Chemistry and Toxicology For Nurses by Philip Asher

iOLOGY
LIBRARY
i
GIFT OF Pacific Coast
al
of*
Ti
BIOLOGY
o g
CHEMISTRY
and
,
-,
TOXICOLOGY
/or
BY
PHILIP ASHER,
Ph. G., M. D.
DEAN AND PROFESSOR OF CHEMISTRY AT THE NEW ORLEANS COLLEGE OF PHARMACY, NEW ORLEANS
PHILADELPHIA AND LONDON
W.
B.
SAUNDERS COMPANY
1914
QD3I
L.itOGt
LIBRA!"
G FT PAG
I
FIG
GO A
JRN AL
OEPT,;
OF NURSING TO
H/3^
Company
Copyright, 1914, by
W.
B. Saunders
PRINTED
IN
AMERICA
PRESS OF
W.
B.
8AUNDER8 COMPANY
PHILADELPHIA
PREFACE
IN offering
ficing
this
volume to that
class of noble
life's
women who
are to devote their
and sacriwork to the
aid of suffering humanity and to assist the physician in his labors, the author feels that a work of this small
be of service to them in the better understanding of the many problems with which they may be brought in daily contact. If, with all its simplicity,
compass
may
be found of service to the great number following these endeavor and they gain such information as will be of practical service to them, the author feels
it
fields of
that his efforts will have been well repaid.

his constant
its
It has been
aim to make
will permit,
this
work
as instructive as
and his object has been to its practical import, the student keep constantly before so that this little volume may also be her companion
compactness
after leaving her
home
of instruction.
The author was

this task,
for a long time
undecided to take up
but upon the earnest solicitation of his friends, thoroughly conversant with nursing, as to the need of
a book of such elementary character, this work was un-
dertaken.
he
in
feels
Yet, notwithstanding such encouragement, that an apology is due for the very element-
ary nature of this work, and requests the reader to bear mind that the treatise is not intended as a text-book
of this
most
interesting science, with its
many
ramifica-
743510
PREFACE
but merely as an aid to those taking up the study of Nursing, and if a more thorough knowledge of tne
tions,
subject
is
desired, it is advised that
some
of the
numer-
ous works upon chemistry be consulted. Under the captions of those substances which are
used in medicine there

ties,
is
doses,
and
uses.
No
given their medicinal properattempt has been made to
give exact atomic and molecular weights, which have been rounded off to whole numbers. The text contains
formulae of compounds, which are added not with a view of abbreviation, but to familiarize the student
with them.
Chemical equations are given with only the more important reactions, and, in a number of instances, with no intention of having the student study them,
but merely as
illustrations.
PHILIP ASHER.
NEW
ORLEANS, LA.,
October,
1914.
CONTENTS
PAGE
INTRODUCTION
n
12
NOMENCLATURE
PART
NON-METALLIC ELEMENTS
I
22
22
Hydrogen Oxygen Ozone Water
23
25 26
Hydrogen Peroxid or Hydrogen Dioxid

Nitrogen
30
31
Ammonia
Compounds of Nitrogen and Oxygen Nitrogen Monoxid Nitrogen Dioxid or Nitric Acid
Nitric Acid
32
34 34
35 35
The Air
or Atmosphere
37
Carbon
Silicon
38
45
45
Boron
Sulphur
47
52
Phosphorus
Halogens
Chlorin
lodin
58
59 62
Bromin
Fluorin
65 66 67
Acids of the Halogens
METALLIC ELEMENTS
Alkali Metals
68
71
Potassium and Sodium

7
72
CONTENTS
PAGE
Lithium ............................. ...... .............
80
80
82 82
Ammonium Compounds ..................................

Alkaline Earth Metals ....................................
Calcium ........... .................................... Strontium .................. .............................

,
84
85 86
Barium .................................................
Magnesium ........... ................................. Aluminum ..............................................

.
87 89
93 95
Iron .........................
..........................
Manganese ..............................................
Chromium .............................................. Nickel .......................................... ........ Cobalt ..................................................

Zinc ....................................................
96
97
97 99
Copper ................................................. 102 Bismuth ................................................ 104

Silver ................................. .................
107
Mercury ................................................ 109

Arsenic .................................................. 114 Antimony ............................................... 1 16
PART
II
119
1
CHEMISTRY OF CARBON AND ITS COMPOUNDS

Halogen Derivatives, or Haloid Ethers
Alcohols
23
Aldehyds Ketones
Sulphur Derivatives Ethers
Organic Acids Dibasic Acids
125 128
130
131
131
134
136 139
Amino-acids
Amins
Aromatic, Closed Chain, or Cyclic Hydrocarbons Isomeric Compounds of the Aromatic Hydrocarbons
Heterocyclic Hydrocarbons
140
141
144
150
151
Terpenes
Carbohydrates
Alkaloids
153 155
CONTENTS
PART
PHYSIOLOGIC CHEMISTRY
Proteins
III
PAGE 161
161
Milk
Urine
Pathologic Constituents of Urine and Tests
164 168
172
INDEX.
181
CHEMISTRY AND TOXICOLOGY FOR NURSES

INTRODUCTION
CHEMISTRY
ments and
is
'- : - >
the science that teaches of the ele-
their
compounds, and investigates the laws

matter that, up to
of their combinations.
Elements are those
particles of
the present time, have not been reduced to simpler
For example, oxygen is said to be an element because, no matter how it may be treated, it cannot be
ones.
reduced any further.

other elements.
The same
is
true of iron
is
and the
a com-
Water, on the other hand,

are able to
pound because we
elements,
viz.,
decompose
it
into
two
hydrogen and oxygen.
ELEMENTS FOUND IN THE BODY

Carbon
13.5 per cent.
Hydrogen
Nitrogen
"
9.1
"
2.5
Oxygen
"
72.0
These constitute about 97 per

weight; the other 3 per cent,
portions
is
cent, of the total
body
divided in various pro-
among
the following elements:
Phosphorus,
11
12
CHEMISTRY FOR NURSES
calcium, sulphur, sodium, potassium, chlorin, fluorin

iron, silicon,
magnesium, and
arsenic.
:
The elements
are divided into two classes
the metals
and the non-metals; the former usually forming the bases of compounds, and the latter entering into the
formation of
i
yf.ds.
/T&& elements are expressed by symbols.

For instance,
is
Symbols
are either single letters or two letters signifying the
element they represent.
the symbol
of oxygen; it is the initial letter of that word.
The
commoner elements are usually expressed by a single

letter,
but when one element has the same

is
initial letter
as another element its difference
shown by adding a
For
is
small letter to the initial letter of the element.
example, carbon
is
expressed
by
C, while calcium
Ca,
and
cobalt is
Co.
to form
The elements combine
divided into two main classes

organic.
compounds which the organic and
are
in-
NOMENCLATURE
Before
chemistry,
the
student can understand
the
study of
are
a knowledge of
necessary.
how
the
compounds
named
is
The compounds
classes, of
are divided into a great
number
of
which the acids and
salts constitute
a large
majority.
Acids are defined as those substances which possess

a sour taste and have the property of changing vegetable
NOMENCLATURE
colors,
13
and which, when added
to metals, give off hydro-
gen.
They
are
divided into two main classes: the

oxyacids.
binary acids
and the
A
of
is
binary acid, as its
name
implies, is only
composed
oxyacid
two elements.
It contains
no oxygen.
An
one containing oxygen.
A
all
binary acid forms salts ending in "id."

is,
In
fact,
binary compounds, that
those compounds com-
posed of but two elements, end in "id."

formula of hydrochloric acid,
to a metal, forms a salt
HC1
it is
is
the
which, when
as a chlorid.
added
were
is
known
If iron
used, the salt formed
would be iron
its
chlorid.
HBr
salts
hydrobromic
bromids.
If
acid,
and
compounds or
are
iron and sulphur were heated together,
the resulting
compound would be
amount
iron sulphid.
classes:
Oxyacids are subdivided into three

taining the greatest
acids; those with
acids, the
of
those con-
of oxygen, called the "ic"

less
one atom of oxygen
than the "ic"

still
"ous" acids; and those having

less
one atom
oxygen
than the "ous" acids, or two atoms of

ous" acids.
oxygen
less
than the "ic" acids, the "hypo
The oxyacids owe

acids.
their characteristic property to
an
element which distinguishes them from the other oxy-
For
instance,
the
characteristic
element
of
nitric acid is nitrogen; while in sulphuric acid it is sul-
phur.
tains
H SO
2
is
the formula of sulphuric acid,
it
is
consul-
the largest
amount
it
of
oxygen.
H S0
2
phurous acid, and
has one atom of oxygen
less
than
14

is
the preceding acid; H2S02

contains one
hyposulphurous acid and

less
atom
of
oxygen
than sulphurous and
two atoms
form
salts
less
than the sulphimc.
The
"ic" acids
ending in "ate"; the "ous" acids ending in
"ite"; while the

ites."
"hypo
g.,
ous" acids form the "hypo

acid
Thus,
e.
sulphuric
forms
sulphates;
sulphurous acid forms sulphites; while hyposulphurous

acid produces hyposulphites.
From a
strictly theoretic point
of view,
all
acids,
whether binary or oxyacids, are divided in two parts:

the replaceable hydrogen and the acid radical.
Replaceable hydrogen
is
THAT HYDROGEN that an acid by a metal or

base.
contains which can be replaced
When an
by the
all
acid acts
upon a metal an evolution
of a gas is
noticed; this gas is the replaceable hydrogen given off

acid.
all
All acids contain hydrogen, but

acids cannot be replaced.
the hydrogen of
Sulphuric acid,
H SO4,
2
contains two atoms of hydrogen, both of which can be

replaced.
Acetic acid,
HC H O
2
3
2,
contains four atoms
of hydrogen, only
one of which can be replaced.
For
convenience the number of replaceable hydrogens an

acid contains
is
shown by placing them
at the beginning
of the formula:
H SO
2
H PO
3
HN0
Nitric
acid.
HC H O
3 3
Sulphuric
acid.
Phosphoric
acid.
Acetic acid,
Acid Radicle.
Radicles
are
groups of unsaturated
Radicles
elements playing the part of single elements.
NOMENCLATURE
15
cannot exist by themselves, only in combination, as nothing exists, from the chemical aspect, unless all
its
bonds or valencies are
satisfied.
The graphic
is
formula of sulphuric acid, or the formula which portrays
how each element
in
compound
joined
to the other, is
H Ox Ô /SC X) H <K
If
the hydrogen
is
removed, there remains
~\
in
^ -0><0
which two
of its
bonds are not taken up or are un//
saturated,
and which
is it
usually expressed
indicating
its
by
(804),
the
two dashes over

it
valence.
As
It is
stated above,
can only exist in combination.
the acid radicle of sulphuric acid, the part that remains

after the
removal of the replaceable hydrogen.

is
Valence
the
relative
volumetric
proportion
in
which elements combine with one another.

bining power of
it is
The com-
is
taken as the standard or unit:
have a combining power, valence, quanIn the formula tivalence, atomicity, or bond of one.
said to
2
HO
said,
it
will
be noticed that
it
takes
to combine
with one 0; and since the valence of
is i,
as before
and
since
is
it
takes 2
to
combine with one O,
the inference
that the valence of
is 2.
The valence
16

is
or combining power of elements
usually expressed
by dashes or
bols, thus:
i
Roman
numerals placed over their sym-
'
or
iij//
or
iii
///
vi
or
Valencies are also represented graphically, each dash

indicating a valence or bond, as
shown
in the following
examples:
N
If
or
N=
O
of
were combined with one H, one of the
bonds
thus:
would remain unsaturated or

.
unsatisfied,
H
exist.
cannot
If the
Under such a condition a compound remaining bond of O were taken
H. up or combined with H, it would form H Here all the bonds are saturated or satisfied, and the
compound H2 O, or water, results. Iron and sulphur each has two bonds, and,
their
valencies being equal, they combine in equal volumes:
Fe=S
or FeS.
valencies of the elements are different,
But where the
they combine in unequal volumes. If we take Bi (bismuth), which has three bonds, and S (sulphur), which has two bonds, it will be readily understood
that were equal volumes of each element taken, one
bond
of the
Bi would remain unsatisfied, thus: Bill5

of
As many volumes
bonds
S should be taken as there are
of Bi, namely, 3,
and as many volumes
of
Bi
NOMENCLATURE
should be taken as there are bonds of S, namely,
as to satisfy
all
2,
17
so
the bonds, thus:

///
/
Bi==S
yS, which, reduced to the ordinary formula,
is 1^283.
Bi-S
Salts are acids in
which
all
or part of the replace-
able hydrogen has been replaced
by a metal
or base,
and
may
2
also
be regarded as a combination of either

If all
a metal or a base with an acid radicle.

in
the
were replaced by sodium (Na), it would form sodium sulphate, Na2SC>4, while if only one of the
hydrogen was replaced, sodium bisulphate, or acid sulphate, NaHSO 4 would be the result. The method
,
H S04
of obtaining the correct
formula of any salt will be
shown by the following examples:

It is desired to
phite.
know
the formula of potassium phos-
The symbol
of potassium is
K, and
it
has a
valence of one, or, as it is frequently expressed, it has
one bond.
acids form
is
As was shown under the oxy acids, the "ous"

salts
ending in "ite"; and as a phosphate
desired,
H P0
3
phosphorus acid must be taken. is phosphoric acid, and it was shown above
that an "ous" acid contains one
atom
of
oxygen
less
than
is
the "ic" acid, so the formula of
phosphorus
acid
///
H PO
3
3,
removing the replaceable hydrogen (PO 3 )
re-
mains, having a valence of three, as the valence of
an acid
drogen.
is
known by
its
number
of
replaceable hy-
18
The next
///
step
is
to
combine the metal or base with

it is
the acid radicle.
In this case
the
with the
(PO 3 ), but
it will
be observed that each of these valen-
cies differ, so that as
many
parts of the base or metal
are taken as the valency of the acid radicle, which

is three,
and as many of the acid radicles are taken as Comthere are bonds in the metal, which is one.
these
in
bining
the proportions just outlined gives

/
///
3
3 ).
us a formula of
it
is
K (PO
In the example just shown
not absolutely necessary to place the (PO 3 ) in
parentheses, but examples will be
shown
in
which
it is
most
essential.
It is desired to
know
the formula of
it
bismuth hyposulphite. bonds.
Bi
a
is
bismuth and
has three
hypoless
To produce
2
4,
hyposulphite
requires
sulphurous acid,
which has two atoms of oxygen

it
than
ft
H SO
//
making
H S0
2
its
acid radicle will be
(802);
///
combining these as indicated above gives us
Bi2 (SO2 )3.

radicle has
Two
of the Bi
were taken because the acid

of the acid radicles
two bonds, and three
were used because Bi has three bonds.
Where the metal and

valence, only one
//
acid radicle have the
same
part of
as
each need be taken.

//
Copper
//
sulphate
is
Cu(SO4 ),
it will
be seen that in this case
both the copper and the acid radicle (864) each have
the same valence.
Bases.
It
is
The term "base" has
several
meanings.
commonly
defined in works on chemistry as a
NOMENCLATURE
substance which
is
19
soluble in water
and
will turn red
litmus blue, and which,
when combined with
acids,
forms
salts.
In the definition of a "salt," given above, the term

"base" has a somewhat different meaning, and applies
to those groups of radicles with properties opposite to
"acid radicles."
formula
If
Compounds (q. C2H6

.
Under the Chemistry of the Carbon "ethane" is shown to have the v.)
t
one
H
/
is
removed, the
remains.
radicle,
residue, or base
"ethyl"
radicles,
(C 2 H 5 )
forming
This
combines with acid

above:
salts similarly to the
(C 2 5 )C1, Ethyl ehlorid.

r
(C 2
H )N0
5
3,
(C 2
5) 2
S04
Ethyl
nitrate.
Ethyl sulphate.
"ammonium," and is the base of the ammonium compounds, and, when combined with
(NEQ
is
the radicle
acid radicles,
it
forms
salts:
(NHJCl,
Ammonium
ehlorid.
(NH )N0 3
4
(NHJ2SO,
Ammonium
sulphate.
Ammonium
nitrate.
Atomic Weight.
In the formula of
H SO
2
the ele-
ments composing it are to be regarded as if they exist by volume, and that there are two volumes of H, one
of S,
and four
of O,
provided each element was in the
gaseous state.
In considering the weight of each element in H^SCX
we
find a great difference.
If
equal volumes of
and
20

taken, the weight of each volume would be dif-
O were
ferent.
it is
Since hydrogen
is
the lightest substance known,

it
taken as the standard, and
would be found that
an equal volume of oxygen would weigh sixteen times more than hydrogen. It will also be found that when
elements combine with one another they do so in proportion to their atomic weight, based upon the valence
Atomic weight may then be denned as the weight of an element compared to the weight of an equal volume of hydrogen or the relative weight which
of one.
elements combine with one another, based upon the

valence of one.
Molecular Weight.
When two
or
more atoms com-
bine they form molecules, and the combined weight of

these atoms
is
known
as molecular weight.
of
In
H SO4
2
we have two volumes

one
for
with an atomic weight of
each of the H, or two for both; sulphur has an
atomic weight of thirty- two; and the four O, each with
an atomic weight of sixteen, or sixty-four; the sum of these will be ninety-eight, or we state that the molecular
weight of
H2S04
is
ninety-eight.
Chemistry deals only with material things, such as
we may
matter
is
appreciate
defined
as
by the various
invisible.
senses.
Hence,
It
anything occupying space.

Iron
is
may
be either visible or
matter which
can be seen; but
we
are
constantly surrounded
it is
by
matter which cannot be seen, the air; yet
matter
because
it
occupies space.
NOMENCLATURE
Matter
molecules,
is
21
divided according to
its size
into masses,
and atoms.
is
A A
exist
mass
a large aggregation of molecules.

is
molecule
the smallest particle of matter that can

least
by itself, and it is composed of at An atom is the smallest particle of
two atoms.
matter that can
exist
even in combination, and as two or more atoms

state.
produce a molecule, atoms do not exist in the free
PART
NON-METALLIC ELEMENTS
HYDROGEN
Symbol, H; Atomic weight,
Valence,
i.
i;
Molecular weight,
2;
Density,
2;
Discovered by Paracelsus in the i6th century; elementary nature was

Its
first
its
recognized
by Cavendish.
name
is
derived from the Greek, hudor, water, and
gennao, to generate, in allusion to the formation of
water when burned in the presence of
air or
oxygen.
Occurrence in Nature.
of
Hydrogen
its
is
found in water,
which
is
it
constitutes two-thirds
by volume, when
all
water
ninth
acid
decomposed into
weight.
unless
It is
it
components, and oneacids.
by
found in
No
It
is
true
exists
all
contains hydrogen.
con-
tained in
animal and vegetable matter.
Preparation.
Hydrogen can be obtained from water,
which has previously been acidified with

ing a current of electricity through
it.
H S04, by pass2
H
It is
H + O
ZnSO4
FeCl 2
Iron
chlorid.
made whenever
Zn
Zinc.
2
a dilute acid acts upon a metal.

4
+ H SO
+
Zinc sulphate.
Fe
Iron.
2HC1
acid.
2H
Hydrochloric
OXYGEN
Properties.
gas.
23
It is a colorless, odorless,
and
tasteless
It is a non-supporter of life
and combustion, and
when ignited combines with oxygen to form water. Under cold and pressure it can be liquefied and also
converted into the solid state.
It is the lightest subis
stance known, and on this account
taken as the
Its density
unit of atomic weight and density of gases.
compared to air is .0692. One liter at o C. (32 F.) and barometric pressure of 760 mm. weighs .0896 gm.; 100 cubic inches weigh 2.26 gr. When mixed with air
and ignited it combines with explosive force, so that care must be exercised in seeing that all the
or oxygen
oxygen
is
out of the generator before igniting
it.
OXYGEN
Symbol, O; Atomic weight,
Valence,
2.
16;
Molecular weight, 32; Density, 16;
Discovered by Priestly in 1774 and about the same

time by Scheele, but independently of the former
coverer.
It
dis-
was
called oxygen,
from oxus, an
acid,
and
gennao, to generate,
from the
belief that it
was
essential
to all acids, but, as has
been shown under Binary Acids,

found in the
these contain no oxygen.
mosphere, of which
volume.
It forms It
it
Oxygen
is
at-
constitutes about one-fifth
by
between 33 and 45 per

is
cent, of the
earth's crust.
third
contained in water, forming oneeight-ninths of

it
by volume and
by
weight.
It
24
is

also
found throughout the animal and vegetable
kingdoms.
Preparation.
At one time
be used
heating potassium chlorate;
made by and when made by this

it
was
largely
method and was
to
for medicinal purposes it
was freed from the accompanying

it
chlorin
by passing
through flasks containing a solution of sodium hy-
droxid and then through water.
KC1O 3
Potassium
chlorate.
KC1
Potassium cblorid.
Since
electricity
is
cheaply obtained
today,
it
is
used to decompose water, as shown under Hydrogen.

Properties.
gas,
fied
and
tasteless
which under cold and pressure
may
be both liqueelements ex-
and
solidified.
It
combines with
all
cept fluorin, which up to the present time has not been
combined with
it,
either directly or indirectly.

it
Water
dissolves about 3 per cent, of
solution in water
is of
by volume and its great importance. Water that

its
has stood in a
warm
place loses
dissolved oxygen
and possesses a flat taste, and can be revivified by passIts presence enables ing it from one vessel to another.
fish to live in water, as these
animals breathe
it
through
their
gills.
It also serves as a purifying agent
by burn-
up the organic impurities that may be contained in water. This is why a running stream that has had
ing
sewerage emptied into
it
may, within a few miles from
the source of contamination, be found to be practically
OZONE
free of same.
25
It is a supporter of life
and combustion,
Hence, to cut
as nothing can live nor burn without

off its
it.
supply would extinguish both

It
is
life
and
flame.
Uses.
largely used today in those diseases where

is is
an insufficiency of it is supplied to the system. It also used to resuscitate persons after drowning, and
more
beneficial in such cases
than
artificial respiration.
OZONE
ttr
Symbol, 0; Valence,
3;
Molecular weight, 48.
This
when
an allotropic form of oxygen, and is produced non-luminous electric discharges are passed
is
through oxygen.
gen.
It
may
also
be called condensed oxy-
In
its
production three molecules of oxygen are
condensed to form two molecules of ozone, according to

the following equation:
it
///
3O3
It differs
2O3
from oxygen by possessing a disagreeable odor, from which its name was derived (0ms, meaning stench), and by being more active in its chemical behavior than oxygen.
Substances that are not affected
by oxygen
but
are readily decomposed
by
it.
At one time
in country
the popular belief

air,
was that
it
was contained
this
was shown
to be erroneous.
It
was
this
also
supposed to possess disinfectant properties, but
has
not been verified by experiment, and recent researches have shown that the quantity sufficient to do so has
26

irritating
an
it.
and harmful
its
effect
upon persons inhaling

is
simple test for
presence
to expose starched
paper,
moistened
with
liberates the iodin
potassium iodid; the ozone from the potassium iodid, and the
iodin, in turn, acts
upon the
is
starch, turning it blue.

is
This
also
test,
however,
not only true of ozone, but
produced by other substances.

it
When
lightning
It
passes through the atmosphere

is
produces ozone.
air.
also
made by
of
exposing moist phosphorus to the
Allotropism.
We
are
composed
have seen that oxygen and ozone the same substance, yet possess differ-
ent properties.
When
such
condition
is
is
met
it,
in
chemistry the
is
name
allotropism
applied to
which
defined as that property that elements possess of
existing in
two or more forms and exhibiting
different
physical properties.
The molecule
of
oxygen has two
atoms, while ozone has three.
WATER
Formula,
tion, 9.
H O;
2
Molecular weight, 18; Density in gaseous condi-
Sources.
Water
is
widely
distributed
throughout
the animal and vegetable kingdoms.

is
The human body

of
it.
composed
find
of
about seven-tenths
cent.,
In potatoes
we
about 75 per
and
in
watermelons as
much
It is
as 94 per cent.
found in the
it is
air as fog, rain,
dew, and snow.
In
the liquid form

seas,
found in
wells, springs, rivers, lakes,
and oceans.
WATER
Forms.
liquid,
27 gas,
It exists in the three states of matter:

solid.
and
In
its solid
form
it is
known
as ice; in the gaseous state
It is composed of two volIt boils one volume of oxygen. and hydrogen at 100 C. (212 F.), freezes at o C. (32 F.), and reaches
it exists
as vapor or steam.
umes
of
its
point of
maximum
it
density at 4
C. (39
F.).
At
the latter temperature a given volume of water will
weigh more than
does at any other temperature.

