CHAPTER 2 FundamentalParametersofAntennas

2.1 INTRODUCTION ........................................................................................................................... 3

2.2 RADIATION PATTERN ................................................................................................................ 3
2.2.1RadiationPatternLobes........................................................................................................6
2.2.2Isotropic,Directional,andOmnidirectionalPatterns............................................................9
2.2.3PrincipalPatterns................................................................................................................10
2.2.4FieldRegions.......................................................................................................................12
2.2.5RadianandSteradian....................................................................16
2.3 RADIATION POWER DENSITY ................................................................................................ 18
2.4 RADIATION INTENSITY ........................................................................................................... 22
2.5 BEAMWIDTH .............................................................................................................................. 25
2.6 DIRECTIVITY .............................................................................................................................. 28
2.6.1DirectionalPatterns............................................................................................................38
2.7 ANTENNA EFFICIENCY ............................................................................................................ 43
2.8 GAIN ............................................................................................................................................. 45
2.9 BEAM EFFICIENCY ................................................................................................................... 53
2.10 BANDWIDTH ............................................................................................................................ 55

2.11 POLARIZATION ........................................................................................................................ 57

2.11.1Linear,Circular,andEllipticalPolarizations.......................................................................61
2.11.2PolarizationLossFactorandEfficiency..............................................................................68
2.12 INPUT IMPEDANCE ................................................................................................................. 75
2.14 ANTENNA RADIATION EFFICIENCY ................................................................................... 79
2.15 ANTENNA VECTOR EFFECTIVE LENGTH AND EQUIVALENT AREAS ........................ 82
2.15.1VectorEffectiveLength.....................................................................................................83
2.15.2AntennaEquivalentAreas..................................................................................................87
2.16 MAXIMUM DIRECTIVITY AND MAXIMUM EFFECTIVE AREA ..................................... 94
2.17 FRIIS TRANSMISSION EQUATION AND RADAR RANGE EQUATION .......................... 97
2.17.1FriisTransmissionEquation...............................................................................................97
2.17.2RadarRangeEquation.....................................................................................................101
2.17.3AntennaRadarCrossSection..........................................................................................108
Problems ............................................................................................................................................ 110

2
a
2
a
r
t
c
p
d
d

2.1 INT
To de
arenecess
2.2 RAD
Anan
as a mat
representa
the ante
coordinate
patternis
Radia
density, r
directivity
Amplitu
Amplitu
TRODUC
escribethe
sary.
DIATIO
ntennarad
thematica
ationofth
enna as
es. In m
determine
ationprop
radiation
,phaseor
ude field p
ude power
CTION
e perform
ON PAT
diationpa
l function
heradiatio
a funct
most cases
edinthef
pertiesinc
intensity,
rpolarizat
pattern.
r pattern.
N
manceofa
TTERN
tternisde
n or a gra
onpropert
tion of
s, the rad
farfieldre
ludepowe
field stre
ion.

anantenna
efined
aphical
tiesof
space
diation
egion.
erflux
ength,
a,definitioonsofvar riousparameters

y
l
a
Often
yielding n
ogarithmi
accentuat
n the field
ormalized
ic scale (
einmore
d and pow
d field and
dB). This
detailsth
wer patte
d power p
scale is
oseparts

erns are n
patterns. T
desirable
ofthepat
normalized
The patte
e because
tternofve
d to the m
rn is usua
e a logarit
erylowva
maximum
ally plotte
thmic sca
lues.
value,
ed on a
ale can

Field pattern typically represents a plot of the magnitude of the electric or

magneticfieldasafunctionoftheangularspace.
Power pattern typically represents a plot of the square of the magnitude of the
electricormagneticfieldasafunctionoftheangularspace.
Powerpattern(indB)representsthemagnitudeoftheelectricormagneticfield,
indecibels,asafunctionoftheangularspace.

2
m
w
2.2.1 Ra
Vario
minor,sid
Figur
withanu
adiation
ousparts
de,andba
re2.3(a)d
mberofr
n Pattern
ofaradia
acklobes.
demonstr
radiationl
n Lobes
ationpatte

ratesasy
lobes.

ernarere
mmetrica
eferredto
althreed
oaslobes
imension

majoror
alpolarp
rmain,
pattern

l
p

t
t
e

Some
obes.Fig
patternch
Amajo
thedirect
the=0
existmore
Amino
eareofg
ure2.3(b
haracteris
rlobe(m
tionofma
direction
ethanon
orlobe(
greaterrad
)illustrate
sticsarein
main beam
aximumr
n.Insome
nemajorl
)isany
diationin
esalinea
ndicated.
m)
radiation.
eantenna
obe.
ylobeexc

ntensityth
rtwodim
isdefined
InFigur
as,sucha
ceptama
hanother
mensional
dasthe
e2.3the
ssplitbe
ajorlobe.
rs,butall
patternw
radiation
majorlob
eamanten

areclassi
wherethe

lobecont
beispoin
nnas,ther
ifiedas
esame
taining
ntingin
remay

A side lobe() is a radiation lobe in any direction other than the

intendedlobe.Usuallyasidelobeisadjacenttothemainlobe
Abacklobeisaradiationlobewhoseaxismakesanangleofapproximately
180
o
withrespecttothebeamofanantenna.
Minorlobesusuallyrepresentradiationinundesireddirectionsandshould
beminimized.Sidelobesarethelargestminorlobes.

2.2.2 Isotropic, Directional, and Omnidirectional Patterns

An isotropic radiator is defined as a hypothetical lossless antenna having
equal radiation in all directions. Although it is ideal and not physically
realizable,itisoftentakenasareferenceforexpressingthedirectiveproperties
ofactualantennas.
A directional antenna is one having the property of radiating or receiving
electromagneticwavesmoreeffectivelyinsomedirectionsthaninothers.
An omnidirectional antenna is defined as one having an essentially
nondirectional pattern in a given plane and a directional pattern in any
orthogonal plane. An omnidirectional pattern is then a special type of a
directionalpattern.

2
o
2.2.3 Pr
For a
ofitsprin
TheE
contai
and t
radiat
The H
plane
vector
maxim

rincipal
a linearly
cipalEan
planeisd
ining the
the direc
ion.
Hplane
containin
r and
mumradia
Pattern
polarized
ndHplan
definedas
electric f
ction of
is define
ngthema
the dir
ation.
ns
d antenna
nepattern
sthepla
field vect
maximu
ed as t
agneticfie
rection

a, perform
ns.
ne
tor
um
he
eld
of
mance is ooften des scribed in terms

(
p
s
p
(
An il
(elevation
plane; =
selected.
principal
(azimutha
llustration
n plane; |
= t/2) is t
The omn
Eplanes
alplane;
n is show
| = 0) is
the princi
nidirection
s (elevati
=90
o
).
wn in Fig
the princ
ipal Hpla
nal patter
on plane

gure 2.5.
cipal Epla
ane. Othe
rn of Figu
es; | =
For this
ane and t
er coordin
ure 2.6 ha
|
c
) and
example
the xy p
nate orien
as an infi
one pr

, the xz
lane (azim
ntations c
inite num
incipal H
plane
muthal
can be
mber of
Hplane

2
r
(
1
b
u
i
a
b
2.2.4 Fie
The s
reactive n
(Fraunhof
1. React
For
boundary
u.62
3

sthelarge
a. There
b. For
equiv
bound
2t
eld Regi
space sur
nearfield,
fer
tivenear
most an
of thi
z, z isth
estdimen
eactivefie
a very
valent ra
dary is c
t.
ions
rounding
, radiatin
)regio
fieldregio
ntennas,
s region
hewavele
sionofth
eldpredom
short d
diator, t
commonly
an anten
g nearfie
ns
on
the oute
n is R <
engthand
eantenna
minates
dipole, o
the oute
y taken t

na is usu
eld (Fresn
er
<
D
a.
or
er
to
ally subdi
nel
ivided int
) regio
o three r
on and f
egions:
arfield

2
n
a
b
c
2. Radiati
Defin
nearfield
a. Radiati
b. The an
is de
distanc
c. Ifthea
overall
very sm
wavele
mayno
Ther
u.62
ingnearf
ned as t
dregionan
onfields
ngular fie
ependent
cefromth
ntennah
dimens
mall com
ength, thi
otexist.
regionisl
2
3
z <
field(Fres
hat regio
ndthefar
predomin
ld distrib
upon
heantenn
asamaxi
ion whic
mpared to
is field re
imitedby
< R < 2
snel)regio
n of the
rfieldreg
nate
ution
the
na.
mum
ch is
o the
egion
y

2
z.

on
field of a
gion
an antennna betwe een the reeactive

3
a
b
m
n
p
a
f
p
u
m
m
3. Farfiel
a. Thean
theant
b. The far
theant
As t
moved t
nearfield
pattern b
and form
farfield
pattern
usually c
minor lob
more,ma
d(Fraunh
gularfield
tenna.
rfield reg
tenna.
he observ
to the r
d region
begins to
m lobes.
region
is well
onsisting
bes and
ajorlobes.
hofer)reg
ddistribu
gion is ta
vation is
radiating
n, the
smooth
In the
, the
formed,
of few
one, or
.
gion
utionises
ken to ex

ssentially
xist at dis
independ
stances g
dentofth
reater th
edistanc
an 2
2
z
efrom
z from

p
o
a
d
t
B
r
u
f

Figure
parabolic
of R = 2
It is
almost
difference
the first
Because
realizable
used crit
farfieldo
2.9 show
reflector
2B
2
, 4B
observed
identical,
esinthep
null and
infinite
e in pract
erion for
observatio
ws three
r calculat
B
2
,and
d that th
, excep
patternst
at a leve
distanc
ice, the m
r minimu
onsis 2
patterns
ed at dis
dinfinity.
he patter
pt for
tructurea
el below
ces are
most com
um distan
2
.

s of a
stances

rns are
some
around
25 dB.
e not
mmonly
nce of

2
a
o
s
A
c
s
T
2.2.5 Ra
Them
One
anglewith
of radius
surfacear
Since
A = 4tr
2
closedsph
The
surfaceof
Therefore
adian
measureo
steradian
hitsverte
r that is
rea r
2
.
ethearea
2
, there a
here.
infinites
fasphere
e,thesolid
a
ofasolid
n is defin
exatthec
s subtend
aofasphe
are 4t sr
simal are
eisgivenb
JA
dangle u
J0 = J
nd Stera
angleisa
ned as t
centerof
ded by a s
ereofrad
r (4tr
2
r
ea JA
by
= r
2
sin
uO canbe
JA r
2
=

adian
asteradia
he solid
asphere
spherical
dius r is
r
2
) in a
on the
nuJuJ|
ewritten
= sinuJu

n.
(m
2
)
as
uJ| (sr)





(21)
(22)

Example2.1
Forasphereofradius i,findthesolidangle(insquareradiansorsteradians)
ofaspherical capon thesurfacesphereover the northpoleregion defined by
sphericalanglesof0sus30
o
,0s|s360
o
.Dothis
a. exactly.
b. usingO
A
~AO
1
AO
2
,whereAO
1
andAO
2
aretwoperpendicularangular
separationsofthesphericalcappassingthroughthenorthpole.
Comparethetwo.
Solution:
a. Using(22),wecanwritethat

A
= _ _ J
30
c
0
360
c
0
= _ _ sin0J0J
n6
0
2n
0
= u.8SS66
b.
A
=
1

2
|
AO
1
=AO
2
=
n
3

n
3
= 1.u9662
Theapproximatebeamsolidangleisabout31.23%inerror.

