 7laims: 9out ern 7ivil 6ig ts @rganizing+ 19#1(19##+1 2000+ 34 8a& : 9o!K' 6ev. 3#$+ 8exis4. H at 5 found s ould assuage 789 &ritersK &orries t at rig ts !laims making fosters a demobilizing dependen!e on t e state to re!ognize rig ts(bearers+ t at litigation al&a's displa!es alternative+ more po&er(oriented strategies+ and t at a!tivistsK politi!al vision is progressivel' !ir!ums!ribed b' t e limits of t e la&. Hit respe!t to t e first+ bla!k Aississippians did indeed seek re!ognition as rig ts(bearers ( as Ifirst !lass !itizensI ( but less from federal and lo!al offi!ials t an from !ongregation+ kin+ and !ommunit'. 8egal pro!eedings inside t e !ourtroom supplemented t e rig ts(talk t at took pla!e outside it b' publi!l' re!ognizing peopleKs &illingness to Istand upI to & ite oppression. <ar from substitutes for !olle!tive a!tion+ as 7riti!al 8egal 9tudies &riters &orr'+ legal vi!tories &ere interpreted as prods to furt er a!tion. <inall'+ &it respe!t to !riti!sK !on!ern t at rig ts(talk narro&s a!tivistsK politi!al vision and strategi! options+ 5 find t at a!tivistsK extension of rig ts !laims to t e IunqualifiedI proved important in ! allenging prevalent notions of politi!al representation. 5t elped to s ape a !olle!tive a!tion frame t at &ent on to animate struggles around e!onomi! inequalit'+ governmental de!isionmaking in povert' programs+ and t e Bietnam Har. 2!tivistsK engagement &it !onventional rig ts( talk pus ed t em be'ond legal liberalism to a more radi!alized but still resonant frame.

Michigan 7 Week Seniors 2009 ( 7FTS 7OO"' K#J TO TF# ALT#(!AT 8#

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(igh&s are &ransfor$a&i)e/ An-. <e <ill arg+e &ha& o+r +se of righ&s rhe&oric &o a-)oca&e agains& +nfe&&ere- %o<er in &his -eba&e is %roof of &his arg+$en&/ =olle&a. LEol+$bia =rofessorI 2000 3<ran!es!a =olletta+ 0E e 9tru!tural 7ontext of Covel 6ig ts 7laims: 9out ern 7ivil 6ig ts @rganizing+ 19#1(19##+1 2000+ 34 8a& : 9o!K' 6ev. 3#$+ 8exis4. E e formalit' of legal pro!esses !an make visible+ and !ontestable+ a!tions t at ave been insulated from !ritique b' t eir status as traditional+ informal+ personal+ or idios'n!rati!. Aore broadl'+ t e &a' to avoid t e reified !on!eptions bot of rig ts and so!ial movements t at underpin DabelKs s! eme is to pa' !loser attention to o& rig ts !laims and strategies figure in a!tual movements. 2mong t e possibilities not !onsidered b' Dabel or 789 generall' are t at some rig ts are more amenable to !ommunal rat er t an individualist interpretations 38'nd 19%44+ t at some kinds of movements are more likel' to privilege litigation over ot er strategies+ t at litigation ma' ave different !osts and benefits at different points in a movement tra/e!tor' 3A!7ann 19944+ and+ most importantl'+ t at t e meanings of rig ts are defined and modified in intera!tion &it t e state+ opponents+ and !ompetitors+ rat er t an defined solel' b' /udges. E e latter insig t informs a group of linked perspe!tives on legalit' in ever'da' settings 3N&i!k : 9ilbe' 199%F Aerr' 1990F Xngvesson 19%94. 9u! &ork as s o&n t e extent to & i! peopleKs understandings of self and so!ial intera!tion are informed b' legal !on!epts su! as Ifairness+I Ipropert'+I and IentitlementI before t e' ave an' formal !onta!t &it t e state+ but !on!epts defined in &a's t at are quite often at odds &it t ose !urrentl' a!!eptable in a !ourt of la&. 8egal dis!ourse affords possibilities for negotiating t e limits of t e la& in novel &a's. 9all' Nngle Aerr' &rites t at its Iambiguities+ in!onsisten!ies+ and !ontradi!tions provide multiple opportunities for interpretation and !ontestI 31990:94. H en t is vie& of t e la& is extended into t e realm of !olle!tive a!tion+ it suggests t at rig ts(talk !an serve as a springboard to envisioning ! ange be'ond legal reform 3>unt 1990F A!7ann 1994F 9! neider 19%#F Billmoare 19%"4. IK6ig tsK !an give rise to Krig ts !ons!iousness+KI Aart a Aino& argues+ Iso t at individuals and groups ma' imagine and a!t in lig t of rig ts t at ave not been formall' re!ognized or enfor!ed b' offi!ialsI 3Aino& 19%$:1%#$4. =eople !an &iden t e s!ope of rig ts to en!ompass ne& institutional domains+ sub/e!ts+ and enfor!ement me! anisms. E e' !an supplement a legal idiom &it t at of anot er normative s'stem 3religion+ sa'+ or t e moral responsibilities of parent ood4. 7riti!al legal t eoristsK vie& of t e egemoni! fun!tion of rig ts is t us simultaneousl' too &eak and too strong. 5t is too &eak in maintaining t at peopleKs politi!al !ons!iousness is non(legal before t e' !ome into dire!t !onta!t &it t e state. 5t is too strong in assuming t at rel'ing on rig ts(talk ne!essaril' limits ! allengersK !apa!it' to envision alternatives.

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#)en <hen co+r& cases -o no& achie)e -esire- o+&co$es. &he* $obiliBe $o)e$en&s an- %ro$%& &he %o<erf+l &o change beha)ior so &ha& &he* can a)oi- f+&+re legal ba&&les/ =olle&a. LEol+$bia =rofessorI 2000 3<ran!es!a =olletta+ 0E e 9tru!tural 7ontext of Covel 6ig ts 7laims: 9out ern 7ivil 6ig ts @rganizing+ 19#1(19##+1 2000+ 34 8a& : 9o!K' 6ev. 3#$+ 8exis4. 5n arguing t at legal !laimsmaking as elped oppressed groups to gain po&er+ !riti!s of 7riti!al 8egal 9tudies refuse its s arp distin!tion bet&een rig ts and politi!s. E e' dra& attention instead to It e &a's in & i! rig ts !laims !an be linked to !laims for po&erI 39! neider 19%#:#294. N! oing points made earlier b' 9tuart 9! eingold 319$44+ Nlizabet 9! neider argues t at rig ts+ and spe!ifi!all' litigation+ !an mobilize people b' !asting grievan!es as legitimate entitlements and b' fostering a sense of !olle!tive identit'F !an elp to organize politi!al groups t roug la&'ersK resour!es of organizational skills and legitima!'F and !an !ontribute to pro!esses of politi!al realignment+ t oug in &a's t at are less predi!table and !on!lusive t an IideologistsI of a rig ts strateg' &ould suggest. 8itigation !an for!e t ose in po&er to a!!ount for t eir a!tionsF it renders t em less invulnerable+ exposes t em to evaluation+ and ! allenges t e pra!ti!es impli!itl' /ustified b' tradition or abit. Eoget er+ t ese !an motivate ot er forms of politi!al a!tion: lobb'ing for legislation+ dire!t a!tion demonstrations+ e!onomi! bo'!otts+ and so fort . 8egal vi!tories ma' not be ne!essar' to realize t ose benefits. <or t e targets of litigation+ t e possibilit' of a defeat in !ourt ma' be enoug to !onvin!e t em to institute ! anges. 5n a stud' of &age equit' a!tivism+ Ai! ael A!7ann 319944 found t at organizers used litigation not onl' to mobilize &omen &orkers but also to pressure emplo'ers to negotiate !ontra!ts under t e t reat t at /udges mig t impose a ne& &age stru!ture. Nven t oug It e !ourts &ere unreliable allies ... emplo'ers+ espe!iall' in t e publi! se!tor+ &ere vulnerable to t e adverse publi!it'+ finan!ial !osts+ and administrative un!ertainties t at legal a!tion t reatenedI 32%04. <or t e rig ts !laimants+ mean& ile+ making publi! t eir demands and putting opponents on t e ot seat+ o&ever briefl' and unsu!!essfull'+ ma' be enoug to motivate t em to engage in ot er kinds of insurgen!'. 6e!ognizing t e multivalent ! ara!ter of rig ts s ould not lead us to an overoptimisti! fait in t e po&er of ! allengers to repla!e egemoni! meanings &it subversive ones+ o&ever. 2s Gidi >erman !autions+ IE ere is no reason & ' progressive so!ial movements ne!essaril' rearti!ulate rig ts in su! a &a' as to ! allenge po&er relations. 6ig tsK meanings !annot simpl' be Kre(inventedK and disseminated at &illI 31993:3"(3#4. Eo be sure+ people !an assert an't ing as a Irig t+I & i! !an be defined as an IentitlementI &it out requiring t at t e entitlement be legall' aut orized or enfor!ed. Lut &e usuall' t ink of rig ts as !laims ba!ked up b' t e for!e of la& ( or potentiall' done so. E is !on!eption of rig ts allo&s for innovation+ but not &ild invention. H at makes legal rig ts !laims po&erful is t e !on/un!tion of moral prin!iple and t e for!e of t e state.

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F+$an righ&s are no& a $onoli&h,&he* can be a-a%&e- b* local c+l&+res/ bha<oh. 00 . 8e!turer in 2fri!an >istor' and 5nternational Gevelopment 9tudies at t e Ndo 9tate ?niversit' in Cigeria . 2000 3Lonn' 5b a&o + 0Let&een 7ulture and 7onstitution: Nvaluation t e 7ultural 8egitima!' of >uman 6ig ts in t e 2fri!a 9tate1+ uman rig ts quarterl' 2.2+ =ro/e!t Ause4. E is assumption tends to ignore t e fa!t t at so!ieties are !onstantl' in t e pro!ess of ! ange &roug t b' a variet' of !ultural+ so!ial+ and e!onomi! for!es. 5t seems an elementar' but ne!essar' point to make t at so(!alled traditional so!ieties((& et er in 2sia+ 2fri!a+ or in Nurope((&ere not !ulturall' stati! but &ere e!le!ti!+ d'nami!+ and sub/e!t to signifi!ant alteration over time. Eraditional !ultural beliefs are also neit er monolit i! nor un! anging. 5n fa!t t e' !ould(( and &ere((! anged in response to different internal and external pressures. 7ultural ! ange !an result from individuals being exposed to and adopting ne& ideas. 5ndividuals are a!tors & o !an influen!e t eir o&n fate+ even if t eir range of ! oi!e is !ir!ums!ribed b' t e prevalent so!ial stru!ture or !ulture. 5n doing so+ t ose & o ! oose to adopt ne& ideas+ t oug influen!ed b' t eir o&n interest+ initiate a pro!ess of ! ange & i! ma' influen!e dominant !ultural traditions. 7ulture is t us in erentl' responsive to !onfli!t bet&een individuals and so!ial groups. $ 5t is a net&ork of perspe!tives in & i! different groups old different values and &orld vie&s+ and in & i! some groups ave more po&er to present t eir versions as t e true !ulture. E e signifi!an!e of t is is t at &e pro!eed from t e assumption t at !ertain !ultural traditions in erentl' appearing in !onfli!t &it national and universal uman rig ts standards ma' in fa!t ave t e potential of being influen!ed t roug a pro!ess of ! ange and adaptation to meet ne& uman rig ts standards. F+$an righ&s conce%&s are +ni)ersal b+& &heir i$%le$en&a&ion )aries <i-el*/ "onnell*. 07 . 2ndre& Aellon =rofessor at t e Draduate 9! ool of 5nternational 9tudies+ ?niversit' of Genver . 200$ 3;a!k Gonnell'+ 0E e 6elative ?niversalit' of >uman 6ig ts1+ >uman 6ig ts _uarterl' 29 page 2%1(30#+ =ro/e!t Ause4. >uman rig ts are 3relativel'4 universal at t e level of t e concept+ broad formulations su! as t e !laims in 2rti!les 3 and 22 of t e ?niversal Ge!laration t at Iever'one as t e rig t to life+ libert' and se!urit' of personI and It e rig t to so!ial se!urit'.I"0 =arti!ular rig ts !on!epts+ o&ever+ ave multiple defensible conceptions. 2n' parti!ular !on!eption+ in turn+ &ill ave man' defensible implementations. 2t t is level-for example+ t e design of ele!toral s'stems to implement t e rig t Ito take part in t e government of is !ountr'+ dire!tl' or t roug freel' ! osen representativesI-relativit' is not merel' defensible but desirable."1 <un!tional and overlapping !onsensus universalit' lie primaril' at t e level of !on!epts. Aost of t e ?niversal Ge!laration lies at t is level as &ell. 2lt oug international uman rig ts treaties often embod' parti!ular !on!eptions+ and sometimes even parti!ular forms of implementation+"2 t e' too permit a &ide range of parti!ular pra!ti!es. 9ubstantial se!ond order variation+ b' !ountr'+ region+ !ulture+ or ot er grouping+ is !ompletel' !onsistent &it international legal and overlapping !onsensus universalit'. (igh&s enable c+l&+ral ex%ression/ "onnell*. 07 . 2ndre& Aellon =rofessor at t e Draduate 9! ool of 5nternational 9tudies+ ?niversit' of Genver . 200$ 3;a!k Gonnell'+ 0E e 6elative ?niversalit' of >uman 6ig ts1+ >uman 6ig ts _uarterl' 29 page 2%1(30#+ =ro/e!t Ause4. >uman rig ts seek to allo& uman beings+ individuall' and in groups t at give meaning and value to t eir lives+ to pursue t eir o&n visions of t e good life. 9u! ! oi!es-so long as t e' are !onsistent &it !omparable rig ts for ot ers and refle!t a plausible vision of uman flouris ing to & i! &e !an imagine a free people freel' assenting-deserve our respe!t. 5n fa!t+ understanding uman rig ts as a politi!al !on!eption of /usti!e supported b' an overlapping !onsensus requires us to allo& uman beings+ individuall' and !olle!tivel'+ !onsiderable spa!e to s ape 3relativel'4 universal rig ts to t eir parti!ular purposes-so long as t e' operate largel' &it in t e !onstraints at t e level of !on!epts establis ed b' fun!tional+ international legal+ and overlapping !onsensus universalit'.

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F+$an righ&s are no& inheren&l* Wes&ern/ "onnell*. 07 . 2ndre& Aellon =rofessor at t e Draduate 9! ool of 5nternational 9tudies+ ?niversit' of Genver . 200$ 3;a!k Gonnell'+ 0E e 6elative ?niversalit' of >uman 6ig ts1+ >uman 6ig ts _uarterl' 29 page 2%1(30#+ =ro/e!t Ause4. E e so!ial(stru!tural Imodernit'I of t ese ideas and pra!ti!es+ o&ever+ not t eir !ultural IHesternness+I deserves emp asis.1" >uman rig ts ideas and pra!ti!es arose not from an' deep Hestern !ultural roots but from t e so!ial+ e!onomi!+ and politi!al transformations of modernit'. E e' t us ave relevan!e & erever t ose transformations ave o!!urred+ irrespe!tive of t e pre(existing !ulture of t e pla!e. F+$an righ&s no& excl+si)e &o Wes&ern co+n&ries,i& si essen&ialis& &o i$%l* &ha& o&her c+l&+res inheren&l* o%%ose righ&s/ "onnell*. 07 . 2ndre& Aellon =rofessor at t e Draduate 9! ool of 5nternational 9tudies+ ?niversit' of Genver . 200$ 3;a!k Gonnell'+ 0E e 6elative ?niversalit' of >uman 6ig ts1+ >uman 6ig ts _uarterl' 29 page 2%1(30#+ =ro/e!t Ause4. 5t is important to remember t at virtuall' all Hestern religious and p ilosop i!al do!trines t roug most of t eir istor' ave eit er re/e!ted or ignored uman rig ts Eoda'+ o&ever+ most ad erents of most Hestern !ompre ensive do!trines endorse uman rig ts. 2nd if t e medieval 7 ristian &orld of !rusades+ serfdom+ and ereditar' aristo!ra!' !ould be!ome toda'Ks &orld of liberal and so!ial demo!rati! &elfare states+ it is ard to t ink of a pla!e & ere a similar transformation is in!on!eivable. 7onsider !laims t at I2sian valuesI are in!ompatible &it internationall' re!ognized uman rig ts. 24. 2sian values-like Hestern values+ 2fri!an values+ and most ot er sets of values-!an be+ and ave been+ understood as in!ompatible &it uman rig ts. Lut t e' also !an be and ave been interpreted to support uman rig ts+ as t e' regularl' are toda' in ;apan+ Eai&an+ and 9out Qorea. 2nd politi!al developments in a gro&ing number of 2sian !ountries suggest t at ordinar' people and even governments are in!reasingl' vie&ing uman rig ts as a !ontemporar' politi!al expression of t eir deepest et i!al+ !ultural+ and politi!al values and aspirations. 2" Co !ulture or !ompre ensive do!trine is Ib' nature+I or in an' given or fixed &a'+ eit er !ompatible or in!ompatible &it uman rig ts.

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(igh&s are &he bes& $o-el for %ro&ec&ing %eo%le agains& $o-ern s&a&es an- $arke&s,no )iable al&erna&i)e has <orke- as <ell/ "onnell*. 07 . 2ndre& Aellon =rofessor at t e Draduate 9! ool of 5nternational 9tudies+ ?niversit' of Genver . 200$ 3;a!k Gonnell'+ 0E e 6elative ?niversalit' of >uman 6ig ts1+ >uman 6ig ts _uarterl' 29 page 2%1(30#+ =ro/e!t Ause4. E e spread of modern markets and states as globalized t e same t reats to uman dignit' initiall' experien!ed in Nurope. >uman rig ts represent t e most effe!tive response 'et devised to a &ide range of standard t reats to uman dignit' t at market e!onomies and bureau!rati! states ave made nearl' universal a!ross t e globe. >uman rig ts toda' remain t e onl' proven effe!tive means to assure uman dignit' in so!ieties dominated b' markets and states. 2lt oug istori!all' !ontingent and relative+ t is fun!tional universalit' full' merits t e label universal-for us+ toda'. 2rguments t at anot er state+ so!iet'+ or !ulture as developed plausible and effe!tive alternative me! anisms for prote!ting or realizing uman dignit' in t e !ontemporar' &orld deserve serious attention. Eoda'+ o&ever+ su! !laims+ & en not advan!ed b' repressive elites and t eir supporters+ usuall' refer to an allegedl' possible &orld t at no one 'et as ad t e good fortune to experien!e. E e fun!tional universalit' of uman rig ts depends on uman rig ts providing attra!tive remedies for some of t e most pressing s'stemi! t reats to uman dignit'. >uman rig ts toda' do pre!isel' t at for a gro&ing number of people of all !ultures in all regions. H atever our ot er problems+ &e all must deal &it market e!onomies and bureau!rati! states. H atever our ot er religious+ moral+ legal+ and politi!al resour!es+ &e all need equal and inalienable universal uman rig ts to prote!t us from t ose t reats.

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=os&>colonialis$ essen&ialiBes o%%ression an- $akes resis&ance i$%ossible/ Ong 99 2i &a @ng+ =rofessor of 2nt ropolog' at ?7 Lerkele'+ <lexible 7itizens ip: E e 7ultural 8ogi! of Eransnationalit'+ 1999+ p. 33(34 Aore broadl'+ post!olonial t eorists fo!us on re!overing t e voi!es of sub/e!ts silen!ed b' patriar! ' and !olonial rule 3E e Nmpire Hrites La!k is t e title of one popular !olle!tion4F t e' assume t at all !ontemporar' ra!ial+ et ni!+ and !ultural oppressions !an all be attributed to Hestern !olonialisms. 2meri!an appropriations of post!olonial t eor' ave !reated a unitar' dis!ourse of t e post!olonial t at refers to ig l' variable situations and !onditions t roug out t e &orldF t us+ Da'atri 9pivak is
able to talk about 0t e paradigmati! subaltern &oman+1 as &ell as 0Ce& Horld 2sians 3t e old migrants4 and Ce& 5mmigrant 2sians 3often Pmodel minorities*4 being dis!iplinarized toget erR1 @t er post!olonial feminists also ave been eager to seek stru!tural similarities+ !ontinuities+ !on/un!tures+ and allian!es bet&een t e post!olonial oppressions experien!ed b' peoples on t e bases of ra!e+ et ni!it'+ and gender bot in formerl' !olonized populations in t e t ird &orld and among immigrant populations in t e ?nited 9tates+ 2ustralia+ and Nngland.1# 9eldom is t ere an' attempt to link t ese assertions of unitar' post!olonial situations among diasporan sub/e!ts in t e Hest to t e istori!al stru!tures of !olonization+ de!olonization+ and !ontemporar' developments in parti!ular non( Hestern !ountries. 5ndeed+ t e term post!olonial as been used to indis!riminatel' des!ribe different regimes of e!onomi!+ politi!al+ and !ultural domination in t e 2meri!as+ 5ndia+ 2fri!a+ and ot er t ird(&orld !ountries & ere t e a!tual istori!al experien!es of !olonialism ave been ver' varied in terms of lo!al !ulture+ !onquest+ settlement+ ra!ial exploitation+ administrative regime+ politi!al

post!olonial t eor' !an represent a kind of t eoreti!al imperialism & ereb' s! olars based in t e Hest+ &it out seriousl' engaging t e s! olars ip of fara&a' pla!es+ !an pro/e!t or 0speak for1 post!olonial situations else& ere. 9tuart >all as &arned against approa! es t at universalize ra!ial+ et ni!+ and gender oppressions &it out lo!ating t e 0a!tual integument of po&erain !on!rete institutions.1 2 more fruitful strand of post!olonial studies is represented b' subaltern s! olars su! as =art a 7 atter/ee+ & o as !riti!ized t e 5ndian national pro/e!ts+ & i! are based on Hestern models of modernit' and b'pass 0man' possibilities of aut enti!+ !reative+ and plural development of so!ial identities+1 in!luding t e marginalized !ommunities in 5ndian so!iet'. >e suggests t at an alternative imagination t at dra&s on 0narratives of !ommunit'1 &ould be a formidable ! allenge to narratives of !apital. E is brilliant &ork+ o&ever+ is based on t e assumption t at bot modernit' and !apitalism are universal forms+ against & i! non(Hestern so!ieties su! as 5ndia !an onl' mobilize 0pre(existing !ultural solidarities su! as lo!alit'+ !aste+ tribe+ religious !ommunit'+ or et ni! identit'.1 E is anal'ti!al opposition bet&een a universal modernit' and non( Hestern !ulture is rat er old(fas ioned it is as if 7 atter/ee believes t e Hest is not present in 5ndian elites & o ! ampion narratives of t e indigenous !ommunit'. <urt ermore+ t e !on!ept of a universal modernit' must be ret oug t & en+ as 2rif Girlik observes+ 0t e narrative of !apitalism is no longer t e narrative of t e istor' of NuropeF non( Nuropean !apitalist so!ieties no& make t eir o&n !laims on t e istor' of !apitalism.120 E e loose use of t e term 0t e post!olonial+1 t en+ as ad t e bizarre effe!t of !ontributing to a Hestern tradition of ot ering t e 6estF it suggests a post&ar s! eme & ereb' 0t e t ird &orld1 &as follo&ed b' 0t e developing !ountries+1 & i! are no& being su!!eeded b' 0t e post!olonial.1 E is !ontinuum seems to suggest t at t e furt er &e move in time+ t e more be olden non(Hestern !ountries are to t e forms and pra!ti!es of t eir !olonial past. L' and large+ ant ropologists ave been !areful to dis!uss o& formerl' !olonized so!ieties ave developed differentl' in relation to global e!onomi! and politi!al dominations and ave repositioned t emselves differentl' vis(a(vis !apitalism and late modernit'. L' spe!if'ing differen!es in istor'+ politi!s+ and !ulture+ ant ropologists are able to sa' o& t e post!olonial formation of 5ndonesia is quite different from t at of 5ndia+ Ci!aragua+ or Vaire.
resistan!e+ and arti!ulation &it global !apitalism. 5n !areless ands+

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Science is &he o%%osi&e of -o$ina&ion K scien&ific kno<le-ge libera&es an- i$%ro)es li)es/ Bronner 02 9tep en Nri! Lronner+ =rofessor of =oliti!al 9!ien!e at 6utgers ?niversit'+ 2004+ 6e!laiming t e Nnlig tenment: Eo&ard a =oliti!s of 6adi!al Nngagement+ p. 21(23 9omet ing &ill al&a's be missing: freedom &ill never be!ome full' manifest in realit'. E e relation bet&een t em is as'mptoti!. E erefore+ most p ilosop es understood progress as a regulative ideal+ or as a postulate+13 rat er t an as an absolute or t e expression of some divine plane or t e foundation for a s'stem.*4 Nven in s!ientifi! terms+ progress retained a !riti!al dimension insofar as it implied t e need to question establis ed !ertain ties. 5n t is vein+ it is misleading simpl' to equate s!ientifi! reason &it t e domination of man and nature.1" 2ll t e great figures of t e s!ientifi! revolution -La!on+ Lo'le+ Ce&ton-&ere !on!erned &it liberating umanit' from & at seemed t e po&er of seemingl' intra!table for!es. 9&amps &ere ever'& ereF roads &ere fe&F forests remained to be !learedF illness &as rampantF food &as s!ar!eF most people &ould never leave t eir village. H at it implied not to understand t e existen!e of ba!teria or t e nature of ele!tri!it'+ /ust to use ver' simple examples+ is toda' simpl' in!on!eivable. Nnlig tenment figures like Len/amin <ranklin+ 0t e !omplete p ilosop e+1*# be!ame famous for a reason: t e' not onl' freed people from some of t eir fears but t roug inventions like t e stove and t e lig tning rod t e' also raised ne& possibilities for making people*s lives more livable. 7riti!al t eorists and postmodernists miss t e point & en t e' vie& Nnlig tenment intelle!tuals in general and s!ientists in parti!ular as simple apostles of reifi!ation. E e' a!tuall' !onstituted its most !onsistent enem'. E e p ilosop es ma' not ave grasped t e !ommodit' form+ but t e' empo&ered people b' ! allenging superstitions and dogmas t at left t em mute and elpless against t e & ims of nature and t e in/un!tions of tradition. Nnlig tenment t inkers &ere /ustified in understanding kno&ledge as in erentl' improving umanit'. 5nfused &it a sense of furt ering t e publi! good+ liberating t e individual from t e !lut! es of t e invisible and inexpli!able+ t e Nnlig tenment idea of progress required & at t e 'oung Aarx later termed 0t e rut less !ritique of ever't ing existing.1 E is regulative notion of progress &as never inimi!al to sub/e!tivit'. _uite t e !ontrar' : progress be!ame meaningful onl' &it referen!e to real living individuals.

