Chapter 13 Agency A general name used for a subunit of a cabinet department.

. Agency, independent A unit of the executive branch outside the control of executive departments. Appropriation Legal authority for a federal agency to spend money from the U. . !reasury. "ureau #enerally, a subunit of a cabinet department. "ureaucracy $ A large, complex organi%ation characteri%ed by a hierarchical set of offices, each &ith a specific tas', controlled through a clear chain of command, and &here appointment and advancement of personnel is based on merit. "ureaucrat A person &ho &or's in a bureaucratic organi%ation. Civil servant #overnment &or'ers employed under the merit system( not political appointees. Civil services )ederal government *obs held by civilian employees, excluding political appointees. Cost$benefit analysis A method of evaluating rules and regulations by &eighing their potential costs against their potential benefits to society. +epartments #enerally the largest units in the executive branch, each headed by a cabinet secretary. )ederal, bureaucracy $ !he totality of the departments and agencies of the executive branch of the national government. )oundation, government An entity of the executive branch that supports the arts or sciences and designed to be ,http-..&&&.youtube.com.&atch/v0v3*1C"e12!3/m some&hat insulated from political interference. #overnment Corporation A unit in the executive branch that operates li'e a private business but provides some public service. 4ndependent regulatory commission An entity in the executive branch that is outside the immediate control of the president and Congress that issues rules and regulations to protect the public. 5atronage !he practice of distributing government offices and contracts to the supporters of the &inning party( also called the spoils system. 6uasi$governmental organi%ation A unit of the government that is part public and part private. 7ed tape 8verbearing bureaucratic rules and procedures. poils system !he practice of distributing government offices and contracts to the supporters of the &inning party( also call patronage. Unitary executive Constitutional doctrine that proposes that the executive branch is under the direct control of the president, &ho has all authority necessary to control the actions of

federal bureaucracy personnel and units &ithout interference from the other federal branches. 9histle$blo&ers 5eople &ho bring official misconduct in their agencies to public attention.

Chapter 1: Amicus curiae Latin for ,a friend of the court;( describes a brief in &hich individuals not party to a suit may have their vie&s heard. Appellate courts Courts that hear cases on appeal from other courts. "riefs +ocuments setting out the arguments in legal cases, prepared by attorneys and presented to courts. Class action suit A suit brought on behalf of a group of people &ho are in a situation similar to that of the plaintiffs. Constitutional courts )ederal courts created by Congress under the authority of Article 444 of the Constitution. Circuit courts !he 1< geographical *urisdictions and one special court that hear appeals from the federal district courts. Concurring opinion the opinion of one or more *udges &ho vote &ith the ma*ority on a case but &ish to set out different reasons for their decision. +issenting opinion !he opinion of the *udge or *udges &ho are in the minority on a particular case before the upreme Court. =xecutive privilege A presidential claim that certain communications &ith subordinates may be &ithheld from Congress and the courts. #rand *uries #roups of citi%ens &ho decide &hether there is sufficient evidence to bring an indictment against accused persons. 4n forma pauperis +escribing a process by &hich indigents may file a suit &ith the upreme Court free of charge. >udicial activism Actions by the courts that go beyond the strict role of the *udiciary as interpreter of the la& and ad*udicator of disputes. >udicial revie& !he po&er of the upreme Court to declare actions of the other branches and levels of government unconstitutional. Laisse%$faire !he political$economic doctrine that holds that government ought not interfere &ith the operations of the free mar'et. Legislative courts ?ighly speciali%ed federal courts created by Congress under the authority of Article 4 of the Constitution. 8pinion !he explanation of the ma*ority@s reasoning that accompanies a court decision. 8pinion of the court !he ma*ority opinion that accompanies a upreme Court decision.