F.
it
When
volume
water
until
is
cooled below 39
F.
is
expands in
it
32
reached.
In this respect
forms an exception to the rule that heat expands and

cold contracts.
electricity.
It is
a poor conductor of heat and
Water
is
divided into two classes:
hard and
soft.
water that does not readily lather with soap is termed hard; while one that will, is called soft. The hard
waters are further subdivided into two other classes:
the temporary and permanent (hard).
its
The
former, as
name
by
implies,
can
have
its
hardness
removed,
either
boiling or chemical
means, while the latter
cannot.
of the temporary hard water is princidue to calcium bicarbonate, while the permanent pally owes its property largely to calcium sulphate, but other
The hardness
substances
may
also play
some
part.
Its function in the body, according to
Dr. Gilman
Thompson, can be summarized as follows:
28

(1) It enters into
the chemical combination of the
tissues.
(2)
It forms the chief ingredient of all fluids of the

their degree of dilution.
body and maintains

(3)
By
moistening various surfaces of the body, such

serous membranes,
it
as the
tion
mucous and
prevents
fric-
and the uncomfortable symptoms that might

blood and lymph a
result
from their drying.

(4) It furnishes in the
fluid
medium
by which the food may be taken to remote parts of the body and the waste material removed, thus producing
rapid tissue changes.
(5)
It serves as a distributor of
body
heat.
(6) It regulates
processes of
body temperature by the physical absorption and evaporation.

eliminated daily from the body
is
the
The amount
about
3 liters, distributed as follows:

lungs, 20 per cent.
;
Exhalation from the

;
cutaneous perspiration, 30 per cent.
and by the urine and feces, 50 per cent. Water has been found to be the source by which disease has been conveyed, and should never be used
when
it
there
is
the faintest suspicion of
its
purity, unless
kills
has been thoroughly boiled.
This absolutely
it.
all
germs that
may
be contained in
It should be
stored for use in bottles which have been thoroughly
cleaned
by
boiling,
and which unless so treated would
only contaminate the water placed in them.
WATER
Drinking-water.
is free
29
from
color,
good drinking-water is one that odor and taste, and practically free
from organic matter. This latter substance, if it is contained in a running stream, is burnt up by the oxygen
contained in
it.
Mineral Waters.
very
This
class
of
waters
has been
much
abused, and
their real virtues, in the majority
of cases,
do not depend upon
their constituents so
much
as
upon the psychologic
effect
and the
large
amounts
consumed.
They
are defined as waters containing
some abnormal
constituent or those that contain an excess of a normal

constituent.
If
water
contains
is
arsenic,
bromin,
sulphur, or
any ingredient that
not found in ordinary

class;
water,
it
can be placed in the former
but
if
it
should contain an excess of sodium chlorid, carbon dioxid, substances usually
found in the average water,
it
belongs to the latter class.

ing
to
their
They
are classified accord-
predominating
constituents:
such
as
bitter waters, containing large quantities of
magnesium
salts; iron or chalybeate waters, containing sulphate or
bicarbonate of iron; sulphur waters, containing sodium

or
hydrogen sulphid; effervescent waters, containing

Water.
This
first
carbon dioxid.
Distilled
is
a water obtained by boiling
water, rejecting the
portion of the distillate (con-
taining the volatile or gaseous impurities, such as chlorin,
ammonia, and hydrogen
sulphid),
and preserving the
30
balance.
The
of
distillation is
not carried to completion,

left
as the solid impurities
must be
is
behind.
Water
crystallization
that water
that some
substances contain and to which they owe their crystalline form.
line
form
is
Copperas is FeSO 4 .ioH 2 O, and its due to the 10 molecules of water of

If it
crystalcrystal-
were exposed to air or heated, it would lose its crystalline form and fall to a powder. This does not imply that all chemicals of a crystalline
lization it contains.
nature owe such form to water of crystallization; there

are
numerous substances that possess a
crystalline
form without containing any water

for instance, boric, salicylic,
of crystallization;
and
tartaric acids, potasof others.
sium bromid and
iodid,
and a host
Sub-
stances that absorb moisture from the air and

liquid are
become
their
termed
deliquescent.
Those that give up
water of crystallization upon exposure to the
air
or
by
heat,
and become pulverous, are termed
efflorescent,
exsiccated, dried, or anhydrous.
HYDROGEN PEROXID OR HYDROGEN DIOXID Formula, H O Molecular weight, 44.

2
9;
This substance
certain
is
made by
the action of acids upon
metallic
dioxids.
For
commercial
purposes
barium dioxid and sulphuric acid are used, and the is filtered off of the insoluble barium sulphate.
BaO 2
Barium
+ H SO
2
HA
BaSO 4
dioxid.
Barium sulphate.
NITROGEN
31
The pure substance

in water, alcohol,
is
an
oily liquid, colorless, soluble
and
ether.
A
is
solution containing 50
per cent,
is
used by dentists for bleaching the teeth.

solution of
The
official
Aqua
of
hydrogenii dioxidi,
2
,
and yields 10 2 by weight volumes of oxygen. As it readily undergoes decomposition, it is preserved by the addition of small amounts
contains 3 per cent,
of acetanilid.
It
HO
possesses
bleaching
and
antiseptic
properties.
It produces
an effervescence with pus and other organic

its liberation of
matter due to
oxygen.
is
A
2
delicate test for its presence
to place in a test-
tube a few drops of a solution of potassium dichromate,
K Cr O
2
7,
followed
by a few drops
and shake.
of
H SO
2
and a layer
of ether, then
add the
liquid suspected of containing the
HO
2
or a dioxid
The
ethereal layer will
turn blue.
NITROGEN
Symbol, N; Atomic weight, 14; Molecular weight, 28; Density, 14;
Valence,
i, 3, 5.
This substance
of
is
found unconstitutes
combined in the atmosphere,

four-fifths
which
it
by volume.
of
It also
occurs in the animal
and some
the vegetable kingdom and in mineral
deposits, as either potassium or
sodium
nitrates.
Preparation.
It
can be prepared by burning phosThis removes the oxygen

It is also
phorus under a
bell-jar.
from the
air,
leaving N.
prepared chemically
32

solution of
by heating a
nitrite.
4
ammonium
=
2
chlorid with
sodium
NH C1 + NaNO
Ammonium
chlorid.
N +
NaCl
2H 2O
Sodium
nitrite.
Sodium
chlorid.
Properties.
gas,
fied
and
tasteless
which under cold and pressure can be both liqueand solidified. It is a non-supporter of life and
It
of
combustion.
large
forms an essential constituent of a

animal and some vegetable substances,
life.
number
is
and
necessary for both animal and plant

is
Its
use in the air
to dilute the oxygen.
In body building very im-
and repair the nitrogen

portant part.
is
of protein food plays a
In the other bodily functions nitrogen
not
utilized.
AMMONIA
Formula, NH
3;
Molecular weight, 17; Density,

is
8.5.
This compound
constantly being formed in nature

chiefly
through the decomposition of organic matter

animal, such as
flesh, blood, urine, etc.
It is also pro-
duced during the process of destructive distillation, which is heating organic matter in large retorts to a high heat,
without the access of
stance
is
air,
whereby the
original sub-
destroyed and
new compounds produced, which

In the manufacture
are collected in proper receivers.
of illuminating gas, coal is subjected to this process,
and the nitrogen contained in the coal is converted into ammonia. This is largely the source of the ammonium
compounds
of
commerce.
AMMONIA
Ammonia
compound
earths.
is
33
is
always obtained
when any ammonium
heated with the caustic alkalis or alkaline
NH C1 + KOH = NH
4
KC1
Potassium
chlorid.
+ HO
2
Ammonium
chlorid.
Potassium
hydroxid.
(NHJ 2 SO4
Ammonium
sulphate.
Ca(OH) 2
Calcium
hydroxid.
NH
CaSO 4
Calcium
sulphate.
HO
2
Properties.
It is
a colorless gas with a very pungent
odor, an alkaline
taste,
it
Like other gases,

is
and strong alkaline reaction. can be liquefied and solidified. It
exceedingly soluble in water, which at ordinary temits
perature dissolves over seven hundred times
own
in
volume
of
the gas.
of
Its
solution in
water produces
official
ammonia-water,
the U. S. P.:
which two strengths are
Aqua ammonia,
containing 10 per cent,
by weight
of the gas,
and Aqua ammonia fortior, contain-
ing 28 per cent.
forming the
is
Ammonia combines directly with acids, ammonium compounds, in which nitrogen

five.
pentavalent, or has a valence of

Toxicology.
Ammonia-water
is
a caustic.
When
it
is
taken internally, organic acids in the form of vinegar
or
lemon- juice should be administered,

oils.
followed
by
pro-
demulcent drinks and bland

given, as the neutralized
No
emetic need be
ammonium compounds
is
duced are harmless.

there
is
If
the caustic effect
extensive
danger of rupture,
produced by vomiting.
34
COMPOUNDS OF NITROGEN AND OXYGEN

Five distinct compounds of nitrogen and oxygen are
known.
Some
of these are
unimportant to those
fol-
lowing the medical sciences, but are of great industrial
importance in the chemical world.

By
Nitrogen monoxid ...
.
weight.
Composition By volume.
NITRIC ACID
35
NITROGEN DIOXID OR NITRIC OXID

Formula,
NO or N O
2
2;
15.
Properties.
air or
colorless gas which,
upon exposure
to
oxygen, forms a poisonous suffocating gas of deepits
red color, due to
change to nitrogen
tetroxid or peroxid,
NzO*.
It is
prepared by the action of nitric acid upon
metals or such substances that reduce the

3 Cu
-f
HNO
+
3.
8HNO
Nitric acid.
3 Cu(NO 3) 2 Copper nitrate.
2ND
4H2O
Nitrogen Trioxid (N2 O 3 ).- It

this gas exists.
nitric acid,
is
yet doubtful whether

is
When
arsenous oxid
treated with
is
a gas of the above composition
produced,
but
it is
regarded as a mixture of equal volumes of N2O2

4.
and
NO
2
Nitrogen pentoxid (N 2 O 5 )
is
a solid which, upon the

is
addition of water, forms nitric acid and

interest only.
of scientific
NITRIC ACID (Acidum Nitricum)

Formula,
HNO
3;
Molecular weight, 63.
This acid
sium,
is
found, in nature, combined with potasas niter or saltpeter; also with sodium,
known
as Chili
saltpeter.
These compounds are produced
by
the action of certain bacteria, converting the
am-
monia, produced by the decomposition of nitrogenous

organic matter, into nitrous and, ultimately, into nitric
acid.
36
Preparation.

Usually prepared commercially by the
action of sulphuric acid

nitrate.
upon potassium or sodium

=
2KNO3
Potassium
nitrate.
-f
H SO
2
K SO
2
+ 2HNO
sulphate.
Potassium
Properties.
It is a colorless, corrosive liquid;
when
exposed to the air it gives off vapors of a peculiar suffocating odor,

official
and
it is
a powerful oxidizing agent.
The
acid contains 68 per cent,

cent, water.
by weight
of
HNOs
wholly
and 32 per
volatilized
The
dilute nitric acid contains
10 per cent, of absolute
HNOs.
The
acid
is
by
heat, stains animal
matter yellow, and
destroys
in color,
tissue.
lodin forms a stain somewhat similar
which can be told from stains produced by
HNO
ing
3 by becoming lighter in color or entirely disappearwhen treated with ammonia-water, while HNO3
under
is
like conditions turns

is,
monobasic; that
an orange color. The acid has but one replaceable hydrogen,

All nitrates
it
forming with metals or bases the nitrates.
are soluble in water and, consequently, the test for

its salts
or
cannot be made by precipitation, as

acids.
is
com-
monly done with other
The
dilute acid
is
made
and
by taking
adding to
10 parts
it
by weight
of the strong acid
58 parts of water.
All the official dilute
acids contain 10 per cent, of absolute acid, except dilute
which contains 6 per cent., and dilute hydrocyanic acid, which contains 2 per cent.
acetic,
Tests.
In a test-tube
is
placed some strong
H S0
2
THE AIR OR ATMOSPHERE

and to
this (the
37
tube being held in a slanting position, so

solutions) a solution of ferrous sul-
as not to
mix the
,
phate,
FeS0 4
is
added; then a few drops of the sub-
stance to be tested.
The tube
is
gently tapped, so as
to bring the suspected liquid in contact with the
H SO
2
4,
and a reddish-brown zone at the point of contact of the two

liquids indicates
HNO
3,
or a nitrate.
THE AIR OR ATMOSPHERE

This
is
essentially a mixture of
about 77 volumes
of
nitrogen,
these,
21
of oxygen,
.03
and contains,
in addition to
from
to .04 part of carbon dioxid,
from 0.5
of
to
1.4 parts
3,
of
aqueous vapor, with traces

2
.
NH
3,
HN0
and
HNO
That the
readily
compound can be shown by simple experiments. If some

air is
a mixture and not a
phosphorus
water,
it
is
burned under a
bell- jar
is
placed over
present.
will burn as long as oxygen

is
As
the oxygen
bell-jar
being removed the water will rise in the

will
and
show approximately the volume

If air is
of
oxygen that has been removed.

lime-water,
to the
shaken with
Ca(OH) 2
2
the latter becomes cloudy, due
CO
of
3,
the atmosphere forming calcium car-
bonate,
CaCO
with
it.
It is claimed that the air envelops the earth, ranging
from 50 to 200 miles in height.
It exerts a pressure
upon every part
of
the earth's surface of about 15
(accurately 14.7) Ibs. to the square inch.
This pres-
38
sure

is sufficient
to maintain a
column
of
mercury 30
inches high or water 32.4 feet.
CARBON
Symbol, C.; Atomic weight,
12.
of all organic matter.
This element
is
a constituent
in three
In the pure state
it exists
allo tropic modifications, viz., in
the crystalline state, as
diamond and
graphite,
and
in the
amorphous
state in
various forms, as charcoal, bone-black, lamp-black, etc.

It is
shell,
found as calcium carbonate in limestone, oyster

marble, and coral; as carbon dioxid in the atmo-
sphere and water.

carbon.
It is
The diamond
is
the purest form of
crystalline,
insoluble in all substances,
and
infusible,
but
it
if
sufficiently
heated in a current of
pure oxygen
will burn.
is
It is the hardest natural

drilling
substance .known and

glass.
used for
and cutting
Graphite, black
lead!,
plumbago,
soft,
is
a black, metallic-
looking
slippery
substance,
feel,
very
with an unctuous or
and leaves a black mark when drawn

employed in the manufacture of as a lubricant, and as a protective agent,
It is
it is
across paper.
lead pencils,
preventing oxidation of surfaces with which
coated.
Amorphous carbon exists in various forms, as lampblack, charcoal,
and bone-black.
Charcoal and bonedistilla-
black are obtained as residues in the destructive

tion of
wood and
bones.
They
are of an intensely
CARBON DIOXID
39
black color, porous, and have the property of absorbing

large
amounts
of gases.
They
are also deodorizing,
and reducing agents. In the industries they are used to remove organic coloring-matter. In
decolorizing,
the manufacture of white sugar, the colored solution
is
passed through long
filters
containing bone-black.
The
official
charcoals are Carbo ligni, Carbo animalis,

purificatus.
and Carbo animalis
Carbon and Oxygen.

carbon and oxygen:
oxid.
There are two compounds of

di-
carbon monoxid and carbon
CARBON DIOXID
Formula,
CO
22.
Also called carbonic acid gas and carbonic anhydrid. 1

Preparation.
It is
formed when carbon
is
burned
with a
full
supply of oxygen.
C
It is also
CO 2
is
made by
the process of calcination, which

it
heating a carbonate to deprive
of
CO
2.
CO
is al-
ways evolved and an oxid
left.
MgCO3 =
Magnesium
carbonate.
C0
+ MgO
Magnesium
oxid.
An
acid anhydrid
is
denned as an acid from which
all
the
H and O, HO
2
in the proportion to
tain
no hydrogen.
form 2 O, has been removed. Acid anhydrids conIf from 2 SO 4 2 O is removed, SO 3 remains, and is
sulphuric anhydrid. 2 CO 3 leaves CO 2 or carbonic anhydrid.

called
,
H H
is
carbonic
acid;
removing
40

Another method
of
making
it
is
by
treating
any
carbonate with any acid.
CaCO3
Calcium
carbonate.
2HC1
CO
CaCl 2
Calcium
chlorid.
+ HO
2
Carbon dioxid
matter.
air
is
formed through decay
of organic
It is
produced by
the respiration; the inhaled
absorbed in the lungs by the blood combines with
the carbon of the system, forming
CO
2.
Its presence
can be shown by blowing into lime-water.
It
produces
with the latter a cloudiness, due to the formation of

calcium carbonate.
The exhaled
which
is
air contains
4 per cent,
by volume
than
is
of CC>2,
one hundred times more
contained in fresh
air.
CO2
is
contained in air
It is con-
to the extent of
about 4 volumes in 10,000.
tained in spring-waters, but

to the surface.
of fermentation.
some
of it escapes as it rises
C0
is
always formed during the process
Properties.
It is a colorless gas, having a slight acid
taste with little odor.
Under
cold
and pressure
it
can
be liquefied and solidified. The liquid C0 2 is largely used to make the so-called "soda water" and also for
freezing specimens in
sections.
is
The
solid
making anatomic and pathologic CO2 is known as "C02 snow" and
used as a cauterizing agent.

half times heavier than air.
The gas
is
about one
and a
of life
It is a non-supportor
and combustion, 10 per cent, being sufficient to
extinguish flame.
One volume
of cold
water dissolves
CARBON DIOXID
its
is
.
41
own volume of CO2 Under pressure the solubility increased. Each increase of one atmosphere disvolume more
of
solves one
CO
2.
It is non-poisonous
by the stomach, acting as a sedative to the mucous membrane. When inhaled it produces spasm of the
glottis,
and causes death by cutting
off
the supply of
O
of
and preventing proper exchange between the CO2 the blood and the O of the air. It is also used to
air,
it
extinguish flame; being heavier than

blanket.
acts as a
According to Andral and Gavarret, the average amount

of
CO
exhaled per hour
by an adult
is
nearly 0.8 cubic
foot.
The
air
space for healthy individuals should not

feet,
be
less
than 400 cubic
but for the sick
this should
be increased two or three times.
Unless some provision

is
was made by nature to remove the CO 2 that stantly being produced, the amount contained
air
con-
in the
would be greatly increased. Plants absorb it as food, retaining the C and liberating the O, thus keeping
the constituents of the air in equilibrium.
Carbonic Acid (H2 CO 3 ).
When CO2
2
is
passed into
water
it
combines with
it,
forming H COs.
2
C0
+ H
H C0
2
This has been proved to be an acid, possessing both

chemical and theoretic properties of a true acid.
It
is,
however, a very weak acid, and forms two classes of

salts,
the normal and acid carbonates.
42

Carbonates.
These
may
be considered as carbonic
acid in which one or both of its hydrogens have been
replaced
by metals
(another
or bases.
HHCOs
produce
way
of
showing the formula of
acids), replacing
one of the hydrogens by Na, would

3
;
NaHCO
bicarbonate or acid
carbonate of
sodium replacing both the hydrogens, forming Na, Na-
CO
(sodium carbonate), or
Na CO
2
3.
Test for Carbonates.
Any
carbonate or bicarbonate
treated with an acid produces an effervescence of
CO
2,
which,
when passed
into lime-water, produces a tur-
bidity of
CaCO3
Solution of barium chlorid added to a solution of a car-
bonate produces a white precipitate of barium carbonate, BaC0 3 wholly soluble, with effervescence, in HC1.
,
Carbon
Monoxid,
Carbonic
28;
Oxid
14).
(Formula,
CO;
as
Molecular Weight,
Density,
Carbon,
general rule, has a valence of 4, but in carbon monoxid
the valence
is 2.
Properties.
It is
colorless, odorless, tasteless gas,
a non-supporter of
and combustion, and burns with Almost insoluble in water. a blue flame, forming CO 2
life
.
Poisonous when inhaled, forming with the blood carbon
monoxid hemoglobin.
hemoglobin
is
Blood containing carbon monoxid
bright red and,
when examined with

characteristic
the
spectroscope,
presents
bands
to
oxy-
hemoglobin, but which can be distinguished from the latter by not being changed by reducing agents.
CARBON DIOXID
Toxicology
In.
43
poisoning by CO, remove any gas
present in the lungs

respiration.
by
inhalations of
or
by
artificial
If this fails, transfusion of
blood
also
is
may
be
resorted to.
Stimulants and iron
may
be given.
Preparation.
CO
is
formed when C02
passed over
coal
heated carbon.
fire is
The blue flame playing around a

burning.
the
CO
C0
+ c by the
=
CO
It is also prepared
action of strong
H S04
2
upon
oxalic acid.
HCO +
2 2
(H 2 SOJ
CO
-|-
CO
+ HO
2
Oxalic acid.
The
ful
sulphuric acid, in the above reaction, being a power-
dehydrating agent, removes the elements of water,
and 0, from the
oxalic acid.
of
The compounds
C and
H
;
are quite numerous;
they will be considered under Organic Chemistry.
Cyanogen (Formula, (CN) 2

Density, 26).
Molecular Weight, 52;

poisonous gas, burn-
This
is
colorless,
ing with a peach-colored flame, producing

liberating
CO
and
N.
It is
2
Preparation.
made by
=
2
heating mercury cyanid.
Hg(CN) 2
Hg
2(CN) 2
Mercury cyanid.
Hydrocyanic
Acid,
Prussic Acid
(Formula,
HCN;
Molecular Weight
27).
This acid does not exist in

is
nature in the free condition, but
produced from such
44
substances as wild cherry bark, bitter almonds, and
peach kernels, when acted upon by water. In reality, this is due to the glucosid, amygdalin, contained in
them, being acted upon by the ferment, emulsin.
The
pure acid
is
never found in commerce.
It is a color-
less liquid of
a characteristic penetrating odor, resem-
bling bitter almonds, readily soluble in water.

It is
made commercially by
the interaction between
H SO
2
and potassium ferrocyanid.
The
dilute
acid,
as found in pharmacy,
Acidum hydrocyanicum
of absolute
dilutum,
by weight
HCN;
it
readily deteriorates within
a short time and, on this

treating
account, should be
silver
made extemporaneously by
cyanid with HC1.
AgCN
Silver cyanid.
HCl
HCN +
AgCl
Silver chlorid.
Toxicology.
As poisoning by
HCN
and the soluble

can be done,
is
cyanids
is
so rapid in its effect, very
little
but
if
the patient survives an hour there

consists of cold affusions,
some hope.
NHs, galvanand Smith's antidote, comism, stimulants, atropin. of ferrous and in the presence of alferric salts posed
kaline carbonates,
The treatment
may
be of service, forming the
in-
soluble Prussian blue, followed

also
by
emetics.
HO
2
has
been proposed.
Phthisis, cough, asthma,
Uses.
i
and
gastralgia.
Dose,
to 3 minims, well diluted.
BORON
SILICON
Symbol,
Si;
45
Atomic weight,
is
28; Valence, 4.
This element
widely distributed in nature in the
form of
silica, Si02,
such as sand, quartz, rock crystal,
and
flint,
almost in pure form.
As
silicates,
it
combined
with various metals, as Mg, Ca, and K,

the rocks of which the earth's crust
posed.
It
is
constitutes
is
so largely
com-
also
found
in certain plants
and
feathers,
to which
it
gives strength.
is
Liquid glass
a solution of sodium
silicate,
is
which
is
used for fixing surgical dressings.

various
silicates.
Glass
a mixture of
it fuses,
When
silica is
highly heated
and
this fused silicaware
can be heated to redness and
thrust into ice- water without breaking,
and
is
largely
employed
for chemical apparatus.
BORON
Symbol, B; Atomic weight,
u;
Valence,
3.
This element occurs principally in combination as

boric acid,
H B0
3
3,
and borax, Na2B 4 07.ioH2 O.