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S%anos9s reHec&ion of h+$anis$ $arginaliBes his &heor* an- $akes lef&is& coali&ion i$%ossible/ =erkin. 91 . 2sso!iate =rofessor of Nnglis at 9aint Aar'Ks ?niversit' . 1993 3;. 6ussell =erkin+ Costmodern Culture L.L+ 0E eorizing t e 7ulture Hars+1 =ro/e!t Ause4. A' final !riti!ism is t at 9panos+ b' is attempt to put all umanists into t e same !ategor' and to break totall' &it t e tradition of umanism+ isolates imself in a posture of ultraleftist purit' t at !uts im off from man' potential politi!al allies+ espe!iall' & en+ as 5 &ill note in !on!lusion+ is pra!ti!al re!ommendations for t e pra!ti!al role of an adversarial intelle!tual seem similar to t ose of t e liberal pluralists e atta!ks. >e seems ill(informed about & at goes on in t e ever'da' &ork of t e a!adem'+ for instan!e+ in t e field of !omposition studies. 9panos laments t e Iun&arranted negle!tI 32024 of t e &ork of =aulo <reire+ 'et in reading !omposition and pedagog' /ournals over t e last fe& 'ears+ 5 ave noti!ed fe& t inkers & o ave been so !onsistentl' !ited. 9panos refers several times to t e fa!t t at t e dis!ourse of t e do!uments !omprising 8he Centagon Capers &as linked to t e kind of dis!ourse t at first('ear !omposition !ourses produ!e 3t is &as 6i! ard @ mannKs argument4F ere again+ o&ever+ 9panos is not up to date. <or t e last de!ade t e field of !omposition studies as been t e most vigorous site of t e kind of oppositional pra!ti!es 8he +nd o' +ducation re!ommends. E e a!adem'+ in s ort+ is more diverse+ more !omplex+ more genuinel' full of differen!e t an 9panos allo&s+ and it is pre!isel' t at differen!e t at neo!onservatives &ant to erase. L' seeking to separate out onl' t e pure 3post umanist4 believers+ 9panos seems to me to ensure is self(marginalization. <or example+ several times e in!ludes pluralists like Ha'ne Loot and even Derald Draff in lists of I umanistsI t at in!lude Hilliam Lennett+ 6oger Qimball and Gines GK9ouza. @f !ourse+ t ere is a polemi!al purpose to t is+ but it is one t at is !ounterprodu!tive. 5n fa!t+ 5 &ould even question t e validit' of !alling s odd' and often ina!!urate /ournalists like Qimball and GK9ouza &it t e title I umanist intelle!tuals.I >enr' 8ouis DatesKs final ! apter !ontains some !ogent !riti!ism of t e kind of position & i! 9panos as taken. Dates argues t at t e I ardI leftKs opposition to liberalism is as mistaken as its opposition to !onservatism+ and refers to 7ornel HestKs remarks about t e field of !riti!al legal studies+ I5f 'ou donKt build on liberalism+ 'ou build on airI 31%$4. Luilding on air seems to me pre!isel' & at 9panos is re!ommending. S%anos9s &heor* has no real><orl- a%%lca&ions/ Le<an-o<ski. 92 ( 2sso!iate =rofessor and = ilosop ' =rogram 7oordinator at E e ?niversit' of 7entral Aissouri . 1994 3;osep G. 8e&ando&si+ Chilosophy and Social Criticism+ 0>eidegger+ literar' t eor' and so!ial !riti!ism+1 ed. Gavid A. 6asmussen+ =. 1194 9panos rig tl' re/e!ts t e Ktextualit'K route in >eidegger and 7riti!ism pre!isel' be!ause of its totalizing and 'postatizing tenden!ies. Cevert eless+ e olds on to a destru!tive ermeneuti!s as dis!losure. Lut as 5 ave alread' intimated+ dis!losure alone !annot support a !riti!al t eor' oriented to&ard eman!ipation. 5 t ink a !riti!al t eor' needs a less totalizing a!!ount of language+ one t at arti!ulates bot t e emp ati! linguisti! !apa!it' to spontaneousl' dis!lose &orlds ( its innovative K&orldingK possibilities ( and its less emp ati!+ but no less important+ !apa!it' to !ommuni!ate+ solve problems in and !riti!ize t e &orld. E e essential task of t e so!ial !riti! ( and an' literar' t eor' t at &ants to be !riti!al ( is to !ouple &orld dis!losure &it problem(solving+ to mediate bet&een t e extra(ordinar' &orld of Ktextualit'K and t e ever'da' &orld of KtextsK. 5n t is alternative route+ literar' t eor' ma' be!ome t e kind of eman!ipator' oriented !riti!al t eor' it !an and s ould be.

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S%anos -oes no& s+fficien&l* connec& his genealog* &o s%ecific %olic* reco$$en-a&ions,&he al&erna&i)e fails &o infl+ence &he real <orl-/ Le<an-o<ski. 92 ( 2sso!iate =rofessor and = ilosop ' =rogram 7oordinator at E e ?niversit' of 7entral Aissouri . 1994 3;osep G. 8e&ando&si+ Chilosophy and Social Criticism+ 0>eidegger+ literar' t eor' and so!ial !riti!ism+1 ed. Gavid A. 6asmussen+ =. 11"(11#4 E e point to be made ere is t at >eideggerKs politi!s are not t e onl' 3or ne!essaril' t e largest4 obsta!le to !oupling im &it !riti!al t eor'. >en!e mu! of 9panosKs energeti! defense of >eidegger against is K umanist detra!torsK 3parti!ularl' in is defiant !on!luding ! apter+ K>eidegger+ Cazism+ and t e I6epressive >'pot esisI: E e 2meri!an 2ppropriation of t e _uestionK4 is misdire!ted. <or as A!7art ' rig tl' points out+ Kt e basi! issues separating !riti!al t eor' from >eideggerean ontolog' &ere not raised post o! in rea!tion to >eideggerKs politi!al misdeeds but &ere t ere from t e start. Aar!use formulated t em in all !larit' during is time in <reiburg+ & en e &as still inspired b' t e idea of a materialist anal'ti! of GaseinK 3p. 9#+ emp asis added4. 5n ot er &ords+ >eidegger su!!umbs quite readil' to an immanent !ritique. >eideggerKs aporias are not simpl' t e result of is politi!s but fat er stem from t e internal limits of is questioning of t e Kbeing t at lets beings beK+ trut as dis!losure+ and destru!tion of t e metap 'si!al tradition+ all of & i! divor!e refle!tion from so!ial pra!ti!e and t us la!k !riti!al perspe!tive. 9panos+ o&ever+ t inks <ou!ault !an provide an alternative materialist grounding for an eman!ipator' !riti!al t eor' t at &ould obviate t e ob/e!tions of someone su! as Aar!use. Lut t e turn to <ou!ault is no less problemati! t an t e original turn to >eidegger. Denealog' is not !riti!al in an' real &a'. Cor !an it tame or augment & at 9panos !alls >eideggerKs Koverdetermination of t e ontologi!al siteK. <ou!aultKs anal'sis of po&er+ despite its originalit'+ is an ontolog' of po&er and not+ as 9panos t inks+ a K!on!rete diagnosisK 3p. 13%4 of po&er me! anism. E us it dramatizes+ on a different level+ t e same s ort!omings of >eideggerKs fundamental ontolog'. E e Kaffiliative relations ipK 3p. 13%4 t at 9panos tries to develop bet&een >eidegger and <ou!ault in order to avoid t e problem Aar!use fa!ed simpl' !annot &ork. H ere >eidegger ontologizes Leing+ <ou!ault ontologizes po&er. E e latter sees po&er as a strategi! and intentional but sub/e!tless me! anism t at Kendo&s itselfK and pun! es out Kdo!ile bodiesK+ & ereas t e former sees Leing as t at neutered term and no(t ing t at !alls us. <ou!ault 3like 9panos4 never &orks out o& genealog' is eman!ipator'+ or o& eman!ipation !ould be realized !olle!tivel' b' a!tual agents in t e &orld. E e Kundefined &ork of freedomK t e later <ou!ault speaks of in KH at 5s Nnlig tenmentRK remained pre!isel' t at in is &ork.4 E e genealog' of po&er is as mu! a 'postatization as is fundamental ontolog': su! 'postatizations tend to institute t e impossibilit' of pra!ti!al resistan!e or freedom. 5n s ort+ 5 donKt t ink t e >eideggerian KdialogueK &it <ou!ault suffi!ientl' tames or !omplements >eidegger+ nor does it make is dis!ourse 3or <ou!aultKs+ for t at matter4 an' more eman!ipator' or oppositional. 5ndeed+ <ou!aultKs reified t eor' of po&er seems to undermine t e ver' notion of K@ppositionK+ sin!e t ere is no sub/e!t 3but rat er a Kdo!ileK bod'4 to do t e resisting 3or+ in is later &ork+ a privatized self to be self(made &it in a regime of trut 4+ nor an ob/e!t to be resisted. 2s 9aid rig tl' points out in E e Horld+ t e Eext+ and t e 7riti!+ K<ou!ault more or less eliminates t e !entral diale!ti! of opposed for!es t at still underlies modern so!iet'K 3p. 221+ emp asis added4. <ou!aultKs t eor' of po&er is s ot t roug &it false empiri!al anal'ses+ 'et 9panos seems to a!!ept t em as valid diagnoses. 9panos fails to see+ to parap rase 9aidKs !riti!isms of <ou!aultKs t eor' of po&er+ t at po&er is neit er a spiderKs &eb &it out t e spider+ nor a smoot l' fun!tioning diagram 3p. 22l4.

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S%anos9s reHec&ion of obHec&i)e &r+&h re$o)es an* <a* &o $eas+re &he &heor*9s e$anci%a&or* effec&s/ Le<an-o<ski. 92 ( 2sso!iate =rofessor and = ilosop ' =rogram 7oordinator at E e ?niversit' of 7entral Aissouri . 1994 3;osep G. 8e&ando&si+ Chilosophy and Social Criticism+ 0>eidegger+ literar' t eor' and so!ial !riti!ism+1 ed. Gavid A. 6asmussen+ =. 11$(11%4 Lut radi!alized or not+ 9panosKs trading of an' possibilit' of Kdeterminate trut K for >eideggerian dis!losure as eventing of trut )untrut robs is !riti!al t eor' of t e ne!essar' 'ardsti!k needed to measure Keman!ipationK. >eideggerKs dis!losure is a !r'ptonormative trut F it is an event before & i! an' critical /udgment ne!essaril' fails. Gis!losure is not a pro!ess of inquir'+ but rat er a revealing)!on!ealing t at befalls or overtakes us. 5n is eagerness to dra& out t e enabling features and KpostK( umanist dimension of >eideggerKs dis!losure+ 9panos fails to see t e inevitable and internal limits to trut as dis!losure. Dadamer en!ounters similar problems+ despite is keen insig ts+ & en e olds on to a >eideggerian dis!losure t at too often undermines t e po&er of !riti!al refle!tion. 2nd t e postmodern 5talian p ilosop er Dianni Battimo en!ounters a related problem & en e attempts to take leave of modernit' and pro!laim a liberating postmodernit' via >eideggerKs dis!losure. Lut & ile a purel' aest eti! t eor' interested in Ktextualit'K !an quite /ustifiabl' be grounded in trut as dis!losure 3as 2meri!an de!onstru!tion or BattimoKs il pensiero debole is4+ a trul' critical t eor' interested in eman!ipation simpl' !annot: some t'pes of Keman!ipationK are false and need to be re/e!ted. Eexts ma' ver' &ell Kdis!loseK &orlds in t e same &a' t at+ sa'+ t e Dreek temple does for >eidegger. Lut a genuinel' !riti!al t eor' needs to be able to sa' & at &orlds are better or &orse for a!tual agents in a!tual &orlds ( a need+ 5 mig t add+ t at 9panos is !onstantl' a&are of and t'pifies in is denun!iation of 2meri!an imperialism in Bietnam 3and else& ere4 in >eidegger and 7riti!ism.

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F+$anis& refor$s are $ore effec&i)e &han &o&aliBing cri&iD+e/ 7oo-. 00 ( =rofessor of Nnglis at t e ?niversit' of Lritis 7olumbia . 2001 3Dra am Dood+ Humanism betrayed+ =. $4 8iberal umanism+ in m' vie&+ offers a more !ogent !ritique of !apitalist so!iet' be!ause it generall' a!!epts !apitalism as an e!onomi! s'stem t at is more produ!tive and effi!ient t an t e alternatives. Xet liberal umanism seeks to limit !apitalismKs so!ial and !ultural effe!ts b' preserving !ertain sp eres ( politi!s+ art+ edu!ation ( as aving a limited autonom' from t e imperatives of t e market. E is attitude of partial a!!eptan!e and partial !ritique is mu! more realisti! and effe!tive+ for example+ in protesting t e !ommer!ialization of t e universit'+ or in preserving artisti! standards+ t an t e total re/e!tion of Ilate(!apitalist so!iet'I t at is !ommon among a!ademi! pseudoradi!als. Eotal opposition is more readil' !o(opted b' t e s'stem be!ause it forms a mirror image. 5f t e s'stem is all(po&erful+ o& !an E eorists explain t e possibilit' or a!!eptabilit' of t eir o&n opposition to itR E is problem is usuall' evadedF but & en it is !onfronted+ a do!trine of Ine!essar' !ompli!it'I is often evoked. 5f 'ou disbelieve in 'our o&n autonom' as an individual+ 'ou must be liable in dark moments to suspe!t t at 'ou are a!tuall' &orking 'or t e s'stem. 6esistan!e to t e s'stem is part of t e s'stem. Eotal re/e!tion flips into total a!!eptan!e and opens t e &a' for a personal exploitation of t e a!ademi! s'stem. =oliti!al !orre!tness !overs up !areerist realpolitik.

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Eo$$+nis$ <as s%rea-ing in 8ie&na$ K i& ha- &o be s&o%%e-/ =o-hore&B. 52 . adviser to t e ?9 5nformation 2gen!' and laureate of t e =residential Aedal of <reedom . 19%2 3Corman =od oretz+ :hy :e :ere in Kietnam$ =. 114 5ndeed+ for man' people & ose original support of 2meri!an intervention in Bietnam ad been based on memories of Auni! + Bietnam not onl' repla!ed it but !an!eled it out. Eo su! people ( t e lesson of Auni! ad been t at an expansionist totalitarian po&er !ould not be stopped b' giving in to its demands and t at limited resistan!e at an earl' stage &as t e onl' &a' to avoid full(s!ale &ar later on. =rime Ainister Ceville 7 amberlain+ returning to Nngland from t e !onferen!e in Auni! at & i! Cazi Derman'Ks !laims over 7ze! oslovakia ad been satisfied+ triump antl' de!lared t at e &as bringing &it im Ipea!e in our time.I Lut as almost ever'one &ould later agree+ & at e ad a!tuall' broug t &it im &as t e(!ertaint' of a &orld &ar to !ome(a &ar t at Hinston 7 ur! ill+ t e leading !riti! of t e poli!' of appeasement !onsummated at Auni! + &ould later !all Iunne!essar'.I 2!!ording to 7 ur! ill+ if a line ad been dra&n against >itler from t e beginning+ e &ould ave been for!ed to ba!k a&a'+ and t e sequen!e of events t at led inexorabl' to t e outbreak of &ar &ould ave been interrupted. @bviousl'+ Bietnam differed in man' signifi!ant &a's from 7entral Nurope in t e late 1930s. Lut t ere &as one great similarit' t at overrode t ese differen!es in t e minds of man' & ose understanding of su! matters ad been s aped b' t e memor' of Auni! . I5Km not t e village idiot+I Gean 6usk+ & o &as 9e!retar' of 9tate first under Qenned' and t en under ;o nson+ on!e exploded. I5 kno& >itler &as an 2ustrian and Aao is a 7 ineseaLut t at is !ommon bet&een t e t&o situations is ( ( t e p enomenon (of aggression.I 5n(ot er &ords+ in Bietnam no& as in !entral Nurope t en+ a totalitarian politi!al for!e ( Cazism t en+ 7ommunism no&(&as attempting to expand t e area under its !ontrol. 2 relativel' limited degree of resistan!e t en &ould ave pre!luded t e need for massive resistan!e after&ard. E is &as t e lesson of Auni! + and it ad alread' been applied su!!essfull' in Hestern Nurope in t e forties and Qorea in t e fifties. 9urel' it &as appli!able to Bietnam. 8ie&na$ <as cr+cial for A$erican hege$on* an- -e$ocrac* %ro$o&ion/ =o-hore&B. 52 . adviser to t e ?9 5nformation 2gen!' and laureate of t e =residential Aedal of <reedom . 19%2 3Corman =od oretz+ :hy :e :ere in Kietnam$ =. 19(204 E us+ on ;une 1+ 19"#+ t&o 'ears after delivering 9! lesingerKs favorite spee! + Qenned' spoke before t e 2meri!an <riends of Bietnam on I2meri!aKs 9take in Bietnam.I L' t is time t e <ren! ad been defeated+ and Bietnam ad been partitioned under a set of agreements negotiated in Deneva+ &it a 7ommunist regime under >o 7 i Ain establis ed in t e Cort and a non(7ommunist government under Cgo Gin Giem set up in t e 9out . 2!!ording to t e Deneva agreements+ Bietnam &as to be unified under a government to be ele!ted in 19"#+ but Qenned' de!lared t at Ineit er t e ?nited 9tates nor <ree Bietnam T&asU ever going to be a part' to an ele!tion obviousl' sta!ked and subverted in advan!eI b' t e 7ommunists of t e Cort and t eir agents and allies in t e 9out . Eo Qenned'+ Bietnam represented It e !ornerstone of t e <ree Horld in 9out east 2sia+I t e ke'stone to t e ar! + t e finger in t e dike. Lurma+ E ailand+ 5ndia+ ;apan+ t e = ilippines and obviousl' 8aos and 7ambodia . . . &ould be t reatened if t e red tide of 7ommunism overflo&ed into Bietnam. I E is &as t e first of t e four reasons Qenned' g ve for I2meri!aKs stake in Bietnam.I E e se!ond &as t at Bietnam represented Ia proving ground for demo!ra!' in 2siaat e alternative to 7ommunist di!tators ip. 5f t is demo!rati! experien!e fails+ if some one million refugees ave fled t e totalitarianism of t e Cort onl' to find neit er freedom nor se!urit' in t e 9out + t en &eakness+ not strengt + &ill ! ara!terize t e meaning of demo!ra!' in t e minds of still more 2sians.I 5t &as+ Qenned' said+ an experiment &e !ould not Iafford to permit to fail.I E e t ird reason &as t at Bietnam+ in addition to representing+ a test of demo!ra!' in 2sia+ also represented Ia test of 2meri!an responsibilit' and determinationI t ere. 7 ara!terizing t e ?nited 9tates as t e IgodparentsI of Ilittle BietnamI and Bietnam as Iour offspringI 3IHe presided at its birt + &e gave assistan!e to its life+ &e ave elped to s ape its futureI4+ Qenned' !on!luded t at if Bietnam &ere to fall Ivi!tim to an' of t e perils t at t reaten its existen!e(7ommunism+ politi!al anar! '+ povert' and t e rest+I &e &ould be eld responsible and our prestige in 2sia &ould Isink to a ne& lo&.I <inall' 3and most prop eti!all'4+ 2meri!aKs stake in Bietnam &as Ia ver' selfis oneI in t e sense t at I2meri!an lives and 2meri!an dollarsI &ould inevitabl' ave to be expended if It e apparent se!urit' & i! as in!reasingl' ! ara!terized t at area 5 under t e leaders ip of =resident GiemI &ere to be /eopardized.

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Eon&ain$en& of 8ie&na$ <as necessar* &o %re)en& n+clear <ar <i&h (+ssia/ =o-hore&B. 52 . adviser to t e ?9 5nformation 2gen!' and laureate of t e =residential Aedal of <reedom . 19%2 3Corman =od oretz+ :hy :e :ere in Kietnam$ =. 22(234 E e ans&er &as un!lear. @n t e one and+ t e most aut oritative and ig l' arti!ulated publi! statement of t e assumptions be ind !ontainment+ t e famous arti!le b' t e t en Gire!tor of t e 9tate GepartmentKs =oli!' =lanning 9taff+ Deorge <. Qennan 3publis ed in 194$ in <oreign 2ffairs, under t e pseudon'm IAr. bI4+ !ould onl' be read to impl' t at in prin!iple at least !ontainment &as global in s!ope. IE e main element+I said Qennan+ Iof an' ?nited 9tates poli!' to&ard t e 9oviet ?nion must be t at of a long(term+ patient but firm and vigilant !ontainment of 6ussian expansive tenden!ies b' t e adroit and vigilant appli!ation of !ounter(for!e at a series of !onstantl' s ifting geograp i!al and politi!al points+ !orresponding to t e s ifts and maneuvers of 9oviet poli!'.1 Cor did Qennan leave an' doubt as to t e relation bet&een lo!al 7ommunist parties and t e 9oviet ?nion: t e dut' of Iall good 7ommunistsI ever'& ere in t e &orld+ e &rote+ Iis t e support and promotion of 9oviet po&er+ as defined in Aos!o&.I l 2 Xet on t e ot er and+ t ree 'ears later+ QennanKs boss+ ErumanKs 9e!retar' of 9tate+ Gean 2! eson+ seemed to suggest t at t e ?nited 9tates did not regard t e independen!e of 9out Qorea as a vital interest.I E is t e 9oviet ?nion+ t e 7 inese+ and t e Cort Qoreans evidentl' all took as a signal t at t e for!ible extension of 7ommunist rule to t e 9out &ould not be met b' t e appli!ation of 2meri!an !ounterfor!e. 5t seems unlikel' t at 2! eson+ & o as mu! as an' one individual &as t e fat er of !ontainment(Ipresent+I as e put it in t e title of is memoirs+ Kbt t e !reation&(reall' intended to send su! a signal. Lut & et er t ere &as a misunderstanding ere or a lastminute ! ange of mind+ t e invasion of 9out Qorea on ;une 2"+ 19"0+ triggered an immediate 2meri!an response. @nl' t&o da's after t e outbreak of t e &ar+ =resident Eruman de!lared t at It e atta!k upon Qorea makes it plain be'ond all doubt t at 4 7ommunism as passed be'ond t e use of subversion to !onquer independent nations and &ill no& use armed invasion and &ar.I l4 Cot onl' &as t e ?nited 9tates no& extending t e prin!iples of !ontainment from Nurope to 2sia+ t enF it &as going even furt er in pra!ti!e.