2.3 RADIATION POWER DENSITY

Instantaneous Poynting vector is a power density and is used to describe
thepowerassociatedwithanelectromagneticwave
W

= F

(23)
w

instantaneousPoyntingvector (W/m
2
)
E

instantaneouselectricfieldintensity (V/m)
E

instantaneousmagneticfieldintensity (A/m)
The total power, crossing a closed surface, can be obtained by integrating the
normalcomponentofthePoyntingvectorovertheentiresurface
P = w

S
= w

nJo
S
(24)
P: instantaneoustotalpower (W);
n: unitvectornormaltothesurface
ua: infinitesimal aiea of the closeu suiface (m
2
)

Fortimevaryingfields,averagepowerdensityisneeded,whichisobtained
by integrating the instantaneous Poynting vector over one period and dividing
bytheperiod.Fortheform c
]et

(x, y, z; t) = Rc|E

(x, y, z)c
]et
]; E

(x, y, z; t) = Rc|E

(x, y, z)c
]et
] (2S, 6)
Usingthedefinitionsof(25)and(26)andtheidentity
Re|E

(x, y, z)c
]et
] = E

(x, y, z)|c
]et
+c
-]et
]2
(23)canbewrittenas
w

= E

(23) w

=
1
2
Rc|E

] +
1
2
Rc|E

c
]2et
] (27)
Finally,thetimeaveragePoyntingvector(averagepowerdensity)is
w
u
(x, y, z) = |w

(x, y, z; t)]
u
= |E

]2 (W/m
2
) (28)
Note:
Therealpartof |E

]2

representstheaverage(real)powerdensity
Theimaginarypartrepresentsthereactive(stored)powerdensity

The 1/2 factor appears in (27) and (28) because the E

and E

fields
representpeakvalues,anditshouldbeomittedforRMSvalues
Baseduponthedefinitionof(28),theaveragepowerradiatedpowercan
bewrittenas
P
ud
= P
u
= w

ud
Js
S

= w

u
nJo
S
=
1
2
Re|E

] Js
S
(29)

Example2.1
Theradialcomponentoftheradiatedpowerdensityofanantennais
w

ud
= o

A
0
sn0

2
(W/m
2
)
A
0
isthepeakvalueofthepowerdensity, u isthesphericalcoordinate,
and o

istheradialunitvector.Determinethetotalradiatedpower.
SOLUTION
For a closed surface, a sphere of radius r is chosen. To find the
totalradiated power, the radial component of the power density is
integratedoveritssurface.
P
ud
= w

ud
Js
S
= _ _(o

A
0
sin0
r
2
) (o

r
2
sin0J0J)
n
0
2n
0
= n
2
A
0
(w)

2.4 RADIATION INTENSITY

Radiation intensity in a given direction is defined as "the power radiated
fromanantennaperunitsolidangle."
The radiation intensity is a farfield parameter, and it can be obtained by
multiplyingtheradiationdensitybythesquareofthedistance.
u = r
2
w
ud
(212)
Where
u=radiationintensity(W/unitsolidangle);
w
rad
=radiationdensity(W/m
2
)
The radiation intensity is also related to the farzone electric field of an
antennaby
u(0, ) =
r
2
2p
|E

(r, 0, )|
2
=
r
2
2p
j|E
0
(r, 0, )|
2
+|E
q
(r, 0, )|
2
[
=
1
2q
||E
0
0
(0, )|
2
+|E
q
0
(0, )|
2
] (212a)
Where

(r, 0, ):farzoneelectricfieldintensityoftheantenna=
L
0
0
(0,q)c
-]kr

, E
q
:farzoneelectricfieldcomponentsoftheantenna
:intrinsicimpedanceofthemedium
Thusthepowerpatternisalsoameasureoftheradiationintensity.
Thetotalpowerisobtainedbyintegratingtheradiationintensity,asgiven
by(212),overtheentiresolidangleof 4t.Thus
P
ud
=
] ]
uJ
n
0
2n
0
=
] ]
usin0J0J
n
0
2n
0
(213)
Comparison: P
ud
=

w

0
Js
S

Example2.2
ForExample2.I,findthetotalradiatedpowerusing(213).
SOLUTION
Using(212) u = r
2
w
ud
= A
0
sinu andby(213)
P
ud
= _ _ usin0J0J
n
0
2n
0
= A
0
_ _ sin
2
0J0J
n
0
2n
0
= n
2
A
0

Foranisotropicsource, u willbeindependentoftheangles u and |,

aswasthecasefor w
ud
.Thus(213)canbewrittenas
P
ud
=

u
0
J
H
= u
0

J
H
= 4nu
0
(214)
ortheradiationintensityofanisotropicsourceas
u
0
= P
ud
4n (215)

2
i
1
2
b
H
t
l
d
a
c
2.5 BEA
Theb
identicalp
1. HalfPo
2. FirstNu
Of
beamwidt
HPBW.
Th
tradeoff
obe le
decreases
andvicev
Th
capabilitie
AMWID
eamwidth
pointson
owerBeam
ullBeamw
ften,
th usua
he bea
between
evel. Th
s, the sid
versa.
he beamw
estodist
DTH
hofapat
opposite
mwidth(H
width(FN
the
ally refe
mwidth
n it and t
he bea
e lobe in
width of t
inguishtw
ternisde
sideofth
HPBW).
BW).
term
ers to
is a
he side
mwidth
creases
the anten
woadjace

efined:the
hepattern
nna is also
entradiat
eangular
nmaximu
o used to
ingsourc
separatio
um.
o describe
esortarg
onbetwee
e the reso
gets.
entwo
olution

ThemostcommonresolutioncriterionisFNBW/2,whichisusuallyusedto
approximateHPBW.
Thatis,twosourcesseparatedbyangulardistancesequalorgreaterthan
FNBW/2 HPBWofanantennacanberesolved.
If the separation is smaller, then the antenna will tend to smooth the
angularseparationdistance.
Example2.4
Thenormalizedradiationintensityofanantennaisrepresentedby
0() = cos
2
()cos
2
(S), (u 9u
0
, u
0
S6u
0
)
Findthe
a. halfpowerbeamwidthHPBW(inradiansanddegrees)
b. firstnullbeamwidthFNBW(inradiansanddegrees)
Solution:

a. Since the u(0) represents the power pattern, to find the halfpower
beamwidth.Let
0()|
=
h
= cos
2
(0)cos
2
(S0)|
=
h
= u.S cos
h
cos (S
h
) = u.7u7

b
= u.2S iau = 14.S2S
u

Since u(0) issymmetricalaboutthemaximumat u = u,thentheHPBWis

BPBW = 2
h
= u.S iau = 28.6S
0

b. Tofindthefirstnullbeamwidth(FNBW),letthe u(0) equaltozero
0()|
=
n
= cos
2
()cos
2
(S)|
=
n
= u
Thisleadstotwosolutionsfor
n

n
=
n
2
roJions = 9u
0
,
n
=
n
6
roJions = Su
0

The one with the smallest value leads to the FNBW. Again, because of the
symmetryofthepattern,theFNBWis
FNBW = 2
n
=

S
iauians = 6u
0

2.6 DIRECTIVITY
Thedirectivityofanantennadefinedastheratiooftheradiationintensityin
a given direction from the antenna to the radiation intensity averaged over
alldirections.
The average radiation intensity is equal to the total power radiated by the
antennadividedby 4t.
Ifthedirectionisnotspecified,thedirectionofmaximumradiationintensity
isimplied.Directivitycanbewrittenas
B =
0
0
0
=
4n0
P
rcd
,
mux
=
0
=
0|
mcx
0
0
=
4n0
mcx
P
rcd

D=directivity(dimensionless); D
0
=maximumdirectivity(dimensionless)
U=radiationintensity(W/unitsolidangle);
P
ud
=totalradiatedpower(W)
u
mux
=maximumradiationintensity(W/unitsolidangle);
u
0
=radiationintensityofisotropicsource(W/unitsolidangle);

For antennas with orthogonal polarization components, define the partial

directivityofanantennaforagivenpolarizationinagivendirectionas:
Paitial uiiectivity
=
Pait of the iauiation intensity with a given polaiization in a given uiiection
the total iauiation intensity aveiageu ovei all uiiections

So,inagivendirectionthetotaldirectivityisthesumofthepartialdirectivities
for any two orthogonal polarizations. For a spherical coordinate system, the
total maximum directivity
0
for the orthogonal u and | components of an
antennacanbewrittenas

0
=
0
+
q

whilethepartialdirectivities
0
and
q
areexpressedas

0
=
4n0
0
(P
rcd
)
0
+(P
rcd
)

,
q
=
4n0

(P
rcd
)
0
+(P
rcd
)

where
u
0
=radiationintensityinagivendirectioncontainedin u fieldcomponent
u
q
=radiationintensityinagivendirectioncontainedin | fieldcomponent