This
is
Boric Acid (HsBOs).
a white crystalline sub-
stance found naturally in pools of water, which collect the acid from steam jets issuing from earth fissures and
passing through
it.
It is obtained
by concentration
of
the solution.
Properties.
of alcohol,
Soluble in 18 parts of
H 0, about 16 parts
2
and
5 parts of glycerin.
It
is
antiseptic.
is
When
heated to 100
C. (212
F.)
it loses
water and
46
converted into metaboric acid; heated to 160 C. (320 F.)

it
forms a glass-like mass of

to
tetraboric acid,
is
the acid
corresponding
borax.
Boric acid
obtained by
adding HC1
NajjBA
to a hot saturated solution of borax.
+
is
2HC1
SH 2 O
= 4H BO
3
2 NaCl
Boric acid
a weak acid, and the alkaline borates
show strong alkaline reaction to litmus. When alcohol is added to H 3 BO 3 and ignited, it burns with a characteristic
green flame. Boric acid

is
Medicinal Properties and Uses.

septic.
an
anti-
It is
seldom used internally, but when so used,

of
may
It
be given in doses
is
from
5 to
30
gr.
used principally externally as an antiseptic

official
wash, or in the several

it, viz.,
preparations containing
Glycerite of boroglycerite,
which
is
made by comand boric acid

Boric acid
bining in chemical proportion glycerin
and adding an equal weight

ture of petrolatum
of glycerin.
ointment, containing 10 per cent, of the acid in a mix-
and
paraffin.
It is also contained in
kaolini, official
the
Liqwr
antisepticus
and Cataplasma
preparations intended to replace the largely advertised

articles
on the market.
Ortho-acid.
Ortho-, Meta-, and Pyro-acids.
From
the Greek orthos, meaning straight, normal, or regular.
The
regular or
common
acids are also termed "ortho-
acids."
Meta-acids.
meta-acid
is
regarded as one molecule
SULPHUR
of
47
an
ortho-acid
from which one molecule of water has
been removed:
H BO
3
HO
2
HBO
Normal or
orthoboric acid.
Metabolic
acid.
Pyro-acids.
If
two molecules
of
an
ortho-acid are
taken and one molecule of water removed, a pyro-acid

will
be produced:
2 (H 2
S0 4)
or
(H4 S 2
8)
= H 2 S 2 O7
Pyrosulphuric acid.
Borax (Na2B 4 07.ioH2 0).

is
This sodium salt of boron
found in Clear Lake, Nevada.

it
As
stated under Boric
Acid,
has an alkaline reaction, soluble in water and
glycerin, and, unlike boric acid, is insoluble in alcohol.

Its uses
acid.
and properties are
similar to those of boric
SULPHUR
Symbol, S; Atomic weight, 32; Valence,
2, 4, 6.
This element occurs in the free state as a product of

past volcanic action in Sicily, Iceland, and California.
Large quantities are now obtained in Louisiana, Utah,

California,
and Nevada.
in
In combination
it
is
found
the form of sulphates (gypsum, widely CaSO 4 .2H2 0; Epsom salts, MgS0 4 7H2 0) and sulphids
diffused
,
(iron pyrites,
FeS 2 galena, PbS; cinnabar, HgS,

;
etc.).
It
is also
found in combination with organic matter in
the various proteins, garlic, horse-radish, hair, and in
48
algae.
it is

During decomposition
of these latter substances
evolved as
H S.
2
As
H S it is found as a constituent
2
of
some waters.
Properties.
It is a yellow, brittle solid, odorless
and
tasteless; insoluble in water; soluble in benzene, benzole,
chloroform, ether, carbon disulphid,
oil
of turpentine,
.
and the fatty

mass, one of
oils ;
is
and melts at
115
C. (239 F.)
When
melted sulphur
poured into water it forms a plastic the allotropic forms of sulphur, which soon
changes into the regular form again.
found in commerce in a variety of forms: Brimstone, sublimed sulphur, washed sulphur, and preSulphur
is
cipitated sulphur.
The crude sulphur when heated

when passed
time,
is
vaporized, and
into
large
cooled
chambers condenses,
After a
the
forming the sublimed or flowers of sulphur.
the condensing chambers becoming warm,

is
sulphur liquefies and

stone or roll sulphur.
run into molds, forming brim-
(See page no.)

is
Washed
sulphur, Sulphur lotum,
sublimed sulphur
that has been treated with dilute ammonia-water to
remove any sulphurous acid, sulphuric acid, and arsenic that may be present. This is the kind that should be
used when intended for internal use.
Precipitated sulphur (milk
is
of sulphur, lac sulphur)
sulphur, lime, and water boiled together.

is
To
the deep
added, and the preorange solution which results HC1 It cipitated sulphur is washed with water and dried.
SULPHUR
is
49
of a lighter color
first
precipitated
is
than ordinary sulphur, and when milk white; hence its name.
It
is

laxative,
alterative,
diaphoretic, resolvent,
and
antiparasitic.
It
passes out of the system largely unchanged; the small
part that had been combined, as sulphids or
H S.
2
It
enters into the preparation of sulphur ointment, 15 per

cent, of
lard.
it.
washed sulphur rubbed up with benzoinated

licorice
Compound
powder contains 8 per cent, of
Sulphur Dioxid (Formula,

Density, 32).
SO2
Molecular Weight, 64;
This
is
a colorless gas, with a disagree-
able, suffocating odor, and,
under cold and pressure, can
be both liquefied and
solidified.
Very soluble
in water,
forming sulphurous acid.

ing and bleaching agent.
Preparation.
rials
It is a disinfectant, reduc-
It is
it
made whenever sulphur
or mate-
containing
are burned in presence of

S
air.
20
SO
Also by the action of dilute acids upon sulphites:
Na 2 SO3
Sodium
2HC1
= SO
sNaCl
+ HO
2
sulphite.
This latter reaction
is
also used as a test for sulphites.
ACIDS OF SULPHUR
Hydrogen Sulphid, Sulphuretted Hydrogen (Formula,
H S;
2
Molecular Weight, 34; Density,

4
17).
This gas
is
50
produced by decomposition of organic matter containing sulphur, and also
when
metallic sulphids are acted
upon by
dilute acids.
FeS
+ H SO
2
HS +
2
FeSO4
Iron sulphid.
Iron sulphate.
It is a colorless, poisonous gas, with
an odor resembling
largely used as a
rotten eggs, soluble in water, and
is
laboratory agent, producing a series of sulphids of various

colors.
Sulphurous Acid (Formula,

82).
ists
H SO
2
Molecular Weight,
state,
This acid
is
not known in the pure

official,
but exis
only in aqueous solution, the
which
made
by saturating water with
S02
containing 6 per cent, of
S02 by
weight:
SO2
It forms
sulphites.
+ H 2 O = H SO
2
two
classes of salts, the sulphites
and the acid
Sulphuric Acid (Formula,

98).
H SO
2
Molecular Weight,
This acid
is
made by
passing
SO2
HNO
3,
steam,
and
air into large
leaden chambers.
(The various steps
of the equation will
be omitted.)
It
is
a heavy, corrosive liquid; specific gravity, 1.835
(nearly twice that of water); colorless, odorless,
and
contains 92.5 per cent,
by weight
of the absolute acid. It has great
The
dilute acid
contains 10 per cent.

is
affinity for
water and
a powerful dehydrating agent.

it
When it comes in
contact with organic matter
removes
the elements of water (the
H and O)
and leaves a black
SULPHUR
residue of carbon.
It is
51
called "oil of vitriol."
commonly
When added
it
to water it evolves great heat.
In mixing
with water, the acid must be added to the water, and

Great care should be exercised
not in the reverse order.

in mixing them!
Sulphuric acid produces white eschars

it
upon
tissue
with which
has been in contact, the

its
edges of which
erty.
may
be dark from
dehydrating prop-
Toxicology.
ates,
if
When
taken
internally,
avoid
carbon-
possible.
Give magnesia, lime, eggs, milk, and

the irritation.
bland
oils to allay
Tests for Sulphuric Acid
and Sulphates.
H S0
2
and
the soluble sulphates produce with solution of barium

chlorid,
BaCl2 a white
,
precipitate of
barium sulphate,
acid will
BaS04, insoluble in HC1.

paper or the carbohydrates.
The pure
char
Escharotic; also pro-
motes alkaline secretions; tonic and astringent. Used in diarrhea, hemorrhages, night-sweats, and lead-colic.
Dose,
2 to 5
minims, well diluted.

official:
Three sulphuric acids are
Acidum
sulphuri-
cum, Acidum sulphuricum dilutum, and Acidum sulphuricum aromaticum, which contains 20 per cent, of H2 SO 4
and
is
known
also as elixir vitriol.
Pyrosulphuric Acid (1128207), Fuming or Nordhausen's

Sulphuric Acid.
is
Made by
passing
S0 3
into
H SO
2
4.
It
a thick liquid, very corrosive, and gives

of
off
dense
fumes
SO 3 when
exposed to
air.
52

Thiosulphuric
Acid
(H2 S 2
3 ).
This acid does
not
exist,
but
its salts do.
Sodium
thiosulphate,
Na S O
2
2
3,
improperly called "hy-
posulphite of soda/'
is
largely used in
it is
commerce
in
paper making.
In photography
used to remove
It is
the silver salts that have not been acted upon.
an excellent antidote
with
for iodin-poisoning.
like the sulphites,
When
and
treated
HC1
it
behaves
but produces,
this is
in addition, a precipitation of sulphur,
used
as a
means
Sodium
of differentiation
between the two.
Na 2 S,O3
thiosulphate.
2HC1
SO 2
aNaCl
H,O
Carbon Disulphid (Formula, CS 2 Molecular Weight,

;
76).
This
is
a heavy, colorless liquid of a very offensive
odor, highly refractive, very volatile,

It is
It is
and inflammable.
made by
passing the vapors of S over heated C.

fats,
used as a solvent for
rubber, sulphur, iodin,
phosphorus, and some alkaloids. it is used as an insecticide.
Upon
a large scale
PHOSPHORUS
Symbol, P; Atomic weight, 31; Molecular weight, 124; Valence,
3, 5.
This element
is
found in nature chiefly as the phosIt is
phates of calcium, iron, and aluminum.
found in
all
such mineral combinations in small quantities in

soils
and
is essential for
plant
life.
It enters the
is
animal
economy
through the food taken, and
found either
PHOSPHORUS
in organic combination or in the bones in the
53
form
of
calcium and magnesium phosphates.

in the urine.
It is also
found
The element
dissolving
is
obtained from
its
mineral salts by
them
in strong
H S04;
2
the resultant com-
pound
is
heated, then mixed with sand and coke, and
the distilled phosphorus collected under water.

Properties.
solid,
It occurs as a translucent, slightly yellow
and melts under water at 44 C.
(m
F.).
It has
great affinity for O, taking fire

is
when exposed
to air.
It
sol-
luminous in the dark; insoluble in HÔ; slightly

oil;
uble in alcohol, fats, and
and very
soluble in chloro-
form and
82.
It
combines readily with chlorin, bromin,
iodin, sulphur, and metals, forming with the latter phosphids. Phosphorus exists in an allotropic modification,
made by exposing common

C. in
or
or yellow phos-
phorus to 260
CO
2,
N,
H, and
of the
in this
an atmosphere of inert gases, as form is known as red phos-
phorus, the properties of which are widely different
from those
common
variety, being non-poisonous,
practically insoluble in all liquids,
and non-luminous.
Phosphorus was principally used in the making of matches, which consisted of dipping wooden splints into
melted sulphur, paraffin, and then into a paste of glue
and phosphorus, to which some oxidizing agent had been added. As the manufacture of matches by this
method produced maxillary

with
it,
necrosis in those working

its
laws have been enacted against
use.
In
54

is
the so-called "safety match" red phosphorus

It is contained
is
used.
to
upon the surface upon which the match be rubbed, combined with antimony pentasulphid.
contains antimony trisulphid, red
The match proper

lead,
and potassium chlorate and dichromate.

is
Phos-
phorus in the elementary state

maceutic preparations, such as
used in several phar-
pills, elixir, spirits, it
and
phosphorated
in the
oil.
In domestic use
enters the
home
form
of the various "rat pastes."
Toxicology.
soluble in
Oil of
Never give
oil or fats,
as phosphorus
is
them and would only hasten

has been used,
its
assimilation.
oil
turpentine (this differs
chemically from the
and
fats)
action depending
upon the
Potas-
oxidation of the phosphorus to phosphoric acid.
sium permanganate
successfully
in
it
y^ per
cent, solution has
been
used;
converts
the
phosphorus into
H PO
3
4.
Copper sulphate, which forms the insoluble
even coat the phosphorus with metallic copper, can also be given in 5-gr. doses. In all these cases the stomach-pump or emetics must be used to
copper phosphid or
may
eliminate the poison from the system as soon as possible.
Phosphin, Phosphoretted
Hydrogen (Formula,
is
3,
PH
Molecular Weight, 34).

gas, analogous in
This
a colorless, ill-smelling
form to
is
NH
and
is
produced when-
ever phosphorus
boiled with a solution of a caustic
alkali or alkaline earth.
The
gas thus obtained

is
is
con-
taminated with another gas, which

flammable, and this property
is
spontaneously in-
frequently ascribed to
ACIDS OF PHOSPHORUS
the former.
55
Pure PHs, however, does not inflame at

though
it
ordinary
heated.
3
temperature,
4P
does
when
gently
KOH +
PH
+ 3KPH O
2
Potassium
hypophosphite.
When added
compounds.
to acids
it
produces the phosphonium
compounds, which are analogous to the ammonium

ACIDS OF PHOSPHORUS
Phosphoric,
phosphorous,
hypophosphorous,
meta-
phosphoric, and pyrophosphoric acids.
In considering the acids on page 14

that, theoretically considered,
it
was stated
any acid
is
divisible into
replaceable hydrogen able hydrogen

is that
and acid
radicle.
The
replace-
hydrogen that can be replaced by

all
a metal or base, and while
acids contain hydrogen,

is
not
all
the hydrogen in some acids
capable of replace-
ment.
We
will find that
some
of the acids of phos-
phorus show
this exception.
Hypophosphorous Acid (Formula,

HPH O
2
or
H PO
3
This acid contains, as
will
be
seen from the second formula, three hydrogens, but
only one of these can be replaced.

the type formula, showing the
/
The
first
formula
is
number
of replaceable
hydrogens.
of one,
The
acid radicle
is
(PH2 O2 ) with a
valence
and forms
salts as follows:
Na(PH 2 O 2)
Sodium hypophosphite.
Ca(PHA) 2
Calcium hypophosphite.
$6
The
acid
is
made by decomposing a
solution of cal-
cium hypophosphite with
oxalic acid, or
by
treating
potassium hypophosphite with tartaric acid.

Ca(PH2O 2) 2
+ HCO
2 2
HPH O
2
CaC 2 O4
Oxalic acid.
Calcium oxalate.
two strengths, Acidum hypo phosphor osum, 30 per cent., and Acidum hypophosphorosum diluIt is official in
tum, 10 per cent.

ties,
The
acid possesses deoxidizing properit
changing substances brought in contact with
into lower forms.

Tests.
The hypophosphites produce, with
solution of
silver nitrate,
AgN0
3,
at
first,
a white precipitate, which
becomes brown and
finally black,
due to reduction
of the
silver to the metallic state.
a solution of a hypophosphite, acidified with a solution of mercuric chlorid is added, a white HC1,
If to
precipitate of mercurous chlorid
(calomel)
is
formed,
will
which, upon
the addition of
more hypophosphite,
be further reduced to mercury. Medicinal Properties and Uses.

acid
Hypophosphorous and the hypophosphites are tonic and supposedly
reconstructive.
The dose
is
of dilute acid is 10 to 60
min-
ims.
The
acid
used in the preparation of syrup of

its
ferrous iodid as a preserving agent, on account of
deoxidizing property.
Phosphorous Acid (H2 (PHO 3 ) or H3 P0 3 ). As can be seen from the formula, this is a dibasic acid. It pos-
ACIDS OF PHOSPHORUS
sesses strong deoxidizing properties.
57
The
acid
and
its
compounds are
This
is
of little medical importance.
Phosphoric Acid (Formula,

98).
H PO
3
Molecular Weight,
the most important of the acids of phos-
phorus.
rocks,
It is
It is
found in nature as phosphates in various

// /?/
principally
as
calcium
phosphate,
Ca3 (P0 4)2.

and
in
found in the animal economy as magnesium and
calcium in the bones, in the blood as

the urine as
Na2HP0 4
NaH PO
2
4.
This acid
HNOa upon
strengths:
cent,
made by the action of dilute phosphorus. The official acid exists in two Acidum phosphoricum, containing 85 per
is
generally
by weight
of
H P0
3
4,
and Acidum phosphoricum

the
in
dilutum, containing 10 per cent.

It
forms three classes of

its
e.
salts:
first,
which but
one of
metal,
replaceable
has been substituted by a
g.,
NaH PO
2
the second, wherein two of the

,
have been replaced, e. g., Na2HPO 4 this latter salt being the sodium phosphate of pharmacy and commerce; and the last
e.
class, in
which
all
the
H is replaced,
Na PO 4 Tests. H PO 4 neutralized with (NH 4OH), or a phosphate added to a

g.,
3
.
ammonia-water,
solution of silver
nitrate, produces a yellow precipitate, wholly soluble in
HN0
4
and
NH OH.
4
,
With
NH C1, MgNH PO
4
magnesium mixture, consisting of MgS0 4 and NH 4 OH, a granular white precipitate of

4
is
produced.
58

Medicinal Properties and
Uses.
Phosphoric acid
It is
is
tonic, alterative,
and
refrigerant.
used in dys-
pepsia, hysteria, diabetes, caries of the bones, night-
sweats, catarrhal affections, jaundice,
and melancholia.
30 min-
Dose:
strong acid,
2 to 5
minims;
dilute, 5 to
ims, both well diluted.
Pyrophosphoric Acid.
Under Boric Acid
(see p. 46)
pyro- and meta-acids were defined. This acid is not of great importance, but its sodium salt is extensively used
in
pharmacy and
the
arts.
Pyrophosphates
when
added to solutions
of silver nitrate
produce a white
precipitate soluble in
NH OH,
4
not reprecipitated by
HN0
3.
Metaphosphoric
acid
(HPO3),
it exists
also
called
glacial
phosphoric acid, because

It differs
in glass-like masses.
from phosphoric and pyrophosphoric acids by coagulating albumin and acting like a poison, while
the others are practically harmless.
HALOGENS
These consist
of the four elements
chlorin,
iodin,
bromin, and fluorin and have properties very much in common. They are derived from compounds found
in sea-water; hence the
name
all
"halogen," signifying a
of
i,
generator of
also exist, in
3, 5,
salt.
They
all
have the valence
but
some
of their
and
7.
They
compounds, with valencies of combine with hydrogen, produc-
ing binary acids, which are colorless gases soluble in
CHLORIN
water, and in this form they exist in commerce.
59
They
combine directly with most metals, forming chlorids, Chlorin and fluorin are iodids, bromids, and fluorids.
gases.
lodin
is
a solid.
Bromin
is
a liquid at ordinary
temperature.
In the gaseous condition each possesses
a distinctive color, has a disagreeable and irritating

odor,
and
is
a powerful disinfectant.
CHLORIN
Symbol, Cl; Atomic weight, 35.
chlorid,
seas,
Found
salt,
largely
as
sodium
NaCl, as common
rock
salt; in salt lakes,
and oceans; also as the nesium, and calcium.

Preparation.
of
chlorids of potassium,
mag-
Made commonly by manganese with HC1 or H 2 SO 4

:
heating black oxid
MnO MnO
4HC1
MnCl 2
Manganese
chlorid.
2C1
2H,O
or
Manganese
dioxid.
H-
2 NaCl
2H 2 SO 4 =
2C1
+ MnSO +
4
Na 2 SO 4
2H2
Manganese
sulphate.
Chlorin
is
also
produced by the action

"
chlorid
of
of
HC1
or
or
H SO
2
upon
the
so-called
is
lime/'
bleaching
powder, which
CaCl a .Ca(ClO) 2
Chlorid of lime.
a mixture of CaCl2 and Ca(ClO)2.
4HC1
4C1
2CaCl 2
2H2O
On
a commercial
scale,
chlorin
is
now
salt.
extensively
made by
the electrolysis of
common
60
Properties.

It is a yellowish-green gas
(hence the
name, from chlorus, green), with a disagreeable taste and suffocating odor, about two and a half times
heavier than
chlorin-water.
air,
very soluble in water, forming with

into
it
Under pressure it is converted yellowish-green liquid, and is now obtainable

form in
steel cylinders.
in this
It combines with all elements,
but with some only

ing fluorin,
ating iodin
it is
indirectly, as O,
N, and C.
Except-
the most powerful of the halogens, libertheir
and bromin from
compounds.
is
The
combination of chlorin with some substances

energetic,
light.
very accompanied by heat and, in some instances, It has great affinity for hydrogen and will deit,
compose compounds containing

hydrogen.
agent.
Its
to rob
them
of their
It is a powerful disinfecting
and bleaching
is
action as a bleaching agent
indirect;
when used
Its action
for these purposes, moisture
must be present.
of nascent oxy-
depends upon the formation
gen by the chlorin removing the hydrogen from the
H O;
2
this nascent oxygen, being
more
energetic, oxidizes
or combines with certain elements contained in these
compounds.
Liquor Chlori Compositus, U. S. P., Chlorin-water.
This
is
made by
treating potassium chlorate with
HC1
is
and adding water carefully to the generated Cl. It an unstable compound, combining with the hydrogen
the
of
H O,
2
liberating oxygen.
It should
be freshly made
when wanted.
CHLORIN
61
Hydrochloric Acid, Muriatic Acid (Formula, HC1;

action of
This acid
is
obtained by the
H SO4
2
upon a chlorid, usually NaCl:
2 NaCl
+ H S0
2
2HC1
Na2SO4
It is a colorless gas, with a penetrating odor

irritating to inhale.
and
Its great affinity for
is
shown
by the formation
of a white cloud
when
the gas comes
in contact with the moisture in the atmosphere.
The
gas dissolved in water
is
the hydrochloric acid of the

cent,
U.
S. P.,
and contains nearly 32 per
by weight
of
is
HC1.
The
dilute acid contains 10 per cent.
HC1
found as a constituent of the gastric
juice, the exact
quantity being somewhat in doubt, but approximately

0.2 per cent.

antiseptic, irritant,
it
Uses.
Tonic, refrigerant,
and poisonous. Given before meals, checks the flow of gastric juice and diminishes acidity.
after food, it increases the
Given two or three hours
acidity, increases the saliva, checks fermentation,
and
allays thirst.
5 to
Dose: strong acid,
2 to 5
minims;
dilute,
30 minims, both well diluted.
Tests.
With the exception

all
of silver,
mercurous and
lead chlorids,
other chlorids are soluble.
HC1
or a chlorid
added to
silver nitrate,
AgNO
3,
produces a white precipitate of silver chlorid, AgCl,

soluble in
of
3.
NH OH and reprecipitated upon the addition HN0 This reprecipitation by HN0 distinguishes
4 3
62
chlorids

from
all
other substances, producing white pre-
cipitates with silver nitrate, soluble in
NH OH.
4
Nitrohydrochloric Acid,
Acid.
Aqua Regia;
3
Nitromuriatic
When HC1 and HN0

remarkable for
its
are mixed, chemical action
takes place, liberating Cl and chlorin derivatives.

acid
is
This
solvent action
upon gold and

it.
platinum, due to the free chlorin contained in

of the acids entering into its
Neither
effect
manufacture has any
upon these metals.
dilute acid is also official.

astringent, escharotic,
Uses.
Tonic,
antiseptic,
and cholagogue.
It is used in
intestinal indigestion with diarrhea, chronic hepatitis,
jaundice,
scrofula,
whooping-cough,
escharotic.
acid, 5 to
and
bronchitis;
and externally as an
2 to 5
Dose:
strong acid,
minims; dilute
30 minims, both well
diluted.
Toxicology.
Same
as under Sulphuric Acid.
IODIN
Symbol,
I;
Atomic weight,
126.
This
is
found in nature combined as the iodids of
sodium and potassium.