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AT S=#AK !7 FO( OTF#(S' S=#AK !7 FO( OTF#(S 7OO" The al&erna&i)e fails K s%eaking for o&hers is a %rereD+isi&e for s+ccessf+l %olic*$aking/ Alcoff. 92 L8inda+ Cultural Criti)ue+ Hinter 1991(92+ pp. "(32+ =rofessor of = ilosop '+ HomenKs 9tudies and =oliti!al 9!ien!e and !urrentl' t e Gire!tor of HomenKs 9tudies at 9'ra!use ?niversit'+ ttp:))&&&.al!off.!om)!ontent)speaot ers. tml4 5n er autobiograp i!al book Aen! u opens &it t e !laim t at er stor' is Inot onl' m' life+ itKs also t e testimon' of . . . all poor Duatemalans. A' personal experien!e is t e realit' of a & ole peopleI 314.E us+ t roug out t e book s e asserts t at s e is speaking not onl' for er famil' and er !ommunit' of _ui! e 5ndians+ but for all of t e 33 ot er 5ndian !ommunities of Duatemala+ & o speak different languages and ave different !ustoms and beliefs t an t e _ui! e. 9 e explains t eir situation &it for!e and eloquen!e+ and de!isivel' refutes an' I ierar! ' of !ivilizationsI vie& t at &ould render er agrarian !ulture as inferior and t erefore responsible for its o&n destru!tion. 2s a representative of t e <ourt Horld+ s e offers a vivid !ritique of t e geno!idal pra!ti!es from & i! t ese groups of people are still suffering.l Aen! uKs &ords ave elped publi!ize t e situation in Duatemala+ raise mone' for t e revolution+ and bring pressure against t e Duatemalan and ?.9. governments & o ave !ommitted t e massa!res in !ollusion. E e point of
t is example is not to argue t at for Aen! u t ere is no problem of speaking for ot ers. 9 e erself is ver' a&are of t e dangers and instru!tivel' re!ounts o& t is problem &as addressed in t e revolutionar' movement of t e 5ndians. 2ttempts &ere made to train ea! resistan!e a!tivist to perform all t e ne!essar' tasks+ from building traps for t e soldiers+ to learning o& to use a rifle+ to going to t e !it' for elp. 9tru!tures of general training as opposed to spe!ialization &ere emp asized in order to redu!e t e vulnerabilit' of t e movement to t e deat or betra'al of spe!ifi! individuals. E is &as also t e reason Aen! u &ent to t e !it' to be!ome a ouse servant in order to learn 9panis : so t e _ui! e &ould no longer ave to rel' on ot ers to represent t eir situation. 35n man' !ases translators &ere paid b' t e government or lando&ners purposefull' to mistranslate t e _ui! e &ords.4 2lso+ s e speaks &it &r' umor about a group of progressive Nuropeans & o !ame to Duatemala and tried to elp er village &it ne& farming produ!ts. E e village &as not interested: t e NuropeansK assessment of & at t e' needed &as off t e mark. Aen! u and er famil' maintained friendl' relations &it t e Nuropeans but patientl' resisted t eir interpretations of t e villageKs needs. E us+ Aen! u !annot be !onstru!ted as a InaiveI speaker una&are of t e dangers and diffi!ulties of speaking for ot ersF s e and er !ompafieros are &ell a&are of t e dangers sin!e t e' ave so often been t e un app' re!ipients of mali!ious or &ellintentioned but &rong eaded attempts b' ot ers to speak for t em. Xet instead of

despite t e signifi!ant and !omplex differen!es bet&een t e man' 5ndian !ommunities in Duatemala+ s e as not flin! ed from t e opportunit' to speak on be alf of all of t em. Erebil!otKs version of t e retreat response needs to be looked at separatel' be!ause s e agrees t at an absolute pro ibition of speaking for &ould undermine politi!al effe!tiveness. 9 e applies er pro ibition against t e pra!ti!e onl' &it in a lesbian feminist !ommunit'. 9o it mig t be argued t at t e retreat from speaking for ot ers !an be maintained &it out sa!rifi!ing politi!al effe!tivit' if it is restri!ted to parti!ular dis!ursive spa!es. H ' mig t one advo!ate su! a retreatR Erebil!ot olds t at speaking for and attempting to
retreating from speaking for ot ers+ Aen! u and er !ompaiieros devised met ods to de!rease t e dangers. 2nd persuade ot ers infli!ts a kind of dis!ursive violen!e on t e ot er and er beliefs. Diven t at interpretations and meanings are dis!ursive !onstru!tions made b' embodied speakers+ Erebil!ot &orries t at attempting to persuade or speak for anot er &ill !ut off t at personKs abilit' or &illingness to engage in t e !onstru!tive a!t of developing meaning. 9in!e no embodied speaker !an produ!e more t an a

. 5 !ertainl' agree t at in some instan!es speaking for ot ers !onstitutes a violen!e and s ould be stopped. Lut t ere remains a problem &it t e vie& t at+ even &it in a restri!ted+ supportive !ommunit'+ t e pra!ti!e of speaking for ot ers !an be abandoned. E is problem is t at Erebil!otKs position+ as &ell as a more general retreat position+ presumes an ontologi!al !onfiguration of t e dis!ursive !ontext t at simpl' does not obtain. 5n parti!ular+ it assumes t at one !an retreat into oneKs dis!rete lo!ation and make !laims entirel' and singularl' based on t at lo!ation t at do not range over ot ers+ t at one !an disentangle oneself from t e impli!ating net&orks bet&een oneKs dis!ursive pra!ti!es and ot ersK lo!ations+ situations+ and pra!ti!es. 35n ot er &ords+ t e !laim t at 5 !an speak onl' for m'self assumes t e autonomous !on!eption of t e self in 7lassi!al 8iberal t eor'(t at 5 am un!onne!ted to ot ers in m' aut enti! self or
partial a!!ount+ ever'oneKs a!!ount needs to be en!ouraged 3t at is+ &it in a spe!ified !ommunit'+ & i! for Erebil!ot is t e lesbian !ommunit'4. E ere is mu! in Erebil!otKs dis!ussion &it & i! 5 agree t at 5 !an a! ieve an autonom' from ot ers given !ertain !onditions.4 Lut t ere is no neutral pla!e to stand free and !lear in & i! oneKs &ords do not pres!riptivel' affe!t or mediate t e experien!e of ot ers+

Nven a !omplete retreat from spee! is of !ourse not neutral sin!e it allo&s t e !ontinued dominan!e of !urrent dis!ourses and a!ts b' omission to reinfor!e t eir dominan!e. 2s m' pra!ti!es are made
nor is t ere a &a' to de!isivel' demar!ate a boundar' bet&een oneKs lo!ation and all ot ers. possible b' events spatiall' far from m' bod' so too m' o&n pra!ti!es make possible or impossible pra!ti!es of ot ers. E e de!laration t at 5 Ispeak onl' for m'selfI as t e sole effe!t of allo&ing me to avoid responsibilit' and a!!ountabilit' for m' effe!ts on ot ersF it !annot literall' erase t ose effe!ts.

S%eaking for o&hers is necessar* <hen &he o&her nee-s re%resen&a&ion/ Alcoff. 92 38inda+ Cultural Criti)ue+ Hinter 1991(92+ pp. "(32+ =rofessor of = ilosop '+ HomenKs 9tudies and =oliti!al 9!ien!e and !urrentl' t e Gire!tor of HomenKs 9tudies at 9'ra!use ?niversit'+ ttp:))&&&.al!off.!om)!ontent)speaot ers. tml4 >o&ever+ & ile t ere is mu! t eoreti!al and pra!ti!al &ork to be done to develop su! alternatives+ t e pra!ti!e of speaking for ot ers remains t e best possibilit' in some existing situations. 2n absolute retreat &eakens politi!al effe!tivit'+ is based on a metap 'si!al illusion+ and often effe!ts onl' an obs!uring of t e intelle!tualKs po&er. E erefore+ in t e remainder of t is paper 5 &ill ask+ o& !an &e lessen t e dangers of speaking forR 5n re/e!ting a general retreat from speaking for+ 5 am not advo!ating a return to an un(self(!ons!ious appropriation of t e ot er+ but rat er t at an'one & o speaks for ot ers s ould onl' do so out of a !on!rete anal'sis of t e parti!ular po&er relations and dis!ursive effe!ts involved. 5 &ant to develop t is point t roug elu!idating four sets of interrogator' pra!ti!es t at are meant to elp evaluate possible and a!tual instan!es of speaking for. 5n list form t e' ma' appear
to resemble an algorit m+ as if &e !ould plug in an instan!e of speaking for and fa!tor out an anal'sis and evaluation. >o&ever+ t e' are meant onl' to suggest a list of t e questions t at s ould be asked !on!erning an' su! dis!ursive pra!ti!e. E ese are b' no means original: t e' ave been learned and pra!ti!ed b' man' a!tivists and t eorists.

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AT S=#AK !7 FO( OTF#(S' S=#AK !7 FO( OTF#(S 7OO" S%eaking for o&hers is necessar* &o e$%o<er &he silence an- ha)e a real %oli&ical i$%ac&/ Sells 97 38aura+ 5nstru!tor of 9pee! 7ommuni!ation at 8ouisiana 9tate ?niversit'+ 0@n <eminist 7ivilit': 6etrieving t e =oliti!al in t e <eminist =ubli! <orum1+ t is paper &as presented at a 6oundtable on I=ubli! 9peaking and t e <eminist =ubli! 9p ere: Going Gifferen!e Gifferentl'+I at t e Hestern 9tates 7ommuni!ation 2sso!iation !onferen!e+ 199$.4 ))k irn 5n er re!ent arti!le+ IE e =roblems of 9peaking <or @t ers+I 8inda 2l!off points out t e &a's in & i! t is retreat r etori! as a!tuall' be!ome an evasion of politi!al responsibilit'. 2l!offKs arguments are ri! and t eir impli!ations are man'+ but one impli!ation is relevant to a vital feminist publi! forum. E e retreat from speaking for ot ers politi!all' dangerous be!ause it erodes publi! dis!ourse. <irst+ t e retreat response presumes t at &e !an+ indeed+ Iretreat to a dis!rete lo!ation and make singular !laims t at are disentangled from ot erKs lo!ations.I 2l!off !alls t is a Ifalse ontologi!al !onfigurationI in & i! &e ignore o& our so!ial lo!ations are al&a's alread' impli!ated in t e lo!ations of ot ers. E e position of Inot speaking for
ot ersI t us be!omes an alibi t at allo&s individuals to avoid responsibilit' and a!!ountabilit' for t eir effe!ts on ot ers. E e retreat+ t en+ is a!tuall' a &it dra&al to an individualist realm+ a move t at

. 2s s e points out+ t is move !reates a prote!ted form of spee! in & i! t e individual is above !ritique be!ause s e is not making !laims about ot ers. E is prote!tion also gives t e speaker immunit' from aving to be ItrueI to t e experien!es and needs of ot ers. 2s a form of prote!ted spee! + t en+ Inot speaking for ot ersI s ort(!ir!uits publi! debate b' disallo&ing !ritique and avoiding responsibilit' to t e ot er. 9e!ond+ t e retreat response under!uts t e possibilit' of politi!al effi!a!'. 2l!off illustrates t is point &it a list of people((9teven Liko+ Nd&ard 9aid+ 6igoberta Aen! u((& o ave indeed spoken for ot ers &it signifi!ant politi!al impa!t. 2s s e bluntl' puts it+ bot !olle!tive a!tion and !oalition ne!essitate speaking for ot ers.
reprodu!es an individualist ideolog' and privatizes t e politi!s of experien!e

S%eaking for o&hers is H+s&ifie- K i& brings &he collec&i)e ex%erience of &he gro+% in&o %ers%ec&i)e/ Aarino " T8auren+ 09peaking for @t ers1+Aa!alester ;ournal of = ilosop '+ Bol. 14 T200"U+ 5ss. 1+ 2rt. 4 ttp:))digital!ommons.ma!alester.edu)p ilo)vol14)iss1)4U ))k irn He return to t e intuitive response to t e struggle of oppressed groups: ave t e group speak for itself. 9peaking be!omes a t'pe of agen!' in & i! 5 !onstru!t m'self be!ause !ontrar' to a 7artesian self+ selves do not exist prior to or separate from language. Eo lose m' spee! is to lose m'self. E e oppressed ave t e abilit' to !ommuni!ate &it ea! ot er and t roug t eir language game t e' are able to dis!uss t eir struggle &it one anot er. 9 aring languages games enables t e oppressed to a spe!ifi!+ limited dimension of po&er. E eir language game &ill al&a's fail to !ommuni!ate t eir struggle to t ose & o ave not been initiated into it. E e' ave dire!t a!!ess to t e experien!e of oppression and t eir agen!'+ but t e' !an onl' rea! t eir o&n group. E ose on t e margin !annot rea! t ose in t e !enter. @n t e ot er and+ t ose in t e !enter+ t e elites+ s are a language t at !an rea! t e ma/orit' of so!iet'. 5t is a language game t e' are familiar &it and !an use adeptl'. >o&ever+ t e' do not ave t e experien!e &it or a!!ess to t e language game of t e oppressed. E e' ave t e po&er to use t eir language but not ing to sa'. E e !at! (22 is t e ! oi!e bet&een a group & o embodies t e agen!' and t e dimensions of politi!al struggle against oppression &it out a &a' to !ommuni!ate it to t e larger !ommunit'+ and a group &it t e language to rea! so!iet' but is ignorant of t e politi!al struggle . E ere lies a need for a s'nerg' bet&een t e experien!e of t e oppressed on t e margins and t e language game of t ose in t e !enter. E e s'nerg' requires a speaker & o !omes from t e oppressed but as kno&ledge of t e language game of t e !enter. 9u! a person !ould in!orporate t e experien!e
of t e oppressed into a ne& language game t at !ould be a!!essed b' t ose in po&er. E e !on!ern is & at is lost and sa!rifi!ed in translation. 5f t e language games are so disparate t at initiation in one+ offers no insig t into t e rules of t e ot er+ t an t ere is doubt t at translation !an be done at all. 5f translation !annot be done+ t e best to be oped for is !ooption for!ing t e margins into t e mainstream. H at t en is t e solutionR 5 agree &it bell ooks t at t e oppressed mist !elebrate t eir position on t e margins. E e oppressed s ould not tr' to move into t e !enter but appre!iate t eir !ounter!ulture.

E e oppressed must produ!e intelle!tuals so t at t e dominated !an speak to t e dominating. E

e idea goes ba!k to 2ntonio Drams!i*s !on!ept of t e organi! intelle!tual.$ E e elites are indo!trinated in t e ruling ideolog' and ave an investment in t e !urrent order. Co matter o& progressive t eir politi!s ma' be+ t e elite &ill al&a's be t e elite.

E eir investment in t e !urrent so!ial order pre!ludes offers of true s'stemi! ! ange. Drams!i &rites of t e need for t e &orking !lass to develop its o&n intelle!tuals & o are organi!all' tied to t eir !lass. E is argument is similar to ooks* argument. E e margin must produ!e organi! intelle!tuals. 5t mig t be t oug t t at t ese organi! intelle!tuals s ould translate bet&een language games. Lut as ooks points out+ using 0t e oppressor*s language1 is not adequate be!ause it !annot arti!ulate t e experien!e of t e oppressed. Xet+ it is t e onl' language game t e oppressing !an pla'. @rgani! intelle!tuals affe!t t e !enter from t e margins if t e' are able to in!orporate multiple voi!es in t e texts t e' !reate.

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S=#E F E SOL8#!EJ O@TW# 7FS TF# K L !K S%ecific sol)enc* o+&<eighs general &heor*,&heories are onl* as goo- as &heir a%%lica&ions an- excessi)el* generic arg+$en&s are a )er* <eak for$ of reasoning/ ?o+rnaBi an- Mass+$i. 02 ( + = G in !ultural t eor'+ p ilosop '+ and politi!s : professor of !ommuni!ations)literature at t e ?niversit' of Aontreal . 2002 3Aar' Vournazi and Lrian Aassumi+ 0Cavigating Aovements+1 Hope: ne- philosophies 'or change4 7riti!alK pra!ti!es aimed at in!reasing potentials for freedom and for movement are inadequate+ be!ause in order to !ritique somet ing in an' kind of definitive &a' 'ou ave to pin it do&n. 5n a &a' it is an almost sadisti! enterprise t at separates somet ing out+ attributes set ! ara!teristi!s to it+ t en applies a final /udgment to it ( ob/e!tifies it+ in a moralising kind of &a'. 5 understand t at using a K!riti!al met odK is not t e same as Kbeing !riti!alK. Lut still 5 t ink t ere is al&a's t at moralising undertone to !ritique. Le!ause of t at+ 5 t ink+ it loses !onta!t &it ot er more moving dimensions of experien!e. 5t doesnKt allo& for ot er kinds of pra!ti!es t at mig t not ave so mu! to do &it master' and /udgment as &it affe!tive !onne!tion and abdu!tive parti!ipation. E e non(/udgmental is interesting+ 'ou kno&+ be!ause 'ou are al&a's some o& impli!ated in tr'ing to make /udgments ... Eo not make /udgments in !riti!al t oug t is a ver' ard t ing to do. 5t takes a lot !ourage to move in t at dire!tion+ be!ause ot et&ise ... Hell+ it requires a &illingness to take risks+ to make mistakes and even to !ome a!ross as sill'. 2 !riti!al perspe!tive t at tries to !ome to a definitive /udgment on somet ing is al&a's in some &a' a failure+ be!ause it is appening at a remove from t e pro!ess itKs /udging. 9omet ing !ould ave appened in t e intervening time+ or somet ing barel' per!eptible mig t ave been appening a&a' from t e !entre of !riti!al fo!us. E ese developments ma' be!ome important later. E e pro!ess of pinning do&n and separating out is also a &eakness in /udgment+ be!ause it doesnKt allo& for t ese seeds of ! ange+ !onne!tions in t e making t at mig t not be a!tivated or obvious at t e moment. 5n a sense+ /udgmental reason is an extremel' &eak form of t oug t+ pre!isel' be!ause it is so sure of itself. E is is not to sa' t at it s ouldnKt be used.

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Michigan 7 Week Seniors 2009 STAT# 7OO"' K#J TO MO8#M#!TS T+rning a<a* fro$ &he s&a&e %re)en&s $obiliBa&ion for goo- ca+ses/

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7oble 95 3=aul+ =ublis er of 6<N)68+ 0E>N 7@C9N_?NC7N9 @< GN=@85E575V2E5@C+1 6adio <ree Nurope+ @!tober 12+ 199%+ ttp:))&&&.friends(partners.org)friends)ne&s)omri)199%)10)9%10125. tml3opt+mozilla+unix+englis ++ne& I+ a!!essed ;ul' 0$4 <irst+ as people turn a&a' from t e state as t e sour!e of support+ t e' inevitabl' !are less about & at t e state does and are less &illing to take a!tion to assert t eir vie&s. E at means t at neit er t e state nor t e opposition !an mobilize t em to take a!tion for or against an't ing. 2s a result+ t e opposition !annot easil' get large numbers of people to demonstrate even if t e opposition is taking positions t at polls suggest most people agree &it . 2nd t e government !annot dra& on popular support even & en it ma' be doing t ings t at t e people ave said t e' &ant. E at means t at t e size of demonstrations for or against an't ing or an'one are an in!reasingl' poor indi!ator of & at t e people &ant or do not &ant t e state to do. 9e!ond+ pre!isel' be!ause people are fo!using on t eir private lives and taking responsibilit' for t em+ t e' are likel' to be!ome in!reasingl' upset & en t e state attempts to intervene in t eir lives even for t e most benign purposes+ parti!ularl' if it does so in an ineffe!tive manner. 9u! attitudes+ &idespread in man' !ountries and important in limiting t e po&er of state institutions+ nonet eless pose a parti!ular danger to !ountries making t e transition from !ommunism to demo!ra!'. H ile t ose vie&s elp promote t e dismantling of t e old state+ t e' also virtuall' pre!lude t e emergen!e of a ne& and effi!ient one. 2s a result+ t ese !ountries are often likel' to find t emselves &it out t e effe!tive state institutions t at modern so!ieties and e!onomies require if t e' are to be &ell regulated. 2nd t ird+ !ountries &it depoliti!ized populations are espe!iall' at risk & en t e' fa!e a !risis. E e governments !annot !ount on support be!ause people no longer expe!t t e governments to be able to deliver.

Michigan 7 Week Seniors 2009 STAT# 7OO"' EF#EKS EA= TAL SM

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The s&a&e is necessar* &o check &he free $arke&/ Ka$i*a 97 3Dar'+ Nxe!utive Nditor+ 09mas ing t e 9tate+1 9alon.!om+ E e Lrain&ave =ro/e!t+ ;anuar' 20+ 199$+ ttp:))&&&.salon.!om)/an9$)state29$0120. tmlI =er aps t e most depressing t ing about libertarianism is its almost un!ons!ious aversion to t e notion t at in a representative demo!ra!'+ &e are t e government. @f !ourse+ our demo!ra!' is plagued &it big(mone' !orruption and a t ousand ot er problems+ but & en a signifi!ant per!entage of people begin to t ink of government as It em+I demo!ra!' itself is in trouble. E ere is a dis!omforting famil' resemblan!e bet&een libertarianism and t e militia movement. E e libertarian insisten!e on seeing government as a malevolent or at best obstru!tionist external for!e fails to a!kno&ledge its organi!+ ! anging nature. Dovernment does+ of !ourse+ set poli!' and attempt to di!tate t e !ourse of events+ but mu! of & at it does is respond to+ and referee+ !onfli!ts in so!iet'. <ar from being a reified @t er+ government exists pre!isel' to grapple (( t roug t e instrument of la& (( &it issues t at individuals !annot resolve b' t emselves. E e libertarian failure to re!ognize t e flexibilit' of la& gives a s! olasti!+ o&(man'(angels(!an(dan!e(on(t e( ead(of(a(pin qualit' to man' of its arguments. H en propert' rig ts !las &it environmental rig ts+ for example+ & o ad/udi!atesR Dovernment does+ t roug la&: Co libertarian solution &ould produ!e a different frame&ork. Dovernment &ill not resolve t ose problems to t e liking of all interested parties (( but neit er &ould an' ot er pro!ess. He ave big government in large part be!ause &e live in an enormousl' !omplex so!iet' (( be!ause &e ave big problems. 8ibertarians are fond of sa'ing t e regulator' &elfare state is some o& a !ontinuation of despoti! po&er (( as if t ere &ere a istori!al t read running bet&een t e 9un Qing and 9&edenKs so!ial demo!ra!'. E is tendentious vie&+ verging on paranoia+ is not onl' a istori!al+ it ignores t e role modern governments pla' in moderating !orporate po&er.

Michigan 7 Week Seniors 2009 STAT# 7OO"' A!A(AEFJ S #XT !ET O!

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Eolla%se of &he na&ion s&a&e ca+ses ex&inc&ion/ (+bin+ 05. 1)9)+ Gani+ Nart Nditor for =N; Ce&s. 0Le'ond =ost(2po!al'pti! N!o(2nar! ism+1 ttp:))&&&.pe/.org) tml)modules.p pR op,modload:name,Ce&s:file,arti!le:sid,$133:mode,t read:order,0:t old,0. ?nlike t&ent'(five 'ears ago+ in!reasingl'+ people are adopting t e anar! o(apo!al'pti!+ !ivilization(must(fall(to( save(t e(&orld attitude. 5t is a fairl' !lean and tig t &orldvie&+ zealousl' bulletproof+ and it s!ares me. 5 &ant t e natural &orld+ t e greater !ommunit' of life be'ond our spe!ies+ &it all its beautiful and terrif'ing manifestations+ and its vibrant lands!apes to survive inta!t . 5 t ink about t is a lot. A D+ick colla%se of global ci)iliBa&ion. <ill al$os& cer&ainl* lea- &o grea&er ex%losi)e -a$age &o &he bios%here. &han a $e-ia&e- slo<er $el&-o<n . H en one envisions

t e !ollapse of global so!iet'+ one is not dis!ussing t e demise of an an!ient Dreek !it'(state+ or even t e abandonment of an empire like t e Aa'ans. E e end of our global !ivilization &ould not onl' result in t e deat of six billion umans+ /ust &iping nature*s slate !lean. He also ave somet ing like "+000 nu!lear fa!ilities spread a!ross t e planet*s surfa!e. 2nd t is is /ust one obvious and straig tfor&ard fa!t !utting a!ross ne& radi!al arguments in favor of a qui!k fall. He ave inserted ourselves into t e &eb of life on planet Nart + into its interstitial
fibers+ over t e last "00 'ears. He are no& a big part of t e &orld*s d'nami! biologi!al equation set . its ! e!ks and balan!es. 5f &e get a 0fever1 and fall into so!ial ! aos + even /ust !onsidering our non(nu!lear to's la'ing about+ t e damage &ill be profound. 5t &ill be mu! more devastating t an our ne& visionaries of post(apo!al'pti! paradise ave prop esized. 5f one expands upon !urrent examples of so!ial ! aos t at &e alread' see+ like 2fg anistan or Garfur+ extrapolating t em a!ross t e globe+ en!ompassing Nurope+ 2sia+ Cort and 9out 2meri!a+ and else& ere+ t en one !an easil' imagine desperate out!omes & ere nature is sa!rifi!ed & olesale in vain attempts to res!ue uman life. E e out!omes &ould be be'ond 0ugl'1F t e' &ould be orrifi! and enduring. E at is & ' 5 !annot a!!ept t is ne& &ave of puritani!al anar! o(apo!al'pti! t eolog'. E e end(point of a qui!k !ollapse is quite likel' to resemble t e lands!ape of Aars+ or even per aps t e Aoon. 5 love life. 5 do not &ant t e Nart turned barren. 5 t ink t at t ose & o are dreaming of a &orld returned to its &ilderness state are lovel'+ naive romanti!s . dangerous ones. 5magine 100 7 ernob'l*s spe&ing indelible deat . 5magine a lands!ape over(run &it desperate and starving umans+ &iping out

one e!os'stem after anot er. 5magine endless tribal &ars & ere t ere are no restraints on t e use of ! emi!al and biologi!al &eapons. 5magine a failing industrial infrastru!ture seeping massive quantities of deadl' toxins into t e air+ &ater and soil. E is is not a pi!ture of primitive liberation+ of app' post(!ivilized life &orking t e organi! farm on 9alt 9pring 5sland.

Michigan 7 Week Seniors 2009 66T#((O( K66

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Michigan 7 Week Seniors 2009

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AT T#((O( K' T#((O( SM S A (#AL TF(#AT Terroris$ is a real &hrea& K ignoring &ha& reali&* risks annihila&ion/ =e&ers+ 4 36alp + retired 2rm' @ffi!er+ E e Heekl' 9tandard+ IE e 7ounterrevolution in Ailitar' 2ffairsF <as ionable t inking about defense ignores t e great t reats of our time+I 2(#(200#+ ttp:))&&&.&eekl'standard.!om)7ontent)=ubli!)2rti!les)000)000)00#)#49qrsob.asp+ 2<A4 8iving in unpre!edented safet' &it in our borders and la!king first and kno&ledge of t e de!a' be'ond+ onorable men and &omen ave !onvin!ed t emselves t at @sama bin 8adenKs professed goals of driving t e ?nited 9tates from t e Aiddle Nast and removing !orrupt regional governments are & at global terror is all about. E e' gloss over is ambition of reestablis ing t e !alip ate and is !alls for t e destru!tion of 5srael as r etori!al effe!ts((& en t e' address t em at all. Xet+ 5slamist fanati!s are more deepl' !ommitted to t eir maximalist goals t an to t eir lesser ones((and t eir unspoken ambitions soar be'ond logi!Ks realm. (eligio+s &erroris&s are co$$i&&e- &o an a%ocal*%se t e' sense &it in striking distan!e. E eir longing for union &it god is inseparable from t eir impulse to&ard anni ilation. E e' seek t eir god in !arnage+ and &ill go on slaug tering until e appears to pat t em on t e ba!k. 2 dangerous as'mmetr' exists in t e t'pe of minds &orking t e problem of 5slamist terrorism in our government and so!iet'. @n average+ t e IexpertsI to & om &e are !onditioned to listen ave a se!ular mentalit' 3even if t e' go to ! ur! or s'nagogue from abit4. 2nd it is a ver' rare se!ular mind t at !an !ompre end religious passion((itKs like asking a blind man to des!ribe t e !olors of fire. @ne suspe!ts t at our o&n fier!est believers are best equipped to penetrate t e mentalit'((t e souls((of our 5slamist enemies+ alt oug t ose believers ma' not be as arti!ulate as t e se!ular intelle!tuals & o anxiousl' dismiss all possibilities t at lie outside t eir t eoreti!al !onstru!ts. Terroris$ is inheren&l* e)il,&he <ar on &error is correc& Sch+l&B 02 3Hilliam <+ e&ecutive director o' Amnesty Bnternational #SA$ %>uman rig ts and t e evil of terrorism1+ ?? Horld+ <ebruar'+ ttp:))findarti!les.!om)p)arti!les)miYqa40$1)isY200402)aiYn934$"94)Rtag,!ontentF!ol14 Cot ing !an ex!use atro!ities su! as t ese. Co appeal to !ultural differen!es !an ex!use t e usband. Co pursuit of a politi!al agenda !an explain a&a' t e a!tions of t e minister. Nvil is real+ and it is ver' important to !all it b' its name. H en =resident Lus labeled t ose & o terrorized 2meri!ans on 9eptember 55+ 2001+ Ievildoers+I e &as absolutel' rig t+ and is instin!t to avenge t eir deat s &as+ too. >uman rig ts are designed to make t e &orld a safer pla!e and to elp stop people from doing evil t ings. Eerrorists ma' sin!erel' t ink t at & at t e' are doing is good+ but advo!ates of uman rig ts ave no problem agreeing &it t e president: Eerrorist a!ts are evil+ and terrorists must be punis ed.