(P
ud
)
0
=radiatedpowerinalldirectionscontainedin u fieldcomponent
(P
ud
)
q
=radiatedpowerinalldirectionscontainedin | fieldcomponent
Example2.5
Find the maximum directivity of the antenna whose radiation intensity is
thatofExample2.2.Writeanexpressionforthedirectivityasafunctionofthe
directionalangles u and |.
Solution:
Theradiationintensityisgivenby
u = r
2
w
ud
= A
0
sinu
Themaximumradiationisdirectedalong: u = t2
Thus u
max
= A
0

InExample2.2itwasfoundthat
P
rad
=
2
A
0

Wefindthatthemaximumdirectivityisequalto

0
=
4nu
mux
P
ud
=
4
n
= 1.27
Since the radiation intensity is only a function of u, the directivity as a
functionofthedirectionalanglesisrepresentedby
=
0
sin0 = 1.27sin0
Example2.6
The radial component of the radiated power density of an infinitesimal
lineardipoleoflengthl <<isgivenby
w

u
= o

= o

A
0
sn
2
0

2
(W/m
2
)
where A
0
is the peak value of the power density, u is the usual spherical
coordinate, and o

is the radial unit vector. Determine the maximum

directivity of the antenna and express the directivity as a function of the
directionalangles u and |.
Solution:

Theradiationintensityisgivenby
u = r
2
w

= A
0
sin
2
0
Themaximumradiationisdirectedalong 0 = n2.Thus
u
max
= A
0

Thetotalradiatedpowerisgivenby
P
ud
= uJ
H
= A
0
_ _ sin
2
0J0J
n
0
2n
0
= 8nA
0
S
Using(216a),themaximumdirectivityisequalto

0
=
4nu
mux
P
ud
=
4nA
0
8nA
0
S
= 1.S
greaterthan1.27inExample2.5.Thusthedirectivityisrepresentedby
=
0
sin
2
0 = 1.Ssin
2
0
Figure 2.12 shows the relative radiation intensities of Example 2.5
(0 = A
0
sinu)andExample2.6(0 = A
0
sin
2
u)

a
b

a. Bothp
b. Examp
elevat
patternsa
ple 2.6 h
tionplane
areomnid
has more
e.
directiona
e directio

l
onal charracteristiccs (is na

rrower) in the

A
a
T
i
Anothere
approxim
Thevalue
inFigure2
example:
atedby
esreprese
2.13(a,b)
Examin
=
entedby(
.
ne the dir
=
0
sin
3
(218)and

ectivity o
3
u = 1.67
dthoseo
of a halfw
7sin
3
u
fanisotr
wavelengt

opicsour
th dipole,

rce( =
which
(2.18)
1)are

It is apparent that when sin

-1
(11.67)
13
= S7.44
o
< < 122.S6
o
, the
dipoleradiatorhasgreaterdirectivitythanthatofanisotropicsource.
Outsidetherange,theisotropicradiatorhashigherdirectivity.Themaximum
directivityofthedipoleis1.67 (or 2.2S JB) ot = n2.
Thedirectivityofanisotropicsourceisunity
Forallothersources,themaximumdirectivitywillbegreaterthanunity.
The directivity can be smaller than unity: in fact it can be equal to zero. For
Examples2.3and2.4,thedirectivityisequaltozerointhe u = u direction.
Amoregeneralexpressionforthedirectivitycanbedevelopedtoinclude
sources with radiation patterns that may be functions of both spherical
coordinateangles u and |.
Lettheradiationintensityofanantennabeoftheform
u(0, ) = B
0
F(0, ) =
1
2q
||E
0
0
(0, )|
2
+|E
q
0
(0, )|
2
] (219)

where B
0
is a constant, and E
0
0
and E
q
0
are the antenna's farzone electric
fieldcomponents.Themaximumvalueof(219)isgivenby
u = B
0
F(0, )|
mux
= B
0
F
mux
(0, ) (219a)
Thetotalradiatedpowerisfoundusing
P
ud
= u(0, )J0
U
= B
0
] ] F(0, )sin0J0J
n
0
2n
0
(22u)
We now write the general expression for the directivity and maximum
directivityusing(216)and(216a),respectively,as
B(, ) =
4F(,q)
] ] F(,q)sInddq

0
2
0
, B
0
=
4F(,q)|
max
] ] F(,q)sInddq

0
2
0
(221, 22)
Equation(222)canalsobewrittenas
B
0
=
4
j] ] F(,q)sInddq

0
2
0
[
F(,q)|
max
_
=
4
H
A
(22S)
where
A

isthebeamsolidangle,anditisgivenby

0
A
=
1
F(0, )|
mux
_ _ F(0, )sin0J0J
n
0
2n
0

= ] ] F
n
(0, )sin0J0J
n
0
2n
0
(224)
F
n
(0, ) =
P(0,q)
P(0,q)|
mcx
(225)
Dividing by F(0, )|
mux
merely normalizes the radiation intensity
F(0, ),anditmakesitsmaximumvalueunity.
The beam solid angle
A
is defined as the solid angle through which all
the power of the antenna would flow if its radiation intensity is constant (and
equaltothemaximumvalueofU)forallangleswithin
A
.

2
d
m
m
a
o
t
p
b
p
a
2.6.1Di
Instea
derivesim
For a
major lo
minorlob
approxim
of the h
twoperpe
For a
pattern,
beamwidt
perpendic
asillustrat
rectiona
ad of usin
mplerexpr
antennas
obe and
bes,thebe
atelyequ
alfpower
endicular
a rotatio
the
ths in
cular plan
tedinFig
alPatter
ng (223)
ressionsa
with one
very n
eamsolid
ualtothe
r beamw
planes.
onally sy
hal
n any
nes are th
ure2.14(
rns
to compu
approxima
e narrow
egligible
angleis
product
widths in
mmetric
lfpower
two
he same,
b).

ute the d
ately.
(a)Nonsym
Figure2.1
an
irectivity,
mmetricalpa
14Beamso
ndsymmetr
it is ofte

ttern (b)S
lidanglesfo
icalradiatio
n conven
Symmetrica
ornonsymm
onpatterns.
ient to
lpattern
metrical

Withthisapproximation,(223)canbeapproximatedby
B
0
=
4
j] ] F(,q)sInddq

0
2
0
[
F(,q)|
max
_
=
4
H
A
(22S)

0
=
4n
U
A
=
4n
u
1r
u
2r
(226)
Thebeamsolidangle
A
hasbeenapproximatedby

A
=
1r

2r
(226a)
Where
0
1
=halfpowerbeamwidthinoneplane,(rad)
0
2
=halfpowerbeamwidthinaplaneatarightangletotheother,(rad)
Ifthebeamwidthsareknownindegrees,(226)canbewrittenas

0
=
4n(180n)
2
u
1d
u
2d
=
41,253
u
1d
u
2d
(227)
where
O
1d
=halfpowerbeamwidthinoneplane(degrees)
O
2d
=halfpowerbeamwidthinaplaneatarightangletotheother (degrees)

The validity of (226) and (227) is based on a pattern that has only one
majorlobeandanyminorlobes.
Forapatternwithtwoidenticalmajorlobes,thevalueofthemaximum
directivityusing(226)or(227)willbetwiceitsactualvalue.
For patterns with significant minor lobes, the values of maximum
directivity obtained using (226) or (227), which neglect any minor
lobes,willusuallybetoohigh.

E
a
w
r
(
F
a
b
S
b

Example
The
antennas
where B
0
radiation
(u 0
Figure.Fin
a.beams
b.maximu
Solution:
beamwidt
coordin
2.7
eradiation
canbead
0
is the
intensity
n2, u
ndthe
olidangle
umdirect
The half
thinthe
nate,
nintensity
dequately
u = B
maximum
existson
2n)
e;exactan
tivity;exac
fpower p
0 directi
yofthem
yrepresen
B
0
cos0
m radiati
lyinthe
), and it
ndapprox
ctusing(2
point of t
ionis 12

1r
=
2
3

majorlobe
ntedby
ion inten
upperhe
is show
ximate.
223)and
the patte
u
o
.Since
n
3
,
2r
=
eofmany
nsity. The
misphere
wn in the
dapproxim
ern occur
thepatte
=
2n
3
,
y
e
e
e
mateusing
rs at 0 =
ernisinde
g(226).
= 6u
0
. Th
ependent
us the
tofthe

a.Beamsolidangle
A

0
A
=
1
B
0
] ]
B
0
cos0sin0J0J
n2
0
2n
0
= steiauians (224)
Approximate:Using(226a)
0
A
= 0
1
0
2
= (
2n
3
)
2
= 4.S86 steiauians

(226)
b.Directivity
0
:
Exact:
0
=
4n
U
A
= 4 = 1u log
10
4 = 6.u2uB
Approximate:
0
=
4n
U
A
=
4n
u
1r
u
2r
= 2.86S (Jimcnsionlcss) = 4.S7 JB

2
a
i
a
S
1
2
a
2.7 ANT
Ass
antenna
intoacco
and with
Suchloss
1. Reflec
betwe
antenn
2. I
2
R lo
The
as
TENNA
ociatedw
efficien
ountlosse
hin the st
sesmayb
tions be
eenthet
na
osses(co
overalle
A EFFIC
withana
cy c
0
is
esatthe
tructure
bedueto
ecause o
ransmiss
onduction
efficiency
CIENCY
antenna
s used
einputte
of the a
o
f the m
sionline
nanddie
y canbe
c
0

Y
areanu
to take
erminals
ntenna.
ismatch
andthe
electric)
written
0
= c

c
c
c
umberof
c
d

fefficien

ncies.The

etotal
(244)

where
c
0
= totalefficiency(dimensionless)
c

=reflection(mismatch)efficiency= (1 - |I|
2
) (dimensionless)
c
c
=conductionefficiency(dimensionless)
c
d
=dielectricefficiency(dimensionless)
I=voltagereflectioncoefficientattheinputterminalsoftheantenna
I = (Z
In
- Z
0
)(Z
In
+ Z
0
)
Where
Z
In
=antennainputimpedance,
Z
0
=chaiacteiisticimpedanceofthetransmissionline
Usually c
c
and c
d
are very difficult to compute, but they can be
determinedexperimentally.