8riginal intent !he doctrine that the courts must interpret the Constitution in &ays consistent &ith the intentions of the framers rather than in light of contemporary conditions and needs. 8riginal *urisdiction !he authority of a court to be the first to hear a particular 'ind of case. 5etit AtrialB *uries >uries that hear evidence and sit in *udgment on charges brought in civil or criminal cases. 5laintiff 8ne &ho brings suit in a court. 5recedents 7ulings by courts that guide *udicial reasoning in subseCuent cases. 7emedy An action that a court determines must be ta'en to rectify a &rong. 7ule of four An unwritten practice that reCuires at least four *ustices of the upreme Court to agree that a case &arrants revie& by the Court before it &ill hear the case. enatorial courtesy !he tradition that *udicial nominations for federal district court appointments be cleared by the senior senator of the president@s party from the relevant state. eparate but eCual doctrine$ !he principle articulated in Plessy v. Ferguson A1DEFB that la&s prescribing separate public facilities and services for non&hite Americans are permissible if the facilities and services are equal to those provided for &hites. tanding$ Authority to bring legal action because one is directly affected by the issues at hand. tar decisis !he legal doctrine that says precedent should guide *udicial decision ma'ing. trict construction !he doctrine that the provisions of the Constitution have a clear meaning and that *udges must stic' closely to this meaning &hen rendering decision. uperprecedent Landmar' rulings, that have been reaffirmed by the Court over the course of many years and &hose reasoning has become part of the fabric of American la&. !est case A case brought to force a ruling on the constitutionality of some la& or executive action. 9rit of certiorari An announcement that the upreme Court &ill hear a case on appeal from a lo&er court( its issuance reCuires the vote of four of the nine *ustices.

Chapter 1G Civil liberties )reedoms found primarily in the "ill of 7ights that are protected from government interference. "ill of attainder A governmental decree that a person is guilty of a crime that carries the death penalty, rendered &ithout benefit of a trial. Capital Crime Any crime for &hich death is a possible penalty. Contract clause !he portion of Article 4, ection 1H, of the Constitution that prohibits states from passing any la& ,impairing the obligations of contracts.;

+ue process clause !he section of the )ourteenth Amendment that prohibits states from depriving anyone of life, liberty, or property ,&ithout due process of la&,; a guarantee against arbitrary of unfair government action. =xclusionary rule A standard promulgated by the upreme Court that prevents police and prosecutors from using evidence against a defendant that &as obtained in an illegal search. =conomic liberty !he right to o&n and use property free from excessive government interference. =stablishment clause !he part of the )irst Amendment to the Constitution that prohibits Congress from establishing an official religion( the basis for the doctrine of the separation of church and state. =x post facto la& A la& that retroactively declares some action illegal. )ull faith and credit !he provision in Article 42, ection 1, of the Constitution that provides that states must respect the public acts, la&s, and *udicial rulings of other states. )ree exercise clause !he portion of the )irst Amendment to the Constitution that prohibits Congress from impeding religious observance or impinging upon religious beliefs. ?abeas corpus !he legal doctrine that a person &ho is arrested must have a timely hearing before a *udge. 1ationali%ing !he process by &hich provisions of the "ill of 7ights become incorporated. 4ncorporation !he process by &hich the upreme Court has made most of the provisions of the "ill of 7ights binding on the tates. 8bscenity As defined by the upreme Court, the representation of sexually explicit material in a manner that violates community standards and is &ithout redeeming social importance or value. 8rdinary scrutiny !he assumption that the actions of elected bodies and officials are legal under the Constitution. 5rior restraint !he government@s po&er to prevent publication, as opposed to punishment after&ard. 5rivileges and immunities clause the portion of Article 42, ection <, of the Constitution that says that citi%ens from out of state have the same legal rights as local citi%ens in any state. 5robable cause Legal doctrine that refers to a reasonable belief that a crime has been committed. elective incorporation !he gradual and piecemeal incorporation of the protections of the "ill of 7ights by the U. . upreme Court. trict scrutiny !he assumption that actions by elected bodies or officials violate constitutional rights.

Chapter 1F

Affirmative action 5rograms of private and public institutions favoring minorities and &omen in hiring and in admissions to colleges and universities in an attempt to compensate for past discrimination. Civil 7ights #uarantees of eCual treatment by government officials regarding political rights, the *udicial system, and public programs. Civil union A status in &hich same$sex couples have the same legal rights, benefits, and protections as married couples. +e facto discrimination UneCual treatment by private individuals, groups, and organi%ations. +e *ure discrimination UneCual treatment based on government la&s and regulations.