It is contained in sea-water,
from which
supply
is
it is
taken up
by
plants.
Its chief source of
from the ashes
of sea-weeds, called kelp.
By
washing these ashes the
soluble constituents contained in
them are
dissolved,
and
after
removal
of other substances contained in the
solution,
and the
latter
evaporated to dryness, the iodin
IODIN
is
63
obtained by a process similar to obtaining Cl, by treat-
ing the residue with

2
MnO
and
H S0
2
3
4
4.
KI
+ MnO +
2
2H,SO 4 =
2!
+ K SO +
MnSO,
H,O
Potassium
iodid.
It
is
also obtained
from the mother liquor
of Chili
saltpeter,
NaNO
3.
It is also
found in small quantities in the animal
economy
as a constituent of the thyroid gland.
Properties.
Tod in
is
a crystalline substance, possess-
ing a metallic luster, a characteristic odor, and a sharp,

biting taste.
It
is
When
heated
it
gives off violet vapors.
only slightly soluble in water.
The
solubility is
greatly increased
salts.
by the addition
of binary halogen
It is soluble in alcohol, ether,
carbon disulphid,
and chloroform.
lodin possesses antiseptic properties,

of it in alcohol replaces the anti-
and today a solution

brown.
septics formerly used in surgical operations.

tissues
It stains
or sodium thiosulphate,
These stains can be removed by 4 OH Na2 S 2 O3 It is an irritant poison,

.
NH
and the best antidote

followed
is
sodium thiosulphate or
starch,
by
emetics.
Tests for lodin and lodids.

boiled starch.
lodin turns blue with
lodids with soluble lead salts produce

.
a yellow precipitate of lead iodid, PbI2
lodids with
mercuric salts produce a red precipitate of mercuric

iodid,
HgI2
soluble in excess of either reagent.
Chlorin-water treated with iodids liberates the iodin,
64 and,
if

carbon disulphid or chloroform
is
added and
shaken, the lower layer will be turned violet.

counter-irritant,
lodin
is
antiseptic,
and
alterative,
rapidly absorbed
in urine,
by
mucous membranes and eliminated

milk, and by the
intestinal
saliva,
and nasal mucous mem-
branes.
It is
mostly used externally for enlarged glands,

its
abscesses,
swollen joints, and for
counter-irritant
properties in general.
Official
Preparations Containing lodin.
Liquor iodi
compositus, Lugol's solution,

iodin
contains 5 per cent, of
and 10 per and
cent, of potassium iodid dissolved in
100 parts of water.

cent, of iodin
5
Tincture of iodin contains 7 per
per cent, of potassium iodid dissolved
in sufficient alcohol to
make 100
parts.
iodi contains 4 per cent, each of iodin
Unguentum and potassium

sufficient
dissolved in glycerin
and incorporated with
ointment base to make 100 parts.

Hydriodic Acid
127).
(Formula,
HI; Molecular Weight,

is
This, as noted under the halogens,

in
is
a gas
dis-
solved
water constituting the
HI
and,
of
pharmacy,
potassium
cooling,
which
made by adding
tartaric acid to
iodid in the presence of alcohol,
after
separating the acid from the cream tartar, or potassium

bitartrate. It contains 10 per cent,
by weight
i
of the
absolute acid,
and
is
principally used to
make
the
syrup of hydriodic acid, which contains
per cent, by
weight of absolute HI.
The
acid readily decomposes.
BROMIN
This decomposition
is
65
somewhat retarded by adding
hypophosphorous
acid.
BROMIN
Symbol, Br; Atomic weight,
80.
This element, like iodin,

in a large
is
found in sea-water and
number
of mineral waters as
is
magnesium,
cal-
cium, and sodium bromids, and
prepared like chlorin
and
iodin,
by
treating the dried bromids with

chlorin.
2 C1
Mn0
and
H S0
2
or with
MgBr2
Magnesium
bromid.
= MgCl3
Magnesium
chlorid.
2Br
It
is
a reddish-brown liquid, three times as heavy as
water, giving off suffocating reddish-brown vapors of
an
irritating odor.
its
It is slightly soluble in water; like

is
iodin,
solubility
salts.
increased
by addition
of
the
binary halogen
ether,
It is freely soluble in alcohol, It is a bleach-
carbon disulphid, and chloroform.
ing agent, disinfectant, and a corrosive poison.

Toxicology.
given.
Ammonia-water
is
well
diluted
may
be
Sodium thiosulphate
of service.
Demulcent
drinks to allay irritation.

strychnin.
External heat, atropin, and
Medicinal Properties.
Bromin by itself is never given
internally, but its various compounds are extensively used, and will be considered under their individual
heads.
irritant
5
Externally,
it
is
rarely
used as a corrosive
and
for glandular enlargements.
66
Hydrobromic Acid (Formula, HBr; Molecular Weight, Made by treating bromin under water with H2 S 81).
until the
ioBr
brown
2
color of
HS
a
Br has disappeared. + 4H2O = ioHBr + H2SO4
iS
The
liquid
is filtered
from the precipitated sulphur,
and separated from the H 2 SO 4 by distillation.

acid,
The dilute
of
which
is official,
by weight
in
HBr.
Sedative,
narcotic;
small
doses, stimulant similar to potassium bromid,
but does
not depress
water.
Tests for
like
it.
Dose: f fluidram, in syrup or
HBr
and Bromids.
Chlorin-water or
If
HN0
added to bromids liberate Br.
shaken with carbon
disulphid or chloroform the lower layer will be turned
brown.
Silver nitrate
added to bromids produces a white
precipitate, only slightly soluble in
NH OH
4
(difference
from
chlorids).
FLUORIN
Symbol, F; Atomic weight,
19.
This element
is
found as fluorspar,
CaF2
also in the It
enamel
is
of the teeth
and
in the bones of
irritating,
mammals.
a yellowish gas, of an
suffocating odor;
it is
a powerful oxidizing agent, greater than any other element; and it combines with all elements except
it
oxygen, with which

indirectly.
combines neither directly nor
ACIDS OF THE HALOGENS

Hydrofluoric acid
action of
is
67
a colorless gas, obtained by the

fluorid:
H SO
2
upon calcium
CaF,
+ H SO
2
2HF
CaSO4
Hydrofluoric acid
is
used to etch
glass.
The
glass
is
covered with paraffin or

needle.
It is
wax and
scratched with a sharp
then exposed to the hydrofluoric gas, or
to a solution of it in water, kept in a rubber or gutta-
percha container.
After removal of the protective, the exposed surface
will
be found to be etched.
ACIDS OF THE HALOGENS
Chlorin.
Bromin.
lodin.
Fluorin.
HC1,
Hydrochloric acid.
HBr, Hydrobromic
acid.
HI, Hydriodic
HF,
acid.
Hydrofluoric
acid.
HC10,
Hypochlorous acid.
HBrO, Hypobromous
acid.
HIO,
Hypoiodous
acid.
HC1O 2 HC1O 3
HBrO2 HBrO3
HBrO 4
HIO2
acid.
Chlorous acid.
,
Bromous
,
lodous acid.
HIO
acid.
3,
Chloric acid.
Bromic
,
lodic acid.
HC1O 4
HIO 4
Perchloric acid.
Perbromic acid.
Per-iodic acid.
METALLIC ELEMENTS
WE
have thus
far considered only the non-metallic
elements.
We
will
now
For
take up the more important
metallic
elements.
convenience
of
study
the
metals will be divided into certain groups which have

properties very
much
in
common.
two
classes:
The metals
are divided into
the "light
metals," having a specific gravity (Sp. G.) from 0.6 to 4,
and the "heavy metals/ Sp. G. ranging from 6 Each class is further divided into other groups.
to 22.5.
LIGHT METALS
Alkali metals.
Alkaline earth metals.
Earth metals.
Al.
K, Na,
Oxids,
Li,
(NHJ.
salts,
Ba, Ca,
Soluble
soluble
Sr,
and Mg.
In-
carbonates,
oxids.
Insoluble oxids, but

its
and most soluble
carbonates,
chemical behavior
phosphates,
and
sul-
phates (except Mg).
leans strongly toward the iron group.
HEAVY METALS
Iron group.
Lead group.
Arsenic group.
Fe, Co, Ni,

Cr.
Mn,
Zn,
Cd, Pb, Cu, Bi, Ag.

Sulphids insoluble in
dilute acids.
As, Sb, Sn, Au, Pt,
Mo.
dilute acids.
Sulphids soluble in
dilute acids.
ammonium
sulphid.
Sulphids
soluble
sulphid.
in
ammonium
Metals possess properties which distinguish them from the non-metals. All have a metallic luster, with the
68
METALLIC ELEMENTS
exception of iodin, the non-metals do not possess
69
this.
They
are conductors
of
heat and electricity.
They
are
range in color
from
silver
white to the yellow of gold.
Copper
solid,
is
red.
At ordinary temperature they

is
except mercury, which
the only liquid metal.

distilled,
All can be fused
by heat and some even

their
with-
out
changing
metallic
nature.
When mixed
still
with other metals they form alloys and

metallic
retain their
nature.
When mercury
it is
constitutes
one of
the ingredients of an alloy
termed an amalgam.
lose
Metals
treated
with
non-metals
their
metallic
properties,
of
but in a few instances, as in the compounds Metals iron and sulphur, the luster is retained.
replace hydrogen in acids, forming salts.
which have already been referred to on page were described as acids in which part or all of the
Salts,
17,
re-
placeable hydrogen has been exchanged for a metal or

basic
basic,
radicle.
They
salts.
are
divided
into
normal,
acid,
and double
Salts.
Normal
normal
salt is
one in which
all
the
replaceable hydrogen of the acid has been exchanged

for a
metal or base; for example,

4
if all
2
the hydrogen in
H S0
2
was replaced by sodium,
Na SO 4
would be proexpect a
litmus.
duced.
From
salt to
its
chemical behavior
we should
normal
If
have a neutral reaction toward
both the acid and the metal or base are of equal be the case.
will
intensity, such will
Sodium sulphate, the
example just shown,
be found neutral, as in this
70
instance both the acid and the metal are of equal intensity.
Sodium carbonate,
from
Na
is
C03, which
is
theoret-
ically derived
salt,
H CO
2
3,
chemically a normal
because
all
the hydrogen of the
H CO
2
is
replaced
by sodium, but, as has already been shown,
H CO
2
is
a weak acid, and, the metal possessing strong alkaline

properties, the salt will possess alkaline reaction
ft/
//
,
toward
litmus.
In aluminum sulphate, A12 (SO4) 3 we have an
entirely different condition.
The formula shows
that
there
it is
no replaceable hydrogen left; hence, chemically, a normal salt; but as aluminum is a weak base,
is
combined with a strong acid, the salt possesses acid properties toward litmus and other substances.
Acid Salts.
In this case only part of the replaceable
hydrogen has been exchanged by a metal or basic radicle. in If but one 2 SO 4 is replaced by Na, NaHSO 4 is
formed.
This
is
called
an acid or
bisalt.
As
acid,
these salts
may,
in reality,
be considered as partly
we
could
is
infer that
they should possess acid reactions; and this

If,
on the other hand, a weak acid were used with a strong base or metal, the salt would have an alkaline reaction, as in sodium bicarbonate, NaHCO 3
generally true.
,
in
which we have the strong metal, Na, with the weak
acid
H CO
2
3.
Basic or Subsalts.
of base than
is
is
These contain a greater portion required to make a normal salt. There
no
fixed rule
which
will
apply to
all cases.
is
Several
that they
views are entertained.
The most common
ALKALI METALS
71
are combinations of normal salts to which an oxid of a
metal has been added.

Pb(C 2H3
Lead
2) 2
PbO
oxid.
Pb 2 0(C 2H3 O,) 2

lead subacetate.
acetate.
Lead
Basic acetate of lead or
Another theory
metallic hydroxids,
is
that they
may be
regarded as
the hydroxyl, (OH), having been
replaced
;
by
acid radicles.
Bismuth hydroxid
is
Bi-
(OH) 3 replace one of the (OH) by the acid radicle (N0 8 ), and the resulting compound is Bi(OH)2NOs.
Double Salts (Also Called Multiple
salts the replaceable
Salts)
In.
these
hydrogens
of the acid
have been
If
exchanged by two or more metals or
bases.
in
H PO
3
two
H
4.
are replaced
by
Mg
and the other by

will
ammonium (NH 4) magnesium ///

//
/
phosphate
be formed,
2
Mg(NH )PO Tartaric acid has the formula of H (C H O ) if one H is replaced by Na and the other by
4
4 4 6
;
the double salt of potassium and sodium tartrate,

called
commonly
formed.
Rochelle salts,
KNaC4H
4 Oe,
will
be
ALKALI METALS
These are K, Na,
Li,
and the compounds

properties
of
amgreat
monium.
They
possess
showing
resemblance to one another in both their chemical and

physical behavior.
They
are soft; silver white in apis,
pearance; univalent, that
have but one bond; and

it,
when thrown upon water decompose
liberating
72
hydrogen.
They must be preserved under
coal
oil
or the hydrocarbons.
Their hydroxids and carbon-
ates, except lithium carbonate, are soluble in water
and possess a strong fats and completely

salts
alkaline reaction; they saponify
neutralize
acids.
Since
the
of
these
metals
are
in
so
similar,
they
will
be
dis-
treated together, except

tinctions will be noted.
cases
where
special
POTASSIUM AND SODIUM

Potassium (Symbol, K; Atomic weight, 39; Valence, i) is found in nature as the nitrate and chlorid, in
feldspar
and
in plants,
from which
it is
extracted as
chlorid
the carbonate from the ash.

it
is
As sulphate and
found in enormous quantities in the Strassfurt

Medicinally,
mines.
the
potassium
compounds
de-
press the heart
and lower muscle
activity.
Sodium (Symbol, Na; Atomic weight,

is
23; Valence, i)
found principally in the form
of the chlorid, as rock-
salt,
common
salt,
and
also dissolved in water.
It is
also found, as the nitrate, in Chili saltpeter.
Potassium Hydroxid (KOH; Molecular Weight, 56)
and Sodium Hydroxid (NaOH; Molecular Weight, 40). Caustic soda and potassium. These are made by
boiling dilute solutions of their respective carbonates
with
calcium
hydroxid.
The hydroxid
is
separated
3,
from the insoluble calcium carbonate,
CaC0
by
de-

cantation,
73
fused,
evaporated
in
silver
vessels,
and
poured into pencil-shaped molds.

K,CO 3
Na,C0 3
+ +
Ca(OH),
Ca(OH),
= =
KOH
NaOH
+
-f
CaCO3 CaCO3
or
They
absorb
are hard,
brittle,
white
solids;
deliquescent;
from the atmosphere; very soluble in water and alcohol; highly caustic and escharotic.
2
CO
Toxicology.
The
and
treatment,
all
which
is
similar
to
ammonia-water
caustic
alkalis
or
alkaline
earths, is to neutralize
by
giving vegetable acids, such
as vinegar or lemon-juice, followed

oils or
by bland
fats or
demulcents to allay
irritation.

solid
Uses.
Externally, in the
In-
form or strong solution, as an escharotic.
ternally, highly diluted, as
an antacid;
in acid dyspepsia,
before meals, stimulates acid secretion; at the end of

or after meals neutralizes the excessive acidity of the
gastric
juice
already
secreted.
Also
official
alkalinizes
the
urine and checks saliva.
The
solution of each
of these hydroxids contains 5 per cent, of absolute
hy-
droxid and
diluted.
is
given in doses of 5 to 30 minims, well
Potassium Carbonate, Salts of Tartar (K2 C0 3 Molecular Weight, 138) and Sodium Carbonate (Na2 C0 3
;

tained from
Potassium carbonate
is
ob-
wood
ashes
by the process
of lixiviation.
It is a white deliquescent salt,
with strong basic prop-
74
erties.

Sodium carbonate
molecule of water of
pharmacy contains i crystallization, and has the forof
mula
of
Na2 CO
.H2 O.
In commerce this salt occurs
in the
sal
form
of large crystals,
more commonly
called
soda or washing-soda, containing 10 molecules of
water of crystallization,
Na2 CO3.ioH2O.
The carbonates
of these metals
are not often used except as antacids, well diluted, in
doses of 5 to 20 gr.
Potassium Bicarbonate
100)
(KHCO
Molecular Weight,
and
Sodium Bicarbonate
(NaHCOs; Molecular
Weight, 84).
These are made by passing
CO
into
solutions of their respective carbonates.
They
are less alkaline than the carbonates, and are

to 40 gr.
principally used as antacids in doses of 5
combined with sugar and nutmegs to form the troches of sodium bicarbonate, each
Sodium bicarbonate
is
containing nearly 3 gr. of
it.
Potassium Sulphate (K2 SO 4 Molecular Weight, 174)

;
and
Sodium
Sulphate
(Na2 SO 4 .ioH2 O;
exists
Molecular
all
Weight, 322).
fluids of the
The former
"
in
nearly
the
body and
in the urine.
is
Sodium
sulphate,
also
of
known
2
as
Glauber's salts,"
is
made by
the action
H S0
upon NaCl, and

NaCl
usually obtained as a by-
product in the
2
manufacture of HC1.
+ H SO
2
N^SCX
+
2
2HC1
is
Sodium sulphate
a hydra-
gogue cathartic, and
is
given in doses of
to 8 drams.
75
Sodium Thiosulphate (Formula, Na2 S 2 O3.5H2 O; Molecular Weight, 248).
This compound, which
is
improp-
erly called hyposulphite of soda
largely used in photography.
and even "hypo," is It is useful as an antiused in paper-making
dote to iodin-poisoning, and
is
to neutralize the chlorin used as a bleaching agent.
fermentative.
Alterative, resolvent,
5
and
anti-
Dose, from
to 30 gr.
As an
antidote,
the dose depends upon the
amount of poison
2
taken.
Sodium
Phosphate
(Formula,
It
it
Na HPO 4 .i2H2O;
have three
the
official

phoric Acid (see p. 57) that
was stated under Phoswas

;
possible to
2 4,
Na3PO 4 sodium phosphates: sodium phosphate and which

and
Na HPO
is
found in the blood;
NaH PO
2
4,
found in the urine.
sodium phosphate is made by neutralizing with sodium carbonate, Na2 C0 3 a solution of acid calcium phosphate, which is obtained by the action of
The
official
H SO
2
of
upon calcium phosphate, and the evaporation the solution removed from the precipitated calcium
4
phosphate.
gr.
Alterative in doses of 20 to 30
2 to
Purgative and hepatic stimulant in doses of
drams.
Sodium phosphate
water.
tion of citric acid.
positus
is
is
soluble in about 5.5 parts of
Its solubility is greatly increased
by the addicom-
The Liquor
sodii phosphatis
it,
practically a 100 per cent, solution of
due to
76
the formation of more soluble compounds.

lar effervescent
The granu-
sodium phosphate contains 20 per cent, of
the dried salt combined with tartaric and citric acids,
with sodium bicarbonate.

is
Sodium phosphate
It is
exsiccated
C., until
the crystallized salt heated, not above 100
it
no longer
loses water.
two and a
half times
more
active than the regular sodium phosphate.
Sodium Sulphite (Formula, Na2 SO3 .7H 2 0; Molecular

Weight,
252).
Na CO
2
with
Made by neutralizing a solution of S02 When an excess of S02 is used,

.
sodium bisulphate is formed. Sodium sulphite exists in crystalline form without odor, while sodium bisulphite gives off the odor of
SO2
5 to
Antifermentative in doses of
30
gr.
Sodium
pyrophosphate
is
(Formula,
Na P20
4
.ioH 2 0;
Molecular weight, 446)
produced by heating sodium
phosphate to a low red heat.

2
Na 2HPO4
it is
Na 4 P 2O7
+ HO
2
Medicinally,
similar to the phosphate.

Saltpeter
Potassium
Weight,
101)
;
Nitrate,
(KNO
These
Molecular
Saltpeter
and
Sodium
Nitrate,
Chili
(NaNO
salts are
found
native, are purified

cipal sources of
by
3.
crystallization,
and are the prinand diuretic

2
HNO
Medicinal
Properties.
Refrigerant
in
Purgative in doses of
to 6 drams.
77
Sodium
Nitrite
Potassium Nitrite
(KNO (NaNO
2
;
Molecular Weight, 85) and

2
;
These are made by heating potassium or sodium nitrate with metallic lead, which removes the oxygen. It is
used in the preparation of the
official spirits
of nitre.
Sodium
nitrite
is
a cardiac
depressant and antispasmodic, similar in action to amyl nitrite and nitroglycerin, but milder and more uniform.
Dose,
to 5 gr.
Sodium
Chlorid,
Common
Salt
(Formula,
is
NaCl;
This substance
the principal
sodium compound, and is largely used as a source of the other sodium compounds. It is found in all parts
of the animal
economy, the
total quantity in the
body
being estimated as
no
grams.
It aids absorption of It
albuminoid substances by osmosis.
furnishes the
It is
HC1
of the gastric juice
through decomposition.
eliminated
by and potassium, and

This elimination
the urine as the double chlorids of sodium

also
by the
perspiration.
is
decreased in febrile conditions.
When
pure,
it is
non-hygroscopic and, as commonly
found, contains calcium and
magnesium
air,
chlorids,
which
absorb moisture from the

caking.
becoming damp and
Potassium lodid (KI; Molecular Weight, 165) and
Sodium lodid (Nal; Molecular Weight,

the action of iodin
149).
Made by
upon the respective hydroxids of potassium and sodium, and fusing the mixed iodid and
78
iodate with charcoal, dissolving in water and crystallizing:
6KOH +
and
61
S KI
-f
KI0 3
Potassium
iodate.
HO
2
KIO,
3C
KI
3 CO
sorbent.
Alterative, stimulant,
gr.
and ab-
Dose,
2 to
30
Potassium Bromid (KBr; Molecular Weight, 119) and Sodium Bromid (NaBr; Molecular Weight, 103). These compounds are made by a method similar to
that for iodids, substituting
Br
for I.
narcotic,
Sedative, hypnotic, anesthetic,

in
10-
and anaphrodisiac,
to
6o-gr.
doses.
As an antidote
drams.
to strychnin-poisoning in doses of 3 to 4
Sodium Hypophosphite (Na(PH 2 O 2 ).H2 O; Molecular

Weight, 106) and Potassium Hypophosphite
metals are
(K(PH2 O2)
,'
The hypophosphites
of these
made by
interaction of the solutions of their
respective carbonates with calcium hypophosphites
and
gently evaporating the solution separated from the insoluble calcium carbonate.
Their use
is
believed to depend
upon the phosphorus contained
in them.
They
are used
in scrofulous affections, bronchitis,
power.
The dose
is
from
and depleted nerve These hypophosto 30 gr.
phites are contained in the various official syrups of the

hypophosphites and in emulsion
phosphites.
cod-liver oil with
79
hypo-
Potassium Chlorate (KC1O 3 Molecular Weight, 122). This compound is made by the action of Cl on heated
;
solution of
KOH.
6C1
-f
6KOH =
sKCl
KC1O3
Also by oxidizing by electrolysis a solution of potas-
sium
chlorid.
a white crystalline substance, a powerful oxidizing agent, and must not be triturated, in the dry condiIt is
tion,
with organic matter.
Yields chlorin upon addi-
tion of strong acids.
gent,
Alterative,
gr.
oxidizant, astrinIt enters into the
and
diuretic.
Dose, 5 to 20
preparation of troches of potassium chlorate, which contain about 2

gr. each.
Salts of Potassium
Acetic,
and Sodium with Organic Acids. benzoic, citric, tartaric, and salicylic acid, when
acted upon
by the carbonates
of sodium, potassium,
ammonium,
These
will
or lithium, produce the corresponding salts.
be considered under the Organic Acids.