2.8 GAIN
The gain of the antenna is closely related to the directivity, it is a
measurethattakesintoaccounttheefficiencyoftheantennaaswellas
itsdirectionalcapabilities.
Directivity is a measure that describes only the directional
propertiesoftheantenna,anditiscontrolledonlybythepattern.
Absolutegainofanantennaisdefinedas"theratiooftheintensity,
in a given direction, to the radiation intensity that would be obtained if
the power accepted by the antenna were radiated isotropically. The
isotropically radiated power is equal to the power accepted by the
antennadividedby 4t."
gain = 4
radIatIon IntcnsIty
totaI Input (acccptcd)powcr
= 4
U(,q)
P
in
(dimensionless)
(244)

Relative gain is defined as "the ratio of the power gain in a given

direction to the power gain of a reference antenna in its referenced
direction."Thepowerinputmustbethesameforbothantennas.
The reference antenna is usually a dipole, horn, or any other
antenna whose gain can be calculated or it is known. In case the
referenceantennaisalosslessisotropicsource.Then
0 = 4n
0(0,q)
P
n
(IossIcss IsotropIc sourcc )
(dimensionless) (244a)
Whenthedirectionisnotstated,thepowergainisusuallytakenin
thedirectionofmaximumradiation.
Referring to Figure 2.17(a), we can write that the total radiated
power(P
rad
)isrelatedtothetotalinputpower(P
In
)by
P
ud
= c
cd
P
n
(245)

Both are very important losses and need to be included in the link
calculations of a communication system to determine the received or
radiatedpower.
Using(245)reduces(244a)to
0(0, ) = c
cd
4n0(0,q)
P
rcd
(246)
whichisrelatedtothedirectivityof(221)by
0(0, ) = c
cd
(0, ) (247)
Inasimilarmanner,themaximumvalueofthegainisrelatedtothe
maximumdirectivityby
According to the IEEE Standards, "gain does not include
losses arising from impedance mismatches (reflection losses)
andpolarizationmismatches(losses)."

u
0
= u(, )|
max
= e
cd
B(, )|
max
= e
cd
B
0
(247a)
The partial gain of an antenna for a given polarization in a given
directionis"thatpartoftheradiationintensitycorrespondingtoagiven
polarization divided by the total radiation intensity that would be
obtained if the power accepted by the antenna were radiated
isotropically."Thetotalgaininagivendirectionisthesumofthepartial
gainsforanytwoorthogonalpolarizations.
For a spherical coordinate system, the total maximum gain 0
0
for
theorthogonal u and | componentsofanantennacanbewrittenas
0
0
= 0
u
+ 0
|
(248)
whilethepartialgains 0
u
and 0
|
areexpressedas
0
u
= 4nu
u
P
n
, 0
q
= 4nu
q
P
n

(248a)
where

U
u
=radiationintensityinagivendirectioncontainedinufieldcomponent
U
|
=radiationintensityinagivendirectioncontainedin|fieldcomponent
P
in
=totalinput(accepted)power
For many practical antennas an approximate formula for the gain,
correspondingto(227)or(227a)forthedirectivity,is
0
0
=
30,000
O
1d
O
2d
(249)
Usually the gain is given in terms of decibels instead of the
dimensionlessquantityof(247a).Theconversionformulaisgivenby
u
0
(uB) = 1u log
10
|e
t
B
0
(uimensionless)] (250)

Example2.8
Alosslessresonanthalfwavelengthdipoleantenna,withinputimpedance
of 7S ohms, is to be connected to a transmission line whose characteristic
impedance is Su ohms. Assuming that the pattern of the antenna is given
approximatelyby u = B
0
sin
3
u,findtheoverallmaximumgainofthisantenna.
SOLUTION
Letusfirstcomputethemaximumdirectivityoftheantenna.Forthis
u|
mux
= u
mux
= B
0

P
rad
= _ _ 0(, )sinuu

0
2
0
= 2B
0
_ sin
3
sinu

0
= S
2
B
0
4

0
= 4n
u
mux
P
iau
=
16
S
= 1.697
Sincetheantennawaslossless,thentheradiationefficiency
c
cd
=1
Thus,thetotalmaximumgain,asdefinedinthiseditionandbyIEEE,isequalto

u
0
= c
cd
B
0
= 1(1.697) = 1.697
u
0
(uB) = 1u log
10
(1.697) = 2.297
whichisidenticaltothedirectivitybecausetheantennaislossless.
Thereisthelossduetoreflectionormismatchlossesbetweentheantenna
(load) and the transmission line. This loss is accounted for by the reflection
efficiencyof(251)or(252),anditisequalto
c

= (1 -|I|
2
) = _1 -_
Z
In
- Z
0
Z
In
+ Z
0
_
2
_ = u.96S
c

(JB) = 1u log
10
(u.96S) = -u.1SS (dB)
Thus,theoverallefficiencyis
c
0
= c

c
cd
= u.96S
c
0
(JB) = -u.1SS uB
Thus,theoveralllossesareequalto0.155dB.
The gain in dB can also be obtained by converting the directivity and
radiationefficiencyindBandthenaddingthem.Thus,

c
cd
(uB) = 1u log
10
(1.u) = u
B
0
(uB) = 1u log
10
(1.697) = 2.297
u
0
(uB) = c
cd
(uB) +B
0
(uB) = 2.297
whichisthesameasobtainedpreviously.

2
t
d
u
p
2.9 BEA
Beam
transmitt
directed
BE =
u
1
is the
percenta
Equat
B
AM EFF
m efficie
tingand
alongth
=
powcr t
powc
e halfan
ageofthe
tion(25
E =
] ]
2n
0
]
2n
0
FICIEN
ency is
receivin
ezaxis(
transmIttc
cr transmI
gle of th
etotalpo
3)canbe
] 0(0,q)
0
1
0
] 0(0,q)s
n
0
NCY
frequen
gantenn
(u=0),th
cd (rcccIvc
Ittcd (rccc
he cone
oweristo
ewritten
)sn0d0dq
sn0d0dq

ntly use
nas.Fora
hebeam
cd)wIthIn
cIvcd) by t
within w
obefoun
nas
q
q

ed to j
ananten
efficienc
conc angI
thc antcnn
(253
which the
nd.
(254
udge th
nnawith
cy(BE)is
Ic
1
na
(d
)
e
)
he quali
itsmajo
sdefined
dimensio
ity of
orlobe
dby
onless)

If u
1
is chosen as the angle where the first null or minimum occurs
(see Figure 2.4), then the beam efficiency will indicate the amount of
powerinthemajorlobecomparedtothetotalpower.
A very high beam efficiency is necessary for antennas used in
radiometry, astronomy, radar, and other applications where received
signalsthroughtheminorlobesmustbeminimized.

2.10 BANDWIDTH
Thebandwidthofanantennaisdefinedas"therangeoffrequencies
within which the performance of the antenna, with respect to some
characteristic,conformstoaspecifiedstandard."
Thebandwidthcanbeconsideredtobetherangeoffrequencies,on
either side of a center frequency, where the antenna characteristics
(such as input impedance, pattern, beamwidth, polarization, side lobe
level,gain,beamdirection,radiationefficiency)arewithinanacceptable
valueofthoseatthecenterfrequency.
The bandwidth is usually expressed as the ratio of the
uppertolower frequencies of acceptable operation. For example,
a10:1bandwidthindicates thattheupperfrequencyis10times
greaterthanthelower.

For narrowband antennas, the bandwidth is expressed as a

percentage of the frequency difference (upper minus lower) over
the center frequency of the bandwidth. For example, a 5%
bandwidth indicates that the frequency difference of acceptable
operationis5%ofthecenterfrequencyofthebandwidth.

2.11 POLARIZATION
Polarization of an antenna in a given direction is defined as "the
polarizationofthewavetransmitted(radiated)bytheantenna.
Polarization of a wave is defined as "that property of an
electromagneticwavedescribingthetimevaryingdirection andrelative
magnitudeoftheelectricfieldvector"
When the direction is not stated, the polarization is taken to be the
polarizationinthedirectionofmaximumgain."
Polarization of the radiated energy varies with the direction from the
centeroftheantenna,sothatdifferentpartsofthepatternmayhave
differentpolarizations.
Polarization is the curve traced by the end point of the arrow
representing the instantaneous electric field. A typical trace as a
functionoftimeisshowninFigures2.18(a)and(b).

P
1
Figure2.18
Polarizat
1. Elliptic
Thef
Linea

8Rotationofa
ionmay
cal
iguretha
randcir
aplaneelectr
beclassi
attheele
rcularpo
omagneticwa
ifiedas
ectricfiel
larization

aveanditspo
ldtraces
nsaresp
olarizationelli
isanelli
ecialcas

ipseatz=0a
pse.
esofelli
safunctiono
ptical
oftime.

2. Linear
If the vector that describes the electric field at a point in space as a
function of time is always directed along a line, the field is said to be
linearlypolarized.
Verticalpolarization
horizontalpolarization
3. Circular
Thefigureoftheelectricfieldistracedina
Clockwise(CW):theelectricfieldvectorisrighthandpolarization
Counterclockwise (CCW): the electric field vector is lefthand
polarization.