Michigan 7 Week Seniors 2009 AT T#((O( K' WA( O! T#((O( 7OO"

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Terroris& i-eolog* is &he roo& ca+se. no& lang+age,onl* &he <ar on &error sol)es/ #%s&ein 03 32lex+ anal'st at t e 2'n 6and 5nstitute+ L2 in = ilosop ' from Guke ?niversit'+ 0<ig t t e 6oot of Eerrorism Hit Lombs+ Cot Lread1+ 9an <ransis!o 7 roni!le+ %)14+ ttp:))&&&.a'nrand.org)site)Ce&s2R page,Ce&s2rti!le:id,11243:ne&sYivY!trl,10214 5n lig t of t e re!ent sui!ide bombings in 8ondon+ and t e general inabilit' of t e Hest to prevent terrorist atta!ks+ t ere is mu! talk about fig ting t e Iroot !auseI of terrorism. E e most popular argument is t at terrorism is !aused b' povert'. E e ?nited Cations and our Nuropean and 2rab
IalliesI repeatedl' tell us to minimize our militar' operations and instead dole out more foreign aid to poor !ountries((to put do&n our guns and pi!k up our ! e!kbook. @nl' b' fig ting povert'+ t e refrain goes+ !an &e address t e Iroot !auseI of terrorism. E e perni!ious idea t at povert' !auses terrorism as been a popular !laim sin!e t e atta!ks of 9eptember 11. ?.C. 9e!retar' Deneral Qofi 2nnan as repeatedl' asked &ealt ' nations to double t eir foreign aid+ naming as a !ause of terrorism It at far too man' people are !ondemned to lives of extreme povert' and degradation.I <ormer 9e!retar' of 9tate 7olin =o&ell agrees: IHe ave to put ope ba!k in t e earts of people. He ave to s o& people & o mig t move in t e dire!tion of terrorism t at t ere is a better &a'.I Lusinessman Eed Eurner also !on!urs: IE e reason t at t e Horld Erade 7enter got it is be!ause t ere are a lot of people living in ab/e!t povert' out t ere & o donKt ave an' ope for a better life.I 5ndeed+ t e argument t at povert' !auses terrorism as been !entral to 2meri!a*s bot! ed &ar in 5raq((& i! as fo!used+ not on qui!kl' ending an' t reat t e !ountr' posed and moving on to ot er !ru!ial targets+ but on bringing t e good

. Nliminating t e root of terrorism is indeed a valid goal((but properl' targeted militar' a!tion+ not &elfare andouts+ is t e means of doing so. Eerrorism is not !aused b' povert'. E e terrorists of 9eptember 11 did not atta!k 2meri!a in order to make t e Aiddle Nast ri! er. Eo t e !ontrar'+ t eir stated goal &as to repel an' penetration of t e prosperous !ulture of t e industrialized IinfidelsI into t eir &orld. E e &ealt ' @sama bin 8aden &as not using is millions to build ele!tri! po&er plants or irrigation !anals. 5f e and is terrorist minions &anted prosperit'+ t e' &ould seek to emulate t e ?nited 9tates((not to destro' it. Aore fundamental+ povert' as su! !annot determine an'oneKs !ode of moralit'. 5t is t e ideas t at individuals ! oose to adopt & i! make t em pursue !ertain goals and values. 2 desire to destro' &ealt and to slaug ter inno!ent+ produ!tive uman beings !annot be explained b' a la!k of mone' or a poor qualit' of life((onl' b' anti(&ealt + anti(life ideas. E ese terrorists are motivated b' t e ideolog' of 5slami! <undamentalism. E is ot er(&orldl'+ aut oritarian do!trine vie&s 2meri!aKs freedom+ prosperit'+ and pursuit of &orldl' pleasures as t e eig t of depravit'. 5ts ad erents resent 2meri!aKs su!!ess+ along &it t e appeal its !ulture as to man' Aiddle Nastern 'out s. Eo t e fundamentalists+ 2meri!ans are IinfidelsI & o s ould be killed. 2s a former Ealiban offi!ial said+ IE e 2meri!ans are fig ting so t e' !an live and en/o' t e material t ings in life. Lut &e are fig ting so &e !an die in t e !ause of Dod.I E e terrorists ate us be!ause of t eir ideolog'((a fa!t t at filling up t e !offers of E ird Horld governments &ill do not ing to ! ange. H at t en+ can our government doR 5t !annot dire!tl' eradi!ate t e deepest+ p ilosop i!al roots of terrorismF but b' using militar' for!e+ it !an eliminate t e onl' Iroot !auseI relevant in a political !ontext: state sponsors ip of terrorism. E e fundamentalistsK ostilit' to&ard 2meri!a !an translate into international terrorism onl' via t e governments t at emplo'+ finan!e+ train+ and provide refuge to terrorist net&orks. 9u! assistan!e is t e !ause of t e terrorist t reat((and 2meri!a as t e militar' mig t to remove t at !ause. 5t is pre!isel' in t e name of fig ting terrorism at its
life to t e 5raqi people root t at 2meri!a must extend its fist+ not its and. H atever ot er areas of t e &orld ma' require ?.9. troops to stop terrorist operations+ &e must above all go after t e single main sour!e of t e t reat((5ran. E is t eo!rati! nation is bot t e birt pla!e of t e 5slami! <undamentalist revolution and+ as a !onsequen!e+ a leading sponsor of terrorism. 6emoving t at government from po&er &ould be a potent blo& against 5slami! terrorism. 5t &ould destro' t e politi!al embodiment of t e terroristsK !ause. 5t &ould de!lare 2meri!aKs intoleran!e of support for terrorists. 5t &ould be an unequivo!al lesson+ s o&ing & at &ill appen to ot er !ountries if t e' fail to !ra!k do&n on terrorists &it in t eir borders. 2nd it &ould a!kno&ledge t e fa!t t at

dropping bombs+ not food pa!kages+ is t e

onl' &a' for our government to atta!k terrorism at its root.

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AT T#((O( K' @! A@#!#SS K F#7 SOL8 !7 T#((O( SM We con&rol +niD+eness,Fis&or* sho<s a &ren- a<a* fro$ &he a$or%ho+s )iolence &he* cri&iD+e To$kins 04 36i! ard+ !onsumer industries editor of t e <inan!ial Eimes+ 0Doodb'e+ !ruel &orld1+ <inan!ial Eimes+ 2)4+ ttp:))sear! .ft.!om)non<t2rti!leR sortL',datearti!le:page,$$:quer'Eext,eg'pt:',0:/avas!riptNnabled,true:id,0#020400101#:x,04 5s it possible t at ! ildren in toda'Ks &estern+ developed &orld are gro&ing up among people & o are kinder+ more !onsiderate+ more tolerant and more pea!eable to&ards one anot erR 2re &e a!tuall' be!oming+ &ell+ ni!erR E is ma' seem an odd t ing to ask !onsidering t e nastiness of re!ent
events: 9eptember 11+ t e !arnage in 5raq+ t e sadisti! and degrading treatment meted out b' ?9 guards to prisoners at 2bu D raib and t e al(_aeda bombings around t e &orld. 2nd never mind t e big+ eadline( itting ne&s. 2t an ever'da' level+ man' of us ma' find ourselves !omplaining about t e de!line in good manners and t e gro&t of rudeness: t e door not eld open or t e refusal to give up a bus seat to t ose in need. @r &e ma' argue t at !apitalismKs emp asis on t e pursuit of self(interest as led to an in!rease in selfis individualism+ as in t e relu!tan!e to take !are of elderl' relatives or pa' ig er taxes to elp t e poor. =lus+ & ' is t ere is still so mu! !rimeR =er aps some offen!es ave re!entl' de!lined but in Lritain+ as in ot er !ountries+ t e number of poli!e offi!ers emplo'ed and people in prison keeps in!reasing. Aean& ile+ our lives are made miserable b' t e seemingl' remorseless rise in pett' !rime and anti(so!ial be aviour: t e litter+ graffiti+

5f 'ou take t e long vie&+ o&ever+ 'ou &ould surel' ave to a!kno&ledge t at people ave be!ome a lot less violent to&ards one anot er t an t e' on!e &ere. 5n t e developed &orld+ &e no longer engage in uman sa!rifi!e+ ereti!s are no longer burned at t e stake and rulers are no longer able to ave people be eaded at &ill. 7ivil &ar+ slaver'+ torture and !apital punis ment+ all on!e prevalent in t e &est+ ave be!ome unusual or ave disappeared. Aore re!entl'+ &estern so!iet' as &itnessed enormous progress to&ards equalit' for people & o &ere on!e t e vi!tims of oppression or dis!riminationF notabl' &omen+ ra!ial minorities and omosexuals. 9exism+ ra!ism+ omop obia and ot er su! dis!riminator' attitudes ma' not 'et ave been eliminated but t e fa!t t at t e' are no& &idel' seen as repugnant s o&s o& mu! so!iet' as ! anged sin!e t e da's+ not so long ago+ & en su! attitudes &ere regarded as perfe!tl' normal. @n a related t eme+ possibl' be!ause of &omenKs in!reasing po&er and parti!ipation in publi! life+ &estern so!iet' as be!ome more feminisedF t at is to sa'+ stereot'pi!al male attributes su! as aggressiveness+ stoi!ism and !old+ ard reason are out of favour+ & ile stereot'pi!all' female qualities su! as empat '+ nurturing and intuitiveness are in. He see t is in !orporate !ulture & ere !ompanies on!e app' to be feared as !orporate bullies no& tr' to outdo one anot er in s o&ing o& !onsiderate and !aring t e' areF &e see it in t e &a' t e interests of s!ientifi! and industrial progress are in!reasingl' measured against t e &elfare of people+ animals+ plants and t e environmentF &e see it in t e
vandalism and abusive language. >o& ni!e is t atR demise of t e stiff upper lip and t e rise of t erap' !ulture &it its emp asis on expressing oneKs feelings. 2nd &e see it in peopleKs mu! greater kindness to ! ildren+ & i! is & ere &e !ame in. 2t %#+ t e Lritis p ilosop er Aar' Aidgle' as probabl' been around long enoug to note an' re!ent signs of moral progress+ at least in Lritain. Goes s e t ink people are getting ni!erR IE ere ave been ups and do&ns+ but 5 t ink it is true t at t ere as been an improvement in & at one ma' !all umane !ommon sense about pre/udi!eF

t at people are finding t emselves more able to deal &it people unlike t emselves.I 9 e t inks t is as been parti!ularl' evident in t e past "0 'ears+ partl' be!ause of t e great so!ial s ake(up of t e se!ond &orld &ar & i! broug t people from different /obs and so!ial ba!kgrounds toget er and

& i! after&ards led to a sense t at t e &orld must be ! anged for t e better. 9till+ ideas about equalit' and toleran!e go ba!k mu! furt er t an t at+ Aidgle' sa's. Aan' &ere produ!ts of t e Nnlig tenment and ave /ust taken time to broaden be'ond t e edu!ated elite. IGamn it+ a lot of it is 7 ristianit'+I s e sa's. IE ese are old ideals. 9ome of t em &ere t ere &it t e Dreeks. E e' &ere terribl' keen on equalit' so long as it &as onl' t e equalit' of t e male 2t enian !itizen+ but t e' did a great /ob of giving t at fello& equalit'. I5tKs a long+ long pro!ess+ but t e extension it as made in t e past alf !entur' ( from t e intelle!tuals to ever'bod' else ( is & at &e are stru!k b' no&.I

We con&rol +niD+eness,)iolence is -eclining -+e &o in&erconnec&e-ness an- crea&ion of non>Bero s+$ global s*s&e$s To$kins 04 36i! ard+ !onsumer industries editor of t e <inan!ial Eimes+ 0Doodb'e+ !ruel &orld1+ <inan!ial Eimes+ 2)4+ ttp:))sear! .ft.!om)non<t2rti!leR sortL',datearti!le:page,$$:quer'Eext,eg'pt:',0:/avas!riptNnabled,true:id,0#020400101#:x,04
9!ien!e &riter Aatt 6idle'+ & ose books in!lude E e @rigins of Birtue: >uman 5nstin!ts and t e Nvolution of 7o(operation+ sa's it as often o!!urred to im t at uman beings seem to be on a one(&a'

H ile on!e &e ad slaver' and gladiators+ e notes+ people no& gasp I@ + t e poor t ingJI if 'ou sa' 'ou are going to s oot a rabbit in 'our garden. ILut 5 suspe!t t at in our ever'da' offi!e politi!s+ &eKre /ust as bit! ' or politi!al as &e ever &ere+I 6idle'
rat! et to greater intoleran!e of !ruelt'+ & et er to people or animals.
sa's. IE e differen!e is t at m' offi!e politi!s ends up in a frig tful ro& and me getting steamed up & ereas t e offi!e politi!s of >enr' B5 ended up &it a lot of people dead in Tt e Lattle ofU Hakefield. 5n t at sense+ &eKre getting ni!er. Lut instin!tuall'+ &eKre /ust as nast'. HeKre /ust not allo&ed to express it as violentl'.I 7an &e even go as far as agreeing &e are less out&ardl' violentR L' t e end of t e 20t !entur'+ &it its t&o &orld &ars+ t e >olo!aust+ t e atomi! bombings of >iros ima and Cagasaki and t e totalitarianism of 9talin and Aao+ it &ould ave been eas' to believe t at+ in modern times+ uman beings ad onl' gro&n in t eir propensit' to kill. Lut ;ames 8. =a'ne+ a politi!al s!ientist and &riter in t e ?9 & o as made a stud' of t e istor' of uman violen!e+ insists &e are less savage t an &e &ere. 5n is self(publis ed book+ 2 >istor' of <or!e+ =a'ne argues t at+ over time+ &e ave be!ome far less in!lined to use t e s&ord+ t e gallo&s or t e torture ! amber to get & at &e &ant out of ot er people. He onl' t ink t e 20t !entur' &as bloodier t an t e ones t at &ent before be!ause it is fres er in our !olle!tive memor' and &e ave t e s o!king statisti!s to tell us o& man' lives &ere lost. Lut &ar and ot er violen!e killed a far larger per!entage of t e &orldKs population in earlier !enturies+ & en nearl' ever' !ountr' believed its dut' &as to expand t roug militar' !onquest+ and ne& rulers routinel' slaug tered defeated peoples. 9o+ if &e reall' are be!oming less violent+ 'et evolution is not t e reason+ & at s ould take t e !reditR 6eligionR Hell+ as 6idle' points out+ people ma' sa' 7 ristianit' is about being ni!e but in t e beginning it &as extraordinaril' brutal and intolerant. ;ust look at all t e violen!e and vengefulness in t e @ld Eestament &it its approving a!!ounts of people smiting and slaug tering one anot er. 5ndeed+ a!!ording to t e Lible+ some of t e most orrif'ing massa!res &ere !arried out in t e name of Dod: 3I2nd it !ame to pass+ t at at midnig t t e 8ord smote all t e firstborn in t e land of Ng'pt... I Nxodus 12:29.4 6. Nlisabet 7orn&ell+ an evolutionar' ps'! ologist & o divides er time bet&een t e ?niversit' of 7olorado and 9!otlandKs ?niversit' of 9t 2ndre&s+ sa's: I5t &asnKt religion t at made t e differen!e. 5t &as t e p ilosop i!al reasoning of

t e Nnlig tenment t at made t e uge ! ange and in!reased t e Kni!eK be aviour of uman beings+ and t en religion /ust ad to follo&. E atKs & at appened in t e &est+ and in pla!es & ere t e Nnlig tenment did not o!!ur+ 'ou didnKt ave t at big ! ange in religion.I <or is part+ =a'ne believes violen!e is de!lining be!ause people around t e &orld ave graduall' been grasping t e trut t at it does not pa'. <or example+ as t e Lritis radi!als 6i! ard 7obden and ;o n Lrig t argued in t e 19t !entur'+ a !ountr' t at needs !opper !an a!quire it from abroad mu! more ! eapl' t roug trade t an t roug militar' !onquest and o!!upation. IE e fa!t is+ t e use of for!e tends to be an ineffi!ient and !ounter(produ!tive &a' of a! ieving 'our goals+I =a'ne sa's ( a notable ex!eption being & en 'ou ave to use it in self(defen!e. E is idea seems to e! o a !ore proposition of Conzero: E e 8ogi! of >uman Gestin'+ b' s!ien!e &riter 6obert Hrig t. 5n t is book+ Hrig t explores t e idea t at t e peoples of t e &orld are be!oming in!reasingl' interdependent be!ause t e' are engaged in so(!alled non(zero(sum games. ?nlike zero(sum games & ere one personKs vi!tor' is at someone elseKs expense+ non(zero(sum games do not ave &inners and losers. 5nstead+ as in e!onomi! ex! anges t at benefit bot parties+ t ese games produ!e &in(&in out!omes in & i! bot parties gain ( or+ in !ases su! as nu!lear &arfare+ lose(lose out!omes in
& i! bot sides end up &orse off. E anks to developments in transport and information te! nolog'+ Hrig t sa's+ peoples around t e &orld ave in!reasingl' been dra&n into net&orks of ex! ange t at

IHe ave been for!ed b' t e d'nami!s of istor' to be!ome more tolerant of+ and !on!erned about+ people fart er and fart er a&a' from ourselves geograp i!all'+ !ulturall'+ et ni!all' and religiousl' be!ause+ more and more+ our fortunes are intert&ined &it t eirs+I Hrig t sa's. Eo t at extent+ ni!eness is a produ!t of enlig tened self( interest.
produ!e &in(&in out!omes.

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AT T#((O( K' 8 OL#!E# 7OO" K SOL8#S T#((O( SM Terroris&s are inheren&l* e)il,The <ar on &error an- s%rea- of -e$ocrac* are &he onl* <a*s &o %re)en& ex&inc&ion !e*ana&+ 02 3Lin'amin+ =rime Ainister of 5srael+ 4)2$+ ttp:))&&&.ais .!om)!i)s)4%%9%#22. tml4 Go not be fooled b' t e apologists of terror. E ese apologists tell us t at t e root !ause of terrorism is t e deprivation of national and !ivi! rig ts+ and t at t e &a' to stop terror is to redress t e supposed grievan!es t at arise from t is deprivation. Lut t e root !ause of terrorism+ t e deliberate targeting of !ivilians+ is not t e deprivation of rig ts. 5f it &ere+ t en in t e t ousands of !onfli!ts and struggles for national and !ivil rig ts in modern times &e &ould see !ountless instan!es of terrorism. Lut &e do not. Aa atma Dand i foug t for t e independen!e of 5ndia &it out resorting to terrorism. 9o too did t e peoples of Nastern Nurope in t eir struggle to bring do&n t e Lerlin Hall. 2nd Aartin 8ut er QingKs !ampaign for equal rig ts for all 2meri!ans es! e&ed all violen!e+ mu! less terrorism. 5f t e deprivation of rig ts is indeed t e root !ause of terrorism+ & ' did all t ese people pursue t eir !ause &it out resorting to terrorR =ut simpl'+ be!ause t e' &ere demo!rats+ not terrorists. E e' believed in t e san!tit' of ea! uman life+ &ere !ommitted to t e ideals of libert'+ and ! ampioned t e values of demo!ra!'. Lut t ose & o pra!ti!e terrorism do not believe in t ese t ings. 5n fa!t+ t e' believe in t e ver' opposite. <or t em+ t e !ause t e' espouse is so all(en!ompassing+ so total+ t at it /ustifies an't ing. 5t allo&s t em to break an' la&+ dis!ard an' moral !ode and trample all uman rig ts in t e dust. 5n t eir e'es+ it permits t em to indis!riminatel' murder and maim inno!ent men and &omen+ and lets t em blo& up a bus full of ! ildren. E ere is a name for t e do!trine t at produ!es t is evil. 5t is !alled totalitarianism. 5ndeed+ t e root !ause of terrorism is totalitarianism. @nl' a totalitarian regime+ b' s'stemi!all' brain&as ing its sub/e!ts+ !an indo!trinate ordes of killers to suspend all moral !onstraints for t e sake of a t&isted !ause. E at is & ' from its in!eption totalitarianism as al&a's been &edded to terrorism (( from 8enin to 9talin to >itler to t e a'atolla s to 9addam >ussein+ rig t do&n to @sama bin 8aden and Xasser 2rafat. E ose & o fig t as terrorists rule as terrorists. 5t is not merel' t at t e goals of terrorists do not /ustif' t e means t e' ! oose+ it is t at t e means t e' ! oose tell us & at t eir true goals are. @sama bin 8aden is not seeking to defend t e rig ts of Auslims but to murder as man' 2meri!ans as possible+ and ultimatel' to destro' 2meri!a. 9addam >ussein is
not seeking to defend is people but to sub/ugate is neig bors. 2rafat is not seeking to build a state but to destro' a stateF t e man' massa!res of ;e&s e sponsors tells us & at e &ould do to all t e ;e&s of 5srael if e ad enoug po&er. E ose & o fig t as terrorists rule as terrorists. =eople & o deliberatel' target t e inno!ent never be!ome leaders & o prote!t freedom and uman rig ts. H en terrorists seize po&er+ t e' invariabl' set up t e darkest of di!tators ips (( & et er in 5raq+ 5ran+ 2fg anistan or 2rafatistan. 5n s ort+ t e reason & ' some resort to terror and ot ers do not is not an' absen!e of

E e totalitarian mind kno&s no limits. E e demo!rati! mind sets t em ever'& ere. E e essential steps to defeat international terrorism are being !ourageousl' undertaken b' =resident Lus . L' de!laring t at terrorism is never /ustified+ and b' deterring or destro'ing t ose regimes t at support terror+ =resident Lus as bravel' ! arted a !ourse t at &ill lead t e free &orld to vi!tor'. Lut to assure t at t is evil does not re(emerge a de!ade or t&o from no&+ &e must not merel' uproot terror but also plant t e seeds of freedom. @nl' under t'rann' !an a terrorist mindset be &idel' !ultivated. 5t !annot breed in a !limate of demo!ra!' and freedom. E e open debate of ideas and t e respe!t for uman life t at are t e foundation of all free so!ieties are a permanent antidote to t e poison t at t e terrorists seek to in/e!t into t e minds of t eir re!ruits. E at is & ' it is imperative t at on!e t e terrorist regimes in t e Aiddle Nast are s&ept a&a'+ t e free &orld+ led b' 2meri!a+ must begin to build t e
rig ts+ but t e presen!e of a t'ranni!al mindset. institutions of pluralism and demo!ra!' in t eir pla!e. E is &ill not appen overnig t+ and it is not likel' to result in liberal+ Hestern(st'le demo!ra!ies. Lut given an option bet&een Eurkis (st'le freedom

He simpl' !an no longer allo& parts of t e &orld to remain !loistered b' fanati! militan!ies. 9u! militan!ies+ on!e armed &it nu!lear &eapons+ !ould destro' our !ivilization. He must begin immediatel' to en!ourage t e peoples of t e 2rab and 5slami! &orld to embra!e t e idea of pluralism and t e ideals of freedom (( for t eir sake+ as &ell as ours.
and 5ranian(st'le t'rann'+ t e ! oi!e is !lear.