If to
Tests of Potassium and Sodium.- Potassium.
a solution of a potassium salt a solution of tartaric acid

is
added
is
until acid in reaction,
and a small amount
of
alcohol
added, a granular white precipitate of cream
of tartar is produced.
Potassium compounds when held in a non-luminous
80

it,
flame impart a violet color to

glass.
not obscured by blue
Sodium.
soluble,
As
test
practically all
no
sodium compounds are by precipitation can be carried out, as
with the other metals.
The compounds
of this metal
color, ob-
impart to the non-luminous flame a yellow

scured by blue glass.
LITHIUM
Symbol, Li; Atomic weight,
7.
Lithium
waters.
is
found, in very small quantities, in various
It is also
found as the carbonate and phosphate.

color
It is characterized
by the crimson the non-luminous Bunsen flame.
which
it
gives to
The carbonates and

differ
phosphates are insoluble and, in this respect,

the other metals of the alkalis,
from
Na and
official
K.
The
salts of lithium
which are
are the benzoate,
bromid, carbonate,
citrate,
and
salicylate.
Medicinally, they are supposed to possess diuretic

properties
and
to be solvents for calculi.
AMMONIUM COMPOUNDS
/
The
salts of the radicle
ammonium (NH
4)
possess
both physical and chemical properties quite similar to

those of potassium and sodium.
Ammonium Hydroxid, Ammonia-water, NH 4 OH.

page 33.)
(See
Ammonium Carbonate, Sal Volatile (Formula, NH HCO3.NH NH CO2). This is not the normal car4 2
4
AMMONIUM COMPOUNDS
bonate, the formula of which would be
is
8l
(NH ) C03
4 2
but
a mixture of acid
ammonium
carbonate and am-
monium carbamate,
obtained by sublimation (see page
no)
of a mixture of
ammonium
sulphate and calcium
carbonate.
It is a volatile salt, with the odor of

is
am-
monia, and
spirits of
used principally in the preparation of

aromatic.
ammonia
Cardiac stimulant, expectorant,

in bronchitis,
gr.
and rubefacient.
faintness.
Used
pneumonia, and
Dose, 2 to 3
Chlorid,
53).
Ammonium
lecular
Sal
Ammoniac (NH 4 C1; Moneutralizing
Weight,
Made by
NH OH
4
with HC1, and purifying.

pectorant.
troches of
Stimulant,
gr.
irritant,
and ex-
Dose, 3 to 20
It
is
contained in the
gr. each,
ammonium
chlorid,
which contain ij
combined with extract
of licorice.
Ammonium bromid (NH 4Br) and ammonium iodid (NH 4 I) are similar, in both their chemical and medicinal
properties, to those of
Ammonium
80).
Nitrate
(NH NO
4
Molecular Weight,
This
is
made by
neutralizing
NH OH with HNO
4
3,
evaporating the solution, and allowing the salt to crystallize.
It is
used principally in the preparation of nitrous
oxid, or laughing-gas,
N O.
2
Tests of the
Ammonium Compounds. The ammonium

from those of the
alkalis
compounds
volatilized
6
differ
by being
under direct heat.
82
If to
is

a solution of an
is
ammonium
given
salt
a caustic alkali
added and heat
applied, the odor of

3
NH
will
be
detected,
and the
NH
off will
turn moistened red
litmus-paper blue.
ALKALINE EARTH METALS

These are Ca, Ba,
valence of
2.
Sr,
salts
and Mg.
They
all
have a
their
Their
are characterized
by
oxids and hydroxids, have an alkaline reaction, and are
only slightly soluble.
Their carbonates, phosphates,
and sulphates are

which
is soluble.
insoluble, except
magnesium
sulphate,
CALCIUM
Symbol, Ca; Atomic weight, 40; Valence,
2.
This
is
found as the carbonate,
CaCO
3,
in limestone,
marble, chalk, and oyster shells; as the sulphate,

in
gypsum and
alabaster;
and as phosphate,
in various rocks
and bones.
56).
Calcium Oxid, Lime (CaO; Molecular Weight,

Prepared by
calcination, that
off
is,
by highly heating a
carbonate to drive
the
CO
2.
CaCO3
CaO
+ CO
Lime
is
a white, odorless, infusible substance which,

to air, gradually absorbs moisture
when exposed
and
C0
2,
becoming slaked, with the formation of the carbonate. Upon the addition of water it evolves great heat, forming the hydroxid or milk-of-lime,
of
Ca(OH) 2
the solution
which
is
known
as lime-water.
Lime-water readily
CALCIUM
absorbs
83
CO
2,
forming the carbonate, becoming useless.
Hence, lime-water should be freshly made.

Medicinal Preparations.
is
Liquor
calcis,
or lime-water,
a saturated solution of Ca(OH) 2 in water.
Syrup
of
lime contains a larger
amount
of lime than lime-water,
due to the sugar forming a more soluble compound with The Linimentum calcis, or canon oil, is made by it.
mixing equal volumes of linseed
is
oil
and lime-water, and
used in burns.
Calcium Carbonate (CaC0 3 Molecular Weight, 100).

;
two forms: the Creta preparata, or prepared chalk, a constituent of chalk mixture; and
This
is official
in
precipitated chalk,
to calcium chlorid,
made by adding
and
is
a soluble carbonate
:
principally used as a dentifrice
Na 2 CO 3
Calcium
CaCl 2
CaCO3
NaCl
;
Hypophosphite
(Ca(PH2 O2 ) 2
is
Molecular
Weight, 170).
Made by
heating phosphorus with milk3,
of-Iime until phosphin,
PH
8P
3Ca(OH) 2
6H,O
no longer evolved. + 2PH3 3 Ca(PHjO 2 ) 2

hypophosphites and
It is used to prepare the other
hypophosphorous
acid.
Medicinal Properties, Uses, and Preparations.

are similar to those of sodium
These
and potassium.
Powder.
(See
Chlorinated
59).
Lime,
Bleaching
is
page
This compound
made by
Ca(ClO) 2
.
passing chlorin gas
over slaked lime.

2Ca(OH) 2
-h
4C1
CaCl a
H,O
Chlorinated lime.
84
It is

a powerful disinfectant and bleaching agent,
with an odor of chlorin, and evolves the latter upon the

addition of acids.
It
is
used pharmaceutically for the

sodce
preparation of Liquor
solution)
by
treating
it
(Labarraque's with a solution of sodium car-
chlorinates
bonate.
Calcium
native as
(CaS0 4 .2H2 O). This is found gypsum, and, when heated, loses it water of
Sulphate
crystallization,
forming "plaster Paris";
used to
fix
is
surgical dressings
and making
casts.
When
water
added
to it, it assumes its hydrated crystalline state. Calcium Bromid (CaBr2 ) and Calcium Chlorid (CaCl2 ).
These compounds are prepared by neutralizing their respective acids with calcium carbonate. They are
highly deliquescent
salts.
The
properties of the former
are identical with those of

latter is
The
resol-
used in drying, gases, and, internally, as a
vent, in doses of 10 to 20 gr.
Tests for Calcium.
Soluble salts of calcium produce
a granular precipitate with
ammonium
It colors
oxalate,
(NHUV
CO
2
4,
insoluble in acetic acid.
a non-luminous
flame a yellowish red.
STRONTIUM
Symbol, Sr; Atomic weight, 87.
This metal
sulphate.
is
found principally as carbonate and
The
official salts
are the bromids, iodids,
and
salicyl-
BARIUM
ates,
85
similar to those of the
and they possess properties

with corresponding acids.
salts tinge
alkalis
Strontium
color.
a non-luminous flame a crimson
Toxicology.
The
nitrate of strontium,
is
which
is
prin-
cipally used in pyrotechnics,
poisonous; and as the
metals of this group form insoluble carbonates, phosphates,
and
sulphates, the
sodium
salts of these acids
can be used, followed by emetics. can also be used.
Magnesium sulphate
BARIUM
Symbol, Ba; Atomic weight, 137.
Barium
phate.
is
found as both the carbonate and the
sul-
Barium Dioxid or Peroxid (Ba02; Molecular Weight,

169).
This compound, which
is
so extensively used in
the preparation of the other dioxids and
2,
q. v., is
made by
This
is
heating the oxid to red heat.

;
Barium Chlorid (BaCl2
made by
salts
neutralizing
BaC0
with HC1, and
is
used as a reagent in the chemical laboratory.
Barium
are poisonous,
and
their
antidote
is
sodium or magnesium sulphate, followed by emetics or the compounds which will produce insoluble salts, as stated under the Toxicology of Strontium.
Tests.
Sulphuric acid or soluble sulphates produce
a white precipitate of
BaS0
4,
insoluble in HC1.
This
is
86
not only true of barium compounds, but other metals

give similar results.
Barium compounds impart a green

luminous flame.
color to a non-
MAGNESIUM
Symbol,
Mg; Atomic
is
weight, 24; Valence,
2.
This element
and
silicate.
it
found as the carbonate, sulphate, The metal is of a bluish-white color.

it
When
and
is
burns
produces an intensely brilliant flame,
used in the composition of "flash-light" powders.

Calcined Magnesia; Magnesia Alba
40).
Magnesium Oxid,
(MgO; Molecular Weight,

calcination of
This compound,
is
fol-
lowing the general methods of forming oxids,
made by
magnesium carbonate. MgCO, = MgO + CO,
It is a very light, white powder, very slightly soluble
in water, to
to
which
it
imparts an alkaline reaction, due
the formation of hydroxid,
Mg(OH) 2 commonly
,
called, "milk of magnesia."
Another variety, Magnesia

is
ponderosa, or heavy magnesia oxid,
also official.
ca-
Medicinal Properties
and
Uses.
Antacid and
thartic in doses of 5 to 60 gr.
It is also used as a dusting-
powder.
Magnesium Carbonate (MgC03

84).
Molecular Weight,
official
is
This occurs native as magnesite; but the
magnesium carbonate, (MgCO 3 )4.Mg(OH) 2 .5H2 O,

tained
ob-
by adding a solution of sodium
carbonate,
ALUMINUM
,
87
sulphate,
to a solution of
magnesium
MgSO 4
and washing and drying the precipitate produced. Medicinal Properties and Uses. Similar to the oxid.
Magnesium
tained
Sulphate,
Epsom
Salt
(MgSO 4 .7H2 O;
This salt was originally obof Epsom Springs, made by treating the
by evaporating the waters

It is
4.
England; hence the name.

native carbonate with
H SO
2
MgCO
HjSO,
MgSO4
Uses.
+ CO + H O
3 2

ant,
Cathartic, refriger2
and
diuretic.
Dose, from
to 8 drams.
The
infusion of senna compound, or "black draught," contains
magnesium
sulphate, senna,
is
manna, and
fennel.
The average dose

added to
4 fluidounces.
Solution of
Tests of Magnesium.
magnesium
4,
salts,
NH OH, and Na2HPO granular precipitate of MgNH PO

.NH 4 C1,
4 4
4.
produces a
ALUMINUM
Symbol, Al; Atomic weight, 27; Valence,
3.
This element
is
very widely distributed in clay and

silicate.
various minerals, principally as
As
oxid, it is
found in the ruby, sapphire, corundum, and emery.

Properties.
The metal
It
is
is
of a silver-white color,
with
a slight bluish cast.
the lightest of the
commonly
It
used metals;
specific gravity,
2.67; ductile, malleable,
hard, and a good conductor of heat and electricity.

is
readily dissolved
by HC1 and
alkali hydroxids,
produc-
88
ing H.
HNO
and
does not affect
it.
Aluminum
possesses
weak
basic properties,
liberate
and
its
2
soluble salts are acid in
reaction,
CO
from carbonates, in the
presence of water.
Alums.
salts
The term "alum"
is
applied to that class of
composed
of the double sulphate of a univalent
and
trivalent metal with 12 molecules of water of crystallization.
A lums do not necessarily contain aluminum. The

some
of the
following examples are
commoner alums:
Ammonia
NH4Al(SO4 ) 2 .i2H2O. Chrome alum, KCr(SO 4) 2 .i2H2 O.

alum,
Ferric alum,
NH Fe(S0
4
4) 2
.i2H2 O.
Potassium alum, KAl(SO 4 ) 2 .i2H 2 O.
The
last
compound
is
is
the
official
alum, and
is
is
the sub-
stance that should be given
when "alum"
but
it will
called for.
"Ferric alum"
it
also official,
be seen that
does not contain aluminum.

of 5 to 30 gr.; emetic in doses of
Astringent in doses
i
to 2 drams.
Also
used externally as a desiccant and astringent.
Alumen exsiccatum,
deprived of its
dried alum, burnt alum,
is
alum
water of crystallization.
;
Aluminum Hydroxid (A1(OH) 3

78).
Molecular Weight,
This
is
obtained by adding solutions of alkali

salts.
hydroxids or carbonates to aluminum

inous precipitate obtained
is
The
gelat-
well washed and

;
dried.
Aluminum Sulphate
342).
(A1 2 (SO 4 ) 3
Molecular Weight,
This
is
prepared by dissolving aluminum hy-
IRON
89
droxid or oxid in H2SO4, and evaporating the solution to

dryness.
2 A1(OH) 3
3 H,S0 4
A1 2 (S0 4 ) 3
6H2
This
is
Kaolinum, Kaolin; Pipe Clay; China Clay.

the native
of
aluminum
kaolini,
silicate,
used in the preparation

well-dried
Cataplasma
by incorporating the
it
kaolin with glycerin and antiseptics.

poultice,
It is used as a
and should be well covered, as
absorbs moist-
ure from the atmosphere, becoming semi-liquid.

is
Kaolin
used as a
filtering agent.
Combined with petrolatum,

pills of
it is
used in the preparation of
those substances
silver nitrate
which are reduced by organic matter, as and potassium permanganate.

Tests of Aluminum.
Aluminum compounds produce

an excess
is
with
of
Na2 CO and
3
3
NH OH a gelatinous white precipitate

4
A1(OH)
or
insoluble in
of the reagent.
With
of
NaOH
KOH
the precipitate
soluble in
an excess
the reagent.
IRON
Symbol, Fe; Atomic weight, 55.5; Valence,
2, 3.
Iron
sulphid.
is
found in nature principally as the oxid and It is also found in plants and, in the animal
It is the
system, in the hematin of the blood.

useful of all the
It
most
common
metals.
Specific gravity, 7.78.

:
forms two classes of compounds
the ferrous, light
green in color; the ferric, usually reddish brown.

Iron by Hydrogen, Qmvenne's Iron; Reduced Iron.
90
This contains about 90 per cent, of metallic iron, and is obtained by passing hydrogen over heated ferric oxid.
FeA + 6H =
2 Fe
3H2O
chalybeate tonic
in doses of i to 5 gr., usually in pills.
Ferric Hydroxid
(Fe(OH) 3
Made by
FeCl 3
precipitating a solution of a ferric salt with
an alkaline hydroxid or carbonate.
Fe 2 (SOJ 3
NH OH = Fe(OH) + 3NH C1 or + 3 Na C0 + 3 H O = 2 Fe(OH) + 3Na SO + 3 CO
It is used as
an
antidote to arsenic-poisoning,
and
also
as the starting-point of a large

iron
number
of the official
compounds and
solutions.
;
Ferrous Chlorid, Protochlorid of Iron (FeCl 2 Molecular Weight, 182).

Obtained, as a green solution,
by
treat-
ing metallic iron with HC1:

Fe
2HC1
FeCl 2
aH
The
ferrous salts are prone to decomposition

to the ferric condition.
and
become oxidized
is
Such change
prevented by the addition of organic matter, such as

Ferric Chlorid, Perchlorid of Iron (FeCl3 ; Molecular
sugar.
Weight, 160.5).
This
is
obtained by oxidizing FeCl2
obtained by the above method, with

3 FeCl2
+ HN0 +
3
3 HC1
3 FeCl 3
HN(V. + NO +
HO
2
It
is
found in pharmacy both in the
solid state
and
in solution.
The
latter contains
29 per cent, of the
IRON
anhydrous
iron,
salt,
91
corresponding to 10 per cent, of metallic
and
is
used in the preparation of tincture of iron

to 35 parts of
it,
chlorid
by adding
by volume, 65
of
alcohol.
Ferrous Sulphate, Green Vitriol; Copperas (FeSO 4 .-
7H2 O;
It
Molecular Weight, 277.5).
Made by
dissolving
iron in dilute
exists
H SO
2
4,
evaporating, and crystallizing.
in
the
form of large transparent, green
crystals,
soluble in water.
When
exposed to
air,
it
effloresces, losing
water of crystallization, and oxidizes.

iron,
Dried sulphate of
exsiccated
sulphate of iron
(FeS0 4), is
its
the crystallized sulphate of iron deprived of
water of crystallization by heat.

Sulphate
(Fe2 (S0 4)3; Molecular
Solution of Ferric
Weight,
299).
4
:
Made by
heating
FeS0 4 with
HN0
+
4
2
and
H SO
2
6FeS04
+ 2 HN0 +
3
3H2 SO 4 =
3 Fe2 (SOJ 3
+
is
2NO
HO
When an
This
is
excess of the iron sulphate
used the basic

is
or subsulphate of iron (Monsel's solution)
formed.
used as a styptic.
;
Ferrous Carbonate (FeCO 3 Molecular Weight, 115.5).

This compound
is
obtained by treating a solution of
ferrous sulphate with
sodium carbonate:
FeSO4
Na 2 CO 3
FeCO3
Na2 SO 4
Ferrous salts have a tendency to undergo oxidation,
becoming converted into the
ferric condition,
which
is
prevented by the addition of organic matter, as sugar.
92
Such compounds as saccharated ferrous carbonate, mass

of ferrous carbonate (Vallet's mass), pills of ferrous car-
and compound iron mixture (Griffith's mixture) are official, and are composed of ferrous carbonate
bonate,
with saccharine substances.

Ferric Phosphate
(FePO 4).
This
is
a grayish-green
of
powder.
The
soluble phosphate
and pyrophosphate
iron are not true chemical compounds, but mixtures of
variable composition.
Ferric Hypophosphite
2 5-5)
(Fe(PH2 O2 ) 3 Molecular Weight,

;
This
is
a grayish- white powder, obtained by

ferric chlorid
adding to a solution of
a solution of sodium
hypophosphite, washing, and drying.
Ferrous lodid (FeI2

rous Bromid (FeBr2
;
Molecular Weight, 307.5), Fer-
Molecular Weight, 215.5).
These
substances are prepared by the action of iodin and
bromin respectively upon metallic iron. They are of light green color; and the former compound is official as
syrup of ferrous iodid, containing
5
per cent, of FeI2 and

,
also as pills of ferrous iodid, containing
i gr.,
coated with
balsam of
tolu, to
prevent oxidation.
Uses.
Tonic,
alterative,
Used in anemia, syphilis, diuretic, and emmenagogue. skin affections, and amenorrhea. Dose: syrup, 5 to 30
minims;
pills,
i
to
2,
three times daily.
Scale Salts of Iron.

salts, official, existing in
There are a number of iron

the form of thin transparent
scales, as the citrate, citrate of iron
and ammonium,
MANGANESE
iron
93
and potassium tartrate, iron and ammonium tarThese are trate, phosphate, and the pyrophosphate.
dissolving ferric hydroxid
(q. v.)
made by
in the respec-
tive acids or acid salts, as in the case of the double iron
compounds.
Tests of Iron.
Ferrous
salts,
with the soluble hy-
droxids and carbonates, produce light green precipitates;
with potassium ferricyanid, a blue precipitate.

Ferric
salts,
with soluble hydroxids and carbonates,
produce reddish-brown precipitates and an effervescence

with the latter
class.
With
acetates
and potassium
sulphocyanid blood-red solutions are obtained.
With
is
potassium ferrocyanid a precipitate of Prussian blue

obtained.
this
Tannin produces black precipitates, and for reason iron should not be dispensed with astringent
vegetable substances.
MANGANESE
Symbol,
Mn; Atomic
weight, 55.
It is
found principally as the dioxid.
It forms three
classes of salts:
the manganous, which are pink and
and tetravalent; and the permanganates, which are purple and play the part of an acid.
bivalent; the manganic, which are green
Precipitated
Weight,
87).
medicinal use,
Manganese Dioxid (MnO2 Molecular The native Mn0 2 is too impure for and the compound, which is official, is
;
made by adding
to
NH OH
4
a solution of manganous
94
sulphate,
MnSO
and
HO
2
2,
and thoroughly washing the
precipitate.
3 to 10 gr.
Tonic and alterative.
Dose,
Manganese Sulphate (MnSO 4

151)-
Molecular Weight,
Prepared by the action of
H S0
2
2
upon the
native
MnO
MnO
2
2.
+ H SO
2
= MnSO,
+ HO +
Tonic, cholagogue, cathartic,

gr.
and
styptic.
Dose, 3 to 10
Manganese Hypophosphite (Mn(PH2 O 2 ) 2 .H2 O; Molec-
Made by adding to a solution of a manganese sulphate solution of calcium hypophosphite, and separating the solution from the precipitated CaSO 4
ular Weight, 203).
,
evaporating,
and allowing
to
crystallize.
This
salt,
which
is
of a pink color, is used in the preparation of the
compound syrup of the hypophosphites. Potassium Permanganate (KMnO 4 Molecular Weight,

;
158).
Made by
fusing
Mn0
is
with
KC1O3 and
K C0
2 2
3.
The green mass, which
potassium manganate,
is dis4
solved in water, filtered, and to the nitrate
H SO
is
Mn0 is solution of KMnO

added.
2
precipitated,
4
is
and the purplish-red decanted, evaporated, and crystala powerful oxidizing agent, disIt
lized.
Properties.
This
is
infectant,
and
antiseptic.
it is
must not be mixed with

latter, in
organic matter, as
reduced by the
the
CHROMIUM
absence of acids, to a lower form, which
in the presence of acids, to soluble salts of
is
95
insoluble;
manganese.

ant, antiseptic,
Disinfectant, deodor-
and emmenagogue.
or tablets.
Dose,
2 to 5 gr.,
best given in
Tests.
pills
Manganese compounds produce with am-
monium sulphid, (NH 4) 2 S, a flesh-colored precipitate of MnS. Fused with potassium nitrate and carbonate, a
green mass
is
produced.
CHROMIUM
Symbol, Cr; Atomic weight, 52; Valence,
2, 4, 6.
The name chromium

of it are highly colored. It forms three classes of
is
given to this metal from
chromuSj color, owing to the fact that the compounds

It
is
found as chrome
iron.
are basic,
and one
in
compounds: two in which they which the acidic property pre-
dominates.
Chromium
Trioxid (CrO3 ; Molecular Weight, 100).

It
This compound was formerly called chromic acid.

is
the anhydrid of true chromic acid,
H CRO
2
4.
(See
foot-note,
page 39.)
It exists in the
form
of purplishit
red crystals, very soluble in water, with which
forms
chromic acid.
agents.
It is
one of the most powerful oxidizing

it
Under no circumstances should
be
mixed
with organic matter.
In contact with alcohol, ether, or
glycerin violent reaction occurs, from the liberation of
oxygen, even setting
fire
to
it.
96
Uses.
infectant.