4. Copolarizationandcrosspolarization
At each point on the radiation sphere the polarization is usually
resolved into a pair of orthogonal polarizations, the copolarization and
cross polarization. Copolarization represents the polarization the
antenna is intended to radiate (receive) while crosspolarization
representsthepolarizationorthogonaltothecopolarization.
2.11.1Linear,Circular,andEllipticalPolarizations
The instantaneous field of a plane wave, traveling in the negative z
direction,canbewrittenas

(z, t) = o
x

x
(z, t) +o

(z, t) (255)
According to (25), the instantaneous components are related to their
complexcounterpartsby

x
(z, t) = Rc|E
x
-
c
](t+kz)
] = Rc|E
x0
c
](t+kz+q
x
)
]

= E
x0
cos (t+kz+
x
) (256)

(z, t) = Rc|E

-
c
](t+kz)
] = Rc|E
0
c
](t+kz+q
j
)
]
= E
0
cos (t+kz+

) (257)
where E
x0
and E
0
are,respectively,themaximummagnitudesofthe
xandycomponents.
A. LinearPolarization
Forthewavetohavelinearpolarization,thetimephasedifference
betweenthetwocomponentsmustbe
A| = |
y
- |
x
= nt, n = u, 1, 2, S, (258)
Whichmeansthatthephasesof
x
(z, t) and
y
(z, t) arethesameor
reverse.
B. CircularPolarization
Circularpolarizationcanbeachievedonlywhen

themagnitudesofthetwocomponentsarethesame
thetimephasedifferencebetweenthemisoddmultiplesof t2.
Thatis,
|
x
| = |
y
|E
x0
= E
y0
(259)
A| = |
y
- |
x
= +[
1
2
+ 2n , n = u, 1, ,2, foi CW (260)
A| = |
y
-|
x
= -[
1
2
+ 2n , n = u, 1, ,2, foi CCW (261)
If the direction of wave propagation is reversed (i.e., +z direction), the
phases in (260) and (261) for CW and CCW rotation must be
interchanged.
C. EllipticalPolarization
Ellipticalpolarizationcanbeattainedonlywhen
the timephase difference between the two components is odd

multiplesof t2 andtheirmagnitudesarenotthesame
or, when the timephase difference between the two components is
not equal to multiples of t/2 (irrespective of their magnitudes). That
is,
|
x
| = |
y
|E
x0
= E
y0

When
A| = |
y
-|
x
= +[
1
2
+2n , n = u, 1, ,2, foi CW (262a)
A| = |
y
-|
x
= -[
1
2
+2n , n = u, 1, ,2, foi CCW (262b)
0i
A| = |
y
-|
x
=
n
2
u, n = u, 1, ,2, or Cw (26S)
A| = |
y
-|
x
=
n
2
u, n = u, 1, ,2, or CCw (264)

t
t
2
m
w
For e
traced at
time is a
2.18(b). T
minorax
AR =
where
0A
0B
Thet

elliptical
t a given
a tilted e
The ratio
xisisthe
major ax
mInor ax
= |
1
2
|E
x0
2
B = |
1
2
|E
x
2
iltofthe
=
polariz
n position
ellipse, as
o of the
axialrati
xIs
xIs
=
OA
OB
0
+E
y0
2
+
x0
2
+E
y0
2
-
ellipse,

2
-
1
2
tan
ation, t
n as a fu
s shown
major ax
o(AR),
, 1sARs
|E
x0
4
+E
-|E
x0
4
+
relativet
n
-1
|
2E
x0
E
x0
2
-

he curv
unction o
in Figur
xis to th
(26S
E
y0
4
+2E
x
2
E
y0
4
+2E
totheya
0
E
y0
-E
y0
2
cos (
ve
of
re
e
S)
x0
2
E
y0
2
cos (
E
x0
2
E
y0
2
cos
axis,isre
(2)]
(2)]
12
s (2)]
1
epresente

2
|]
12

2
|]
12

ed giv
(
(266)
(267)
venby
(268)

SUMMARY
1. LinearPolarization
Atimeharmonicwaveislinearlypolarizedatagivenpointinspaceifthe
electricfield(ormagneticfield)vectoratthatpointisalwaysorientedalongthe
same straight line at every instant of time. This is accomplished if the field
vector(electricormagnetic)possesses:
a. Onlyonecomponent,or
b. Two orthogonal linear components that are in time phase or 180
o
(or
multiplesof180
o
)outofphase.
2. CircularPolarization
A timeharmonic wave is circularly polarized at a given point if the electric
(ormagnetic)fieldvectoratthatpointtracesacircleasafunctionoftime.The
necessaryandsufficientconditionstoaccomplishthisare:
a. Thefieldmusthavetwoorthogonallinearcomponents,and
b. Thetwocomponentsmusthavethesamemagnitude,and

c. The two components must have a timephase difference of odd multiples

of90
o
.
3. EllipticalPolarization
A wave is elliptically polarized if it is not linearly or circularly polarized.
Although linear and circular polarizations are special cases of elliptical, usually
in practice elliptical polarization refers to other than linear or circular. The
necessary and sufficient conditions to accomplish this are if the field vector
(electricormagnetic)possessesallofthefollowing:
a. Thefieldmusthavetwoorthogonallinearcomponents,and
b. Thetwocomponentscanbeofthesameordifferentmagnitude.
c. (1)Ifthetwocomponentsarenotofthesamemagnitude,thetimephase
difference between the two components must not be u
o
or multiples of
18u
o
(becauseitwillthenbelinear).(2)Ifthetwocomponentsareofthe
samemagnitude,thetimephasedifferencebetweenthetwocomponents
mustnotbeoddmultiplesof90
o
(becauseitwillthenbecircular).

2.11.2PolarizationLossFactorandEfficiency
Thepolarizationofthereceivingantennawillnotbethesameasthe
of the incident wave. This is stated as "polarization mismatch." The
amountofpowerextractedbytheantennafromtheincidentsignalwill
notbemaximumbecauseofthepolarizationloss.Assumingtheelectric
fieldoftheincidentwaveis
E

I
=
w
E
I
(269)
where
w
is the unit vector of the wave. Assuming the polarization of
theelectricfieldofthereceivingantennais
E

a
=
a
E
a
(27u)
where
a
is its unit vector (polarization vector). The polarization loss
factor(PLF)isdefined
PLF = |
w

a
|
2
= cos|
p
|
2
(uimensionless) (271)

w
i
i
m
p
t
e
w
t
where
incoming
If the
its PLF =
maximum
Anoth
polarizat
that of
efficiency
Pola
"The
wave of
thesame

p
is th
gwavean
e antenna
= 1 and
mpower
her figur
ion char
an ante
y.
rizatione
e ratio of
arbitrary
eantenn
he angle
ndofthe
a is pola
d the ant
fromthe
reofme
racteristic
enna is
efficiency
f the pow
y polariz
afroma
e betwee
evectors
rization
tenna w
eincomi
rit descr
cs of a w
the po
yisdefin
wer rece
ation to
planew

en the
showni
matched
ill extrac
ngwave
ribing th
wave an
olarizatio
nedas:
ived by a
the pow
waveofth
two uni
nFigure
d,
ct
.
e
d
n
Figu
vectors
an anten
wer that
hesame
it polari
2.19.
ure2.19Po
sofinciden
antenn
nna from
would b
powerfl
zation o
olarization
ntwave(
na(
a
)
m a given
be receiv
uxdensit
of the

unit

w
)and
plane
ved by
tyand

direction of propagation, whose polarization has been adjusted for a

maximumreceivedpower."
P
c
=
|I

c
L

inc
|
2
|I

c
|
2
|L

inc
|
2
(271a)
Where
l
c

=vectoreffectivelengthoftheantenna
E

nc
=incidentelectricfield
The vector effective length l
c

is a vector that describes the

polarizationcharacteristicsoftheantenna.BoththePLFand P
c
leadto
thesameanswers.

Example2.9
Theelectricfieldofalinearlypolarizedelectromagneticwavegivenby
E

= o
x
E
0
(x, y)c
-]kz

isincidentuponalinearlypolarizedantennawhoseelectricfieldpolarization
canbeexpressedas
E

u
= (o
x
+o

)E(r, 0, )
Findthepolarizationlossfactor(PLF)
SOLUTION
Fortheincidentwaveandtheantenna
p
w
= o
x
, p
u
=
1
2
(o
x
+o

)
ThePLFis:
PLF = |p
w
p
u
|
2
= |o
x

1
2
(o
x
+o

)|
2
=
1
2
or 1u log
10
u.S = -SuB
1. Even the incoming wave and the antenna are linearly polarized, there is a
3dBlossinextractedpowerbecausethepolarizationoftheincomingwaveis

2
t
notalig
2. Ifthe
the a
thei
InFig
typesofa
gnedwith
epolariza
antenna,
ncoming
gures2.2
antennas;
(a
hthepola
tionofth
then the
waveand
0(a,b)we
wiresand
a)PLFfortra
rizationo
heincomin
re will be
dthePLFw
eillustrate
dapertur
ansmittinga

oftheante
ngwaveis
e no powe
willbeze
ethepola
es.
andreceivin
enna.
sorthogo
er extract
roord
arizationl
ngaperture
onaltothe
ted by th
dB.
ossfactor
antennas
epolariza
e antenn
rs(PLF)of
ationof
a from
ftwo

c
a
a
p
l
Fi
The
calculatio
averycrit
Link
are very
powerisa
ossfacto
(b
igure2.25P
polarizat
nsdesign
ticalfacto
calculatio
stringent
alimiting
rstoensu
)PLFfortra
Polarizationl
tion loss
nofacom
or.
ons of co
because
considera
ureasucc
nsmittinga
lossfactors
must al
mmunicati
ommunica
of limita
ation.The
cessfulope

ndreceiving
(PLF)forap
ways be
onsystem
ation syst
ations in
edesignm
erationof
glinearwire
ertureand
taken in
mbecause
ems for o
spacecraf
mustprop
fthesyste
eantennas
linearwirea
nto accou
einsome
outer spa
ft weight
perlytake
em.

antennas.
unt in th
casesitm
ace explo
. In such
intoacco
he link
maybe
rations
cases,
ountall

a
f
(
A
p
Ana
as shown
fieldcomp
If th
(perpendi
Also, if th
polarizatio
antennath
in Figure
ponents.
Figure
he two di
iculartot
he two dip
onalongz
hatisellip
e 2.26. Th

2.26Geome
poles are
theplane
poles wer
zenithwo
pticallypo
he two cr
etryofellipt
e identica
ofthetw
re fed wit
ouldbecir

olarizedis
rossed dip
ticallypolar
al, the fie
wodipole
th a 90 d
rcularand
scompose
poles pro
izedcrossd
eld intens
s)would
degree tim
delliptica
edoftwo
vide the

dipoleanten
sity of ea
beofthe
mephase
l.
crossedd
two orth
na.
ch along
esameint
e differenc
dipoles,
ogonal
zenith
tensity.
ce, the

2
t
o
t
i
t
r
t
d
a
w
2.12 INP
Inpu
terminals
oftheapp
Inpu
terminals
interestin
terminals
ratio of th
terminals,
defines
antennaa
where

PUT IM
ut impeda
orthera
propriate
ut impeda
of the a
g. In F
are desi
he voltag
, with n
the im
as
Z
A
=ante
R
A
=ante
MPEDA
ance is de
tioofthe
compone
ance at
ntenna is
igure 2.2
gnated a
ge to curr
no load
pedance
ennaimpe
ennaresist
ANCE
efined as
evoltaget
entsofthe
the inpu
s primaril
27(a) th
s ab. Th
rent at th
attached
of th
Z
A
=
edanceat
tanceatt