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AT T#((O( K' 8 OL#!E# 7OO" K SOL8#S T#((O( SM Eri&icis$ is +seless a& &his &i$e K <e $+s& confron& &erroris&s &ha& are -e&er$ine- &o -es&ro* +s/ =e&ers. 02 36alp + retired ?.9. 2rm' intelligen!e offi!er+ =arameters+ 05n =raise of 2ttrition.1 9ummer+ ttp:))findarti!les.!om)p)arti!les)miYm05L6)isY2Y34)aiYn#0%2901)pgY1 2<A4 Erust me. He donKt need dis!ourses. He need plain talk+ onest ans&ers+ and t e &ill to !lose &it t e enem' and kill im. 2nd to keep on killing im until it is unmistakabl' !lear to t e entire &orld & o &on. H en militar' offi!ers start speaking in a!ademi! gobbled'gook+ it means t e' ave not ing to !ontribute to t e effe!tiveness of our for!es. E e' badl' need an assignment to <allu/a . 7onsider our enemies in t e Har on Eerror. Aen & o believe+ literall'+ t at t e' are on a mission from Dod to destro' 'our !ivilization and & o regard deat as a promotion are not impressed b' elegant maneuvers. Xou must find t em+ no matter o& long it takes+ t en kill t em. 5f t e' surrender+ 'ou must a!!ord t em t eir rig ts under t e la&s of &ar and international !onventions. Lut+ as &e ave learned so painfull' from all t e mindless+ left&ing nonsense spouted about t e prisoners at Duantanamo+ 'ou are mu! better off killing t em before t e' ave a ! an!e to surrender. He ave eard no end of blat er about net&ork(!entri! &arfare+ to t e great profit of defense !ontra!tors. 5f 'ou &ant to see a superb((and ! eap example of Inet(&ar+I look at al _aeda. E e mere possession of te! nolog' does not ensure t at it &ill be used effe!tivel'. 2nd effe!tiveness is & at matters. Mili&aris&ic sol+&ions fos&er long &er$ %eace K onl* killing &erroris&s can sol)e &erroris$ =e&ers. 02 36alp + retired ?.9. 2rm' intelligen!e offi!er+ =arameters+ 05n =raise of 2ttrition.1 9ummer+ ttp:))findarti!les.!om)p)arti!les)miYm05L6)isY2Y34)aiYn#0%2901)pgY1 2<A4 5t is not enoug to materiall' defeat 'our enem'. Xou must !onvin!e 'our enem' t at e as been defeated. Xou !annot do t at b' bombing empt' buildings. Xou must be &illing to kill in t e s ort term &o sa)e li)es an- fos&er %eace in &he long &er$/ E is essa' does not suppose t at &arfare is simple: I;ust go out and killK era.I @f !ourse+ in!isive atta!ks on !ommand net&orks and !ontrol !apabilities+ &ell(!onsidered ps'! ologi!al operations+ and umane treatment of !ivilians and prisoners matter profoundl'+ along &it man' ot er !omplex fa!tors. Lut at a time & en u!kster !ontra!tors and IexpertsI & o never served in uniform prop esize bloodless &ars and sterile vi!tories t roug te! nolog'+ itKs essential t at t ose & o a!tuall' must fig t our nationKs &ars not su!!umb to t e fa!ile t eories or s immering vo!abular' of t ose & o &is to explain &ar to our soldiers from !omfortable offi!es. 5t is not a matter of & et er attrition is good or bad. 5tKs ne!essar'. @nl' t e s edding of t eir blood defeats resolute enemies. Nspe!iall' in our struggle &it Dod(obsessed terrorists((t e most impla!able enemies our nation as ever fa!ed t ere is no e!onomi!al solution. ?nquestionabl'+ our long(term strateg' must in!lude a &ide range of efforts to do & at &e+ as outsiders+ !an to address t e environmental !onditions in & i! terrorism arises and t rives 3often disappointingl' little((itKs a self( elp &orld4. Lut+ for no&+ all &e !an do is to impress our enemies+ our allies+ and all t e populations in bet&een t at &e are &inning and &ill !ontinue to &in. E e onl' &a' to do t at is t roug killing. E e fift edition of t e 9 orter @xford Nnglis Gi!tionar' defines to IattritI as to I&ear do&n in qualit' or quantit' b' militar'
attrition.I E at sounds like t e next several 'ears+ at least+ of t e Har on Eerror. E e same di!tionar' defines IattritionI as It e gradual &earing do&n of an enem'Ks for!es in sustained &arfare.I 5ndeed+ t at is exa!tl' & at &e s all ave to do against religious terrorists. E ere is no magi! maneuver &aiting to be plotted on a map. H ile s arp ta!ti!al movements t at bring firepo&er to bear &ill bring us important su!!esses along t e &a'+ t is &ar is going to be a long+ ard slog. E e ne& tren! es are ideologi!al and !ivilizational+ involving t e most fundamental differen!es uman beings !an ave((t ose over t e intentions of Dod and t e roles of men and &omen. 5n t e s ort term+ &e s all ave to &ear do&n t e enem'Ks for!esF in t e longer term+ &e s all ave to &ear do&n t e appeal of is ideas. @ur militar' &ars of attrition in t e 21st !entur' &ill be onl' one aspe!t of a vast metap 'si!al &ar of attrition+ in & i! t e differen!es bet&een t e sides are so profound t e' pro ibit !ompromise. 2s a result of our re!ent &ars and lesser operations+ &e ave t e best(trained+ best(led+ best(equipped+ and most experien!ed ground for!es in t e &orld in our 2rm' and Aarine 7orps. =otential !ompetitors and even most of our traditional allies ave onl' t e kno&ledge of t e !lassroom and t e training range+ & ile &e ave experien!e of &ar and related operations unparalleled in our time. He ave t e most

E ere is no s ame in !alling realit' b' its proper name. He are fig ting+ and &ill fig t+ &ars of attrition. 2nd &e are going to &in t em.
impressive militar' establis ment+ overall+ in militar' istor'. Co&+ if onl' &e !ould steel ourselves to t ink !learl' and speak plainl':

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AT T#((O( K' 8 OL#!E# 7OO" K SOL8#S T#((O( SM Terroris&s aren9& going &o gi)e +% K %acifis$ onl* in)i&es aggression Fa<ks. 0 37 u!k >a&ks+ politi!al s!ientist+ 0>o& Eo Gefeat Eerrorism: =a!ifism @r DunsR1 @!tober. ttp:))&&&.! u!k a&ks.!om)defeatYterrorism. tm4
2fter some t oug t 5 ave !on!luded t at for

pa!ifist ta!ti!s to su!!eed+ at t e minimum+ t e follo&ing !onditions must pertain. @ne+ t e pa!ifistKs opponents must be rational 3!apable of understanding t e logi! of t e pa!ifistKs position4. E&o+ t e opponents must ave moral values and ideals t at are not inimi!al to t e pa!ifistKs. E ree+ t e opponents must respe!t basi! uman rig ts. 2nd four+ t e pa!ifistKs opponents must not ne!essaril' equate non(violen!e &it &eakness. 8ooking at our istori!al pa!ifist models+ ;esus &as a rabbi saving
souls and tea! ing people in t e 3;e&is 4 !ulture in & i! e &as raised. Gr. Qing &as a 7 ristian minister leading a movement for t e rig ts of is people in t e 32meri!an4 !ulture in & i! e &as raised. 2nd Dand i &as leading is people in t eir struggle for independen!e from t e Lritis 3a rational and moral people &it a long demo!rati! tradition of self(rule4. E e fundamental ingredients for su!!essful pa!ifism &ere in pla!e in all t ree instan!es. @f t e t ree istori!al examples+ 5 am most familiar &it t e 2meri!an 7ivil 6ig ts movement of t e 19"0Ks and earl' 19#0Ks+ be!ause it took pla!e during m' lifetime+ and be!ause 5 gave it m' support. 5n t at !ase+ t e 2meri!an population &as literate and &ell edu!ated+ basi!all' rational+ and ad a long demo!rati! tradition. <urt ermore+ all of t e parti!ipants &ere 2meri!ans and &ere raised in t e same !ulture+ t ere &as &idespread respe!t for uman rig ts+ t e ;udeo)7 ristian et i! &as t e !ultural norm+ and virtuall' no one &anted violen!e. 2lso+ in t at !ase+ t e vast ma/orit' of 7au!asian 2meri!ans ad 3and ave4 no desire to oppress Cegro 2meri!ans. 2ll of t e !onditions required for su!!essful pa!ifism &ere indeed fulfilled.

?nfortunatel'+ at least one 3and usuall' more4 of t e required !onditions are al&a's missing & en opposing totaliarian regimes 3due to t e nature of totaliarian regimes4. Cor !an t e' be present in an' struggle against international terroris m 3t e fundamental tenents of terrorism pre!lude points t&o and t ree4. 5n fa!t+ none of &he reD+isi&e con-i&ions for s+ccessf+l %acifis$ are f+fille- in &he %resen& s&r+ggle agains& sla$ic &erroris&s/ E roug out istor'+ pa!ifism and non(violen!e as en!ouraged t ose &it a totalitarian bent 3& et er religious or se!ular4 to ever(greater !rimes against t eir o&n people+ t eir neig bors+ and t e rest of umanit'. E e' ave istori!all' interpreted it as &eakness+ & i! t e' invariabl' attempt to exploit for t eir o&n demented
purposes. E is is !lear from t e &ritings and statements of modern totalitarian leaders. <or example: E e vast ma/orit' of Nuropean ;e&s responded non( violentl' to t e Cazi pogrom. E e' &ent pea!efull' to t e !on!entration !amps+ and ultimatel' to t eir deat s+ a fa!t t at as puzzled istorians for 'ears. E is pa!ifisti! approa! did not ing to slo& do&n t e I<inal 9olution+I and in fa!t in!reased its effi!ien!'. H i! is t e istor' be ind t e slogan popular in modern 5srael: ICever againJI 2not er example: Con(violen!e &as simpl' not a viable option & en t e for!es of t e 5mperial ;apanese Nmpire atta!ked t e ?9+ t e ?Q+ and t eir allies in Ge!ember of 1941. >ad t e Hestern 2llies not resisted &it armed for!e+ t e ;apanese &ould !learl' ave gone on to o!!up'+ and exploit b' for!e+ all of 9out east 2sia and t e entire =a!ifi! basin+ as &ell as 7 ina. >ad t e' not been opposed b' armed for!e Derman'+ ;apan+ and t e ot er 2xis nations &ould ave eventuall' built a po&er base t at made t em literall' unstoppable. Har &as t e onl' viable &a' to prevent t is and+ &it 20(20 indsig t+ !learl' t e !orre!t de!ision. 3=aradoxi!all'+ ad t e 2xis su!!eeded in &orld domination+ international terrorism &ould probabl' not be a problem toda'. 2xis TstateU terrorism &ould ave s'stemati!all' exe!uted all of t e dissidents in t e o!!upied territories+ and long sin!e !rus ed t e independent states of t e Aiddle Nast. E e entire region &ould be under t e boot eel of t e 2xis+ and t e people t ere &ould be slaves. Eerrorism is effe!tive onl' & ere t ere are moral and inno!ent people to terrorize.4 E e ?nited 9tates of 2meri!a ad+ until t e events of 11 9eptember 2001+ largel' ignored terrorism. E is &as espe!iall' true during t e % 'ears of t e 7linton 2dministration. Xou !ould even make t e argument t at t e terrorist a!ts of 11 9eptember 2001 &ere+ at least in part+ t e result of =resident 7lintonKs lega!' of ina!tion. E e 7linton 2dministration took no effe!tive a!tion & en t e al _aeda terrorist organization atta!ked t e 2meri!an embassies in Qen'a and Eanzania+ killing 224 people+ and again did not ing & en al _aeda atta!ked t e ?nited 9tates 9 ip Cole. Lot of t ose assaults &ere ipsoD'acto de!larations of &ar+ a!ts t at istori!all' re)uire a de!laration of &ar from t e aggrieved state. Lut t e 7linton 2dministration ! ose not to take de!isive a!tion. 2t t e end of is administration+ in a move !'ni!all' designed to garner =uerto 6i!an votes for >illar' 7lintonKs senate bid+ =resident 7linton pardoned 0M terrorists convicted o' bombing attac"s against !e- >or" city$ over t e vo!iferous ob/e!tions of t e entire la& enfor!ement !ommunit'. =resident 7linton evidentl' believed t at terrorists &ould leave 2meri!a alone if 2meri!a did not respond to+ even forgave+ terrorist provo!ation. 7learl'+ 2meri!an restraint did not !onvin!e t e al _aeda terrorists to leave 2meri!a alone. 3Ceit er+ for t at matter+ did 2meri!aKs repeated attempts to save Aoslem people from violen!e and starvation in various parts of t e &orld.4 E e leaders and members of al _aeda did not be!ome more amenable to reason+ t eir et i!s and moralit' did not improve+ t e' steadfastl' re/e!ted t e !on!ept of uman rig ts+ and t e' did not abandon violen!e. 3?nlikel' in an' !ase+ as t eir I!ultureI vie&s pa!ifism as &eakness.4 5nstead+ &he* <ere e$bol-ene- &o grea&er ac&s of &erroris$ + & i! resulted in t e sui!ide atta!ks on t e Horld Erade 7enter and t e =entagon. E ese fanati!s ave stated t at+ 5f t e' !ould+ t e' &ould kill ever'one in 2meri!a and ever' 2meri!an an'& ere in t e &orld to a! ieve t eir goals. 35nterestingl'+ t is &ould in!lude almost all 2meri!an Auslims+ & o are not proper IfundamentalistsI b' al _aeda standards.4 E e notorious al _aeda leader @sama bin 8aden+ among ot ers+ as made t is !lear in is spee! es and re!ent statements. 9o ave t e leaders of t e totalitarian t eo!ra!' in 2fg anistan kno&n as t e Ealiban+ & o support al _aeda and international terrorism. =ersonall'+ 5 ave serious reservations about t e pra!ti!alit' of an' I&arI against intangibles+ & et er povert'+ drugs+ or terrorism. Lut+ one &a' or anot er+ 5 am !onvin!ed t at international terrorists and t e regimes t at support t em must be rooted out and broug t to /usti!e((

& i! means killed((be!ause t e' &ill not stop killing us.

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AT T#((O( K' 8 OL#!E# 7OO" K SOL8#S T#((O( SM Their arg+$en& an- fra$e<ork ac&+all* crea&es a reali&* <here &erroris$ flo+rishes/ The affir$a&i)e is &he logical all* of sla$is& ex&re$is&s K i& is +&o%ian an- absol+&el* inca%able of co+n&ering &erroris$ =e&ers. 04 36alp + retired 2rm' @ffi!er+ E e Heekl' 9tandard+ IE e 7ounterrevolution in Ailitar' 2ffairsF <as ionable t inking about defense ignores t e great t reats of our time+I 2(#(200#+ ttp:))&&&.&eekl'standard.!om)7ontent)=ubli!)2rti!les)000)000)00#)#49qrsob.asp 2<A4 Aan' of us ave struggled to grasp t e unreasonable+ even fanati!al anti(2meri!anism in t e global media((in!luding t e ostilit' in man' ne&s outlets and entertainment forums ere at ome. >o& !an edu!ated men and &omen+ & et er t e' speak 2rabi!+ 9panis + <ren! + or Nnglis + !ondemn 2meri!aKs ever' move+ & ile glossing over t e abuses of di!tators and t e savager' of terroristsR H ' is 2meri!a blamed even & en
2meri!an involvement is minimal or even nonexistentR >o& as t e most benefi!ial great po&er in istor' been transformed b' t e international media into a villain of relentless malevolen!eR

5n t eir se!ular &a'+ t e &orldKs media elites are as unable to a!!ept t e realit' !onfronting t em as are 5slamist fundamentalists. E e' ate t e &orld in & i! t e' are for!ed to live+ and 2meri!a as s aped t at &orld. 5t isnKt t at t e 2meri!an(&roug t &orld is so ver' bad for t e global intelligentsia: E e freedom t e' exploit to !ondemn t e ?nited 9tates as been &on+ preserved+ and expanded b' 2meri!an sa!rifi!es and 2meri!aKs example. E e problem is t at t e' &anted a different &orld+ t e +&o%ia %ro$ise- b' so!ialist and Aarxist t eorists+ an i$%ossible hea)en on eart t at !aptured t eir imagination as surel' as visions of paradise enrapture sui!ide bombers. E e global media ma' ske& se!ular+ but t at doesnKt prote!t t em against alternative forms of fait . Nuropeans+ for example+ ave dis!arded a belief in Dod as beneat t eir sop isti!ation((
E ereKs a straig tfor&ard ans&er: 'et t e' still need a 9atan to explain t eir o&n failures+ /ust as t eir an!estors required devils to explain & ' t e milk soured or t e erd si!kened. Eoda'+ 2meri!a as repla!ed t e orned+ !loven(footed 8u!ifer of NuropeKs pastF be ind t eir smug assumption of superiorit'+ !ontemporar' Nuropeans are as superstitious and irrational as an' of t eir an!estors: E e' simpl' believe in ot er demons.

@ne of t e most perverse aspe!ts of anti(2meri!anism in t e global media and among t e international intelligentsia is t at itKs presented as a progressive+ liberal movement+ & en itKs bi&&erl* reac&ionar*+ a s%i&ef+l+ eli&is& re)ol& against t e empo&erment of t e !ommon man and &oman 3t e !ore et os of t e ?nited 9tates4. Gespite t eir out&ard differen!es+ intelle!tuals are t e logical allies of 5slamist extremists((& o are equall' opposed to so!ial progress and mass freedom. @f !ourse+ t e terrorists ave t e
!omfort of religious fait + & ile t e global intelligentsia+ fa!ed &it t e deat of Aarxism and t e triump of !apitalism+ as onl' its rage. >uman beings are ard(&ired for fait . Geprived of a god+ t e' seek an alternative !reed. <or a time+ nationalism+ so!ialism+ Aarxism+ and a number of ot er(isms appeared to ave a ! an!e of &orking((as long as se!ular intelle!tuals re/e!ted t e eviden!e of 9talinKs !rimes or AaoKs savager' 3mu! as t e' overlook t e brutalities of 5slamist terrorists toda'4. E e intelle!tuals & o staff t e global media experien!ed t e 2meri!an(made destru!tion of t eir se!ular belief s'stems+ slo&l' during t e 7old Har+ t en /arringl' from 19%9 to 1991. E e experien!e as been as disorienting and infuriating to t em as if &e ad proved to Auslim fanati!s t at t eir god does not exist.

2meri!aKs triump s ames t e Aiddle Nast and Nurope alike+ and as long dented t e pride of 8atin 2meri!a. Lut t e brot er ood of 5slamist terrorists and t e tribe of global intelle!tuals & o dominate t e media are t e t&o groups & o feel t e most fur' to&ard 2meri!a. E e terrorists dream of a paradise be'ond t e graveF intelle!tuals fantasized about utopias on eart . Ceit er !an stoma! t e pra!ti!al su!!ess of t e 2meri!an &a' of life+ &it its insisten!e on individual performan!e and its resistan!e to unearned privilege. <or t e 5slamists+ 2meri!aKs
po&er t reatens t e promises of t eir fait . <or &orld(intelle!tuals+ 2meri!a is t e murderer of t eir most pre!ious fantasies. 5s it an' &onder t at t ese t&o superfi!iall' different groups ave drifted into

E e sui!ide bomber ma' be t e &eapon of genius of our time+ but t e !ru!ial ne& strategi! fa!tor is t e rise of a global information !ulture t at pretends to refle!t realit'+ but in fac& crea&es i&. 5raq is onl' t e most flagrant example of t e dis!onne!t bet&een empiri!al realit' and t e redesigned+ politi!all' infle!ted alternative realit' delivered b' t e media. E is p enomenon matters far more t an t e profiteers of t e revolution in militar' affairs !an a!!ept(( t e global information sp ere is no& a de!isive battleground. 5mage and idea are as po&erful as t e finest militar' te! nologies. He ave rea! ed t e point 3as eviden!ed b' t e first battle of <allu/a4 & ere t e global media !an overturn t e verdi!t of t e battlefield. He &ill not be defeated b' sui!ide bombers in 5raq+ but a ! an!e remains t at t e international media ma' defeat us. Nngaged &it enemies to our front+ &e tr' to ignore t e enemies at our ba!k((enemies at & om &e !annot return fire. 5ndeed+ if an't ing must be profoundl' reevaluated+ itKs our andling of t e media in &artime. He ave no obligation to open our a!!ounts to proven enemies+ 'et &e allo& ourselves to be paral'zed b' platitudes. E is doesnKt mean t at all of t e media are evil or dis onest. 5t means &e need to ave t e !ommon sense and !ourage to dis!riminate bet&een media outlets t at attempt to report fairl' 3and donKt !ompromise &artime se!rets4 and t ose & ose tra!k re!ords demonstrate t eir ostilit' to our national purposes or t eir outrig t support for terrorists.
!ollusionR He got it rig t in Horld Har 55+ but toda' &e !annot !ount on patriotism among /ournalists+ let alone t eir a!!eptan!e of !ensors ip boards. @ur o&n reporters pretend to be I!itizens of t e &orldI &it

after Ho+rnalis&ic irres%onsibili&* kills a suffi!ient number of 2meri!ans+ realit' &ill for!e us to question t e mediaKs !laim t at It e publi! as a rig t to kno&I ever' se!ret our government olds in &artime.
I ig er lo'alties+I and man' vie& patriotism as de!idedl' do&n(market. @bsessed &it defending t eir privileges+ t e' refuse to a!!ept t at t e' also ave responsibilities as !itizens. Lut

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Labeling &erroris& as s+ch is ke* &o figh&ing &he <ar on &error/ 7anor. 00 3Loaz+ Gire!tor of t e 5nternational =oli!' 5nstitute for 7ounter(Eerrorism 0Gefining Eerrorism+1 ttp:))&&&.i!t.org.il)arti!les)define. tm+ Aa' 1#4 He fa!e an essential need to rea! a definition of terrorism t at &ill en/o' &ide international agreement+ t us enabling international operations against terrorist organizations. 2 definition of t is t'pe must rel' on t e same prin!iples alread' agreed upon regarding !onventional &ars 3bet&een states4+ and extrapolate from t em regarding non(!onventional &ars 3bet&eean organization and a state4. E e definition of terrorism &ill be t e basis and t e operational tool for expanding t e international !ommunit'*s abilit' to !ombat terrorism. 5t &ill enable legislation and spe!ifi! punis ments against t ose perpetrating+ involved in+ or supporting terrorism+ and &ill allo& t e formulation of a !odex of la&s and international !onventions against terrorism+ terrorist organizations+ states sponsoring terrorism+ and e!onomi! firms trading &it t em. 2t t e same time+ t e definition of terrorism &ill amper t e attempts of terrorist organizations to obtain publi! legitima!'+ and &ill erode support among t ose segments of t e population &illing to assist t em 3as opposed to guerrilla a!tivities4. <inall'+ t e operative use of t e definition of terrorism !ould motivate terrorist organizations+ due to moral or utilitarian !onsiderations+ to s ift from terrorist a!tivities to alternative !ourses 3su! as guerrilla &arfare4 in order to attain t eir aims+ t us redu!ing t e s!ope of international terrorism. E e struggle to define terrorism is sometimes as ard as t e struggle against terrorism itself. E e present vie&+ !laiming it is unne!essar' and &ell(nig impossible to agree on an ob/e!tive definition of terrorism+ as long establis ed itself as t e 0politi!all' !orre!t1 one. 5t is t e aim of t is paper+ o&ever+ to demonstrate t at an ob/e!tive+ internationall' a!!epted definition of terrorism is a feasible goal+ and t at an effe!tive struggle against terrorism requires su! a definition. E e sooner t e nations of t e &orld !ome to t is realization+ t e better.

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"eba&es abo+& &hrea&s in &he aca-e$ic <orl- res+l& in be&&er %olic*>$aking,real &hrea&s can be confron&e- anrisks can be <eighe-/ Wal& 90 . =rofessor of =oliti!al 9!ien!e+ ?niversit' of 7 i!ago . 1991 39tep en+ 5CEN6C2E5@C28 9E?G5N9 _?26EN68X+ p. 229(304 2 re!urring t eme of t is essa' as been t e t&in dangers of separating t e stud' of se!urit' affairs from t e a!ademi! &orld or of s ifting t e fo!us of a!ademi! s! olars ip too far from real(&orld issues. E e danger of &ar &ill be &it us for some time to !ome+ and states &ill !ontinue to a!quire militar' for!es for a variet' of purposes. ?nless one believes t at ignoran!e is preferable to expertise+ t e value of independent national se!urit' s! olars s ould be apparent. 5ndeed+ istor' suggests t at !ountries t at suppress debate on national se!urit' matters are more likel' to blunder into disaster+ be!ause misguided poli!ies !annot be evaluated and stopped in time. 2s in ot er areas of publi! poli!'+ a!ademi! experts in se!urit' studies !an elp in several &a's. 5n t e s ort term+ a!ademi!s are &ell pla!ed to evaluate !urrent programs+ be!ause t e' fa!e less pressure to support offi!ial poli!'. E e long(term effe!ts of a!ademi! involvement ma' be even more signifi!ant: a!ademi! resear! !an elp states learn from past mistakes and !an provide t e t eoreti!al innovations t e produ!e better poli!' ! oi!es in t e future. <urt ermore+ t eir role in training t e ne& generation of experts gives a!ademi!s an additional avenue of influen!e. (isk in &he in&erna&ional s*s&e$ is ine)i&able,&he goal sho+l- be &o <eigh &he i$%ac&s of ac&ion )s inac&ion in &he face of a %ar&ic+lar &hrea&/ Far)ar- !+clear S&+-* 7ro+% 51 3Living -ith !uclear :eapons+ p.1#($4 H en =resident ;o n <. Qenned' &as s o&n irrefutable eviden!e of t e 9oviet missile empla!ement . ?(2 p otograp s of t e missile bases in 7ube . e and is advisors dis!ussed t e matter for six da's before de!iding on an 2meri!an response to t e ! allenge. E e de!ision+ to pla!e a naval blo!kade around t e island+ &as not a risk(free response. E is+ Qenned' onestl' admitted to t e nation t e nig t of @!tober 22+ 19#2: A' fello& !itizens+ let no one doubt t is is a diffi!ult and dangerous effort on & i! &e ave set out. Co one !an foresee pre!isel' & at !ourse it &ill takea Lut t e great danger of all &ould be to do not ing. H ' did t e president believe t at 0to do not ing1 about t e missiles in 7uba &ould be an even greater danger t an a!!epting t e 0diffi!ult and dangerous1 !ourse of t e blo!kadeR >e a!!epted some risk of &ar in t e long run+ b' dis!ouraging future 9oviet aggressive be avior. 5na!tion mig t ave led to an even more dangerous future. E is t e president also explained t at nig t in is address to t e nation: TE isU sudden+ !landestine de!ision to station &eapons for t e first time outside 9oviet soil . is a deliberate provo!ative and un/ustified ! ange in t e status quo & i! !annot be a!!epted b' t is !ountr' if our !ourage and our !ommitments are ever to be trusted b' eit er friend or foe. E e 1930*s taug t us a !lear lesson: 2ggressive !ondu!t+ if allo&ed to gro& un! e!ked and un! allenged+ ultimatel' leads to &ar. E e 2meri!an government managed t e 19#2 !risis &it skill and restraint . offering a !ompromise to t e 9oviets and giving t em suffi!ient time to !all ba!k t eir missile(laden s ips+ for example . and t e missiles &ere &it dra&n from 7uba. E e president !arefull' supervised 2meri!an militar' a!tions to ensure t at is orders &ere not misunderstood. >e did not pus is su!!ess too far or ignore t e real risks of &ar. E e point ere is not+ to make t e blo!kade a model for 2meri!an a!tion in t e future: different !ir!umstan!es ma' !all for different poli!ies. 6at er t e point is to underline t e persisten!e of risk in international affairs. Nver' proposed response to t e 9oviet a!tion . doing not ing+ enfor!ing t e blo!kade+ or invading 7uba . entailed some risk of nu!lear &ar. Qenned'*s task . and &e t ink is su!!ess . &as to &eig a!!uratel' t e risks entailed in ea! !ourse and de!ide on poli!' a!!ordingl'.