Externally as escharotic, astringent, and dis-
Never use with cotton tampon or camel'sbut with a glass brush, protecting the
hair
pencil,
healthy part by a
dam
of petrolatum.
7
;
Potassium Dichromate (K 2 Cr2

294).
Molecular Weight,
This
is
found in commerce in the form of orangeIt is poisonous, irritant,
red crystals.
is
and
caustic.
It
seldom given internally, but when used as an alterais
tive
given in doses of
gr.
Poisoning
is
marked by
violent irritation
and corrosive condition.
Give alkaline
carbonates, emetics, demulcent drinks, and albumin.
Chromium Sulphate (Cr2 (S0 4)3; Molecular Weight,

292).
This occurs in emerald-green
scales,
soluble in
water, and has recently

agent.
come
into use as a remedial
Tests of Chromium.
As chromates
or dichromates:
Add
to the solution of the suspected substance a
few
drops of
H SO
2
and
2,
followed
will
by a
layer of ether.
Shake; the ethereal layer
turn blue, due to the
formation of perchromic acid.
With
soluble lead salts, a yellow precipitate of lead

is
chromate
formed,
PbCrO 4
Basic chromium compounds:

precipitate of
With
is
NH OH,
4
a green
.
chromium hydroxid
NICKEL
produced, Cr(OH) 3
Symbol, Ni; Atomic weight,
58.
ZINC
97
COBALT
Symbol, Co; Atomic weight,
58.
The
salts of these
metals are of some chemical and
industrial
importance, but practically do not enter to

of medicine.
any extent into the domain

metallic state,
is
Nickel, in the
principally used as a protective for

salts of nickel are green, while those
other metals.
The
of cobalt are pink.
zmc
Symbol, Zn; Atomic weight, 65; Valence,
2.
Metallic zinc
acids
It is
is
a bluish-white metal, soluble in dilute
hydrogen in both instances. found as the sulphid and carbonate, and also, in
alkalis, liberating
silicate.
and
combination, as the
Zinc Oxid, Zinc White (ZnO; Molecular Weight, 81).
This
is
a tasteless white powder, insoluble in water,

acids,
but freely in
tained
with which
it
produces
salts.
Ob-
by
calcination of the carbonate:
ZnCO 3
Uses.
ZnO
+ CO
Astringent,
i
desiccant,
and antispasmodic
in
doses of
to 5 gr.
is official,
The
ointment of zinc oxid

it.
containing 20 per
cent, of
Zinc Sulphate, White Vitriol (ZnS0 4 .7H2 O; Molecular
Weight, 287).
oxid in
Made by
4
:
dissolving metallic zinc or the
H SO
2
ZnO
+ H SO, =
3
ZnS04
+ HO
a
98

This occurs in small white crystals, resembling
Epsom
very
salts, for
which
it is
sometimes mistaken.
It is
soluble in water.

in doses of i to 3 gr.
Tonic and astringent
As an
;
emetic, 10 to 30 gr.
Zinc Chlorid (ZnCl2

is

salt
This
a highly deliquescent
metallic zinc.
made by
the action of
HC1
upon
Zn
Uses.
It
2HC1
ZnCl 2
2H
largely used
is
astringent
and escharotic and
embalming fluid. It has been for a long time highly recommended as a disinfectant, but recent researches have failed to make such claim good.
Zinc Carbonate, Precipitated Carbonate of Zinc
as an
(ZnCO3
Made by
=
adding to a solution
of zinc sulphate a solution of
sodium carbonate:
ZnCO3
ZnS0 4
Na 2 CO3
Na 2 SO4
It possesses properties similar to the oxid.
Zinc Bromid (ZnBr2

lodid (ZnI2
;
Molecular Weight, 225), Zinc
These
salts are
made by adding
carbonate.
their respective acids to zinc oxid or
Their medicinal properties are very similar
to those of the iodids
and bromids
of the other metals.
Zinc Acetate
219).
(ZnCCsHsC^^HgO; Molecular Weight,

dissolving zinc oxid in acetic acid,
Made by
evaporating, and crystallizing.
LEAD
Astringent, irritant,
99
and emetic.
Dose,
to 3 gr.
Zinc Valerate.
of valeric acid, is
This compound, possessing the odor
an antispasmodic and nervine, best

or cachets in doses of
i
administered in
pills
to 3 gr.
Zinc Phenolsulphonate (Zn(C 6 H604S)2.8H2 O; Molecular
Weight,
555).
This
is
an
antiseptic,
used as a
substitute for phenol; soluble in water
and
alcohol.
Tests of Zinc.
cipitates with
2
Solutions of zinc will give white pre4) 2 S,
H S, (NH
and
(NH 4) CO3
2
With
NH OH,
4
gelatinous precipitate, soluble in
an
excess of the reagent.
LEAD
Symbol, Pb; Atomic weight, 206; Valence,
2.
The
also
principal ore of lead
is
galena, PbS, but lead

It
is
is
found as the carbonate.

knife.
a very soft metal
and can be cut with a and

acetic acids.
lead.
It is soluble in
little
HNOs
effect
Other acids have but
upon
It is used for water-pipes, which,
through
the action of the contained oxygen of the water, become
coated with oxid, and

is
this,
by
further action of water,

is
converted into the hydroxid, which
slightly soluble.
is
Another source of such contamination

nitrites,
due to
CO
2,
and
nitrates
that
may
be contained in the
factories
water.
Workers in lead or paint

it.
are
fre-
quently affected by
in handling lead
Great care should be exercised
compounds, and the inhalation of them
should be avoided.
100
this matter,
Factory commissions of several States have taken up and have shown how the lives of the em-
ployees can be protected

Toxicology.
terized
by proper
care.
is
Chronic poisoning by lead

colic,
charac-
by
indigestion,
and constipation, with

from
partial paralysis of the extensor muscles of the fore-
arm, palsy and wrist-drop, and by a blue
line,
deposition of lead sulphid, PbS, on the gums.
The
treatment consists of clearing out the alimentary canal
with magnesium sulphate, which acts both as a cathartic
and an antidote, forming the insoluble lead sulphate,

PbS04.
Potassium chlorate or iodid should also be
given to eliminate the lead from the system.
lead-poisoning
is
Acute
similar to the above,
but more pro-
nounced in
its activity.
Lead Oxid, Litharge (PbO; Molecular Weight,

Usually obtained, as a by-product,
air.
222).
by
heating lead with

in the
It is a yellowish,
amorphous powder, used

salts,
manufacture of the lead
for
making the
in
it
glaze
on pottery ware, and as a dryer

boiled with a solution of lead acetate
tion of lead subacetate,
paints.
When
forms the solu-
or Goulard's extract, a diluted as "lead-water."
solution of which
is
known
is
Red
lead (PbsC^)
a red powder used in paints, and
has been shown to be composed of
PbO and PbO

The
3,
2.
Lead Carbonate, White Lead; Flake White (2PbC0 3 .-
Pb(OH) 2
Molecular Weight,
772).
native
car-
bonate of lead has the formula
PbCO
but from the
LEAD
formula of the above compound
is
it will
101
be seen that
it
a mixture of both the carbonate and hydroxid.

is
Its
principal use
paints.
It
as a pigment
official,
and as a
basis for other
was once
used as a dusting-powder
and as an ointment.
;*>
;
Lead Nitrate (Pb(NO3 ) 2
Molecular- Weight, 330).-:
Made by
dissolving either metallic .lâd toritJte'ffld&i^'
HN0
PbO
+ 2HNO
Pb(NO 3) 2
+ HO
2
Its principal use, chemically, is in the
manufacture of
the other lead compounds.
Medicinal
cutient,
Properties
and
Uses.
Astringent,
dis-
and deodorizer.
of
Lead Acetate, Sugar

Molecular Weight,
378).
Lead
(Pb(C 2H3 O2)2.3H2 0;

dissolving
Made by
and
PbO
It
It
in dilute acetic acid, evaporating,
crystallizing.
occurs in large colorless crystals, soluble in water.
has a styptic and sweet taste; whence

of lead."
its
name, "sugar
Internally, astringent
and
sedative, in doses of
to 4 gr., usually
combined
with opium.
sprains.
Externally, astringent in contusions
and
It is used in the preparation of the solution of
lead sub acetate;
and
also for
it
making
lead plaster,
by
a solution of Castile soap,
thoroughly washing with hot water the mass obtained, and forcing out any retained water by kneading. From the lead plaster the diachylon ointment is made, and the
102
plaster
is

used as the basis of most of the other
official
plasters.
Lead lodid (PbI2 Molecular Weight,

;
458).
This
is
heavy, yellow, insoluble powder, prepared by adding to a sojution of lead nitrate a solution of potassium iodid,
washing, and
.
drying;,.
Pb(i\0 3 ) a ;
&
2KI
Pbl,
KNO
i
Resolvent, given in doses of

also used externally as
to 4 gr., in
pills,
and
an
oint-
ment.
Tests of Lead.
precipitate of PbS.
HS
2
and
(NH 4)
S produce a black
Solution of
KI
produces a yellow precipitate of Pbl2.
Solution of potassium dichromate,
K Cr O7,
2
2
produces
.
a yellow precipitate of lead chromate,
PbCrO 4
COPPER
Symbol, Cu; Atomic weight, 63; Valence,
2.
Copper
oxidized
is
the only metal of a red color.

air at
It is slowly
by
ordinary temperature, but
when heated
forms the black oxid.
In moist
air it
becomes coated
with a layer of the subcarbonate.
HNO
no
3,
but the other
effect
upon
it.
electricity.
It is
upon by have practically It is a good conductor of heat and found in the metallic state and also
acids, in the cold,
It is acted
in combination with sulphur.
It forms alloys with a
number
of the metals, the most
common
of
which are
is
brass (composed of copper and zinc); another alloy
COPPER
bronze (copper, zinc, and
tin).
103
It forms
two
classes of
compounds, the cuprous and cupric. Cuprous Oxid, Red or Suboxid of Copper (Cu 2 O; MoIt is formed when cupric oxid is lecular Weight, 142).
heated with carbon or organic matter; or when an alkaline
solution of copper
is
heated in the presence of some orgrape-sugar

or
glucose.
ganic
matter,
notably
In
testing urine for glucose, using Fehling's solution, the
red precipitate produced
is
cuprous oxid.
glass.
In the
arts,
cuprous oxid
is
used in making red

;
Copper Nitrate (Cu(NO 3 ) 2 Molecular Weight, 187). This is a green crystalline salt, obtained by the action
of
HN0
upon Cu.
3 Cu
+ 8HNO
3Cu(NO3) 3
NO +
Vitriol
HO
2
Copper Sulphate, Blue Stone; Blue
(CuSO 4 .is
5H2 O; Molecular Weight, 249).

only
official
Copper sulphate
soluble
in
the
copper
salt.
It
occurs in large, transwater.
parent,
It is
deep-blue crystals,
readily
formed by the action
of concentrated, hot
H SO4
2
upon copper.
Medicinal
escharotic, Properties.
Astringent,
is
tonic,
irritant,
and emetic, and

2 to
used as an antidote to
gr.
;
phosphorus-poisoning.
poisoning, from
Dose, J to J
for
phosphorus-
10 gr.
Copper Carbonate.
This
is
the double carbonate and
hydroxid of copper, occurring as a heavy, light-green
powder, made by the interaction between sodium car-
104

is
bonate and copper sulphate, and

paint.
principally used as a
Copper-poisoning.
copper
is
Contrary to the popular belief, not poisonous in small doses, although in large
it
is.
amounts
It produces vomiting,
purging, colic,
tenesmus, and suppression of urine.

Treatment.
either as the white of eggs or milk.
Use stomach-pump and give albumin, Reduced iron may

dilute solution of
be given or even a very

cyanid,
potassium ferroor stomach-
K Fe(CN)
4
6,
followed
by emetics
produces
pump.
Tests
of
Copper.
NH OH
4
with
2,
copper
soluble
solutions a bluish-white precipitate of

in
Cu(OH)
an excess
of the reagent to
a deep azure-blue solution,
due to the formation

(very characteristic).
of a
cupro-ammonium compound
Potassium ferrocyanid produces, even in very dilute

solutions of copper, a reddish-brown precipitate of cop-
per ferrocyanid.
Metallic iron,
thoroughly cleaned of grease, when
dipped into acid solutions of copper,

with a metallic deposit of copper.
becomes coated
BISMUTH
Symbol, Bi; Atomic weight, 207.
Bismuth
is
a silver-gray metal with a pinkish
cast,
quite brittle,
and possesses a
crystalline structure.
Its
most
characteristic property
is its
formation, with some
BISMUTH
of the metals, of alloys that fuse at exceedingly
105
low
temperatures; some as low as 60.5
C. (140
F.).
The
metal also
differs
and contraction by expanding Solutions of bismuth salts are
from the general rule of expansion in volume upon cooling.

also characterized,
when
salts
not too acid, by precipitating as insoluble basic
when thrown
into
an excess
of water.
Bismuth Subnitrate (Approximate Formula, Bi(OH)2NO 3). When metallic bismuth is acted upon by HNOs,
the normal nitrate
Bi
is
produced:
+ 4HNO
Bi(NO 3 ) 3
+ NO +
2H 2O
When
this solution is
poured into a large quantity of

is
water, bismuth subnitrate

variable composition.
precipitated,
which
is
of
Bi(NO3) 3
Properties.
HO =
2
Bi(OH) 2NO3
+ 2HNO
This
is
a heavy, white, tasteless powder,

its
which imparts an acid reaction to water, due to

readiness in giving
up
its nitric
acid radicle.
Hence,
bi-
bismuth subnitrate, dispensed with carbonates or
carbonates in aqueous mixtures, liberates CC>2, and care
must be taken
to see that the reaction
is
complete before
occur.
corking the container, or an explosion
may
Bismuth
Subcarbonate,
If
Pearl
White
((BiO) 2 CO3

nitrate
is
a solution of the normal

of
added to a solution
is
sodium carbonate, the
subcarbonate
2
precipitated:
Bi(N0 3 ) 3
3Na 2 C0 3
(BiO),CO3
6NaNO3
C0 2
io6
This enters largely into the manufacture of the various

cosmetics and face preparations with which the market
is
flooded.
Both the subnitrate
and subcarbonate are
similar in medicinal behavior.
They
are sedatives, astringents, and act mechanically

protective film.
by coating the mucosa with a

5 to 30 gr.
Dose,
The
latter is also
used extensively in #-ray work, as
it
retards, to
some
extent, the passage of the rays,
and
permits the radiologist to gain a proper conception of the

conditions of the alimentary tract.
Bismuth
Citrate (Bi(C 6
H O ); Molecular Weight, 396).

5 7
Made by
in
boiling a solution of nitric acid with bismuth

is
subnitrate until a part of the precipitate
wholly soluble
NH OH,
4
with which
citrate,
it
forms the double bismuth and

is
ammonium
salt,
which
the only soluble bismuth

of elixir of
and which enters into the preparation
bismuth.
Bismuth Subsalicylate (Approximate Formula, Bi-
(OH) 2 C 7H 5 O3).
Made by
digesting salicylic acid,

.
HC
HO
5
3,
with bismuth hydroxid, Bi(OH) 3

Uses.
It

antiseptic
is
an internal
and astringent, passing through the stomach unchanged, but being decomposed in the intestinal tract.
Dose,
5 to 15 gr.
Bismuth Subgallate, Dermatol (Approximate Formula, Bi(OH) 2 C7H 5 O5). Made by digesting bismuth sub-
SILVER
nitrate in a solution of gallic acid.
107
It occurs as a canary-
yellow powder, odorless, tasteless, and insoluble in water

or alcohol.
acid.
It
is
decomposed by
acids, liberating gallic
Antiseptic, sedative, astringent,

gr.
and
desiccant.
of
Dose, 5 to 30
Tests
Bismuth.
white precipitates of
the hydroxids of
bismuth produce bismuth hydroxid, Bi(OH) 3 with

Solutions
of
,
With
solutions of
,
ammonium, sodium, and potassium. KI, a brown precipitate of bismuth

an excess of KI.
SILVER
iodid, BiI 3
soluble hi
Symbol, Ag; Atomic weight, 107.
While
tion, it
silver is occasionally
found in the native condisulphid, usually
more frequently occurs as the

and tenacious.
it
associated with lead.

ductile
It is a brilliant white metal, very
When
exposed to
air containing
sulphids
sulphid. dissolve
becomes covered with a thin film

is
of silver
It
it.
insoluble in HC1.
H SO
2
and
HNO
it.
Caustic alkalis have no effect upon
Silver Nitrate
(AgNO3
This
is
prepared by dissolving metallic silver in

crystallizing:
HNO
3,
evaporating, and
3 Ag
4HN0 3
3AgN0 3
+ NO +
H O.
2
Silver nitrate is exceedingly soluble in water; solu-
tions containing as high as 75 per cent, of the salt can be
prepared.
When
it
exposed to light in the presence of
organic matter,
decomposes into metallic
silver
and
108

3.
HNO
When
placed upon tissues,

silver chlorid
it first
turns
them
white, due to the

of the
formed by the interaction

in the tissues,
AgN0
and the NaCl contained
and
finally
black, from further reduction to metallic

oxid.
silver
and the
Stains
may
be removed,
salt,
if
not
left
too long after the application of the

iodin, forming
silver iodid,
by applying
Agl, and then washing with

.
a solution of sodium thiosulphate, Na2S2O 3

lant,
Uses.
Alterative,
stimu-
and
astringent; given in doses of f to J gr., in pills
made with
it is
cocoa-butter or kaolin
(q.
v.).
Externally
a superficial escharotic.
Silver nitrate is also used in indelible ink, for hair-
dyes,
and
for
photographic purposes.
If to
Lunar Caustic.
AgNO
some HC1
is
added and
then fused, a hard mass

sticks,
is
obtained, which
is
molded into
which are not as
brittle as
AgNO
3.
Silver
Oxid (Ag2 O; Molecular Weight,

alkali
230).
Pre3.
pared by addition of the

This
is
hydroxids to
4
AgNO
soluble in
an excess
of
NH OH,
forming a com-
pound which
Silver
possesses explosive properties.
Cyanid (AgCN; Molecular Weight, 133). Made by passing HCN into a solution of AgN03 This compound is used for the extemporaneous prep.
aration of
tity of
HCN, by
treating
it
with the required quan-
HC1 and
AgCN
water, and separating the acid from
the insoluble AgCl:
HCl
HCN +
AgCl
MERCURY
Silver lodid
109
(Agl; Molecular Weight, 233).
Made
It
by double decomposition between

is
AgNO
and KI.
used in photography.
Toxicology.
Silver
salts
are poisonous.
The
anti-
dote
is
NaCl, forming the insoluble AgCl, followed
by
emetics.
Tests of Silver.
HC1 and
soluble chlorids produce,
with
4
silver salts,
a white precipitate of AgCl, soluble in
NH OH,
and reprecipitated by
HN0
3.
K Cr O
2
2
gives
.
a reddish precipitate, with
silver salts, of
Ag CrO 4
2
MERCURY
Symbol, Hg; Atomic weight, 199; Valence,
i, 2.
Mercury
differs
from
all
other metals
It
is
by being
liquid
at ordinary temperature.
cinnabar, HgS.
It
is
found principally as of silvery white appearance. Its
specific gravity is 13.59,
becoming
solid at
air,
40 C. or F.
rolls
When pure,
it
remains unaltered in
It
and
without
leaving streaks.
forms amalgams with most metals

is
(none with iron), and
not affected by
it
HC1
or cold
H SO4. HNOs
2
attacks
vigorously.
It
forms two
classes of
mer milder
compounds, mercurous and mercuric; the forThere in action, and the latter poisonous.
are several medicinal preparations in which mercury

exists practically
in
the
metallic condition: Mercury
with chalk, Hydrargyrum

taining 38 per cent.;
cum
creta,
gray powder, conblue mass,
Massa hydrargyrum,
blue
pill,
containing 33 per cent.; Unguentum hydrargy-
no
rum;
Unguentum hydrargyrum dilutum, Hue ointment, 33 per cent.; and Emplastrum hydrargyrum, mercury
plaster,
30 per cent.
Mercurous Oxid, Black Oxid of Mercury (Hg2 O; Molecular Weight, 414).
When
a mercurous compound
is
acted upon
oxid
is
by an
alkali,
except ammonia, mercurous
obtained.
In the preparation known as "Lotio

is
nigra," or black wash, mercurous oxid

2
contained:
2
HgCl
Ca(OH) 3
CaCl,
+ H&O + H O
215).
Mercuric Oxid
In the U.
of the
S. P.
(HgO; Molecular Weight,

official;
two mercuric oxids are
they are
same chemical composition, but
differ in their
physical properties.
The yellow mercuric
oxid
is
made
by
NaOH
a solution of mercuric
precipitate
chlorid,
HgCl2
washing,
and drying the
produced:
HgCl 2
NaOH = HgO +
2 NaCl
+ HO
2
Red mercuric
mercuric nitrate
oxid, red precipitate, is

is
formed when
heated:
Hg(N0 3) 3
HgO
NO +
of
Mercurous Chlorid, Mild Chlorid

(HgCl; Molecular Weight, 234).
cury are
sists of
Mercury; Calomel
chlorids of mer-
The
made by
the process of sublimation, which con-
vaporizing a solid and passing the vapor into a

it is
cooled chamber, where

dition.
condensed to a powdery con-
mixture of mercurous sulphate and sodium chlorid
MERCURY
III
are sublimed, the mercurous chlorid formed, being volatile,
passes over, leaving sodium sulphate in the retort:
Hg2 SO 4
2NaCl
2 HgCl
= Na3SO
As
there
is
a possibility of the calomel being conit

is
taminated with mercuric chlorid,
washed with
water, to remove any mercuric chlorid

It
it
may
contain.
light,
must be preserved
it is
in bottles protected
latter,
from
as
decomposed by the
forming mercury and
mercuric chlorid.

tive,
Anthelmintic, alterato 15 gr.

It
is
and cholagogue.
compound
Dose,
an
ingredient of
cathartic pills,
each
pill
contain-
ing
i gr. of it.
Mercuric
Chlorid,
Corrosive
;
Sublimate;
Corrosive
Chlorid of Mercury (HgCl2
This
is
made by a
process similar to
making calomel,
substituting mercuric sulphate for the mercurous sul-
phate:
HgSO 4
2NaCl
= HgCl
Na 2 SO4
It is a heavy, crystalline solid, soluble in 16 parts of
water, the solubility being greatly increased

tion of
by
addi-
ammonium
chlorid.
The
antiseptic tablets of
pharmacy contain 7.3

of
gr. of mercuric chlorid
and
7.7 gr.
ammonium
chlorid.
One
tablet dissolved in a pint

i
:
of water forms a solution of

is
1000.
Mercuric chlorid
soluble in 3 parts of alcohol
and
in 4 parts of ether.

corrosive,
antiseptic,
Uses.
Poisonous, highly
alterative,
diuretic,
and
tonic.
112

in
-fa
Used
Dose,
syphilis,
skin
affections,
and rheumatism.
to | gr.
Toxicology.
Poisoning
gr.),
is
best treated with albumin
(one egg to each 4
followed
by emetics and de-
mulcent drinks.
of
In the absence of albumin, solutions
sodium sulphate or magnesium sulphate
may be given.
Mercurous
iodid of
lodid,
Yellow lodid of Mercury; Proto-
Mercury (Hgl; Molecular Weight, 325). Made by the interaction of mercurous nitrate and potassium
iodid:
HgCNCg
KI
Hgl
+ KN0
amorphous powder. It was formerly called green iodid of mercury, on account of its color; being made by rubbing mercury and iodin together,
It is a bright yellow,
in the presence of alcohol, the small
amount
of
uncom-
bined mercury imparting a green color to the compound.