"the impe
tocurrent
eelectric
ut
y
e
e
e
d,
e
R
A
+]X
A
terminal
terminals
edance p
tatapair
tomagne

sab (o
ab (o
resented
roftermi
eticfields

hms)
ohms)
at an ant
nalsorth
atapoin

tennas
heratio
t."
(272)

w
w
B
a
a
w

Assum
withinter
where
R
g
=r
X
g
=r
Being use
andgener
To f
amountd
withinthe
X
A
=ante
me the an
rnalimped
Z
g
=
resistance
reactance
ed in the
ratorcan
find the
dissipated
eloopwh
I
g
ennareact
ntenna is
dance
= R
g
+]X
eofgener
eofgener
transmit
berepres
amount
in R
L
as
hichisgive
=
v
g
z
t
=
z
tanceatt
attached
X
g

ratorimpe
ratorimpe
tting mod
sentbyFig
of powe
sheat(I
2
enby
v
g
z
A
+z
g
=

erminals
d to a gen
(
edance (
edance (
de, the an
gure2.27
r deliver
2
R
L
2),w
(R
r
+R
L
+R
ab (o
nerator
(274)
ohms)
ohms)
ntenna
7(b).
ed to R

wefirstfin
v
g
R
g
)+](X
A
+
hms)

for rad
ndthecur
+X
g
)

diation an
rrentdeve
(A)
nd the
eloped
(27S)

anditsmagnitudeby |I
g
| =
|v
g
|
|(R
r
+R
L
+R
g
)
2
+(X
A
+X
g
)
2
|
12
(27Sa)
where I
g
isthepeakgeneratorvoltage.
Thepowerdeliveredtotheantennaforradiationisgivenby
P

=
1
2
|I
g
|
2
|R

=
|v
g
|
2
2
_
R
r
(R
r
+R
L
+R
g
)
2
+(X
A
+X
g
)
2
_ (W) (276)
andthatdissipatedasheatinantennaby
P
L
=
1
2
|I
g
|
2
|R
L
=
|v
g
|
2
2
_
R
L
(R
r
+R
L
+R
g
)
2
+(X
A
+X
g
)
2
_ (W) (277)
ThepowerdissipatedasheatontheinternalresistanceR
g
ofthegeneratoris
P
g
=
|v
g
|
2
2
_
R
g
(R
r
+R
L
+R
g
)
2
+(X
A
+X
g
)
2
_ (W) (278)
The maximum power delivered to the antenna occurs when conjugate
matchingisachieved
R

+ R
L
= R
g
; X
A
= -X
g
(279, 2u8u)
Forthiscase

=
|v
g
|
2
2
j
R
r
4(R
r
+R
L
)
2
[ =
|v
g
|
2
8
j
R
r
(R
r
+R
L
)
2
[ (281)
P
L
=
|v
g
|
2
8
j
R
L
(R
r
+R
L
)
2
[ (282)
P
g
=
|v
g
|
2
8
j
R
g
(R
r
+R
L
)
2
[ =
|v
g
|
2
8
j
1
R
r
+R
L
[ =
|v
g
|
2
8R
g
(28S)
From(281)(283),itisclearthat
P
g
= P

+P
L
=
|v
g
|
2
8
j
R
g
(R
r
+R
L
)
2
[ =
|v
g
|
2
8
j
R
r
+R
L
(R
r
+R
L
)
2
[ (284)
Thepowersuppliedbythegeneratorduringconjugatematchingis
P
S
=
1
2
I
g
I
g
=
1
2
I
g
j
v
g
2(R
r
+R
L
)
[ =
|v
g
|
2
4
j
1
R
r
+R
L
[ (W) (28S)

2.14 ANTENNA RADIATION EFFICIENCY

The conductiondielectric efficiency e
cd
is defined as the ratio of the
power delivered to the radiation resistance R

, to the power delivered to

R

+R
L
.Theradiationefficiencycanbewrittenas
c
cd
= j
R
r
R
L
+R
r
[ (uimensionless) (29u)
Forametalrodoflength l andarea A,thedcresistanceis given by
R
dc
=
1
c
I
A
(ohms) (29ua)
If the skin depth o|o = 2(p
0
o)] of the metal is very small compared to
thesmallestdiagonalofthecrosssectionoftherod,thecurrentisconfinedtoa
thin layer near the conductor surface. Therefore the highfrequency resistance
canbewritten,basedonauniformcurrentdistribution,as
R
h]
=
I
p
R
s
=
I
p
_
o
0
2c
(ohms) (29ub)
Where

P = 2tb istheperimeterofthecrosssectionoftherod(b: theradiusofwire)

R
s
istheconductorsurfaceresistance
e istheangularfrequency

0
isthefreespacespermeability
o isthemetalsconductivity.
Example2.13
Aresonanthalfwavelengthdipoleismadeoutofcopper(o = S.71u
7
sm)
wire. Determine the conductiondielectric (radiation) efficiency of the dipole
antenna at = 1uu MHz, the radius of the wire b is S1u
-4
, and the
radiationresistanceofthe 2 dipoleis73ohms.
SOLUTION
At = 1u
8
Hz
z =

]
=
310
8
10
8
= Sm; l =
x
2
= S2m;
C = 2nb = 2n(S 1u
-4
)z = 6n 1u
-4
z

For a /2 dipole with a sinusoidal current distribution R

L
=
1
2
R
h]
where
R
h]
isgivenby(290b).Therefore,
R
L
=
1
2
R
h]
=
u.2S
6n 1u
-4
_
(1u
8
)(4n 1u
-7
)
S.7 1u
7
= u.S49 obms
e
cd
=
73
73+0.349
= u.99S2 = 99.S2; e
cd
(uB) = 1ulog
10
(u.99S2) = -u.u2

2
c
a
d
w
2.15 ANT
ARE
An a
capture(
asshown
Fore
defined t
waveisin
TENNA
EAS
antenna
(collect)
ninFigur
eachant
to descri
ncidentu
VECTOR
in the r
electrom
res2.29(
enna,its
ibe the r
uponthe
R EFFEC
receiving
magnetic
a)and(b
sequival
receiving
eantenna

CTIVE L
g mode,
wavesa
b).
entlengt
g charact
a.

LENGTH
whateve
ndtoext
thande
eristics o
H AND E
er its for
tractpow
quivalen
of an ant
EQUIVA
rm, is us
werfrom
ntareasc
tenna, w
ALENT
sed to
mthem,
canbe
when a

2.15.1VectorEffectiveLength
The effective length of an antenna is a quantity to determine the voltage
induced on the opencircuit terminals of the antenna when a wave
impinges upon it. It should be noted that it is also referred to as the
effectiveheight.
The vector effective length l
c
for an antenna is a complex vector
representedby
l
c
(0, ) = o
0
l
0
(0, ) +o
q
l
q
(0, ) (291)
It is a farfield quantity and it is related to the farzone field E

radiatedbytheantenna,withcurrent I
n
initsterminals
E

u
= o
0
E
0
+o
q
E
q
= -]p
kI
in
4n
l
c
c
-]k
(292)
Theeffectivelengthisparticularlyusefulinrelatingtheopencircuitvoltage
I
oc
ofreceivingantennas.Thisrelationcanbeexpressedas

I
oc
= E

l
c
(293)
where
I
oc
=opencircuitvoltageatantennaterminals
E

I
=incidentelectricfield
l
c
=vectoreffectivelength
In(293) I
oc
canbethoughtofasthevoltageinducedinalinearantenna
oflength l
c
when l
c
and E

arelinearlypolarized.
From the relation of (293) the effective length of a linearly polarized
antennareceivingaplanewaveinagivendirectionisdefinedas

Inaddition,theantennavectoreffectivelengthisusedtodetermine
thepolarizationefficiencyoftheantenna.
The ratio of the magnitude of the opencircuit voltage developed at the
terminalsoftheantennatothemagnitudeoftheelectricfieldstrengthinthe
directionoftheantennapolarization.

Example2.14
The farzone field radiated by a small dipole of length l <

10
and
withatriangularcurrentdistributionisgivenby
E

u
= o
0
]p
kI
n
lc
-]k
8nr
sin 0
Determinethevectoreffectivelengthoftheantenna.
Solution:Accordingto(292),thevectoreffectivelengthis
E

u
= o
c
E
0
+o
q
E
q
= -]p
kI
in
4n
l
c
c
-]k
(292)
l
c
= -o
0
l
2
sin 0
Thisindicatestheeffectivelengthisafunctionofthedirectionangle u.
The maximum open circuit voltage at the dipole terminals occurs when the
incidentdirectionofthewaveisnormaltothedipole(u = 9u
0
).
In addition, the effective length of the dipole to produce the same output

opencircuitvoltageisonlyhalf(50%)ofitsphysicallengthifitwerereplaced
byathinconductorhavingauniformcurrentdistribution
The maximum effective length of an element with an ideal uniform current
distributionisequaltoitsphysicallength.

2.15.2 AntennaEquivalentAreas
AntennaEquivalentAreas
Thescatteringarea
Thelossarea
thecapturearea
Antenna Equivalent Areas A
c
are used to describe the power
capturingcharacteristicsofantennaswhenwaveimpingonthem,which
inagivendirectionisdefinedastheratiooftheavailablepoweratthe
terminals of a receiving antenna to the power flux density of a plane
wave incident on the antenna from that direction, the wave being
polarizationmatchedtotheantenna.Ifthedirectionisnotspecified,the
directionofmaximumradiationintensityisimplied.Itiswrittenas
A
c
=
P
T
w
i
=
|I
T
|
2
R
T
2
w
i
(294)
Where A
c
=effectivearea(effectiveaperture)(m
2
);
P
1
=powerdeliveredtotheload(W);
w

=powerdensityofincidentwave(W/m
2
)

c
R
m
W
p
Using
canwrite
A
A
c
=
|v
T
|
2w
Unde
R

+ R
L
maximum
When(29
powerof
g the equ
(294)as
A
c
=
P
T
w
i
=
|
2
w
i
j
(R
r
+R
L
+
er condit
= R
1
an
meffective
96)ismu
(289).
uivalent o
=
|I
T
|
2
R
T

w
i
R
T
+R
T
)
2
+(X
A
ions of
nd X
A
=
eaperture
A
cm
=
|
ltipliedby
of Figure
2

A
+X
T
)
2
[
maximum
-X
1
, the
egivenby
v
T
|
2
8w
i
j
R
(R
r
+
ytheincid

2.28, we
(294)
(295)
m power
e effectiv
y
R
T
+R
L
)
2
[ =
|v
8
dentpowe
e
)
)
r transfer
ve area o
v
T
|
2
8w
i
j
1
R
r
+R
erdensity
r (conjug
of (295)
L
[
y,itleads
gate mat
reduces

totheca

tching),
to the
(296)
ptured

P
c
=
1
2
I
1
I
1

=
1
2
I
1
j
v
T

2(R
r
+R
L
)
[ =
|v
T
|
2
4
j
1
R
r
+R
L
[ (297)
All captured power by an antenna is not delivered to the load. In
fact, under conjugate matching only half of the captured power is
deliveredtotheload;theotherhalfisscatteredanddissipatedasheat.
To account for the scattered and dissipated power, in addition to the
effective area, the scattering, loss and capture equivalent areas are
defined.
The scattering area is defined as the equivalent area when
multiplied by the incident power density is equal to the scattered or
reradiatedpower.Underconjugatematchingthisiswrittenas
A
s
=
|V
T
|
2
8W

j
R

(R

+R
L
)
2
[ (297)
multipliedbytheincidentpowerdensitygivesthescatteringpower.