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TF(#AT EO!ST(@ET O!' =(#8#!TS #SEALAT O! Eonfron&ing &hrea&s earl* %re)en&s escala&ion,WW %ro)es/ Joon 01 . =rofessor of 5nternational 6elations at 9eoul Cational ?niversit'F former <oreign Ainister of 9out Qorea . 20033Xoung(Q&an+ 05ntrodu!tion: =o&er 7'!le E eor' and t e =ra!ti!e of 5nternational 6elations1+ 5nternational =oliti!al 9!ien!e 6evie& 2003F vol. 24F p. $(%3 5n istor'+ t e effort to balan!e po&er quite often tended to start too late to prote!t t e se!urit' of some of t e individual states. 5f t e balan!ing pro!ess begins too late+ t e resulting amount of for!e ne!essar' to stop an aggressor is often mu! larger t an if t e pro!ess ad been started mu! earlier. <or example+ t e fate of 7ze! oslovakia and =oland s o&ed o& non(intervention or &aiting for t e 0automati!1 &orking t roug of t e pro!ess turned out to be problemati!. =o&er !'!le t eor' !ould also supplement t e stru!ture(oriented nature of t e traditional balan!e of po&er t eor' b' in!orporating an agent(oriented explanation. E is &as possible t roug its fo!us on t e relations ip bet&een po&er and t e role of a state in t e international s'stem. 5t espe!iall' ig lig ted t e fa!t t at a dis!repan!' bet&een t e relative po&er of a state and its role in t e s'stem &ould result in a greater possibilit' for s'stemi! instabilit'. 5n order to prevent t is instabilit' from developing into a &ar+ pra!titioners of international relations &ere to be!ome a&are of t e d'nami!s of ! anging po&er and role+ ad/usting role to po&er. 2 statesperson ere &as not simpl' regarded as a prisoner of stru!ture and t erefore as an outsider to t e pro!ess but as an agent !apable of influen!ing t e operation of equilibrium. E us po&er !'!le t eor' !ould over!ome t e &eakness of t eoreti!al determinism asso!iated &it t e traditional balan!e of po&er. E e question is often raised & et er government de!ision(makers !ould possibl' kno& or respond to su! relative po&er s ifts in t e real &orld. 2!!ording to Goran+ & en t e 0tides of istor'1 s ift against t e state+ t e pus and s ove of &orld politi!s reveals t ese matters to t e poli!'(maker+ in t at state and among its !ompetitors+ &it abundant urgen!'. 324 E e 5ssue of 9'stemi! 9tabilit' =o&er !'!le t eor' is built on t e !on!eption of ! anging relative !apabilities of a state+ and as su! it s ares t e realist assumption emp asizing t e importan!e of po&er in explaining international relations. Lut its main fo!us is on t e longitudinal dimension of po&er relations+ t e rise and de!line of relative state po&er and role+ and not on t e stati! po&er distribution at a parti!ular time. 2s a result+ po&er !'!le t eor' provides a signifi!antl' different explanation for stabilit' and order &it in t e international s'stem. <irst of all+ po&er !'!le t eor' argues t at & at matters most in explaining t e stabilit' of t e international s'stem or &ar and pea!e is not t e t'pe of parti!ular international s'stem 36ose!ran!e+ 19#34 but t e transformation from one s'stem to anot er. <or example+ in t e 19#0s t ere &as a debate on t e stabilit' of t e international s'stem bet&een t e defenders of bipolarit' su! as Haltz 319#44 and t e defenders of multi(polarit' su! as 6ose!ran!e 319##4+ and Geuts! and 9inger 319#44. 2fter anal'zing five istori!al o!!asions sin!e t e origin of t e modern state s'stem+ Goran !on!luded t at & at as been responsible for ma/or &ar &as not & et er one t'pe of s'stem is more or less !ondu!ive to &ar but t at instead s'stems transformation itself led to &ar 3Goran+ 19$14. 2 non(linear t'pe of stru!tural ! ange t at is massive+ unpredi!ted+ devastating to foreign poli!' expe!tation+ and destru!tive of se!urit' is t e trigger for ma/or &ar+ not t e nature of a parti!ular t'pe of international s'stem.

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So$e s&a&es are gen+ine &hrea&s/ K*-- 97 . =rofessor of =oliti!al 9!ien!e of 7alifornia+ 6iverside+ 9N7?65EX 9E?G5N9+ 2utumn 199$ p. 1"4 2s for t e 9e!ond Horld Har+ fe& stru!tural realists &ill make a sustained !ase t e >itler &as genuinel' motivated b' a rational pursuit of se!urit' for Derman' and t e ot er Derman statesmen &ould ave responded in t e same &a' to Derman'*s international situation. Nven Dermen generals opposed >itler*s militar' adventurism until 1939F it is diffi!ult to imagine a less for!eful !ivilian leader overruling t em and leading Derman' in an oat of !onquest. 5n t e !ase of t e !old &ar+ it is again diffi!ult to es!ape t e !on!lusion t at t e 9oviet ?nion &as indeed expansionist before Dorba! ev and not solel' motivated b' se!urit' !on!erns. E e in!reased emp asis &it in international relations s! olars ip on explaining t e nature and origins of aggressive expansionists states refle!ts a gro&ing !onsensus t at aggressive states are at t e root of !onfli!t+ not se!urit' !on!erns.

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TF(#AT EO!ST(@ET O!' (#=S ((#L#8A!T (e%resen&a&ions of s&a&e ac&ion canno& change realis$. an- e)en if &he* co+l-. <e ha)e no <a* of kno<ing if &he* ne< s*s&e$ <o+l- be an* be&&er/ Mearshei$er. 93 . =rofessor of =oliti!al 9!ien!e+ ?niversit' of 7 i!ago . 199" 3;o n+ 5CEN6C2E5@C28 9N7?65EX+ p. 91(24 E e most revealing aspe!t of Hendt*s dis!ussion is t at e did not respond to t e t&o main ! arge leveled against !riti!al t eor' in 0<alse =romise.1 E e first problem &it !riti!al t eor' is t at alt oug t e t eor' is deepl' !on!erned &it radi!all' ! anging state be avior+ it sa's little about o& ! ange !omes about. E e t eor' does not tell us & ' parti!ular dis!ourses be!ome dominant and ot er fall b' t e &a'side. 9pe!ifi!all'+ Hendt does not explain & ' realism as been t e dominant dis!ourse in &orld politi!s for &ell over a t ousand 'ears+ alt oug 5 expli!itl' raised t e question in 0<alse =romise1 3p. 424. Aoreover+ e s ed no lig t on & ' t e time is ripe for unseating realism+ nor on & ' realism is likel' to be repla!ed b' a more pea!eful+ !ommunitarian dis!ourse+ alt oug 5 expli!itl' raised bot questions. Hendt*s failure to ans&er t ese questions as important ramifi!ations for is o&n arguments. <or example+ e maintains t at if it is possible to ! ange international politi!al dis!ourse and alter state be avior+ 0t en it is irresponsible to pursue poli!ies t at perpetuate destru!tive old orders Ti.e.+ realismU+ espe!iall' if &e !are about t e &ell(being of future generation.1 E e !lear impli!ation ere is t at realists like me are irresponsible and do not !are mu! about t e &elfare of future generations. >o&ever+ even if &e ! ange dis!ourses and move be'ond realism+ a fundamental problem &it Hendt*s argument remains: be!ause is t eor' !annot predi!t t e future+ e !annot kno& & et er t e dis!ourse t at ultimatel' repla!es realism &ill be more benign t an realism. >e as no &a' of kno&ing & et er a fas!isti! dis!ourse more violent t an realism &ill emerge as t e egemoni! dis!ourse. <or example+ e obviousl' &ould like anot er Dorba! ev to !ome to po&er in 6ussia+ but a !riti!al t eor' perspe!tive+ defending realism mig t ver' &ell be t e more responsible poli!' ! oi!e.

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8iolence is ine)i&able K i&9s inheren& in na&+re Sa+n-ers. 95 37at 9aunders+ = G in ps'! ot erap'+ 0Biolen!e+ =a!ifism+ and Har.1 @!tober+ ttp:))dr!at.org)d! ) tml)violen!e. tm 2<A4 8ike it or not+ violen!e is part of nature and it*s a part of uman nature. <rankl'+ our pun' uman outbursts.and even our &ars.are minor in !omparison to eart quakes+ vol!anoes+ sunspot eruptions+ and supernova explosions. Cature is full of violen!eJ 5t dan!es at ever' level of existen!e. 7on!eption+ for instan!e+ is a violent a!t. E e sperm violates t e integrit' of t e egg in order to merge &it it and !reate life. 2not er more obvious a!t of violen!e is eating. 2ll of us+ vegetarians in!luded+ must kill to survive. 2s E i! C at >an sa's in Cresent Moment$ :onder'ul Moment: E is plate of food+ so fragrant and appetizing+ also !ontains mu! suffering. 5t*s futile to den' t at violen!e is ne!essar' for life. 5t makes more sense to be a&are of t is fa!t and to be responsible in relation to it. ?nfortunatel'+ t ere is so mu! fear of irresponsible violen!e t at all violen!e is often /udged to be &rong. 2s a result+ man' people t ink t at part of t eir o&n primal nature is &rong.t e part t at !ould kill if one*s life is t reatened. Co part of uman nature is &rong+ even t e violent or destru!tive part. Nver'one as t e capacity to be violent and destru!tive. Nver'oneJ @ne of m' eroes+ Nlisabet Qqbler(6oss+ tells t e stor' of Dolda+ & o survived Aaidanek+ one of >itler*s most notorious deat !amps. Qqbler(6oss visited Aaidanek after Horld Har 55+ in t e ope of gaining some understanding of t e orrors !ommitted t ere.

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AT 8 OL#!E# K' 8 OL#!E# 7OO" K SOL8#S T#((O( SM. (A! C !O(TF KO(#A Blanke& calls &o en- &he :c*cle of )iolence; $erel* f+el i& K onl* )iolence can -eal <i&h &hrea&s like &erroris$. ran an- !or&h Korea So<ell. 4 3E omas 9o&ell+ 9enior fello& at 9tanford ?niversit'*s >oover 5nstitution+ 02 P!'!le* of nonsense+1 $(1%(200#+ ttp:))/e&is &orldrevie&.!om)!ols)so&ell0$1%0#.asp 2<A4 Co& t at 5srael as responded to ro!ket atta!ks and t e abdu!tion of its soldiers b' terrorists b' making militar' strikes into areas !ontrolled b' t ose terrorists+ mu! of our media are deploring anot er I!'!le of violen!eI in t e Aiddle Nast. <or reasons unkno&n+ some people seem to regard verbal equivalen!e as moral equivalen!e - and t e latter as some kind of badge of broadmindedness+ if not intelle!tual superiorit'. E erefore+ & en =alestinian terrorists 3ImilitantsI in politi!all' !orre!t Ce&speak4 atta!k 5srael and t en 5srael responds &it militar' for!e+ t at is /ust anot er I!'!le of violen!eI in t e Aiddle Nast to some people. E e I!'!leI notion suggests t at ea! side is /ust responding to & at t e ot er side does. Lut /ust & at ad 5srael done to set off t ese latest terrorist a!tsR 5t voluntaril' pulled out of Daza+ after eva!uating its o&n settlers+ and left t e land to t e =alestinian aut orities. Eerrorists t en used t e ne&l' a!quired land to laun! ro!kets into 5srael and t en seized an 5sraeli soldier. @t er terrorists in 8ebanon follo&ed suit. E e great mantra of t e past+ Itrading land for pea!e+I is no& t oroug l' dis!redited+ or s ould be. Lut fa!ts mean not ing to people & o are determined to find equivalen!e+ & et er toda' in t e Aiddle Nast or 'esterda' in t e 7old Har. 9in!e all t ings are t e same+ ex!ept for t e differen!es+ and different ex!ept for t e similarities+ not ing is easier t an to !reate verbal parallels and moral equivalen!e+ t oug some people seem to pride t emselves on t eir abilit' to do su! verbal tri!ks. 7enturies ago+ E omas >obbes said t at &ords are &ise menKs !ounters but t at t e' are t e mone' of fools. 6egardless of fas ionable r etori!+ t ere is no Aiddle Nast Ipea!e pro!essI an' more t an trading Iland for pea!eI as been a viable option. Cor is a =alestinian I omelandI a ke' to pea!e. Guring all t e 'ears & en 2rab !ountries !ontrolled t e land no& proposed for a =alestinian omeland+ t ere &as no talk about an' su! omeland. @nl' after 5srael took !ontrol of t at territor' as a result of t e 19#$ &ar &as it suddenl' sa!red as a =alestinian omeland. E ere is no !on!ession t at &ill bring lasting pea!e to t e Aiddle Nast be!ause t e terrorists and t eir supporters are not going to be satisfied b' !on!essions. The onl* &hing &ha& <ill sa&isf* &he$ is &he -es&r+c&ion of srael/ =ending t at+ t e' &ill infli!t as mu! destru!tion and bloods ed on t e 5sraelis as t e' !an get a&a' &it at an' given time. E is brutal realit' is not going to vanis t roug verbal sleig t of and. E e terrorists ave spoken in &ords and in deeds+ in!luding sui!ide bombers. E e' ave & at 7 ur! ill on!e des!ribed in t e Cazis as I!urrents of atred so intense as to sear t e souls of t ose & o s&im upon t em.I He sa& t at on 9)11 - or s ould ave seen it. Lut man'+ espe!iall' among t e intelligentsia+ are determined not to see it. @f all t e Hestern demo!ra!ies+ onl' t&o ave no ! oi!e but to depend on t eir o&n militar' for!es for t eir survival t e ?nited 9tates and 5srael. E e rest ave for more t an alf a !entur' ad t e luxur' of depending on 2meri!an militar' for!es in general and t e 2meri!an nu!lear deterrent in parti!ular. =eople & o ave long been s eltered from mortal dangers !an indulge t emselves in t e belief t at t ere are no mortal dangers. Cu!lear &eapons in t e ands of 5ran or Cort Qorea - and+ t roug t em+ in t e ands of ate(filled terrorists ma' be all t at &ill finall' &ake up su! people. Lut t at ma' be tragi!all' too late. Those <ho kee% calling for an en- &o &he Tc*cle of )iolenceT are <ha& $ake s+ch )iolence $ore likel*/ IHorld opinionI in general and t e ?nited Cations in parti!ular !an al&a's be !ounted on to !ounsel IrestraintI in response to atta!ks and InegotiationsI in response to let al t reats. H at t at means is t at t ose & o start trouble &ill ave a lo&er pri!e to pa' t an if t ose t e' atta!ked &ere free to go all out in t eir !ounter(atta!k. 8o&ering t e pri!e to be paid b' aggressors virtuall' guarantees more aggression.

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AT 8 OL#!E# K' 8 OL#!E# 7OO" K SOL8#S (A! Mili&aris&ic sol+&ions are &he onl* <a* &o con&ain ran K co$%lacenc* onl* -ela*s an ine)i&able <ar <i&h $ore cas+al&ies =o-hore&B. 07 3Corman =od oretz+ 9enior <ello& at t e >udson 5nstitute and a member of t e 7oun!il

on <oreign 6elations+ 0E e 7ase for Lombing 5ran.1 7ommentar' Aagazine+ ;une 200$+ ttp:))&&&.!ommentar'magazine.!om)!m)main)vie&2rti!le. tmlRid,10%%2:page,all 2<A4
5t &as t anks to Auni! t at 0appeasement1 be!ame one of t e dirtiest &ords in t e & ole of our politi!al vo!abular'. Xet appeasement ad al&a's been an important and entirel' respe!table tool of diploma!'+ signif'ing t e avoidan!e of &ar t roug
t e alleviation of t e ot er side*s grievan!es. 5f >itler ad been & at is eventual vi!tims imagined e &as-t at is+ a !onventional statesman pursuing limited aims and using t e t reat of &ar onl' as a &a' of strengt ening is bargaining position-it &ould indeed ave been possible to appease im and t ereb' to ead off t e outbreak of anot er &ar.

>itler &as not a !onventional statesman and+ alt oug for ta!ti!al reasons e &ould sometimes pretend ot er&ise+ e did not ave limited aims. >e &as a revolutionar' seeking to overturn t e going international s'stem and to repla!e it &it a ne& order dominated b' Derman'+ & i! also meant t e politi!al !ulture of Cazism. 2s su! + e offered onl' t&o ! oi!es: resistan!e or submission. <inding t is realit' unbearable+ t e &orld persuaded itself t at t ere &as a &a' out+ a t ird alternative+ in negotiations. Lut given >itler*s ob/e!tives+ and is barel' !on!ealed lust for &ar+ negotiating &it im !ould not !on!eivabl' ave led to pea!e. 5t !ould ave ad onl' one out!ome+ & i! &as to bu' im more time to start a &ar under more favorable !onditions. 2s most istorians no& agree+ if e ad been taken at is o&n &ord about is true intentions+ e !ould ave been stopped earlier and defeated at an infinitel' lo&er !ost. H i! brings us ba!k to 2 madine/ad. 8ike >itler+ e is a revolutionar' & ose ob/e!tive is to overturn t e going international s'stem and to repla!e it in t e fullness of time &it a ne& order dominated b' 5ran and ruled b' t e religio(politi!al !ulture of 5slamofas!ism. 8ike >itler+ too+ e is entirel' open about is intentions+ alt oug -again like >itler- e sometimes pretends t at e &ants not ing more t an is !ountr'*s /ust due. 5n t e !ase of >itler in 193%+ t is pretense took t e form of !laiming t at no furt er demands &ould be made if sovereignt' over t e 9udetenland &ere transferred from 7ze! oslovakia to Derman' . 5n t e !ase of 2 madine/ad+ t e pretense takes t e form of !laiming t at 5ran is building nu!lear fa!ilities onl' for pea!eful purposes and not for t e produ!tion of bombs.
Lut Lut ere &e !ome upon an interesting differen!e bet&een t en and no&. H ereas in t e late 1930*s almost ever'one believed+ or talked imself into believing+ t at >itler &as telling t e trut & en e said e ad no furt er demands to make after Auni! + no one believes t at 2 madine/ad is telling t e trut & en e sa's t at 5ran as no &is to develop a nu!lear arsenal. 5n addition+ virtuall' ever'one agrees t at it &ould be best if e &ere stopped+ onl' not+ Dod forbid+ &it militar' for!e-not no&+ and not ever. Lut if militar' for!e is ruled out+ & at is supposed to do t e /obR Hell+ to begin &it + t ere is t at good old standb'+ diploma!'. 2nd so+ for t ree(and(a( alf 'ears+ even pre(dating t e a!!ession of 2 madine/ad to t e presiden!'+ t e diplomati! gavotte as been dan!ed &it 5ran+ in negotiations & ose !arrot(and(sti!k details no one !an remember-not even+ 5 suspe!t+ t e parties involved. Lut sin!e+ to sa' it again+ 2 madine/ad is a revolutionar' &it unlimited aims and not a statesman &it & om &e !an 0do business+1 all t is negotiating as ad t e same result as Auni! ad &it >itler. E at is+ it as boug t t e 5ranians more time in & i! t e' ave moved !loser and !loser to developing nu!lear &eapons. E en t ere are san!tions. 2s it appens+ san!tions ave ver' rarel' &orked in t e past. Horse 'et+ t e' ave usuall' ended up urting t e apless people of t e targeted !ountr' & ile leaving t e leaders ip uns!at ed. Cevert eless+ mu! ope as been invested in t em as a &a' of bringing 2 madine/ad to eel. Xet t anks to t e resistan!e of 6ussia and 7 ina+ bot of & i! ave reasons of t eir o&n to go eas' on 5ran+ it as proved enormousl' diffi!ult for t e 9e!urit' 7oun!il to impose san!tions t at !ould even !on!eivabl' be effe!tive. 2t first+ t e onl' measures to & i! 6ussia and 7 ina &ould agree &ere mu! too limited even to bite. E en+ as 5ran !ontinued to def' 9e!urit' 7oun!il resolutions and to blo!k inspe!tions b' t e 5nternational 2tomi! Nnerg' 2gen!' 352N24 t at it &as bound b' treat' to permit+ not even t e 6ussians and t e 7 inese &ere able to old out against stronger san!tions. @n!e more+ o&ever+ t ese ave ad little or no effe!t on t e progress 5ran is making to&ard t e development of a nu!lear arsenal. @n t e !ontrar': t e'+ too+ ave boug t t e 5ranians additional time in & i! to move a ead. 9in!e ope springs eternal+ some no& believe t at t e ans&er lies in more punis ing san!tions. E is time+ o&ever+ t eir purpose &ould be not to for!e 5ran into !omplian!e+ but to provoke an internal uprising against 2 madine/ad and t e regime as a & ole. E ose & o advo!ate t is !ourse tell us t at t e 0mullo!ra!'1 is ver' unpopular+ espe!iall' &it 'oung people+ & o make up a ma/orit' of 5ran*s population. E e' tell us t at t ese 'oung people &ould like not ing better t an to get rid of t e oppressive and repressive and !orrupt regime under & i! t e' no& live and to repla!e it &it a demo!rati! s'stem. 2nd t e' tell us+ finall'+ t at if 5ran &ere so transformed+ &e &ould ave not ing to fear from it even if it &ere to a!quire nu!lear &eapons. @n!e upon a time+ under t e influen!e of Lernard 8e&is and ot ers 5 respe!t+ 5 too subs!ribed to t is s! ool of t oug t. Lut after t ree 'ears and more of &aiting for t e insurre!tion t e' assured us ba!k t en &as on t e verge of erupting+ 5 ave lost !onfiden!e in t eir predi!tion. 9ome of t em blame t e Lus administration for not doing enoug to en!ourage an uprising+ & i! is & ' t e' ave no& transferred t eir opes to san!tions t at &ould infli!t so mu! damage on t e 5ranian e!onom' t at t e entire popula!e &ould rise up against t e rulers. Xet & et er or not t is mig t appen under su! !ir!umstan!es+ t ere is simpl' no ! an!e of getting 6ussia and 7 ina+ or t e Nuropeans for t at matter+ to agree to t e kind of san!tions t at are t e ne!essar' pre!ondition. YYYYYYYYYYYYY

5n exerting pressure for reform on !ountries like Ng'pt and 9audi 2rabia+ t ese nonmilitar' instruments are t e rig t ones to use. Lut it s ould be !lear b' no& to an' observer not in denial t at 5ran is not su! a !ountr'. 2s &e kno& from 5ran*s defian!e of t e 9e!urit' 7oun!il and t e 52N2 even & ile t e ?nited 9tates as been &arning 2 madine/ad t at 0all options1 remain on t e table+ ultimatums and t reats of for!e !an no more stop im t an negotiations and san!tions ave managed to do. 8ike t em+ all t e' a!!omplis is to bu' im more time. 5n s ort+ t e plain and brutal trut is t at if 5ran is to be prevented from developing a nu!lear arsenal+ t ere is no alternative to t e a!tual use of militar' for!e-an' more t an t ere &as an alternative to for!e if >itler &as to be stopped in 193%. 9in!e a ground invasion of 5ran must be ruled out for man' different reasons+ t e /ob &ould ave to be done+ if it is to be done at all+ b' a !ampaign of air strikes.
2t t e outset 5 stipulated t at t e &eapons &it & i! &e are fig ting Horld Har 5B are not all militar'-t at t e' also in!lude e!onomi!+ diplomati!+ and ot er nonmilitar' instruments of po&er. <urt ermore+ be!ause 5ran*s nu!lear fa!ilities are dispersed+ and be!ause some of t em are underground+ man' sorties and bunker(busting munitions &ould be required. 2nd be!ause su! a !ampaign is * be'ond t e !apabilities of 5srael+ and t e &ill+ let alone t e !ourage+ of an' of our ot er allies+ it !ould be !arried out onl' b' t e ?nited 9tates. Nven t en+ &e &ould probabl' be unable to get at all t e

a bombing !ampaign &ould &it out question set ba!k its nu!lear program for 'ears to !ome+ and mig t even lead to t e overt ro& of t e mulla s.
underground fa!ilities+ & i! means t at+ if 5ran &ere still intent on going nu!lear+ it &ould not ave to start over again from s!rat! . Lut