+ue process clause !he section of the )ourteenth Amendment that prohibits states from depriving anyone of life, liberty, or property ,&ithout due process of la&,; a guarantee against arbitrary or unfair government action. =Cual protection clause !he section of the )ourteenth Amendment reCuiring states to provide eCual treatment to all people &ithin its boundaries. #randfather clause A device that allo&ed &hites &ho had failed the literacy test to vote any&ay by extending the franchise to anyone &hose ancestors had voted prior to 1DFI. 4ntermediate scrutiny A legal test falling bet&een ordinary and strict scrutiny relevant to issues of gender( under this test, the upreme Court &ill allo& gender classifications in la&s if they are substantially related to an important government ob*ective. >im Cro& 5opular term for the system of legal racial segregation that existed in the American outh until the middle of the t&entieth century. Literacy test A device used by the southern states to prevent African American from voting before the passage of the 2oting 7ights Act of 1EFG, &hich banned its use( usually involved interpretation of a section of a state@s constitution. 5oll tax A tax to be paid as a condition of voting( used in the outh to 'eep African Americans a&ay from the polls. 5rivileges and immunities clause !he portion of Article 42, ection <, of the Constitution that states that citi%ens from out of state have the same legal rights as local citi%ens in any state. trict scrutiny !he assumption that actions by elected bodies or officials violate the Constitution. uspect classification !he invidious, arbitrary, or irrational designation of a group for special treatment by government. 9hite primary 5rimary elections open only to &hites.

Chapter 1I

Appropriation committees !he committees in the ?ouse and enate that set specific spending levels in the budget for federal programs and agencies. "alance of payments !he annual difference bet&een payments and receipts bet&een a country and its trading partners. "udget deficit !he amount by &hich annual government expenditures exceed revenues. Congressional "udget 8ffice AC"8B An agency of the U. . Congress that provides technical support and research services on budget issues for its members and committees. +eficit ha&'s 5eople committed to reducing budget deficits. +epression A severe and persistent drop in economic activity. +eregulation !he process of diminishing regulatory reCuirements for business. +iscretionary spending !hat part of the feral budget that is not tied to a formula that automatically provides money to some program or purpose. +istributive policies #overnment policies targeted at narro&ly defined groups or individuals. =fficiency, public policy ?o& &ell resources are used to meet policy ob*ectives. =ffectiveness, public policy !he degree to &hich the ob*ectives of public policies are met. =xternalities !he positive and negative effects of economic activities on third parties. )ederal 7eserve "oard A)edB !he body responsible for deciding the monetary policies of the U. . )iscal policy #overnment efforts to affect overall output and incomes in the economy through spending and taxing policies. #ross domestic product A#+5B Jonetary value of all goods and services produced in a nation each year, excluding income residents earn abroad. 4nflation A condition of rising prices and reduced purchasing po&er. Keynesians Advocates of government programs to stimulate economic activity through tax cuts and government spending. Jacroeconomic policy 5olicy that has to do &ith the performance of the economy as a &hole. Jonetary policy #overnment efforts to affect the supply of money and the level of interest rates in the economy. Jonetarists Advocates of a minimal government role in the economy, limited to managing the gro&th of the money supply. 1ational debt !he total outstanding debt of the federal government( the sum total of all annual budget deficits and surpluses. 1e& gro&th theory !he economic theory that ties economic gro&th to innovation and invention.

8ffice of Janagement and "udget A8J"B 5art of the =xecutive 8ffice of the 5resident charged &ith helping the president prepare the annual budget reCuest to Congress( also performs oversight of rule$ma'ing by executive branch agencies. 5ayroll tax !ax levied on salaries and &ages for ocial ecurity and Jedicare. 5rogressive taxation A tax system in &hich higher income individuals are taxed at a higher rate than those belo& them. 5ublic goods #overnment policies that provide benefits for everyone. 5ublic policy 9hat government does, usually in the form of ne& la&s and regulations or in the interpretation and implementation of existing la&s and regulations. 7ecession !&o Cuarters of declining gross domestic product. 7edistributive policies #overnment policies that transfer resources from one group or class to another. 7egressive taxation A tax system in &hich lo&er income individuals are taxed at a higher rate than those above them. 7egulation !he issuing of rules by government agencies &ith the aim of reducing the scale of negative externalities produced by private firms. 7egulatory policies #overnment policies that reCuire a group or class of groups to change its behavior to some public purpose. upply$siders Advocates of supply$side economics featuring lo& taxes and minimal regulation.