The loss area is defined as the equivalent area, which when

multiplied by the incident power density leads to the power dissipated
asheatthrough R
L
.Underconjugatematchingthisiswrittenas
A
L
=
|v
T
|
2
8w
i
j
R
L
(R
r
+R
L
)
2
[ (298)
multipliedbytheincidentpowerdensitygivesthedissipatedpower.
The capture area is defined as the equivalent area, which when
multiplied by the incident power density leads to the total power
capturedbytheantenna.Underconjugatematchingthisiswrittenas
A
c
=
|v
T
|
2
8w
i
j
R
L
+R
r
+R
T
(R
r
+R
L
)
2
[ (299)
multipliedbytheincidentpowerdensity,itleadstothecapturedpower.
Thetotalcaptureareaisequaltothesumoftheotherthree,or

Captuie Aiea = Effective Aiea + Scatteiing Aiea + Loss Aiea

The aperture efficiency c

ap
of an antenna, which is defined as the
ratioofthemaximumeffectivearea A
cm
oftheantennatoitsphysical
area A
p
,or
c
ap
=
A
em
A

=
maxImum cIIcctIvc arca
physIcaI arca
(2100)
For aperture type antennas, such as waveguides, horns, and
reflectors, the maximum effective area cannot exceed the physical area
butitcanequalit(A
cm
A
p
oi u c
ap
1).Thereforethemaximum
valueoftheapertureefficiencycannotexceedunity(100%).
For a lossless antenna (R
L
= u) the maximum value of the
scatteringareaisalsoequaltothephysicalarea.Thereforeeventhough
the aperture efficiency is greater than 50%, under conjugate matching
only half of the captured power is delivered to the load and the other
halfisscattered.

E
s
r
l
S
F
o
S
c
Example2
Aunifo
shown in
radiation
inearlypo
Solution:
For R
L
=
of(296)r
A
cm
=
|v
8
Since the
constanta
2.15
ormplane
Figure 2
resistanc
olarizeda
= u,them
reducesto
v
T
|
2
8w
i
j
R
T
(R
r
+R
A
cm
=
e dipole i
andofun
ewaveis
.29(a). Fi
e of the
alongthe
maximum
o
T
R
L
)
2
[ =
|v
T
8w

=
|I
1
|
2
8w

_
1
R
is very sh
iformpha
incidentu
nd the m
dipole is
axisofthe
effective
T
|
2
w
i
j
1
R
r
+R
L
(
1
R

_
hort, the
ase.Thein

uponave
maximum
R
r
= 8u
edipole.
earea
L
[
296)
induced
nducedvo
eryshortl
effective
u(t)
2
,
d current
oltageis
losslessd
area ass
and the
can be
ipole(l<<
suming th
incident
assumed
<),as
hat the
field is

to be

I
1
= El
where
V
T
=inducedvoltageonthedipole
E=electricfieldofincidentwave,l=lengthofdipole
Forauniformplanewave,theincidentpowerdensitycanbewrittenas
w

= E
2
2p
whereqistheintrinsicimpedanceofthemedium(120tohmsforafreespace
medium).Thus
A
cm
=
|El|
2
8(E
2
2p)(8un
2
l
2
z
2
)
= u.119z
2

2
e
e

r
B
o
T
l
2.16 MAX
To d
effective
effective

t
,
r
. If
radiated
w
Because o
oftheant
w
t
=
The pow
loadwou
XIMUM
derive th
area, le
areas a
f antenn
powerd
w
0
=
P
t
4nR
of the di
tenna,its
w
0

t
=
wer collec
uldbe
DIRECT
he relat
et Anten
and direc
a 1 wer
densityat
R
2

rective p
actualde
P
t

t
4nR
2

cted (rec
TIVITY A
tionship
nna 1 be
ctivities
e isotrop
tadistan
(2101)
properties
ensityis
(2102)
ceived) b

AND MA
betwee
e a trans
of each
pic, and
nce R w
)
s
)
by the a
AXIMUM
en direc
smitter
are des
P
t
the t
wouldbe
ntenna a
M EFFECT
ctivity a
and 2 a
ignated
total radi
and tran
TIVE AR
nd max
receive
as A
t
, A
ated pow
sferred t
REA
ximum
r. The
A
r
and
wer. its
to the

= w
t
A

=
P
t

t
4nR
2
A

t
A

=
P
r
P
t
4nR
2
(2103)
If antenna 2 is used as a transmitter, 1 as a receiver, and the
interveningmediumislinear,passive,andisotropic,wecanwritethat

A
t
=
P
r
P
t
4nR
2
(2104)
Equating(2103a)and(2104)reducesto

t
A
t
=

r
A
r
(2105)
Increasing the directivity of an antenna increases its effective area in
directproportion.Thus,(2105)canbewrittenas

0t
A
tm
=

0r
A
rm
(2106)
where A
tm
and A
rm
(B
0t
and B
0r
)arethemaximumeffectiveareas
(directivities)ofantennas1and2,respectively.Ifantenna1isisotropic,

then B
0t
= 1 anditsmaximumeffectiveareacanbeexpressedas
A
tm
=
A
rm

0r
(2107)
For example, let the antenna be a very short (l << ) dipole
whose effective area = u.119
2
and maximum directivity = 1.5. The
maximumeffectiveareaoftheisotropicsourceisthenequalto
A
tm
=
A
rm

0r
=
0.119x
2
1.5
=
x
2
4n
(2108)
Using(2108),wecanwrite(2107)as
A
m
=
0
A
tm
=
0
x
2
4n
(2109)
In general then, the maximum effective aperture (A
cm
) of any
antennaisrelatedtoitsmaximumdirectivity(B
0
)by
A
cm
=
0
x
2
4n
(2110)

2
E
r
E
2
p
t
2.17 FR
EQUAT
The
require t
Equation
2.17.1Fr
The
power tr
thelarge
RIIS TRA
TION
analysis
the use o
n.
riisTrans
Friis Tra
ransmitte
estdimen
ANSMIS
s and d
of the Fr
smission
nsmissio
ed betwe
nsionofe
SSION E
esign of
iis Trans
Equatio
on Equat
een two
eitheran

EQUAT
f radar
mission
n
tion relat
antenna
ntenna.
ION AN
and com
Equation
tes the p
as separa
ND RAD
mmunica
n and the
power re
ated by R
DAR RA
ations sy
e Radar
eceived t
R >
2D
2

ANGE
ystems
Range
to the
, B is

Assumingthetransmittingantennaisisotropic.Iftheinputpoweratthe
terminals of the transmitting antenna is P
t
, then its isotropic power
density W
0

atdistance R fromtheantennais
W
0
= e
t
P
t
4R
2
(211S)
e
t
:theradiationefficiencyofthetransmittingantenna.
For a nonisotropic transmitting antenna, the power density of
(2113)inthedirection 0
t
,
t
is
W
t
=
P
t
G
t
(
t
,q
t
)
4R
2
= e
t
P
t
D
t
(
t
,q
t
)
4R
2
(2114)
Sincetheeffectivearea A

ofthereceivingantennaisrelatedtoits
efficiency c

anddirectivity

by
A
cm
=
0
x
2
4n
; A

= c

(0

)
x
2
4n
(2115)
thepower P

collectedbythereceivingantennais

P
r
= e
r
B
r
(
r
,
r
)
\
2
4
W
t
= e
t
e
r
\
2
D
t
(
t
,q
t
)D

,q

)P
t
4R
2
|
t

r
|
2

(2118)
Theratioofthereceivedtotheinputpoweras
P
r
P
t
= c
t
c

x
2

t
(0
t
,q
t
)
r
(0
r
,q
r
)
(4nR)
2
(2117)
Thepowerreceivedbasedon(2117)assumesthatthetransmitting
and receiving antennas are matched to their respective lines or loads
andthepolarizationofthereceivingantennaispolarizationmatchedto
theimpingingwave.
Ifthesetwofactorsarealsoincluded,thentheratioofthereceived
totheinputpowerof(2117)isrepresentedby
P
r
P
t
= c
cdt
c
cd
[
x
4nR

t
(0
t
,
t
)

(0

)(1 -|
t
|
2
)(1 -|

|
2
)|
t

|
2

(2118)

For reflection and polarizationmatched antennas aligned for maximum

directionalradiationandreception,(2118)reducesto
P
r
P
t
= [
x
4nR

2
0
0t
0
0
(2119)
Equations (2117), (2118), or (2119) are known as the Friis
Transmission Equation, and it relates the power P

(delivered to the
receiver load) to the input power of the transmitting antenna P
t
. The
term [

4tR

2
is called the freespace loss factor, and it takes into
account the losses due to the spherical spreading of the energy by the
antenna.