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AT 8 OL#!E# K' 8 OL#!E# 7OO" K SOL8#S (A! ran <ill ea& +% &he affir$a&i)e9s a%%roach &o &he <orl- K sof& a%%roaches <ill res+l& in <ar (+bin. 07 3Ai! ael 6ubin+ resident s! olar at t e 2meri!an Nnterprise 5nstitute for =ubli! =oli!' 6esear! + 0Gon*t Llink+ Gon*t La!k Go&n+1 $(2(200$+ ttp:))&&&.aei.org)publi!ations)filter.all+pub5G.2#420)pubYdetail.asp 2<A4 5t ma' be !omforting to believe t at+ &it diploma!'+ Has ington and Ee ran !an resolve t eir differen!es. Lut it is dangerous and naeve. Gemo!ra!' in 5ran is a ! arade+ and fa!tionalism bet&een ard(liners and reformers is a sides o&. 5ranians ele!t a president+ but absolute po&er resides &it t e supreme leader & o rules for life. Le!ause sovereignt' resides not &it t e people+ but &it Dod+ popular &ill is irrelevant. H at t e parliament believes doesnKt matter. E e 6evolutionar' Duards+ ! osen for t eir lo'alt' and dis!ipline+ ans&er to t e supreme leader. >is appointees !rus dissent. H at s ould Has ington doR 5t s ould not engage. Giploma!' absent 5ranian sin!erit' is dangerous. Let&een 2000 and 200"+ t e eig t of 5ranKs reformist period+ Nuropean ?nion trade &it Ee ran tripled. 6at er t an reform+ t e regime invested t e ard !urren!' into its ballisti! missile and !overt nu!lear program. Eoda'+ 5ran uses engagement to spin its !entrifuges and run t e !lo!k. E e ?nited 9tates &ants Ee ran to stop its nu!lear program. 5ranians &ant demo!ra!'+ not t eo!ra!'. >ere+ interests !onverge. 2lt oug militar' a!tion !an dela' Ee ranKs nu!lear program+ it !annot stop it. E e real danger isnKt 5ranKs bomb+ o&ever+ but t e regime t at &ould &ield it. H ile Nurope embra!es t e 7 ina model of trade and dialogue+ t e 9upreme 8eader looks to Eiananmen 9quare. 9o s ould Has ington. 6at er t an fund outside groups+ Has ington s ould invest in a template for ! ange. Co one kne& a ead of time t e 7 inese student & o stopped a line of tanksF t e important t ing &as e ad t e spa!e to emerge. ?.9. poli!' s ould !reate su! spa!e. 5ndependent labor &ould make t e regime more a!!ountable to its people. ?nions !ould for!e t e regime to invest in s! ools+ not !entrifuges. 5ndependent media and !ommuni!ations !ould let a real !ivil so!iet' to emerge. E is takes mone'. E ose denoun!ing ?.9. funding are not t e imprisoned student and labor a!tivists+ but reformists lo'al to t eo!ra!'+ and gullible pundits. Ee ranKs !ra!kdo&n on dissent predates ?.9. support for !ivil so!iet'. 2nd t e 5ranian overrea!tion s o&s bot its vulnerabilit' and t e effi!a!' of ?.9. pressure. ranian %rolifera&ion ca+ses n+clear &erroris$ =o-hore&B. 07 3Corman =od oretz+ 9enior <ello&

at t e >udson 5nstitute and a member of t e 7oun!il on <oreign 6elations+ 0E e 7ase for Lombing 5ran.1 7ommentar' Aagazine+ ;une 200$+ ttp:))&&&.!ommentar'magazine.!om)!m)main)vie&2rti!le. tmlRid,10%%2:page,all 2<A4
2s in t e realm of foreign affairs+ if t is mu! !an be a!!omplis ed under present !ir!umstan!es+ & at mig t not be done if t e pro!ess &ere being ba!ked b' 5ranian nu!lear bla!kmailR 2lread' some observers are &arning t at b' t e end of t e 21st !entur' t e & ole of Nurope &ill be transformed into a pla!e to & i! t e' give t e name Nurabia. H atever ! an!e t ere ma' still be of eading off t is eventualit' &ould surel' be lessened b' t e mena!ing s ado& of an 5ran armed &it nu!lear &eapons+ and onl' too read' to put t em into t e ands of t e terrorist groups to & om it is even no& suppl'ing ro!kets and ot er explosive devi!es. 2nd t e ?nited 9tatesR 2s &ould ave been t e !ase &it <inlandization+ &e &ould experien!e a milder form of 5slamization ere at ome. Lut not in t e area of foreign poli!'. 8ike t e Nuropeans+ !onfronted b' 5slamofas!ists armed b' 5ran &it nu!lear &eapons+ &e &ould be!ome more and more esitant to risk resisting t e emergen!e of a &orld s aped b' t eir &ill and tailored to t eir &is es. <or even if 2 madine/ad did not 'et ave missiles &it a long enoug range to it t e ?nited 9tates+ e &ould !ertainl' be able to unleas a &ave of nu!lear terror against us. 5f e did+ e &ould in all likeli ood a!t t roug proxies+ for & om e &ould &it ! ara!teristi! brazenness dis!laim an' responsibilit' even if t e &eapons used b' t e terrorists &ere to bear telltale markings identif'ing t em as of 5ranian origin. 2t t e same time+ t e opponents of retaliation and ot er anti&ar for!es &ould rus to point out t at t ere &as good reason to a!!ept t is dis!laimer and+ markings or no markings 3!ould t e' not ave been forgedR4+ no reall' solid eviden!e to refute it.

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AT 8 OL#!E# K' A2' "#T#((#!E# SOL8#S (A! ran <on9& be -e&erre- fro$ <ar K i-eolog* o)er<hel$s self>in&eres& =o-hore&B. 07 3Corman =od oretz+ 9enior <ello& at t e >udson

5nstitute and a member of t e 7oun!il on <oreign 6elations+ 0E e 7ase for Lombing 5ran.1 7ommentar' Aagazine+ ;une 200$+ ttp:))&&&.!ommentar'magazine.!om)!m)main)vie&2rti!le. tmlRid,10%%2:page,all 2<A4
Lut listen to & at Lernard 8e&is+ t e greatest aut orit' of our time on t e 5slami! &orld+ as to sa' in t is !ontext on t e sub/e!t of deterren!e: A2G+ mutual assured destru!tion+ T&as effe!tiveU rig t t roug t e !old &ar. Lot sides ad nu!lear &eapons. Ceit er side used t em+ be!ause bot sides kne& t e ot er &ould retaliate in kind. E is &ill not &ork &it a religious fanati! Tlike 2 madine/adU. <or im+ mutual assured destru!tion is not a deterrent+ it is an indu!ement. He kno& alread' t at T5ran*s leadersU do not give a damn about killing t eir o&n people in great numbers. He ave seen it again and again. 5n t e final s!enario+ and t is applies all t e more strongl' if t e' kill large numbers of t eir o&n people+ t e' are doing t em a favor. E e' are giving t em a qui!k free pass to eaven and all its delig ts. Cor are t e' in ibited b' a love of !ountr': He do not &ors ip 5ran+ &e &ors ip 2lla . <or patriotism is anot er name for paganism. 5 sa' let t is land T5ranU burn. 5 sa' let t is land go up in smoke+ provided 5slam emerges triump ant in t e rest of t e &orld. E ese &ere t e &ords of t e 2'atolla Q omeini+ & o ruled 5ran from 19$9 to 19%9+ and t ere is no reason to suppose t at is dis!iple 2 madine/ad feels an' differentl'. 9till less &ould deterren!e &ork & ere 5srael &as !on!erned. <or as t e 2'atolla 6afsan/ani 3& o is supposedl' a 0pragmati! !onservative14 as de!lared: 5f a da' !omes & en t e &orld of 5slam is dul' equipped &it t e arms 5srael as in possession. . . appli!ation of an atomi! bomb &ould not leave an't ing in 5srael+ but t e same t ing &ould /ust produ!e damages in t e Auslim &orld.

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AT 8 OL#!E# K' A2' (A! ST( K#S (#TAL AT O! ranian aggression is ine)i&able K s&e$$ing &heir n+clear %rogra$s sho+l- &ake %rece-en& =o-hore&B. 07 3Corman =od oretz+ 9enior <ello& at t e >udson 5nstitute and a member

of t e 7oun!il on <oreign 6elations+ 0E e 7ase for Lombing 5ran.1 7ommentar' Aagazine+ ;une 200$+ ttp:))&&&.!ommentar'magazine.!om)!m)main)vie&2rti!le. tmlRid,10%%2:page,all 2<A4
E e opponents of bombing-not /ust t e usual suspe!ts but man' bot ere and in 5srael & o ave no illusions about t e nature and intentions and potential !apabilities of t e 5ranian regime-disagree t at it mig t end in t e overt ro& of t e mullo!ra!'. @n t e !ontrar'+ t e' are !ertain t at all 5ranians+ even t e demo!rati! dissidents+ &ould be impelled to rall' around t e flag. 2nd t is is onl' one of t e &orst(!ase s!enarios t e' envisage. Eo &it: 5ran &ould retaliate b' in!reasing t e trouble it is alread' making for us in 5raq. 5t &ould atta!k 5srael &it missiles armed &it non(nu!lear &ar eads but possibl' !ontaining biologi!al and)or ! emi!al &eapons. E ere &ould be a vast in!rease in t e pri!e of oil+ &it !atastrop i! !onsequen!es for ever' e!onom' in t e &orld+ ver' mu! in!luding our o&n. E e &orld&ide out!r' against t e inevitable !ivilian !asualties &ould make t e anti(2meri!anism of toda' look like a love(fest. 5 readil' admit t at it &ould be foolis to dis!ount an' or all of t ese s!enarios. Na! of t em is+ alas+ onl' too plausible. Cevert eless+ t ere is a good response to t em+ and it is t e one given b' ;o n A!7ain. E e onl' t ing &orse t an bombing 5ran+ A!7ain as de!lared+ is allo&ing 5ran to get t e bomb. 2nd 'et t ose of us & o agree &it A!7ain are left &it t e question of & et er t ere is still time. 5f &e believe t e 5ranians+ t e ans&er is no. 5n earl' 2pril+ at 5ran*s Cu!lear Ga' festivities+ 2 madine/ad announ!ed t at t e point of no return in t e nu!learization pro!ess ad been rea! ed. 5f t is is true+ it means t at 5ran is onl' a small step a&a' from produ!ing nu!lear &eapons. Lut even supposing t at 2 madine/ad is bluffing+ in order to !onvin!e t e &orld t at it is alread' too late to stop im+ o& long &ill it take before e a!tuall' turns out to ave a &inning andR 5f &e believe t e 752+ per aps as mu! as ten 'ears. Lut 752 estimates ave so often been &rong t at t e' are ardl' more !redible t an t e boasts of 2 madine/ad. @t er estimates b' ot er experts fall &it in t e range of a fe& mont s to six 'ears. H i! is to sa' t at no one reall' kno&s. 2nd be!ause no one reall' kno&s+ t e onl' prudent-indeed+ t e onl' responsible-!ourse is to assume t at 2 madine/ad ma' not be bluffing+ or ma' onl' be exaggerating a bit+ and to strike at im as soon as it is logisti!all' possible.

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AT 8 OL#!E# K' 8 OL#!E# 7OO" K SOL8#S WA( (esis&ing <ar is +seless K $ili&ar* -e&errence %ro)i-es an o%%or&+ni&* &o ex%an- %eace F+&&er$an+ 93 3;.2.>.+ 6esear! er at 8a&ren!e 8ibermore 8ab+ @bs!enit' and =ea!e : Aediations on t e Lomb ttp:))&&&.dog! ur! .org)s!riptorium)nuke. tml 2<A4 5nternationall'+ pea!e requires empo&erment of some groups t at seem eager to earn t e atred of t e !ivilized &orld like t e =alestinians. Co& t at nu!lear deterren!e and e!onomi! ne!essit' ave !ombined to bring about more freedom+ empo&erment+ and t erefore pea!e in Nurope+ t e Aiddle Nast is one of t e next ot(spots for triggering a nu!lear &ar. 5n order to ave pea!e+ t e &orld must empo&er t e =alestinians to determine t eir politi!al and e!onomi! destin'+ & ile at t e same time it must deter t em from &arring &it 5srael. 9u! empo&erment and deterren!e &ill require t e a!tive involvement of t e 5slami! nations & o t us far ave been un&illing to empo&er t e =alestinians to engage in mu! be'ond stone(t ro&ing and terrorism. Aa' t e =alestinians a&aken to o& t e' ave been used b' t eir bret ren. 9o &e need to make pea!e+ at ome and abroad. Lefore 'ou demonstrate to make 'our to&n a nu!lear(free zone or to stop nu!lear testing+ T12U !onsider & at 'ou !an do to enlarge someoneKs freedom+ or to elp t em obtain t e po&er to determine a better life for t emselves. 5n ot er &ords+ rat er t an fig t against nu!lear &eapons or even against &ar+ tr' making pea!e. Aean& ile+ 5 do & at 5 !an to make &aging unlimited &ar dangerous+ and preparation for it expensive. 5 !an provide palliative treatment+ but 'ou+ p 'si!ians)patients+ must eal 'ourselves. @r to put it more bluntl'+ as long as &e !ontinue to express our uman nature in disenfran! ising+ disempo&ering &a's+ &e &ill !ling to armament (( nu!lear or &orse (( to distan!e ourselves from our o&n nearness to &ar. The &hrea& of n+clear annihila&ion is necessar* &o a)er& <ar/ (ealis$ $eans na&ions <ill ALWAJS reach for &he $os& -es&r+c&i)e <ea%onr* F+&&er$an+ 93 3;.2.>.+ 6esear! er at 8a&ren!e 8ibermore 8ab+ @bs!enit' and =ea!e : Aediations on t e Lomb ttp:))&&&.dog! ur! .org)s!riptorium)nuke. tml 2<A4 9ome people argue t at t e goal of !ivilization is to raise our ! ildren so t at &ars donKt appen. ?nfortunatel'+ &eKve ad !ivilization for six t ousand 'ears+ and our istor' as been as d'sfun!tional as our families. E e onl' t ing t atKs ever made +s %a+se in o+r socie&al Ta--ic&ionT &o <ar is n+clear <ea%onr* + and t e realization t at t e next big &ar ma' kill us all. Lut if &ar is umanit'Ks eroin+ n+clear <ea%onr* is i&s $e&ha-one. E at is+ t e treatment as potentiall' dangerous side effe!ts. 5 am partl' referring to t e do!trine of deterren!e b' Autual 2ssured Gestru!tion+ A2G. 5t is A2G+ be!ause it is intrinsi!all' unstable+ as t ose & o lived t roug t e 7uban Aissile 7risis ma' re!all. E e 9trategi! Gefense 5nitiative+ 3or 9tar Hars4 &as an attempt to move to&ard somet ing more stable+ and its su!!essor+ t e Lallisti! Aissile Gefense @rganization 3LAG@4+ ma' in time su!!eed+ provided it is managed as a resear! program rat er t an as a politi!al football. Lut even a su!!essful LAG &ill not make t e &orld stable against massivel' destru!tive &ar (( it &ill merel' make it more stable t an it is no&. LAG is a te! ni!al fix t at does not address t e real !ause of t e instabilit'. 2s long as &ar is t e ultimate arbiter of international disputes+ nations &ill arm t emselves &it ultimate &eapons. 2nd t at means+ t at if somet ing &orse t an nu!lear &eapons !an be dis!overed and developed+ it &ill be. 2nd t en &e &ill find somet ing &orse t an t at+ and so on per aps until &e+ ourselves+ prematurel' pun!tuate t e end of our universe &it as big a bang as t e one & i! began it. Cu!lear &eapons ma' a!tuall' be giving us a ! an!e to learn to get along &it ea! ot er before &e get somet ing reall' dangerous+ a kin- of <orl->his&orical <arning sho&.T%U E e problem is not nu!lear &eapons+ t e problem is &ar. Xes 5 kno& (( 5 sound like t e C62+ IDuns donKt kill people. =eople kill people.I 5Km making a different argument. 5f 'ou take a gun from a omi!idal individual+ e or s e &ill usuall' not invent and build somet ing &orse. Cations &ill+ & et er or not 'ou take a&a' t eir nu!lear &eapons.

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AT 8 OL#!E# K' 8 OL#!E# 7OO" K =(#8#!TS 7(#AT#( WA(S LAT#( The @/S/ $+s& be hea)* han-e- in -ealing <i&h &he <orl-9s %roble$s K &he al&erna&i)e is <orse $ili&aris$ in o&her areas an- )iolence of a co$%ara&i)el* grea&er $agni&+-e Fanson. 00 3Bi!tor Gavis+ 9enior <ello& at t e >oover 5nstitution+ =rofessor Nmeritus at 7alifornia ?niversit'+ <resno+ = .G. from 9tanford+ 02t Har . H at are &e made ofR1 Cational 6evie& Aagazine+ @!tober 1. ttp:))&&&.vi!tor anson.!om)arti!les) anson100101. tml. 2<A4 E e ?nited 9tates finall' entered t e <irst Horld Har be!ause of t e nationKs lingering outrage over a fe&
undred floating bodies from t e sunken o!ean liner 8usitania+ & i! &as torpedoed during Derman'Ks unrestri!ted submarine &arfare. Aore t an t&o de!ades later+ &e de!lared &ar against t e ;apanese Nmpire after 2+400 of our sailors &ere surprised and killed on a 9unda' morning at =earl >arbor. 5n t e aftermat of ea! atta!k+ t e ?nited 9tates did not seek t e san!tion of &orld opinion. 5nstead+ it unleas ed t e dogs of &ar+ pre!ipitousl' so against !ountries t at ad promised and delivered deat to our people. 5n t e da's after =earl >arbor+ a dazed 2meri!an publi! sa& ne&sreels of vi!torious ;apanese s outing ILanzaiJI &it arms outstret! ed on !onquered 2meri!an outposts. H at terrible foes+ &e t oug t+ to ate us so(so adroit at surprising us+ so su!!essful at killing despite our defenses. Xet t e generation of our fat ers &as not impressed b' eit er images or r etori!. 5n response+ a rat er inno!ent and unprepared nation in less t an #0 mont s left bot Derman' and ;apan in

smoldering ruins. Lot fas!ism and ;apanese militarism &ere in!inerated and ave not plagued t e &orld for over a alf( !entur'. @n 9eptember 11+ t e ?nited 9tates &as atta!ked in a similar &a'. E e onl' differen!e bet&een =earl >arbor and t e assaults on t e =entagon
and Horld Erade 7enter is one of magnitude. @urs no& is t e far greater loss. Co enem' in our past+ neit er Cazi Derman' nor 5mperial ;apan+ killed so man' 2meri!an !ivilians and broug t su! !arnage to our s ores as t e sui!idal i/a!kers & o !ras ed t e ver' !itadels of 2meri!an po&er in our nationKs t&o greatest !ities. 5t ma' &ell be t at more 2meri!ans died on t e 11t t an fell at Dett'sburg or 2ntietam+ or in fa!t on an' ot er single da' in 2meri!an istor'. 9urel'+ b' an' fair measure+ &e s ould no& be at &ar. Lut are &e+ and s all &e beR E is generation of 2meri!ans is no& at a

!rossroads. He must de!ide & et er &e s all !ontinue to be t e adoles!ent nation t at frets over t e trivial and meaningless & ile our enemies plot deat under our ver' noses+ or our fat ersK ! ildren(& o a!!ept t e old+ t e sad trut t at It e essen!e of &ar is violen!e+ and moderation in &ar is imbe!ilit'.I E e voi!es of our t erapeuti! !ulture &ill be eard. 5ndeed+ t e' alread' ave. He all kno& t e old litan' of ina!tion and self(loat ing. 9u! seet ing atred is inevitable+ &e are told+ given our &orld s&agger + and is t e bot ersome pri!e of global a!tivism. 9 ould not &e look in&ard+ ot ers &ill remind us+ to examine & ' so man' despise us so mu! R(as if people & o pra!ti!e neit er demo!ra!' nor religious toleran!e nor equalit' are our moral superiors. 2nd are not t ese isolated terrorists emissaries of a ne& &ar t at &e do not understand and for & i! &e are ill equippedR(as if &e+ t e greatest militar' po&er in t e istor' of !ivilization+ !annot fat om t e un! anging and eternal nature of blood and iron.
5s not our support of demo!rati! 5srael t e sour!e of our !alamit'R(as if &e s ould abandon t e onl' demo!rati! island in a sea of fanati!ism and auto!ra!'. 2s in t e !ase of t e Aarine barra!ks in 8ebanon+ t e 8o!kerbie airliner do&ning+ t e slaug ter of our servi!emen in 9audi 2rabia+ and so on+ &e kno& &ell t e vo!abular' of prevari!ation pra!ti!ed b' our politi!al and media pundits. He s all Itra!k do&n and punis I t e terroristsF &e must Ibring to /usti!e t e perpetrators+I & o !an Irun but not ideIF &e &ill Ia!t s&iftl' and deliberatel'+I but of !ourse at all times Isoberl' and /udi!iousl'.I Nt!. E en &ill follo& t e old nostrums: Nurope must be !onsulted+ moderate 2rab states entreated+ t e ?.C. petitioned. <e& &ill !onfess t at &e are in our o&n outrig t blood' &ar against t'rann'+ intoleran!e+ and t eo!ra!'+ an age(old fig t against medieval foes & o despise modernit'+ liberalism+ and freedom+ and all t e ope t at t e' bring. Lut 2meri!ans no& must ignore t e old lie+ be!ause at last t e' also kno& t e ne& trut : Gespite t e braggado!io of past 'ears+ &e ave in fa!t done not ing(an- so in)i&e- <ar on&o o+r shores/ Horse still+ &e ave disguised t at not ing in t e r etori! of t e !riminal(/usti!e s'stem+ as if t ese enem' &arriors &ere lo!al misguided felons to be anded over to our !ourts. @ur diplomati! experts !ould keep us in !omfortable stasis &it t e usual & ispers about t e !onsequen!es of IpolarizingI t e 2rab &orld or Iradi!alizingI moderate so!ieties(folk per aps su! as t e =alestinians & o &ere !elebrating on t e 11t in t eir streets over ne&s t at t ousands of bodies la' stre&n in ours. Horse even still+ after t e laun! ing of a fe& impotent !ruise missiles+ &e !ould go on !loaking t at

not ing in t e immoral vo!abular' t at &e are too !ivilized to punis evil+ or per aps too !omfortable or too sop isti!ated to kill killers. 2nd so 2meri!ans dieF t e' are forgottenF and &e do not ing( oping t at our enemies &ill at least do t eir a&ful &ork on our distant s ips or barra!ks rat er t an at our doorsteps. Xes+ &e are at a great /un!ture in 2meri!an istor'. He !an go to battle+ as &e did in t e past( ard+ long+ &it out guilt+ apolog'+ or respite+ until our enemies are no more. 5t &as our fat ers & o passed on to us t at !redo and &it it all t at &e old dear. 2nd so /ust as t e' on!e did+ &e too must !onfront and anni ilate t ese killers and t e governments t at ave prote!ted and en!ouraged t em. @nl' t at &a' !an &e onor and avenge our dead and keep fait t at t e' ave not died in vain. @nl' &it evil !onfronted and !rus ed !an &e ensure t at our ! ildren mig t still some da' live+ as &e on!e did+ in pea!e and safet'.

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AT 8 OL#!E# K' 8 OL#!E# 7OO" K SA8#S TF# MOST L 8#S 8iolen& sol+&ions are &he onl* <a* &o sa)e &he $os& li)es Ear&er. 00 38aren+ part(time free(lan!e &riter and =rodu!er 2dvo!ate+ @!tober 4+ 0=a!ifism Nmpo&ers Eerrorism.1 7apitalism Aagazine. ttp:))&&&.!apmag.!om)arti!le.aspRid,112%. 2<A4 =a!ifists t ink t at b' pretending t at violen!e doesnKt exist+ eventuall' it &onKt. E is is not /ust sill'F it is a vi!ious+ deadl' lie. Aggression canno& be -efea&e- b* re<ar-ing i&/ @rganizers of IGonKt turn traged' into a &arI rallies a!ross t e !ountr' &ould ave 2meri!ans believe t at t e proper response to t e murder of t ousands of inno!ent lives is a !andlelig t vigil and impromptu poetr' readings. E is is mass sui!ide. 5t is an invitation to t e >itlers+ t e 9talins+ t e 2ttilas+ and t e Lin 8adens of t e &orld to sla+gh&er &he A$erican %eo%le an- &o g+& &heir cor%ses/ 5mpli!it in t e pa!ifistKs drivel is t e impli!ation: Ima' t e &orst man &in.I @nl' t&o t'pes of people !an a!!ept a p ilosop ' like t is: a fiend or a fool. 2 fiend ates ever'one+ in!luding imself+ and so doesnKt !are if t e I&orst manI &ins. 2 fool believes t at if e smiles s eepis l' at 2dolf >itler+ >itler &ill suddenl' ! ange is mind and de!ide to take( up knitting. E e' are bot &rong+ and t e' are bot evil+ Tbe!ause in bot !ases su! a poli!' !an onl' lead to t e destru!tion of t e good.U

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AT 8 OL#!E# K' 8 OL#!E# 7OO" K SOL8#S F@MA! ( 7FTS =acifis$ a%%eases e)il K )iolen& sol+&ions are cri&ical &o sol)e <i-es%rea- )iola&ion of h+$an righ&s (oo&. 00 3Gamon H. 6oot+ !ontributing &riter at t e @b/e!tivist 7enter+ 02gainst =a!ifism.1 ttp:))&&&.ob/e!tivist!enter.org)s o&!ontent.aspxR!t,420: ,"4 2<A4 5n 1941+ &it >itler*s &ar ma! ine furiousl' a!king Hestern !ivilization to bits+ Deorge @r&ell famousl' observed t at Iob/e!tivel'+ t e pa!ifist is pro(Cazi.I Eoda'+ as 5slami! fas!ists like @sama bin 8aden+ 2l _aeda and t e Ealiban struggle to bring t e &orld under anot er 'oke of vi!ious+ anti(9emiti! totalitarianism+ our o&n anti(&ar a!tivists inform an'one & o &ill listen t at Ian e'e for an e'e makes t e &orld go blind.I 9in!e t ese folks &ould apparentl' rat er see 5slami! fas!ism run free t an ave 2meri!a vigorousl' engage er enemies+ let*s !onsider /ust & at sort of &orld t e modern pa!ifist is ob/e!tivel' in favor of. 2fg anistan+ under t e Ealiban+ is literall' a ell on eart . Homen and girls are deprived of ever' imaginable !ivil+ so!ial+ politi!al+ and e!onomi! libert'. E eir umanit' itself is under brutal atta!k+ ever' minute of ever' da'. 2!!ording to >uman 6ig ts Hat! + Ealiban offi!ials Ibeat &omen on t e streets for dress !ode violations and for venturing outside t e ome &it out t e !ompan' of a !lose male relative.I 2mnest' 5nternational reports t at I&omen & o &ear nail varnis !ould ave t eir fingers ! opped off.I <orbidden to speak &it or visit an' male & o is not a !lose relative 3in!luding do!tors and dentists4+ &omen and girls regularl' go &it out basi! medi!al attention. 5n addition+ t e Ealiban ave banned musi!+ films+ television+ pla'ing !ards+ and ot er forms of entertainment. Ausi!al instruments and books ave been seized and burned. 7ivil liberties like freedom of spee! and religion are repressed b' for!e. <or example+ t e punis ment for !onverting to 7 ristianit' or ;udaism+ professing t ese religions+ or distributing t eir literature+ is deat . 2mnest' 5nternational des!ribes o& t&o men !onvi!ted of sodom' I&ere pla!ed under a &all of dried mud & i! &as bulldozed upon t em.I 5n Qabul+ an unmarried man !onvi!ted of premarital sex re!eived 100 las es &it a leat er strap. >ad e been married+ It e punis ment &ould ave been deat b' stoning+I t e report states. Hit ea! passing da'+ similar a!!ounts of misog'n' and oppression !ome pouring in. Qim 7and'+ =resident of t e Cational @rganization for Homen+ observes t at T<hen s+ch ex&re$is$ is allo<e- &o flo+rish an*<here in &he <orl-. none of +s is safe/T 7onfront t e moral relativists & o infest our !ollege !ampuses and progressive institutions &it t ese unspeakable events+ o&ever+ and t e' respond &it /uvenile slogans like Ione man*s terrorist is anot er man*s freedom fig ter.I 5n Ce& Xork 7it'+ popular graffiti artist and left(&ing dissident Ge 8a Bega as a statement anging in is galler' t at reads I@sama+ & et er rig t or &rong+ is a fig ter for freedom.I <ollo&ing t e logi! of t is idio!'+ &e s ould elevate >itler*s olo!aust and 9out 2fri!a*s apart eid into noble ideals simpl' be!ause some illiterate t ugs &ere &illing to s ed blood on t eir be alf. E ankfull'+ &e do not ing of t e sort. ;ust & at sort of freedom do people like Ge 8a Bega t ink bin 8aden and t e Ealiban are fig ting forR <reedom to t ro& a!id in t e fa!es of unveiled &omenR <reedom to torture and murder ga's+ ;e&s+ and at eistsR 2n'one suggesting a similarit' bet&een t e values of Aartin 8ut er Qing and Aulla @mar oug t to put do&n t e pla!ard+ quit t e protest+ and ide t eir ead in s ame. E e 5slami! fas!ists ave broug t nig tmare to life in t eir o&n lands+ & ile t eir ideolog' !alls for its export. To %rofess %acifis$ in &he face of s+ch horror is &o a%%ease e)il i&self/ .