Its medicinal properties resemble those of other
mer-
curic
compounds, and its dose is f to i gr. Mercuric Iodid, Red Iodid of Mercury; Biniodid of
;
Mercury (HgI2 Molecular Weight, 451). Made by mixing solutions of mercuric chlorid and potassium iodid in
exact molecular proportions, as mercuric iodid
in
is
soluble
an excess
of either solution.
HgCl,
KI
Hgl,
2KC1
Dose,
-fa
to I gr. Nitrates.
Mercury
Two
nitrates of
mercury
exist.
They
cury.
are
made by
the action of nitric acid
If cold dilute nitric acid is
upon merused with an excess
MERCURY
of mercury,
113
mercurous nitrate
is
formed.
With an
ex-
cess of strong
3 Hg
HNOs, mercuric
3
nitrate results:
+ 8HN0
of
3 Hg(N0 3) 2
+
is
2ND
HO
2
Solution of mercuric nitrate

cent,
rotic.
is official,
contains 60 per
by weight
Hg(N0 ) and
3
2,
used as an eschacon-
Ointment of mercuric
nitrate, citrine ointment,

.
tains
about 11.5 per cent, of Hg(NOs) 2

Turpeth
Mercury Subsulphate,
;
Mineral
(HgS0 4 .-
(HgO) 2 Molecular Weight, 725). This was formerly extensively used as an emetic for children, in doses of 2 to
3 gr.
It
is
made by pouring a
and washing
This
solution of
mercury
bi-
sulphate into water
free of the acid.
Ammoniated Mercury, White

Precipitate
is
(NH2HgCl;
The
a white, pulverulent
substance, insoluble in water, used only externally.
ointment, containing 10 per cent.,
is official.
Ammoni-
ated mercury
HgCl 2
made by adding HgCl2 to NH 4OH: + 2 NH OH = NH HgCl + NH C1 + 2 H O

is
4
Tests of Mercury.
Mercuric compounds.
Mercurous compounds.
Potassium iodid produces
A red precipitate, HgI2
A A A
yellow
precipitate,
Hgl.
Sodium or potassium hydroxid produces. .A yellow
precipitate,
black precipitate,
HgO.
Hg20.
white precipitate,
HC1
4
produces
No
effect.
NH OH produces
HgCl.
white
2
precipitate,
black precipitate of
NH HgCl.
mercurous
ammoni-
ated mercury.
114

ARSENIC
Symbol, As; Atomic weight, 75; Molecular weight, 300.
Although arsenic
native state,
its
is
found in small quantities in the

is
principal source
the sulphid.
It ex-
ists in steel-gray, crystalline
form, with a metallic luster,
without odor or
it is
taste, insoluble in water.
By
;
HNO
converted into arsenic acid,
HsAsO 4
Arseniuretted Hydrogen,
Arsine
(AsH 3
Molecular
Weight,
78).
This
is
a highly poisonous, colorless gas,
which burns with a bluish flame, producing AsA and H2O. It is always formed when nascent hydrogen comes
in contact with arsenic or its
i2
compounds:
2AsH,
H +
As,O,
+
White
Arsenic
is
Arsenic
Trioxid,
Arsenous
Oxid;
(As2O 3
Molecular Weight,
198).
This substance
usually produced, as a by-product, during the manufacture of the metal from its ores.
ties:
It occurs in
two
varie-
the opaque, or crystalline, and the vitreous, or
amorphous.
Very
slightly soluble in water, its solu-
bility is increased
by HC1.
Liquor acidi arsenosi, solui
tion of arsenous acid, contains
per cent, of
AÔs
in
HC1 and
contain
i
water.
(All
liquid
preparations of arsenic
per cent, of the arsenical
compound.)
Solution of Potassium Arsenite, Fowler's Solution.
Made by
KHCO
3,
As2 O 3 with potassium bicarbonate, and flavoring and coloring with compound
boiling
spirits of lavender.
ARSENIC
115
Sodium Arsenate (Na2 HAsO 4 .7H2 O; Molecular Weight Made by fusing As2 O3 with Na^COs and NaNO3 312).
.
one
per cent, solution of the

;
anhydrous
salt is official.
Arsenic lodid (AsI3

substance,

iodid
This
when combined with mercuric

et
and
water, forms Liquor arsenii

solution, containing
i
hydrargyri iodidi, Donovan's
per cent, each of the salts.
Arsenic-poisoning.
Poisoning by arsenic
may
result
from a number
arsenic,
of causes.
falls
Wall-paper often contains

is
which
off
it,
and
inhaled.
Textile subarise
stances also contain
and poisoning may

an
by
direct
absorption or
by
reduction of the arsenical compounds
contained in them.
Arsenic
is
irritant,
and symp-
constriction
toms of arsenic-poisoning resemble those of cholera: and heat of the fauces, faintness, nausea,
thirst,
burning abdominal pains,
vomiting, bloody stools,
and suppression
Toxicology.
emetics,
of urine.
The stomach should be washed

by
freshly
out,
followed
precipitated
ferric
hy-
droxid
(q. v.)
or dialysed iron, which forms the insoluble
iron arsenite, followed
by
2
emetics.
Tests of Arsenic.
H S produces, in acidified solutions

As2 S 3
,
of arsenic, a yellow precipitate of arsenic sulphid,
soluble in
(NH
Test.
)2S.
Marsh's
Hydrogen
2
is
generated in a flask by
After having asceris
the action of
H SO
upon
zinc.
tained the absence of air in the flask, the hydrogen

ignited,
and the purity
of the chemicals used is tested.
Il6

liquid
is
The suspected
then added.
In the presence of
arsenic the flame
becomes enlarged, and when a cold
porcelain surface impinges
upon the
flame,
it will
deposit
upon the porcelain metallic spots.
As
spots produced
by antimony
differentiated
are quite similar in appearance, they are
by a
solution of chlorinated soda or Labar-
raque's solution, which dissolves the arsenic spots, but
not those of antimony.
The
arsenic spots are further
confirmed by acidifying the solution in which the arsenic
and passing H 2 S into it, a yellow precipitate being formed if arsenic is present. NH 4OH, to which copper sulphate has been added
is
dissolved,
until the precipitate first
produced no longer
dissolves,
and
filtered,
produces,
with arsenic, a precipitate of
Scheele's green.
solution of ammonio-nitrate of silver gives a yellow
precipitate with arsenic.
ANTIMONY
Symbol, Sb; Atomic weight, 119.
Antimony
uble in HC1.
metal.
is
found as black antimony sulphid, Sb 2 S 3

metal of a crystalline structure,
It is a bluish- white It is
sol-
used in the arts as type and Babbitt
Antimony Sulphid (Sb 2 S 3 Molecular Weight, 334). This occurs native, and is used in the preparation of
;
"horse
powders."
Under the name
of
sulphureted
is
antimony, or kermes-mineral, a substance
known
ANTIMONY
which
is
117
an orange-red powder and consists of a mixture This is a diaphoretic of sulphid and oxid of antimony.
and
is
given in doses of
to 2 gr.
Antimony
Chlorid, Butter of
ular Weight, 224).

boiling
This
is
Antimony (SbClsj Molecan escharotic, obtained by
Sb 2 S 3 with HC1.
3
;
Antimony Oxid (Sb 2
white, insoluble powder, entering into the preparaIt

is
tion of Pulvis antimonialis, or James' powder.
made by pouring a
solution of SbCls into water,
and
heating the oxychlorid formed with Na^COs.
Antimony and Potassium Tartrate,
Tartar
Emetic
(2K(SbO)C 4H 4 06.H2 O); Molecular Weight, 662). This is the most important medicinal antimony compound.
It is prepared
of tartar, Sb 2O 3
by
boiling potassium bitartrate, or
cream
with freshly prepared antimony
oxid:
+ 2KHC4HA =
2K(SbO)C4H 4
+ HO
2
It exists in small crystals, soluble in 16 parts of water
and insoluble
2 gr. to
in alcohol.
Wine antimony contains about
the fluidounce.
Compound syrup
i gr.
of squills, or
hive syrup, contains
about
to the fluidounce.

expectorant, and emetic.
Sedative, alterative,
gr.,
Dose, -^ to J
depending
upon
the purpose intended.
Toxicology.
Tartar emetic
is
extensively used in the
numerous "ant destroyers," which are frequent sources of poisoning. In its effects it is similar to arsenic, but
Il8

As
little
of a milder type.
as 2 gr. have produced death.
Treatment similar to
arsenic,
but with the addition of

it,
tannic acid or substances containing
as tea, etc.
Tests
of
Antimony.
HS
2
produces,
with acidified
of the
antimony solution, an orange-colored precipitate sulphid, Sb 2 S 3 soluble in (NH 4) 2 S.

,
Under
Arsenic, Marsh's Test
distinction
was given, with points between arsenic and antimony.
of
PART
II
CHEMISTRY OF CARBON AND ITS COMPOUNDS

THE term
pounds are
"Organic Chemistry," by which these comto, is
commonly alluded
a survival from the
former belief that these substances were produced by the

mysterious power, "vital force," which
strated
is
now demon-
by the
large
number
of these substances daily
produced
in chemical laboratories to
have no bearing
is
upon
large.
it.
The number
of carbon
compounds
very
It is estimated that there are 150,000 of
them
known
at the present time,
and
their
number
is
rapidly
increasing as our knowledge of the subject progresses.
The elements
entering into
them
are principally carbon

is
and hydrogen, although oxygen

component.
nitrogen, and other compounds
also
an important
is
In addition to the foregoing, there
also
may
contain sulphur,
phosphorus, chlorin, iodin, bromin, and even the metals

are combined with
some
of them.
The carbon compounds
are derived from

there
is
all
sources.
From
the animal
kingdom
obtained the pro119
teins, urea, fats, etc.; the
vegetable kingdom furnishes
120
sugars, starches, alkaloids, glucosids, etc.; the mineral
kingdom
coal-tar.
supplies petroleum, hydrocarbon, gases,
and
Identification of
tile
Carbon Compounds.
The
non-vola-
substances are readily recognized by the fact that

highly heated they char, due to the destruction of
when
the compound, leaving carbon as a blackened mass.
In some instances the addition of sulphuric acid

to
is
ample
show
their presence; the dehydrating property of the
acid removes hydrogen
carbon remains.
and oxygen, and the blackened In most cases it becomes necessary to
heat the substance with copper oxid, which furnishes

oxygen, producing
,
C0
2,
which,
when passed
into Ca-
(OH) 2 becomes cloudy.

For convenience of study the carbon compounds are divided into groups which have characteristics in
common.
Hydrocarbons.
As the name
implies, these are
com-
posed of carbon and hydrogen only.

into three
main
classes or
They are divided groups: The "aliphatic," or

groups are further sub-
"open chain"; the "aromatic," or "closed chain"; the

"terpenes."
divided.
Each
of
these
Hydrocarbons are graphically shown to exist in chains, which are series of multivalent atoms held together by one or more affinities. The linkage may be shown as
existing with one valence
between each carbon, as in
"saturated hydrocarbons" or "paraffins":
CHEMISTRY OF CARBON AND
ITS
COMPOUNDS
121
H H
C H,
122
HYDROCARBONS OF THE MARSH-GAS OR PARAFFIN SERIES

(the Saturated Hydrocarbons)
General Formula,
Name.
Formula.
CnH n-J~2.
2
Radicle.
Formula.
Methane
Ethane
Propane
CH
C
2
Methyl
Ethyl
Propyl
(CH )
3
Butane
Pentane
Hexane
H CH CH CH CH
3
4 5
10
Buty
Pentyl
12
14
Hexyl
(C H (C H (C H (C H n (C H
2
5)
7)
9)
13 )
This
series could
be continued almost
as
indefinitely, as
compounds containing
It will
many
as 60 carbons are
known.
be observed that there
is
common
difference of
CH
between any member of
this series
and the preis
ceding or succeeding one.
The term homologous
given
to a series possessing this difference,
and each member
of the series is regarded as the homologue of the others.

It will also
be observed that the formula of any
memof
ber of the series can be readily ascertained from the

general formula.
For instance, to find the formula
pentane,
formula,
it is
only necessary to substitute in the general

2
CnH n +
2,
the value of "n," which for penof the series, is 5

5
;
tane, the fifth
member
thus
CH
or reducing,
2 ( 5)
+
2
2;
QH
10
12 .
Or
in case of propane, for
which the value of "n"

2
is 3,
we would have
C,H 6
C.H..
HALOGEN DERIVATIVES, OR HALOID ETHERS

The ending
or
of the
123
above hydrocarbons
is
"ane."
If
one
more hydrogens are removed, radicles will be produced and their valence corresponds to the number
thus taken away.
Where but one
H
is
has been taken
away, the "ane" of the hydrocarbon thus, methane produces methyl.
replaced
by
"yl";
The
first
three
members
air
of this series are gases, which,

ignited,
when mixed with

plosive force.
and
combine with ex-
The
higher
members are obtained from
petroleum, and are found in such commercial substances

as rhigolene, gasolene, benzine (petroleum ether), coaloil,
petrolatum, and paraffin.

official
The
petrolatum,
commonly
from
called "vaselin,"
used as an ointment, contains the hydrocarbons from

Ci 6
34
to
C20H42; and
"paraffin,"
C 24H 5o
to
27
5 6.
HALOGEN DERIVATIVES, OR HALOID ETHERS

These compounds
may
be regarded, theoretically, as
hydrocarbons in which one or more of the hydrogens have been replaced by halogen elements. For example, from
methane,
3
CH
4,
there can be produced
CH C1,
Methyl
chlorid.
CH C1
2
2,
CHC1 3
and
CC14
Carbon
tetrachlorid.
Methylene
chlorid.
Chloroform.
They
methane,
are
etc.,
also
called
monochlormethane,
dichlor-
showing
their relation to
methane.
Only
those substances which are of medicinal importance will
be considered.
124

Trichlorid, Chloroform
Methane
Weight,
(CHC13
Molecular
1 1 8).
Made by
the action of chlorinated lime
It is a bright, clear, colorless liquid, of upon alcohol. an ethereal odor, and burning, sweet taste. It is non-
inflammable.

stimulant, narcotic, and
Irritant, anesthetic,
rubefacient.
Dose,
to 20
minims.
Preparations
Containing
Chloroform.
Chloroform-
water, a saturated solution; chloroform liniment, 30 per

cent.;
chloroform
emulsion,
4 per cent,
by volume;
it
spirits of chloroform, 6
per cent, by volume.
When
pure.
chloroform
is
used as an anesthetic
must be
It should never
be administered in the presence
of gas light, as a poisonous
compound
heart.
is
formed; nor to
those suffering with

Toxicology.
weak
Irregular, shallow, stertorous breathing

If
and dilated
emptied by
pupils.
swallowed, the stomach must be
pump
or siphon or emetics.
Lower the
head and pull forward the tongue, artificial respiration, electricity, hot and cold douche, ammonia by inhalation, friction, heat, brandy, atropin and strychnin.
Methane
Weight, 391).
Tri-iodid,
lodoform
(CHI
Molecular
Made by
a process similar to that for
making chloroform.
97 per cent, of iodin.
It occurs in small yellow crystals
with disagreeable characteristic odor, containing nearly
Uses.
Antiseptic and in-
ALCOHOLS
creases
official,
125
appetite.
Dose,
to 3 gr.
The ointment
is
containing 10 per cent, of iodoform.

;
Methane Tribromid, Bromoform (CHBr3

Weight, 253).
Molecular
colorless liquid, specific gravity 2.808,
resembling chloroform.
Anesthetic and antispasmodic.
Dose,
as
2 to 5
minims, best given in the form of emulsion,

is
bromoform
insoluble in water.
ethyl
Monochlorethane,
weight, 64),
is
chlorid
(C 2
H C1;
5
Molecular
a liquid, boiling at 13
C.
It
comes on
the market
in small tubes.
it.
The heat
of the
hand
is
sufficient to vaporize
It is used
both as a general and
local anesthetic.
In the latter case the parts are frozen

spot.
by the rapid evaporation, producing a white
ALCOHOLS
Alcohols are aliphatic hydrocarbons in which one or
more
of the
hydrogens have been replaced by the radicle

(OH).
hydroxyl,
atomic,
contain.
They
are
termed monatomic,
it
di-
etc.,
according to the number of (OH)'s
may
Methyl Alcohol, Methyl Hydroxid; Wood Alcohol; Wood Naphtha (CH 3 OH; Molecular Weight, 32). This is produced when wood is subjected to destructive
distillation.
It
is
a colorless liquid.
When
It is
pure,
it is
practically without odor, but, as found in commerce,
it
possesses a very disagreeable odor.
used as a
solvent for fats,
oils, resins,
and some
alkaloids.
Under
126
the
name
of
"Columbian
spirit"
a pure commercial
article is found.
It is frequently used in preparations
for internal use,
and causes
blindness.
Ethyl alcohol, ethyl hydroxid; grain alcohol (C 2
H OH;
5
Molecular weight, 46),
is
obtained by fermentation of
it
saccharine substances, subsequently distilled to obtain

in concentrated form.
hol,
The
official
alcohols are: Alcoof ethyl hydroxid;
containing 95 per cent,
by volume
Alcohol dilutum, about 49 per cent.; Alcohol absolutum,
about 99 per cent.
When
alcohol absolutum
it
is
first
made
it
contains 100 per cent., but

air.
readily absorbs
moisture from the
Ethyl alcohol
ant odor.
is
light, colorless liquid,
with a pleasproduces an
When mixed
with water
it
elevation of temperature and a contraction in volume.

sant, astringent,
Uses.
Stimulant, depresIt at first raises the
and
antiseptic.
it;
body-heat, then lowers

tions.
hence
its
use in febrile condi-
Alcohol
is
prepared from substances containing starch,

this
but before
first
can be accomplished the starch must
be changed into glucose and levulose by the action
of the ferment, diastase:
H
Starch.
H O
I2
12
Glucose.
Levulose.
The
found
action of the
in yeast,
ferment Saccharomyces
cerevisicz,
then converts the sugars into alcohol.
C,H
OH +
2 CO,
ALCOHOLS
Beer
2 to
is
127
an infusion
of
4 per cent, of alcohol.
malt and hops, and contains Wines are fermented grape-
juice,
containing from 10 to 14 per cent, of alcohol.
all
is
Sweet wines contain undecomposed sugar; in dry wines the sugar has been converted into alcohol. Whisky
fermented grain; brandy, a
wine; rum, These contain from 40 to 50 per
distillate of
fermented molasses.
cent, of alcohol.
Glycerin, glycerol (C 3
is
(OH) 3 Molecular weight,

;
92),
obtained by the action of alkalis or superheated
steam upon fats. It is a clear, colorless, syrupy liquid, with a sweet, warm taste. It is very hygroscopic.
When
acted upon by
,
HNOs
it
produces nitroglycerin,
i
C3H 5 (NO 3 ) 3 which
is
explosive, a
per cent, alcoholic

is
solution forming spirits nitroglycerin, which
used as a
cardiac sedative in i-drop doses.

laxative,
Official
tories
Glycerin
is
emollient,
and
solvent.
Preparations of Glycerin.
Glycerin supposi-
contain 45 gr. of glycerin in each; glycerite of phenol,

;
20 per cent, phenol glycerite of tannic acid, 20 per cent.

glycerite of boroglycerini, 50 per cent.
Fats are compound ethers, or esters, of the higher

fatty acids, with the radicle glyceryl,
liquid
oils.
(C 3
5 ).
When
fatty
at
the
ordinary
temperature they are called
The
consistency of fats depends
upon the
of each.
acids they contain
and the proportion
Those
containing the larger quantity of stearic acid are solid;
128
while those with oleic acid in excess are liquid (see page
136):
CH
3
(C 18
33
2) 3
CH
3
(C 17
33
2) 3
Olein, liquid.
Palmatin, semiliquid.
Stearin, solid.
Soaps are metallic

result
salts of the higher fatty acids,
and
when
fats are acted
upon by
3 Na(C 18
alkalis,
glycerin
being produced at the same time:
CH
3
(C 18
33
2) 3
NaOH
H O
83
2)
CaHÔH),
Olein.
Sodium
oleate or
Castile soap.
The soaps
soft soaps,
of the alkalis are soluble, while those of the
other metals are insoluble.
The potassium soaps
are
Soft
and the soda soaps are hard. soap was formerly of a green color and
its
called
"green soap"; and

oil
solution in alcohol, flavored with

mollis,
of lavender, or
Linimentum sapo
is
sometimes
called tincture of green soap,
used as a detergent prior

is
to surgical operations.
stituent of soap liniment
Castile soap
of
Sapo, or Castile soap,
a con-
and soap
plaster.
solution of
plaster
added to lead acetate forms the lead
pharmacy.
ALDEHYDS
Theoretically
considered,
an
aldehyd
contains
atoms
of
derived
hydrogen less than an alcohol. The name is from Alcohol dehydrogenated, two hydrogens
being removed by oxidation of the alcohol:
C H OH
2
= CHO
2
4
or
C H OH
2 6
+ O =
CHO
2
4
+ HO
2
Acetic aldehyd.
Aldehyds contain the characteristic radicle (CHO)

linked to a hydrocarbon radicle
or
H:
CH CHO
3
or
ALDEHYDS
129
HCHO.
The name
of the aldehyd is not taken
from
the radicle with which the
(CHO)
is
combined, but
from the name

of
of the acid
produced by the oxidation
For example, when CH 3 (CHO) is oxidized, acetic acid is formed and the aldehyd is called
the
aldehyd.
acetic aldehyd:
CH CHO
3
-f-
O =
CH COOH
3
Acetic aldehyd.
Acetic acid.
Formaldehyd
30).
(HCHO or CH2 O; Molecular Weight, from Prepared methyl alcohol by oxidation: CH OH + O = HCHO + H O
3
The gas thus prepared

solution of the
is
passed into water until
it
contains 37 per cent, and constitutes the formaldehyd
U.
S.
P.
It
is
used as a disinfectant and
frequently used unlawfully as a preservative for milk.

Its presence
can be readily shown by placing in a

4
test-tube
and pouring milk carefully on top, in such a manner as not to mix them, and so as to form two
2
H SO
distinct layers.
of iron.
The
acid should contain a slight trace
purple color will develop in the presence of
formaldehyd.
Paraldehyd
(C 6 Hi 2
Molecular
Weight,
132).
Made by
aldehyd
:
the condensation of 3 molecules of acetic

3
CH CHO = C H O
3
6
12
It is a colorless liquid,
with a sharp, burning
taste.
It is a hypnotic in doses of 15 to
60 minims in syrup,
largely diluted.
130

Chloral
Trichloraldehyd,
Hydrate
(CC1 3 CHO.H 2 O;
When
Cl acts upon alcohol,
several changes take place, finally resulting in chloral,
which,
when water
is
added to
it,
forms the crystalline
chloral hydrate.
It is soluble in water, alcohol,

liquefies
and
trit-
ether; has
an aromatic odor; and
when
urated with camphor, menthol, or phenol.

alkalis
Caustic
decompose
it
into chloroform.

septic,
Externally
it is
anti-
vesicant,
and
anodyne; internally,
soporific,
hypnotic, and general depressant.

Toxicology.
Dose, 5 to 20 gr.
Give emetics; wash out the stomach;
weak
lants.
solution of potassium or
sodium hydrate; stimu-
KETONES
Ketones are compounds containing the characteristic
radicle carbonyl, (CO), linked to
cles.
These radicles
may
two hydrocarbon radibe of the same kind or of

indicates a ketone.
different kinds.
The ending "one"

8 3 3
CH COCH
CH COC H
2
Dimethyl ketone.
Methyl-ethyl ketone.
Acetone,
Dimethyl Ketone
(CH3 COCH3
or
is
H O;
6
This substance
liquid,
prepared by heating calcium acetate.
It is
used in
pharmacy resins, and

It
is
as
a solvent in the preparation of oleo-
also for
making chloroform and iodoform.

(q.
v.).
found in the urine in acetonurea
ETHERS
131
SULPHUR DERIVATIVES
If the
oxygen of a monatomic alcohol
is
is
replaced
by
sulphur, a mercaptan, or sulphur alcohol,
produced:
C H OH
2 6
C H SH
2
5
Ethyl alcohol.
Ethyl mercaptan.
Upon
pounds*
oxidation they produce sulphonic acid com-
H SH +
6
C H S0 .OH
2 5 2
Ethyl mercaptan.
Ethyl sulphonic acid.
Mercaptans form condensation products with ketones

called mercaptols:
*\tio
CH/
132

and mixed
ethers.
3 3 oxid.
;
into simple
Simple ethers contain
the same radicles, as
CH OCH
Dimethyl
and the mixed ethers

3 2 5.
contain different radicles, as
CH OC H
Methyl-ethyl-ether.
Ethyl Ether, Ethyl Oxid; Sulphuric Ether ((C 2
5) 2
O).-
This
is
made by
C H OH
2
5
the action of
H S0
2
2
5
upon
alcohol, the
process taking place in two steps:
+ H SO
2
C H HSO
acid.
+ H O;
2
Ethyl sulphuric
then,
+
and
C H OH
2 S
(C 2
H O + H SO
6) 2 2

local anesthetic,
Externally, irritant,
Internally, anesthetic,
5 to
refrigerant.
stimulant,
and carminative.
is
Dose,
of
60 minims.
Ether anesthesia
irritant
more
a renal and bronchial
than chloroform, and also likely to produce

its first
vomiting, and
stage of stimulation
is
longer than
with chloroform.
Toxicology.
Similar to chloroform.
of
Two
preparations
ether
are
official:
Spirits of
ether, containing 32.5 per cent, of ether in alcohol;
and
the compound spirits of
ether,
or
Ho/mann's anodyne,
containing, in addition to the above, 2.5 per cent, of

ethereal
oil.
Compound
oxygen
hydrocarbon
Ethers.
These
correspond
to
metallic
salts, in
which the metal has been replaced by a
radicle:
CH,COOH
Acetic acid.
CH.COONa
Sodium
acetate.
CH COOC H
3
Ethyl acetate.
ETHERS
133
They
are not ethers, notwithstanding the name, as
can be seen from the formula, since they are not oxids;
and the term
'
'ether"
is
given to them owing to their
ethereal properties.
few of the compound ethers do
not possess these properties,

Acetic Ether, Ethyl Acetate
(CH COOC2 H
3
Molecular
Weight, 88).
ethyl alcohol:
Made by
3
the action of acetic acid upon
QHsOH + CH COOH =
CH COOC H
3
2
+ HO
2
This possesses a very pleasant odor, and

principally as a flavoring agent.
is
used
Ethyl Nitrite
(C 2
Made by
the action of
H NO Molecular Weight, 75).H SO4 upon sodium nitrite in the

5
presence of alcohol.
4 per cent, solution of
it,
by weight,
in alcohol
forms the
official spirits of niter.
Spirits of niter is a
diffusible stimulant, stomachic, carminative, diaphoretic,
and
diuretic.
Dose
(C 5
of the spirit,
to 2 drams.
Amyl
This
is
Nitrite
H NO
9

similar to the above, except
It is a liquid
made
in a
manner
that amyl alcohol
is
used instead of ethyl.
insoluble in water, soluble in alcohol.
It is
found in
pharmacy
in small glass pearls containing 5 minims.
The
pearls are broken in a handkerchief
and
their con-
tents inhaled.

antispasmodic, and anodyne.
of J to
i
Sedative, depressant,
in doses
Given internally
minim.
134

Methyl
salicylate, artificial
Other Compound Ethers.

oil
of
wintergreen,
used as a flavoring agent.
The
bar ate
natural oil is used in the treatment of rheumatism.