Chapter 1D Aid to )amilies &ith +ependent Children AA)+CB !he federal entitlement program that provided income support for poor families until it &as replaced by !A1) in 1EEF. Cost$of$living ad*ustment AC8LAB Automatic annual ad*ustment made to ocial ecurity benefits. =ntitlements #overnment benefits that are distributed automatically to citi%ens &ho Cualify on the basis of a set of guidelines set by la&( for example, Americans over the age of FG are entitled to Jedicare coverage. #reat +epression !he period of economic crisis in the U. . that lasted from the stoc' mar'et crash of 1E<E to American@s entry into 99 44. ?ealth savings account A? AsB !ax$exempt savings accounts used for paying medical expenses. Jar'et economy Another term for capitalism. Jeans$tested Jeeting the criterion of demonstrable need. Jedicaid 5rogram administered by the states that pays for health care services for the poor( *ointly funded by the federal government and the states.

Jedicare )ederal health insurance program for the elderly and the disabled. 1e& +eal 5resident )ran'lin 7oosevelt@s programs for economic recovery, income support, and business regulation during the #reat +epression. 5overty line !he federal government@s calculation of the amount of income families of various si%es need to stay out of poverty. 5ublic assistance 5rograms funded by general tax funds that provide money or services for the poor. afety net #overnment programs that protect the minimum standard of living of families and individuals against loss of income. ocial insurance #overnment programs that provide services or income support in proportion to the amount of mandatory contributions made by individuals to a government trust fund. ocial ecurity ocial insurance program that provides income support for the elderly, those &ith disabilities, and family survivors of &or'ing Americans. tate Child ?ealth 4nsurance 5rogram A C?45B 5rogram that pays for health care services for children in households &ith income up to <HH percent of the poverty line &ho are not covered by Jedicaid. !emporary Assistance to 1eedy )amilies A)A1)B 5rogram that provides income and services to many poor families, has benefit time limits, and a &or' reCuirement. Unemployment insurance 5rogram funded by taxes on employers to provide short$term income support to laid off &or'ers( also call unemployment compensation. 9elfare state A government &ith a broad set of safety net programs.

Chapter 1E Asymmetric &arfare Unconventional tactics used by a combatant against an enemy &ith superior conventional military capabilities. Axis of evil !hree countries 4raC, 4ran, and 1orth Korea named by 5resident "ush in <HH< as significant threats to the security of the U. . because of their purported ties to terrorism and.or &eapons of mass destruction. Cold 9ar !he period of tense relations bet&een the United tates and the oviet Union from the late 1E:Hs to the late 1EDHs. =uropean Union A=UB A common mar'et formed by &estern =uropean nations, &ith free trade and free population movement among them. #eneral Agreement of !ariffs and !rade A#A!!B An international agreement that reCuires the lo&ering of tariffs and other barriers to free trade. #lobali%ation !he increasing &orld&ide integration of mar'ets, production, and communications across national boundaries. #lobal &arming !he rise of mean global temperatures &hether caused by human activities or naturally occurring cycles.

?egemon !erm used to refer to the dominant po&er during various historical periods that ta'es on responsibilities maintaining and protecting a regional or global system. >oint Chiefs of taff A>C B !he military officers in charge of each of the armed services. Jillennium Challenge Account A "ush administration initiative to distribute development aid o the basis of a country@s degree of improvement in areas such as the rule of la&, &omen@s rights, protection of property rights, anticorruption measures, and political and civil rights. Jultilateralists !hose &ho believe the U. . should use its military and diplomatic po&er in the &orld in cooperation &ith other nations and international organi%ations. 1ational interest 9hat is of benefit to the nation as a &hole. 1ongovernmental organi%ation A1#8B A nonprofit advocacy group that tries to influence the public, national governments, and.or international organi%ations on issues of concern to it. 1orth American )ree !rade Agreement A1A)!AB An agreement among the U. ., Canada, and Jexico to eliminate nearly all barriers to trade and investment among the three countries. 1uclear proliferation !he spread of nuclear &eapons to additional countries or to terrorist groups. oft po&er 4nfluence in &orld affairs that derives from the attractiveness to others of a nation@s culture, products, and &ay of life. uperpo&er A nation armed &ith nuclear &eapons and able to pro*ect force any&here on the globe. !errorism !he use of deadly violence against civilians to further some political goal. Unilateralists !hose &ho believe the U. . should vigorously use its military and diplomatic po&er to pursue American national interests in the &orld, but on a ,go it alone; basis. 9eapons of mass destruction 1uclear, biological, or chemical &eapons &ith the potential to cause vast harm to human populations. 9orld !rade 8rgani%ation A9!8B An agency designed to enforce the provisions of the #eneral Agreement on !ariffs and !rade and to resolve trade disputes bet&een nations.