2
s
d
s
t
2.17.2Ra
Assu
shownin
The
defined
scattered
tothatsc
adarRan
uming th
nFigure2
radar c
as the a
disotrop
cattered
ngeEqua
at the tr
2.32.
ross sec
area inte
pically,pr
bythea
ation
ransmitte
tion (RC
ercepting
roducesa
ctualtar

ed powe
CS) or ec
g that am
atthere
get.Ineq
er is incid
cho area
mount o
ceivera
quationf
dent upo

a ( o ) o
of power
density
form
on a targ
of a targ
r which,
whichis
get, as
get, is
when
equal

lim
R
j
cw
i
4nR
2
[ = w
S
(2120)
o = lim
R
_4nR
2
w
S
w

_ = lim
R
_4nR
2
|E
s
|
2
|E

|
2
_
= lim
R
_4nR
2
|H
s
|
2
|H
i
|
2
_ (2120a)
o=radarcrosssectionorechoarea (m
2
)
R=observationdistancefromtarget (m)
W
I
=incidentpowerdensity (W/m
2
)
W
s
=scatteredpowerdensity (W/m
2
)
E
I
(E
s
)=incident(scattered)electricfield (V/m)
B
I
(B
s
)=incident(scattered)magneticfield (A/m)
Usingthedefinitionofradarcrosssection,wecanconsiderthat
the transmitted power incident upon the target is initially
captured

then it is reradiated isotropically, insofar as the receiver is

concerned.
The amount of captured power P
c
is obtained by multiplying the
incidentpowerdensityof(2114)bytheradarcrosssectiono,or
W
t
=
P
t
G
t
(
t
,q
t
)
4R
2
= e
t
P
t
D
t
(
t
,q
t
)
4R
2
(2114)
P
c
= ow
t
= o
P
t
u
t
(0
t
,q
t
)
4nR
1
2
= c
t
o
P
t

t
(0
t
,q
t
)
4nR
1
2
(2121)
Thepowercapturedbythetargetisreradiatedisotropically,andthe
scatteredpowerdensitycanbewrittenas
w
s
=
P
c
4nR
2
2
= c
cdt
o
P
t

t
(0
t
,q
t
)
(4nR
1
R
2
)
2
(2122)
Theamountofpowerdeliveredtothereceiverloadisgivenby
P

= A

w
s
= c
cdt
c
cd
o
P
t

t
(0
t
,q
t
)
r
(0
r
,q
r
)
4n
[
x
4nR
1
R
2

2
(2123)

Equation(2123)canbewrittenastheratioofthereceivedpowertothe
inputpower,or
P
r
P
t
= c
cdt
c
cd
o

t
(0
t
,q
t
)
r
(0
r
,q
r
)
4n
[
x
4nR
1
R
2

2
(2124)
Expression(2124)isusedtorelatethereceivedpowertotheinput
power, It does not include reflection losses and polarization losses. If
thesetwolossesarealsoincluded,then(2124)mustbeexpressedas
P
r
P
t
= c
cdt
c
cd
o

t
(0
t
,q
t
)
r
(0
r
,q
r
)
4n
[
x
4nR
1
R
2

2
(1 -|
t
|
2
)(1 -|

|
2
)|
t

|
2

(2125)
For polarizationmatched antennas aligned for maximum directional
radiationandreception,(2125)reducesto
P
r
P
t
= o
u
0t
u
0r
4n
[
x
4nR
1
R
2

2
(2126)
Equation(2124),or(2125)or(2126)isknownastheRadarRange

Equation.Itrelatesthepower P
r
(deliveredtothereceiverload)tothe
input power P
t
transmitted by an antenna, after it has been scattered
byatargetwitharadarcrosssection(echoarea)of o.
Example2.16
Two lossless Xband (8.2 12.4 uBz) horn antennas are separated by a
distance of 1uu . The reflection coefficients at the terminals of the
transmitting and receiving antennas are u.1 and u.2 , respectively. The
maximum directivities of the transmitting and receiving antennas (over
isotropic) are 16 dB and 20 dB, respectively. Assuming that the input power in
thelosslesstransmissionlineconnectedtothetransmittingantennais 2W,and
the antennas are aligned for maximum radiation between them and are
polarizationmatched,findthepowerdeliveredtotheloadofthereceiver.
Solution:
Forthisproblem
e
cdt
= e
cdr
= 1 becauseantennasarelossless.

|
t

|
2
= 1 becauseantennasarepolarizationmatched
B
t
= B
0t
, B
r
= B
0r
because antennas are aligned for maximum
radiationbetweenthem
B
0t
= 16 uB39.81(dimensionless)
B
0r
= 2u uB1uu (dimensionless)
Using(2118),wecanwrite
P

= 2 1 1 [
x
4n100x

2
S9.81 1uu(1 - u.1
2
)(1 - u.2
2
)1
2
=4.777mW

2.17.3AntennaRadarCrossSection
The radar cross section is a farfield parameter, which is used to
characterizethescatteringpropertiesofaradartarget.
monostaticorbackscatteringRCS
bistaticRCS
TheRCSofatargetisafunctionof
1. polarizationoftheincidentwave,
2. theangleofincidence,
3. theangleofobservation,
4. thegeometryofthetarget,
5. theelectricalpropertiesofthetarget,
6. thefrequencyofoperation.
TheunitsofRCSofthreedimensionaltargetsarem
2
,ordBsm,orRCS/
2
in
dB.
The RCS of a target can be controlled using primarily two basic methods:

shapingandtheuseofmaterials.
Shaping is used to attempt to direct the scattered energy toward
directionsotherthanthedesired.However,formanytargetsshapinghas
to be compromised in order to meet other requirements, such as
aerodynamicspecificationsforflyingtargets.
Materials are used to trap the incident energy within the target and to
dissipatepartoftheenergyasheatortodirectittowarddirectionsother
thanthedesired.
Usuallybothmethods,shapingandmaterials,areusedtogetherinorderto
optimizetheperformanceofaradartarget.
One of thegolden rulesto observe in order to achieve low RCS is to
roundcorners,avoidflatandconcavesurfaces,andusematerialtreatmentin
flarespots.

Problems
2.4. Find the half-power beamwidth (HPBW) and first-null beamwidth (FNBW),
in radians and degrees, for the following normalized radiation intensities:
(a)0() = cos (b)0() = cos
2

(c)0() = cos(2) (u)0() = cos
2
(2)
(e)0() = cos(S) (f)0() = cos
2
(S)
(u 9u
0
, u S6u
0
)

2.7. The power radiated by a lossless antenna is 10 watts. The directional
characteristics of the antenna are represented by the radiation intensity of
(a)0 = B
o
cos
2

(b)0 = B
o
cos
3

(watts/unit solid angle) and (0 /2, 0 2)
For each, find the
(a) maximum power density (in watts/square meter) at a distance of 1,000
m(assume far-field distance). Specify the angle where this occurs.

(b) exact and approximate beam solid angle 2A.

(c) directivity, exact and approximate, of the antenna (dimensionless and in dB).
(d) gain, exact and approximate, of the antenna (dimensionless and in dB).

2.8. You are an antenna engineer and you are asked to design a high
directivity/gain antenna for a space-borne communication system operating at 10
GHz. The specifications of the antenna are such that its pattern consists basically
of one major lobe and, for simplicity, no minor lobes (if there are any minor
lobes they are of such very low intensity and you can assume they are negligible
/zero). Also it is desired that the patternis symmetrical in the azimuthal plane. In
order to meet the desired objectives, the mainlobe of the patternshould have a
half-power beamwidth of 10 degrees. Inorder to expedite the design, it is
assumed that the major lobe of the normalized radiation intensity of the antenna
is approximated by
0(, ) = cos
n
()
and it exists only in the upper hemisphere (0 /2, 0 2). Determine
the:
(a) Value of n (not necessarily an integer) to meet the specifications of the major
lobe. Keep 5 significant figures in your calculations.

(b) Exact maximum directivity of the antenna (dimensionless and in dB).

(c) Approximate maximum directivity of the antenna based on Kraus formula
(dimensionless and in dB).
(d) Approximate maximum directivity of the antenna based on Tai & Pereiras
formula (dimensionless and in dB).

2.9. In target-search ground-mapping radars it is desirable to have echo power
received from a target, of constant cross section, to be independent of its range.
For one such application, the desirable radiation intensity of the antenna is given
by
( ) ( )
1 0 20
U , 0.342csc 20 60 0 360
0 60 180
o o
o o o o
o o
u
u u u
u
s <

= s < s <
`

s <
)

Find the directivity (in dB) using the exact formula.

2.15. The radiation intensity of an antenna is given by

0(, ) = cos
4
sin
2

for 0/2 an d 02(i.e., inthe upper half-space). It is zero in the lower
half-space. Find the
(a) exact directivity (dimensionless and in dB)
(b) elevationplan e half-power beamwidth (in degrees)

2.17. The maximum gain of a horn antenna is +20 dB, while the gain of its first
sidelobe is 15 dB. What is the difference in gain between the maximum and
first sidelobe:
(a) in dB
(b) as a ratio of the field intensities.

2.34. A 300 MHz uniform plane wave, traveling along the x-axis in the negative
x direction, whose electric field is given by
( )
0

3
jkx
w y z
E E ja a e
+
= +
r

where Eo is a real constant, impinges upon a dipole antenna that is placed at the

o
d
w
(
i
(
Y
(
2
originan
direction i
where Ea
(a) Polariz
if any). Yo
(b) Polariz
You must
(c) Polariz
2.35. The
d whose
is givenby
is a real c
zation of
ou must ju
zation of
justify (s
zation los
e electric
electric
y
E
constant. D
the incide
ustify (sta
the antenn
state why
ss factor (d
field of a
field rad
(
a a
E E =
r
Determin
ent wave
ate why
na (includ
).
dimension
a uniform

iated tow
(

2
y z
a a +
ne the follo
(includin
).
ding axial
nless and
plane wa
ward the
)
jkx
z
e

owing:
ng axial ra
l ratio and
in dB).
ave travel
x-axis in
atio and se
d sense of
ling along
n the pos
ense of ro
f rotation,
g the neg
itive x
otation,
if any).
gative z

directionis given by
( )
0

i jkz
w x y
E a ja E e
+
= +

and is incident upon a receiving antenna placed at the origin and whose radiated
electric field, toward the incident wave, is given by
( )
1

2
jkr
a x y
e
E a a E
r

= +

Determine the following:
(a) Polarizationof the incident wave, and why
(b) Sense of rotation of the incident wave.
(c) Polarization of the antenna, and why
(d) Sense of rotation of the antenna polarization.
(e) Losses (dimensionless and in dB) due to polarization mismatch between the
incident wave and the antenna.