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AT 8 OL#!E# K' !O!>8 OL#!E# EO@L" !OT SOL8# TF# FOLOEA@ST #xa$%les of non>)iolen& resis&ance &o &he !aBis &oo s$all scale &o be consi-ere- as an effec&i)e his&orical exa$%le/ F+&&er$an. 90 3;2>+ 8ivermore lab resear! er+ 199"+ Aediation of t e Lomb+ online+ ttp:))&&&.dog! ur! .org)s!riptorium)nuke0. tml4 E e Cazis+ & o &it t eir IAaster 6a!eI ideolog' admitted onl' so(!alled I2r'ansI to t e !ategor' of uman+ provide an example !ounter to t at of t e Lritis . E ere &ere some su!!essful a!ts of non(violent !onfrontation against t e Cazis+ like Qing 7 ristian of GenmarkKs publi! de!laration t at e &ould &ear t e 'ello& star if it &ere introdu!ed in is !ountr'. >e did so in response to t e Cazi pra!ti!e of ordering ;e&s to &ear 'ello&(starred armbands so t at t e Cazis !ould more easil' isolate t em from t eir surrounding so!iet'. E at man' Ganes follo&ed t eir kingKs example elped !amouflage man' ;e&s until t e' !ould es!ape to 9&eden in fis ing boats. T"U Co& t is resistan!e &orked partl' be!ause t e Cazis !onsidered t e Ganes to be I2r'ansI like t emselves. >ad t e =oles tried t e same t ing+ t e Cazis &ould ave been perfe!tl' app' to use t e event as an ex!use for liquidating more =oles. 6at er t an a&aken t e CazisK moral sense+ non( violent !onfrontation on t e part of t e =oles &ould probabl' ave enabled t e Cazis to !arr' out t eir agenda in =oland more easil'. E e ot er reason t ese a!ts su!!eeded &as t at over& elming violen!e of t e 2llies ad stret! ed t e Cazi for!es too t in to suppress massive a!tion b' a & ole popula!e+ and eventuall' deprived t e Cazis of t e time t e' needed to find ot er &a's to !arr' out t eir Ifinal solution.I 5n ot er &ords+ non(violen!e resistan!e alone &ould ave been ver' slo& to &ork against t e Cazis+ on!e t e' ad !onsolidated t eir po&er. 2nd & ile it slo&l' ground a&a' at t e evil in t e Cazi soul+ o& man' millions more &ould ave died+ and o& mu! extra time &ould ave been given to Cazi s!ientists tr'ing to invent atomi! bombs to go on t ose B(2 ro!ketsR E e evil of Cazism ma' &ell ave expended itself+ but per aps after a real It ousand('ear 6ei! +I leaving a &orld populated onl' b' blue(e'ed blondes. 5n ot er &ords+ if t e &orld ad used non(violen!e alone against t e Cazis+ t e results ma' ave been mu! &orse t ose of t e &ar.T#U

Michigan 7 Week Seniors 2009 AT 8 OL#!E# K' 8 OL#!E# K#J TO =#AE#

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!on )iolence -oes no& <ork agains& $os& ene$ies,genoci-e an- $ass $+r-er <ill res+l&/ (+$$el. 50 36.;.+ professor of politi!al s!ien!e at t e ?niversit' of >a&aii+ E e ;ust =ea!e+ ttp:))&&&. a&aii.edu)po&erkil1s)E;=.7>2= 10.>EA4 Co&+ pea!emaking is not ne!essaril' t e best and most immediate response to !onfli!t. Goubtlessl'+ some !onfli!ts are unne!essar'+ some needlessl' intense and long(lasting. Lut some also are a real and unavoidable !las + t e onl' means t roug & i! one+ as a partisan+ !an prote!t or furt er vital interests and a! ieve a more satisfa!tor' and armonious /ust pea!e. <or example+ &ar against >itler*s Derman' from 1939 to 194" !ost millions lives+ but it prevented t e greater miser'+ t e terror+ t e exe!utions+ t e !old(blooded murders & i! probabl' &ould ave o!!urred ad >itler !onsolidated is !ontrol of Nurope and sub/ugated t e 9oviet ?nion. He al&a's !an end a !onfli!t & en &e &ant b' surrender. Lut some ideas are more important t an pea!e: Gignit'. <reedom. 9e!urit'.
E at is+ pea!e &it /usti!e((a /ust pea!e. E ere is anot er relevant qualifi!ation. E e term Ipea!emakingI is &ell establis ed+ and 5 used it a!!ordingl'. ?nfortunatel'+ t e verb ImakeI !an impl' t at pea!e is designed and !onstru!ted+ as a ouse is planned and ere!ted bri!k b' bri!k or a road engineered and built. E is impli!ation is espe!iall' sedu!tive in t is age & en so!iet' is seen as manmade 3rat er t an aving evolved4+9 and man' believe t at !ommunities s ould be !entrall' planned and managed. Lut pea!e is not !onstru!ted like a bridge. =ea!e emerges from t e balan!ing of individual mental fields. H at t e leaders of a group or nation onestl' believe+ a!tuall' &ant+ trul' are &illing to get+ are reall' !apable of a! ieving are unkno&n to ot ers((and per aps onl' partiall' to t emselves. Conet eless onl' t e' !an best utilize t e information available to t em to /ustl' satisf' t eir interests. <or a t ird part' to tr' to !onstru!t and enfor!e an abstra!t pea!e imposed on ot ers is fool ard'. 9u! a pea!e &ould be un!ertain+ forestall t e ne!essar' trial(and(error balan!ing of t e parties t emselves+ and per aps even !reate greater !onfli!t later. E e best pea!e is an out!ome of re!ipro!al ad/ustments among

=a!ifists believe t at violen!e and &ar !annot o!!ur if people laid do&n t eir arms and refused to fig t. Lut t is ignores unilateral violen!e. ?nder t reat+ a state or government ma' tr' to avoid violen!e b' submission. E e result ma' be enslavement+ s'stemati! exe!ution+ and elimination of leaders and Iundesirables.I E e resulting geno!ide and mass murder ma' ultimatel' end in more deat s t an &ould ave o!!urred ad people foug t to defend t emselves. 5 agree t at in some situations nonviolen!e ma' be an effe!tive strateg' for &aging !onfli!t+10 as in t e su!!essful Lla!k !ivil rig ts demonstrations of t e 19#0s in 2meri!aF or t e su!!essful nonviolent+ !ivil disobedien!e movement for 5ndian independen!e from Lritain begun b' Aa atma Dand i in 1922. 5n some situations refusal to use violen!e ma' avoid unne!essar' es!alation and ease pea!ekeeping. >o&ever+ t ere are also !onfli!ts+ espe!iall' involving a!tual or potential t'rants+ despots+ and ot er su! oppressors+ in & i! nonviolen!e !annot bu' freedom from violen!e b' ot ers or a /ust resolution of a dispute. E en a do&n pa'ment on su! a pea!e requires publi! displa' of oneKs !apabilit' and a resolve to meet violent aggression in kind.
t ose involved. 2t most+ pea!emaking s ould ease t e pro!ess. 2 final qualifi!ation.

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AT ?@=A!E E' #TF EAL AET O! M=OSS BL# ?+%ancic $akes e&hical ac&ion i$%ossible' in-i)i-+als $a* change &heir :s*$bolic coor-ina&es; b+& e&hics are abo+& o+r in&erac&ions <i&h &he <orl- o+&si-e of &he self,so$e&hing she clai$s is i$%ossible/ Thor$ann. 00 3;anet+ ttp:))&&&.ps'! omedia.it)/ep)number12(13)t ormann. tm+ ; N = ( Cumber 12(13 ( Hinter(<all 2001+ 2lenka Vupan!i!+ E e Nmpt' Nt i!s of Grive: 6evie& of E e Nt i!s of t e 6eal 38ondon and Ce& Xork: Berso+ 20004 4+ 3=rofessor+ 7ollege of Aarin4. 5t is t e !ase t at 8a!an des!ribes t e end of ps'! oanal'sis as t e a!t of !rossing t roug t e fantasm+ leading t e sub/e!t to re!ognize t e ob/e!t t at as determined is or er desire and+ t erefore+ is or er istor'+ and issuing t ereb' in a ne& s'mboli! !onfiguration. Vupan!i! and Vizek apparentl' take t is a!t of !rossing t e fantasm as t e model for t e et i!al a!t but stoop and s ort !ir!uit t e pro!ess+ so t at identifi!ation &it t e ob/e!t+ outside of self(division+ is made t e end+ & i! &ould give in in uman sub/e!t+ be'ond !astration+ pre!isel' as!ep elous. H en Vupan!i! does a!kno&ledge t e relation of t e sub/e!t to t e 9'mboli!+ &he clai$ &ha& &he s+bHec& re-efines <ha& co+n&s as IDoodI 3understood presumabl' as Te&hicalTI is h*%erbolic' The s+bHec& of a co$%le&e- anal*sis <ill in-ee- change his or her s*$bolic coor-ina&es. an&he e&hical s+bHec& $a* offer or re%resen& a ne< e&hical %osi&ion. b+& b* i&self. on i&s o<n. &he a+&ono$o+s s+bHec& -oesnR& change an*&hing Tin reali&*.T o+&si-e i&self. @nl' in a relation to a given politi!al s'stem+ so!ial organization+ or s'mboli! !onfiguration does t e sub/e!t affe!t an't ing. E at is & ' t e !ivil disobedient+ & at 2ntigone is traditionall' taken to represent+ a!!epts punis ment: to take up a position &it in t e so!ial s'mboli! in order to ! ange it b' engaging &it language and t e la&. @nl' t e sub/e!t of t e 9'mboli! !an be et i!al+ and politi!al a!tion as an effe!t on t e 6eal be!ause it takes pla!e in t e 9'mboli!. E e et i!s and politi!s or t e 6eal is in &arfare or terrorism. 5t is telling t at Vupan!i! gives no examples of et i!al a!tion in t e politi!al or so!ial field outside of literature. 5t is equall' telling t at Vizek !on!ludes a re!ent dis!ussion of t e !ontemporar' politi!al field b' a&aiting Ia ne& form of EerrorI and dismissing traditional forms of politi!al a!tion: IE e onl' Krealisti!K prospe!t is to ground a ne& politi!al universalit' b' opting for t e impossible . . . &it no taboos+ no a priori norms 3K uman rig tsK+ Kdemo!ra!'K4 . . . if t is radi!al ! oi!e is de!ried b' some bleeding( eart liberals as 8inks fas! ismus+ so be itJI 37>?+ 32#4. Ceit er Vupan!i! nor Vizek delineates an' parti!ular !ourse of politi!al a!tion or explains & at spe!ifi! so!ial pra!ti!es &ould exemplif' an et i!s of t e 6eal. ?+%ancic9s clai$ &ha& reali&* is onl* a<areness of &he self $akes her no&ion of e&hical beco$ing i$%ossible/ Michels. 02 2ssistant =rofessor of =oliti!al 9!ien!e at 9a!red >eart ?niversit'4 04 3 ttp:))&&&.la!an.!om)s ado&az. tm Cietzs! e+ 5nterrupted+ 2 revie& of 2lenka Vupan!i!+ E e 9 ortest 9 ado&: Cietzs! eKs = ilosop ' of t e E&o+ 9teven4. Vupan!i!Ks anal'sis of Cietzs! e turns t en to t e do!trine of eternal return. <or Vupan!i!+ eternit' is not an endless !ir!le+ but It ose rare moments & en t is !ir!ularit' appears+ be!omes tangible for us in t e en!ounter of t&o temporalities . t e en!ounter t at distinguis es t e event as su! I 3214. H ile t is is a perfe!tl' defendable interpretation of Cietzs! e+ it does not seem to be !onsistent &it Vupan!i!Ks emp asis on be!oming. 5f !ir!ularit' is not !onstant+ &hen beco$ing canno& be ei&her. >ere+ Vupan!i! introdu!es+ albeit inadvertentl'+ an element of being and temporalit' into er ot er&ise atemporal a!!ount of Cietzs! e. E is is also evident in er emp asis on It e Coon+I t e sub/e!t of t e se!ond alf of t e book. E e book takes its title from t e Cietzs! eKs depi!tion of midda'+ & ere t e sun !asts no s ado& and t ings !ast s ado&s onl' upon t emselves. IE e Pgreat midda'K is !on!eived b' Cietzs! e as a kind of ultimate perspe!tive+I Vupan!i! &rites. I5ts singularit' resides in t e fa!t t at it is not a point of vie&+ but t e point of t e gazeI 3234. Xet Cietzs! e preferred t e image of midda' to emp asize t e illusive and temporal nature of trut . E e se!tion of E us 9poke Varat ustra !alled I2t Coon+I for example+ depi!ts t e title ! ara!ter napping+ ardl' at t e eig t of is p ilosop i! or !reative pro&ess. Wha& for !ie&Bsche is onl* a $o$en&. ?+%ancic $akes in&o an e&erni&* .

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AT ?@=A!E E' ALT#(!AT 8# "#ST(OJS #TF ES ?+%ancic9s al&erna&i)e is self>referen&ial an- )ac+o+s K -es&ro*s e&hics an- %oli&ics Thor$ann. 00 3;anet+ ttp:))&&&.ps'! omedia.it)/ep)number12(13)t ormann. tm+ ; N = ( Cumber 12(13 ( Hinter(<all 2001+ 2lenka Vupan!i!+ E e Nmpt' Nt i!s of Grive: 6evie& of E e Nt i!s of t e 6eal 38ondon and Ce& Xork: Berso+ 20004 4+ 3=rofessor+ 7ollege of Aarin4. E e un!onditional form of t e a!t suspends an' /udgment of t e parti!ular !ontent of t e a!t+ & i! in t is !ase ma' be understood to be t e illegitimate exer!ise of po&er of a person in aut orit' over someone & o is a ! ild and a student. >o&ever+ Vizek+ like Vupan!i!+ !laims t at t e et i!al a!t is suffi!ient in itself to establis & at is et i!al: @ne s ould insist on t e uniqueness+ t e absolute idios'n!ras'+ of t e et i!al a!t proper(su! an a!t involves its o&n in erent normativit' & i! Kmakes it rig tKF t ere is no neutral external standard t at &ould enable us to de!ide in advan!e+ b' a simple appli!ation to a single !ase+ on its et i!al status. 3E9+ 3%#4 To clai$ &ha& an ex&re$e ac&. an +nco$%ro$ise- -esire. Tin)ol)es i&s o<n inheren& nor$a&i)i&*T is a &a+&ological ref+sal of an* %ossible e&hical ac&ion . 2n et i!al a!t !annot be based on Iits o&n in erent normativit'I pre!isel' be!ause t e stru!ture of t e a!t involves no normativit'+ t at is+ it !annot give an et i!s. Nt i!s of t e 6eal is in line &it AillerKs and VizekKs formulations+ even & ile it avoids t eir !elebrations of fas!inating feminine sub/e!tivit'+ but it expli!itl' develops t e argument to rea! t e troubling impasse t at et i!s !annot give an et i!s: I&e t us propose to assert expli!itl' t at diaboli!al evil+ t e ig est evil+ is indistinguis able from t e ig est good+ t at t e' are not ing ot er t an t e definitions of an a!!omplis ed 3et i!al4 a!tI 3924. Vupan!i!Ks anal'sis is so onest and t oroug t at it as to admit t at t e stru!ture of t e a!t(QantKs form as its o&n !ontent(!annot provide an et i!sF it !an onl' tell & at sub/e!tifi!ation is. Lut t e effort to move be'ond t at !on!ession leads to !ontradi!tion. 9 e !on!edes t at It e 6eal and t e Nvent are not in t emselves et i!al !ategoriesI 323#4 but at t e same time asserts t at It e 6eal+ or t e Nven+ is t e eart of all et i!sI 323$(%4. H at t en is spe!ifi!all' et i!al in drive or in sub/e!tifi!ation in t e driveR 5f+ as Vizek argues+ It e moral la& does not follo& t e Dood(it generates a ne& s ape of & at !ounts as KDoodKI . . . so t at It ere are no ante!edent universal rational !riteria t at one KappliesK & en one a!!omplis es an a!tI 3Eotalitarianism+ 1$04+ not ing !an !ount as good beside t e a!t of establis ing good+ & i! is /ust t e point ere. Lut t ere is no reason t at su! an a!t s ould be goodF it ma' be no more t an an expression of po&er. E e des!ription of t e a!t of sub/e!tifi!ation in drive as et i!al substitutes des!ription for norm. E e a!t in itself is not et i!al+ and t ere is no reason its des!ription s ould be an't ing more t an self(referential. E e rigor of er development leads Vupan!i! to t e paradox t at t ere is no et i!al basis of et i!s: IE e eart of all et i!s is somet ing & i! is not in itself Ket i!alK 3nor is it Knon(et i!alK4(t at is to sa'+ it as not ing to do &it t e register of et i!sI 323"4(t is eart is t e 6eal for 8a!an+ t e event for Ladiou. & is. %recisel*. no& e&hical. <or 8a!an+ t e 6eal is & at is pro ibited in an et i!s of desire. Nt i!s derive from an ex!lusion of t e 6eal. H at Nt i!s of t e 6eal finall' demonstrates is t at t e 6eal !annot give an et i!s and &ha& a %oli&ics of Ho+issance is no& %oli&ics/

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AT ?@=A!E E' M S(#A"S ! #T?SEF# A!" FA LS ?+%ancic $isrea-s !ie&Bsche b* ignoring &ha& he -i- allo< for )al+es an- -i- no& <an& his i-eas &o be +se- as a fo+n-a&ional a&&ack on all o&her &hinkers/ Michels. 02 2ssistant =rofessor of =oliti!al 9!ien!e at 9a!red >eart ?niversit'4 04 3 ttp:))&&&.la!an.!om)s ado&az. tm Cietzs! e+ 5nterrupted+ 2 revie& of 2lenka Vupan!i!+ E e 9 ortest 9 ado&: Cietzs! eKs = ilosop ' of t e E&o+ 9teven4. 9! olars all too frequentl' disregard Cietzs! eKs bombasti! ad ominem atta!ks or treat t em as mere opinions+ Vupan!i! !laimsF and in t e pro!ess+ a great arm is done to understanding t e Ievent Cietzs! eI 344. Vupan!i! seems una&are or un!on!erned t at Cietzs! e is responsible for inspiring t e ver' trend s e argues against. Cietzs! e+ &e re!all+ 3re4defined p ilosop ' as t e love of oneKs o&n parti!ular trut s+ and is Ip ilosop ers of t e futureI are ! ara!terized b' t eir abilit' to !reate values. Ereating p ilosop i! trut s as opinions is a testament to Cietzs! eKs su!!ess+ not to t e failing of t e a!adem' to !ome to terms
&it Cietzs! eKs p ilosop '. Cietzs! e is an event+ &rites Vupan!i!+ insofar as p ilosop ' is t e Ipro!ess of trut I in & i! It e 6ealI is revealed t roug de!laration and t e dualit'+ or redoubling+ t at distinguis es t e event from its pronoun!ement 394. >o&+ &e mig t ask+ &ould t is &ork &it an emotion su! as loveR IE e 6eal ere is t e ver' ground on & i! &e stand & en &e are de!laring it+I s e !ontends+ Iand t is is & at redoubles t e de!laration of love at its !oreI 3124. 5t is not is re/e!tion of ontolog' or embra!e of Imultipli!it'I . & at some ave !alled perspe!tivism . t at distinguis es Cietzs! e from ot er p ilosop ersF rat er+ it is is invention of t e Ifigure of t e E&o.I E is element introdu!es a temporalit' or Itime loopI into Cietzs! eKs notion of trut . E at trut is temporal means t at trut Ibe!omes & at it isI 3134. E e image of IGion'sus and t e 7ru!ified+I a !entral t eme in man' of Cietzs! eKs &ritings+ epitomizes dualit'+ temporalit'+ and be!omingF and Cietzs! e imself is t e point & ere t ese t&o events !oin!ide. >er o&n !reativit' not&it standing+ Vupan!i! misses Cietzs! eKs repeated statements & ere e equates imself &it Gion'sus. 5n t e penultimate ap orism of Le'ond Dood and Nvil Cietzs! e !laims to be It e last dis!iple and initiateI of t e p ilosop er(god Gion'susF and in is ot er &ritings+ Cietzs! e refers to imself as IE e 2nti! ristI and depi!ts

Vupan!i! does great arm to t e positive elements of Cietzs! eKs p ilosop '+ in!luding is embra!e of Gion'sus and Dreek ig !ulture. Aoreover+ Vupan!i! glosses over t e radi!alism of Cietzs! eKs epistemolog'. <o!using on t e dualit' of event and de!laration . or even a Idouble de!larationI 3194 . mig t reveal a it erto underappre!iated aspe!t of Cietzs! eKs p ilosop '+ but it does so b' ignoring t e goal Cietzs! e set for is p ilosop '. Vupan!i! is !orre!t t at+ t roug t e a!t of de!laration+ trut is in erentl' !onne!ted to t e &illF but s e is too inattentive t e nature and purpose of t e de!laration. Au! of Cietzs! eKs &ritings+ espe!iall' is later &orks+ take t e matter of rank and order seriousl'. Cietzs! e is no teleologistF t ere is no de!isive goal or single aim in is &ritings. Lut a pro!ess t at la!ks an' goals is one t at e &ould re/e!t.
7 ristianit' as a religion ostile to p ilosop ' and trut . L' emp asizing t e !on!ept of It e E&o+I

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O+r !ie&Bsche &+rns a%%l* &o ?+%ancic/ Wha& she calls :asce&icis$; or :-esire; is reall* H+s& a re><or-ing of &he <ill &o %o<er Michels. 02 2ssistant =rofessor of =oliti!al 9!ien!e at 9a!red >eart ?niversit'4 04 3 ttp:))&&&.la!an.!om)s ado&az. tm Cietzs! e+ 5nterrupted+ 2 revie& of 2lenka Vupan!i!+ E e 9 ortest 9 ado&: Cietzs! eKs = ilosop ' of t e E&o+ 9teven4. Vupan!i! makes t e same mistake in er+ rat er material+ understanding of as!eti!ism. 9 e presents a Cietzs! e overl' !on!erned &it en/o'ment and !omfort. Vupan!i! exaggerates t e likel' egoism of t e as!eti! . going so far as to liken it to <reudKs superego . and overlooks t e fa!t t at Cietzs! e sa& t e as!eti! primaril' as a barrier to instin!t and a proper appre!iation of uman nature. <or Cietzs! e+ as!eti!ism ad little to do &it It e pleasure prin!iple+I and ever't ing to do &it t e arm t at it did to t e p ilosop i! pro!ess. 35t is for t is reason t at Cietzs! e suggests solitude to repla!e as!eti!ism as a means to p ilosop '.4 E e aut or is rig t to distinguis t is element in Cietzs! eKs p ilosop '+ but she sho+l- call i& <ha& !ie&Bsche calls i&' &he <ill &o %o<er/ Vupan!i! stumbles onto t is realization during er treatment of Cietzs! eKs t'polog' of ni ilism+ but s e fails to appre!iate o& it affe!ts er stud'. He mig t also &onder & et er Vupan!i!Ks Cietzs! e too !losel' resembles t e I8ast AanI t at Cietzs! e found so nauseating. @ne of t e more original pronoun!ements in E e 9 ortest 9 ado& is Vupan!i!Ks !ontention t at master moralit' remains+ for t e most part+ un!orrupted b' t e ! ange in moralit'. E e vi!tor' of slave moralit' does not Iin t e least subvert or abolis t e topograp ' of master'+I s e &rites 34"4. H ile Vupan!i! is !orre!t . no& ere does Cietzs! e indi!ate a ! ange in t e nature of master' . s e on!e again misses t e larger impli!ations of Cietzs! eKs pro/e!t: an appeal to masters and &ould(be masters. 9lave moralit' ma' be perfe!t in t e modern &orld+ but Cietzs! eKs aim is to restore master moralit' as a /ust form of rule.