Glyceryl
trinitrate,
nitroglycerin,
(q. v.).
and
glyceryl
have already been taken up
ORGANIC ACIDS
These contain the characteristic
radicle,
carboxyl
If
(CO.OH), linked to a hydrocarbon radicle or H.
they contain only one carboxyl, they are termed monobasic;

if
two, dibasic, etc.:
H.COOH
Formic
acid.
CH .COOH
3
CH <
2
/COOH
acid.
X COOH
Acetic acid.
Malonic
formula of
Monobasic Fatty Acids. They have the general CnH2nO2 and form homologous series similar
,
to all the preceding classes of carbon
compounds.
General molecular
formula.
Formula upon
Name.
the carboxyl type.
Formic
Acetic
HCO H CH C0 H
2
CH O
2 2 4 3 6
2 2
Propionic
Butyric
Valeric
Caproic
Palmitic
Stearic
C H CO H C H C0 H C H CO H C H U CO H C H CO H C H CO H
2
3 6
7
2 2
16
33
17
35
CHO CHO CJH O CH O CH O C H O C H O

2
8
10
12
17
34
18
36
Some
of these acids are
made by
the oxidation of the
corresponding alcohol.
They number
are called "fatty acids" on account of the large

of
them found
in fats.
ORGANIC ACIDS
Formic
46)
.
135
Acid
(HC0 H, CH O
2 2
Molecular
Weight,
Name
It
derived from formica, the ant, being found

is
in ants.
made
artificially
by heating
oxalic acid
with
.glycerin.
Acetic Acid
60).
(CH3 CO2H, C2 H 4O2
Molecular Weight,
Prepared by the oxidation of alcohol, as in the

Also by destructive distillation of
It is
souring of wine.
wood and
certain
official:
purified.
found in
many
acetic
plants and
acids
animal
secretions.
Three
are
Glacial acetic acid, 99 per cent.; acetic acid, 36

It
is
per cent.; dilute acetic acid, 6 per cent.
a liquid
with a characteristic odor, soluble in water, and forms,
with metals, the acetates,

water.
all of
which are soluble in
Vinegar
is
a solution containing about 4 per
cent, of acetic acid,
made by
Solution
the oxidation of alcohol
or fruit juices, such as wine or cider.

Official
Acetates.
of
7
"spirit of
Mindererus," contains
ammonium acetate, per cent, ammonium
acetate; solution of iron
and ammonium acetate, Basham/s
mixture; lead acetate; solution of subacetate of lead;
potassium acetate.
Butyric Acid (C 3
H C0 H,
7
HO
8
2 ).
This
is
found in
rancid butter and cheese.
It is present in the
stomach
during certain forms of indigestion.

ethyl or
Combined with
amyl
radicles, it
forms compound ethers used
for flavoring.
Valeric Acid (C 4
102).
H CO H,
9 2
C Hi O
5
Molecular Weight,
This acid
is
a constituent of valerian root, hence
136

It is also
the name.
liquid,
found in the perspiration.

is
It
is
has an offensive odor, and

zinc
soluble in alcohol.
Both the
Stearic
and ammonium
salts are official.
Acid
(CnE^COaH,
is
Ci 8
H 60
3
Molecular
fats,
Weight, 284).
I
I I
This
a constituent of the solid
such as tallow, combined with the radicle glyceryl,

(CsHs).
also for It
is
used in the preparation of candles and

official glycerin suppositories.
2
making the
3
Oleic Acid (Ci 7

282).
series,
H 3C0 H,
Ci8H 34 O 2 Molecular Weight,

;
This acid does not belong to the fatty acid
but
is
"isologous" to
less
it,
that
is, it
has two atoms
of
hydrogen
than the corresponding acid of the

It
is
fatty acid
series.
a constituent of fatty
oils;
combines with metals and alkaloids to form the "oleates,"
and
is
used for dermic medication.

Atropin, 2 per cent.; cocain, 5 per
Official Oleates.
cent.;
mercury, 25 per cent, of mercury oxid; quinin, 25

2
per cent.; veratrin,
per cent.
DIBASIC ACIDS
Formula upon the
Name.
Oxalic
Molecular formula.
carboxyl type.
Malonic
Succinic
H CHO CHO
2 2 3 4 4
4
4
4
(C0 H) 2 CH (CO 2H) 2 C H 4 (CO H) 2

2 2 2 2
While from the chemical viewpoint these acids present some interesting features, the only one of medicinal
importance
is
oxalic acid.
Oxalic Acid
90).
(H2 C 2
4,
(C02H) 2
is
Molecular Weight,
In nature this acid
widely distributed in plants
DIBASIC ACIDS
137
as the potassium, sodium, and calcium salts; in rhubarb,

sorrel,
tomatoes, and, in animal secretions as guano and

It is prepared commercially
urine.
by heating sawdust
with
It
is
KOH,
adding lime, and precipitating with
H SO
2
4.
a crystalline substance, soluble in water, and

It
is
poisonous.
ink-
used as a cleaning agent and to remove
and
iron-stains.
Toxicology.
Give calcium
salts,
it
as
chalk;
plaster
from the
oxalate,
wall,
which forms with

4
;
the insoluble calcium
CaC2
followed
by emetics and demulcent
drinks.
Hydroxy Acids. These are acids in which one or more hydrogens of the nucleus has been replaced by
the radicle (OH).
CH CO H
S 2
CH (OH) CO H
2 2
Acetic acid.
Monohydroxy
acetic acid.
Several of the hydroxy acids are used in medicine,
and are found
in the body, and these under Physiologic Chemistry.
will
be referred to
Lactic
Acid,
2
Hydroxypropionic
Acid
(HC 3H 5 O 3
C 2 H 4 (OH)C0 H;
Acids,
is is
The formula
of propionic acid, as has
H CO H.
6
2
If
been shown under the Fatty one hydrogen of the nucleus or

lactic acid results.
(C H
2
5)
replaced
by (OH),
Three
"isomeric" 1 lactic acids exist, but space in a work of

this
kind
will
not permit of an extended description.

1
See page 144.
138

lactic acid is present in the gastric juice,
The ordinary
and
is
produced during milk fermentation.
It is also
contained in "sauer kraut."

75 per cent.
The
meat
official
acid contains
Sarcolactic acid,
an isomer of the above,

extracts,
occurs in the muscles and in
and
its pres-
ence induces cadaveric rigidity.
Malic Acid (C 2
H (OH)(CO H) ).This
3 2
is
monohy-
droxy succinic acid.
It is
found in the juice of
many
fruits, as apples, currants, cherries, etc.
Tartaric Acid
(H2 C 4H 4 O6, C 2 H2 (OH) 2 (CO2 H) 2 Molec;
ular Weight, 150).
Four
tartaric
acids are possible.

fruits.
is
The
official
acid
is
found in vegetables and
In
de-
the grape
posited
it exists
as potassium bitartrate, which
in
the
wine-cask during fermentation.

is
The
impure cream of tartar

lime,
purified,
and treated with
forming calcium tartrate,

is
from which tartaric
acid
produced by adding
acid
is
H SO4.
2
The
contained in Seidlitz powders and the
effer-
vescing
salts.
The
official
tartrates
are:
Potassium
bitartrate,
tartrate,
"cream of tartar"; sodium and potassium "Rochelle salts"; antimony and potassium tarAcid
"
trate,
tartar emetic,"
Citric
and iron and potassium tartrate. (H3 C 6H 5 O 7 .H2 O, C 3 H 4 (OH)CO2 H.H2 0;

This
is

in oranges, lemons,
a tribasic acid, found
and other
it
fruits.
Like tartaric acid,

the effervescing
salts.
enters into the composition of
It forms, with metals, the citrates.
The
official
citrates
are
those of potassium, sodium,
AMINO-ACIDS
lithium, bismuth,
139
iron, iron
bismuth and ammonium,
and ammonium, iron and quinin, and solution

nesium.
of
mag-
AMINO-ACIDS
These are derived, theoretically from
to the
acids,
similar
hydroxy
radicle
3
acid,
by replacement
of
H of the nucleus
2 2
by the
(NH2):
2
CH CO H
Acetic acid.
CH (NH )CO H
2
Amino-acetic acid.
Aminoformic
Acid,
Carbamic
Acid
(NH CO H).
2 2
The ammonium
artificial
salt of this acid is
a constituent of the
ammonium
carbonate
salts,
(q. v.).
Urethans are ethereal

this acid.
or
compound
ethers of
Ethyl carbamate, urethane

talline
gr.
(NH2CO2 C 2 H5),
is
a crys-
powder used as a hypnotic,
in doses of 10 to
40
Amino-acetic Acid, Glycocoll; Glycin
(CH2 NH2 C0
C
H).
This
is
obtained by decomposition of hippuric acid:
+ H O = CH NH CO H +
2
2 2 2
HO
6
Hippuric acid.
Amino-acetic acid
alkalis
is
also
made by
the action
of
is
upon glycocholic acid, the sodium salt of which
a constituent of bile:
26
H ,NO
4
+ H O = CH NH CO H +
2 2 2
24
H O
40
Glycocholic acid.
Cholic acid.
Associated with sodium glycocholate, there
is
another
sodium
salt
combined with taurocholic
acid, and,
under
140
similar taurin:

conditions,
it
splits
up
C
into cholic acid
and
26
H N0 S + H
45
7
24
40
H N0 S
7
Taurocholic acid.
Cholic acid.
Taurin.
These are known as the "biliary

the extent of
i
salts,"
and are found
to
per cent, in the
bile.
These
salts are
now on the market hi
tabloid form,
and
are used to increase the bile-salts in the intestines.
Amido- or Amino-acids
of Physiologic Importance.
amidocaproic acid (leucin), amidosuccinic acid (aspartic

acid),
para-oxyphenylamidopropionic
acid
acid
acid),
(tyrosin),
amidopyrotartaric
(glutamic
amidopro-
pionic acid (alanin), creatin, and creatinin.
AMINS
These
may
be considered as ammonia in which one or
more
of its hydrogens
radicles.
is
carbon
If
have been replaced by hydroone H is replaced, a primary or

if
normal amin
if all,
formed;
two, a secondary or di-amin;
tri-
or tertiary amin.
or
-H N-H
I
NH,,
y-H H
|U
or
S
CH ll-CI
I
NH CH
2
8,
Ammonia.
Methyl amin, a primary amin.
H H -C H N-C
2
orNH(C,H )
6
2,
tl-C H H M -C H II|-C
3 3 3
7 7 7
or
N(C H ),
3 7
Di-ethyl amin, a secondary amin.
Tripropyl amin, a tertiary amin.
Amids.
These
differ
from amins, in that the
in
this case is replaced
by
acid radicles instead of hydro-
CLOSED CHAIN OR CYCLIC HYDROCARBONS

carbon
is
141
radicles.
The
acid radicle referred to in this case
the organic acid, without the

1
(OH)
2
of the carboxyl
radicle.
Urea, Carbamid
(N2 H 4 CO
or
SS /CO).
This
is
an
amid
of carbonic acid,
HO\
It
CO, the hydroxyls having

is
been replaced by (Nils).

blood of
all
found in the urine and
mammalia.
(See Urine.)
Ureids are urea in which one or more of the
have
been replaced by acid
radicles.
These compounds form
important synthetic medicinal substances, among which

are malonyl urea
and
di-ethyl malonyl urea, or veronal;
a hypnotic, given in 5- to lo-gr. doses.
AROMATIC, CLOSED CHAIN, OR CYCLIC HYDROCARBONS
The
starting-point of this class of hydrocarbons
is
benzene or benzole,
CeH6
The graphic formula
is
H
H
C'
I
often
diagrammatically expressed by
like the
this
sign,
series,
This group,
1
hydrocarbons of the paraffin

(CH CO.)
3
CHaCO.OH
Acetic acid.
Acid radicle of acetic acid, called "acetyl."
HCO.OH,
Formic
acid.
HCO.NH,,
Formamid.
CH CO.OH,
3
CH CO.NH,
3
Acetic acid.
Acetamid.
142

Only two CH
6
has a large number of homologues.
of
them
need be mentioned here: C

6
6,
C H .CH
6 6
or
8,
(CH,) 2 or
Xylene.
CH
8
10
Benzene.
Toluene.
Benzene, Benzole (CeHe; Molecular Weight,
78).
most important member of the obtained from the distillate of coal-tar. It

This
is
the
series,
is
and
is
colorless,
is
highly volatile liquid,

solvent for fats,
oil,
with an aromatic odor, and

resins.
and
Nitrobenzene, Oil of Mirbane (C 6
H NO
5
Molecular
Weight, 123).
This
is
a very poisonous substance, act-
ing as a cardiac depressant
when
excessively inhaled,
and
is
used as a flavoring agent, resembling somewhat

almonds.
:
oil of bitter
It is
made by
CeHsNO,
treating benzene
with
HNO
C6H
HNO,
+ HO
2
Graphic formula:
H
HC
HC
CH
or
CNO
\/N0
\C/
H
Hydroxybenzenes or Phenols.
of
Phenols are alcohols
the benzene series.
Generally considered, alcohols
from the aliphatic hydrocarbons, while phenols are those obtained by the replacement of one or
are
derived
more
H by
(OH)
in benzene.
Phenol, Carbolic Acid (C 6
OH;
Molecular Weight,
CLOSED CHAIN OR CYCLIC HYDROCARBONS

94).
143
Obtained from the
distillate of coal-tar
and sub-
sequently purified.
It is a colorless solid, with
a characteristic odor; melts
at 35
liquid.
C.;
and
if
diluted with 5 per cent, of water remains
The
liquefied phenol of the
U.
S. P. is
made by
i
adding to 9 parts, by weight, of melted phenol

water.
part of

cide, anesthetic,
is
Uses.
Antiseptic,
germiIt
in
and poisonous.
Dose,
minim.
;
contained in Glyceritum phenolis, 20 per cent.

phenolis,
and
Unguentum
petrolatum.
Toxicology.
per cent., incorporated with
White
of
egg;
alcohol,
followed
by
emetics.
Magnesium
or sodium sulphate
may
also be
given, with which phenol produces the phenolsulphonates.
Tests of Phenol.
It coagulates
albumin and collodion.

is
With
ferric chlorid,
an amethyst solution
obtained.
Nitrophenols.
When
HNO
acts
is
upon phenol, a
mono-,
di-,
or tri-nitrophenol
obtained, depending
upon
lar
conditions.
Trinitrophenol, Picric Acid
(CeHzCNCâOH; Molecu-
Weight, 229).
This
is
a yellow crystalline substance,
with a very bitter taste, forming compounds which are

explosive.
It is
precipitant for
used for dyeing silks and tissues, as a albumin and alkaloids, and as a counterIn this latter use
it
irritant for burns.
has been stated

effects.
to be sometimes followed
by poisonous
144
Cresols.

These are defined as either homologous
phenols or hydroxytoluenes, which can be
shown
dia-
grammatically as follows.
have,
Starting with phenol,
we
[T, \/
by adding
CH
we form
,
\/ CH
pj"*
>
or b y
'
starting with toluene, f J CH
and replacing one

will
by
(OH), we obtain
|| H
\/CH
which
first.
be seen to be of the
same composition as the
ISOMERIC COMPOUNDS OF THE AROMATIC HYDRO-
CARBONS
Among
the carbon
compounds
will
be found
many
instances where substances exist having the
same com-
position as others, but which possess different physical

properties,
If
and to which the term "isomerism"

of
is
given.
two
benzene are replaced,
it
has been found
that three distinctive compounds
may
be produced,
all
with the same chemical composition, but each possessing different physical properties.
For convenience, each
H of benzene will be
If
designated
by a
different
number,
an "ortho" compound will be formed, frequently expressed as i 2; if i and 3 if i and and are replaced, a "meta," 1:3; 4 is the posi-
numbers
and
2 are replaced,
tion of the substitution, a "para," or

i
1:4:
OH
61/NoH
S
OH
OH
6/\2 slja
4
(j3
4
i
:
"Ortho" or
a.
4 "Meta" or
OH
i
:
3.
"Para" or
4.
COMPOUNDS OF THE AROMATIC HYDROCARBONS

The
cresols.
less
official cresol is
145
a mixture of the three isomeric
They
are similar in properties to phenol, but
poisonous.
Mixed with soap
solution, they are used
by the surgeon, under various names,

kresol, kreso, etc.
as lysol, creolin,
Dihydroxy Benzenes (C 6
of these
(OH) 2 ).
From
the formula
compounds
it will
be seen that since two of the
H of benzene has been replaced by

compounds
of the
(OH), three isomeric
above composition can exist. All of these are known and have extensive use; only one,
is
however, which
of
medicinal importance,
will
be
taken up here.
Resorcinol, Resorcin; Metadihydroxy Benzene (C 6
(OH) 2 1:3; Molecular Weight, no).

,
This
is
made by
fusing different resins with alkalis.

erties
It possesses prop-
somewhat
allied to phenol.
It is antiseptic, anti-
pyretic,
and depressant. Used internally in fermentative dyspepsia and intestinal troubles in doses of 2 to 5 gr.
Creosote.
liquid with a
This
is
obtained from wood-tar, and

odor, soluble in alcohol, ether,
is
smoky
and
chloroform.
Medicinal
septic,
Properties
parasiticide.
and
Uses.
Stimulant,
anti-
and
Used
i
it.
in phthisis
and bronchial
affections in doses of
to 10 minims.
Aqua
its
creosote contains i per cent, of
Creosote owes
virtues to guaiacol
it
and
cresol,
the former being contained in
to the extent of from
60 to 90 per cent.
10
146

catechin,
it is is
Guaiacol, monomethyl from creosote, of which
obtained
either
a natural constituent, or
prepared synthetically.
colorless
liquid,
It is a crystalline solid or a
with a strong aromatic odor.
Used
like creosote, in i- to
lo-minim doses.
Pyrogallol, Pyrogallic Acid; Trihydroxy Benzene
(C6 -
H (OH)
3

its
ing gallic acid, hence
name.
Obtained by heatUsed as a developing
agent in photography.
It is poisonous.
Benzaldehyd,
Artificial Oil of Bitter
Almonds (C 6H 6 from the

does
CHO;
natural
Molecular Weight,
oil
106).
This occurs in the

differs
of bitter almonds,
which
artificial oil in
containing
HCN,
2
while the
artificial
not.
It
is
used as a flavoring agent.

Acid
Benzoic
(C 6
H CO H, HC H O
5
7
5
Molecular
Weight,
resins,
122).
This
is
found in benzoin and other

It is
combined with other substances.

of
found
in the urine
herbivorous animals.
(See Hippuric
Acid.)
It is prepared commercially
tion:
from toluene by oxida-
CeHsCH,
H C0 H +
5
H,0
Benzoic acid combines with the alkalis forming the

benzoates.
Those
all of
official
are:
Ammonium,
The
and
lithium,
is
and sodium,
which are
soluble.
acid
but
slightly soluble in water; soluble in alcohol
ether.
Tests for Benzoates.
The
soluble benzoates form,

with solution of
precipitate.
Salicylic
ferric chlorid,
,
147
FeCl3 a reddish-brown
Acid (C 6
(OH)CO2H,
HC H O
7 5
Molecular
it will
Weight, 138).
seen that this
in
From
is
the structural formula
be
a hydroxybenzoic acid.
is
It is
found
some
plants,
and
also
found as methyl salicylate in

is
oil of
wintergreen.
The
acid obtained from the oil

Salicylic acid of
it
called "natural salicylic acid."
com-
merce
is
obtained from phenol, and
has been recently
shown, by the researches of the Council of Pharmacy and
Chemistry of the American Medical Association, that

the average salicylic acid of
deleterious impurities.
It is
commerce today
It is
is
free of
but slightly soluble in water,

used in medicine
soluble in alcohol
and
ether.
combined with the
alkalis,
the salts of which are soluble.
antiseptic, antipyretic,
The
acid
and
salicylates are
and
analgesic.
Used
principally
in rheumatism.
Dose, 5 to 20 gr.
Salol
Phenyl
Salicylate,
(CeHsCCyHsOs)
Molecular
Weight, 214).
Made by
of phenol
action of dehydrating agents

salicylic acid.
upon mixture
septic,
and
It is anti-
antipyretic,
and antirheumatic.
Dose,
to
30 g r
Aspirin.
Acetyl
Salicylic
Acid
(C 6
(0)(CH3 CO.)-
CO2H). This is a derivative an antipyretic and analgesic,

It exists in the in water,
of salicylic acid, used as
in doses of 5 to 10 gr.
form of
colorless crystals, slightly soluble
and
freely soluble in alcohol
and
ether.
The
148

it,
action of boiling water or alkalis decompose

ing acetic acid.
Official Salicylates.
liberat-
Sodium, lithium, and strontium

subsalicylate.
salicylates,
and bismuth
Test.
Salicylic acid
color.
and
salicylate give with FeCls
a purple
Gallic
2 2
Acid,
Trihydroxy Benzole Acid (C 6

7 2
(OH) 3 -
CO H.H O, HC HB05.H 0;
This acid
specific
galls.
is
Molecular Weight, 188).-
obtained from nutgalls by the action of a
ferment upon the tannin contained in the nutIt

is
a crystalline substance, very astringent. Bismuth subgallate, or "dermatol," is a yellow, insoluble powder, which
acid.
is official
and made from
gallic
Tannic Acid (HCi 4

This acid
is
HO
9
obtained from nutgalls and a host of other
substances.
gallic
By
fermentation
it
is
converted
into
Tannic acid precipitates alkaloids and gelatin and coagulates albumin, and produces with iron a dark-colored solution or precipitate. It differs from
acid.
gallic acid,
which does not precipitate the above-mentioned substances, and which, with ferric salts, pro-
duces a bluish-black precipitate.
Phenylamin (C 6 H 5 NH 2 ). The aromatic hydrocarbons also combine with (NH2 ), like the aliphatic
Anilin,
hydrocarbons, to form the amins.

the action of nascent
Anilin
is
made by
C H NO
6 5
upon nitrobenzene: 6H - C H NH, + 2 H O

6 6
2

It
is
149
the starting-point of a class of substances
known
as the "anilin dyes."

Acetanilid,
Antifebrin; Phenyl
Acetamid (CeHgNH-
(CH3 CO)).
acid
This
anilin:
is
made by
=
the action of glacial acetic
upon
+
It is
CH.CO.OH
C H NH(CH,CO)
6 5
+ HO
2
an antipyretic, analgesic, and antispasmodic
in
Naphthalene (Ci
of
8 ).
This
is
a white, crystalline solid

aromatic taste,
characteristic
odor, with burning,
poisonous, insoluble in water, soluble in alcohol

ether.
and
It
is
obtained
from
coal-tar.
"Moth
It is
balls"
anti-
composed wholly septic, vermifuge, and

It
are
of naphthalene.
parasiticide.
an
Dose,
2 to 5 gr.
may
be regarded, theoretically, as a combination of
two benzene molecules:
H
C
Alpha
Beta
V CHill HC
X
CH
\C/\C/
H
H
Naphthols (Ci
H OH).
7
These bear the same relation
to naphthalene as phenols
of the
do to benzene.
possible.
Two
isomers
mononaphthols are
If the
in the alpha position, as

is
shown
in the fore-
going diagram,
is
replaced by (OH), an alpha-naphthol
formed;
if
in the beta position, beta-naphthol results:
150
H
C
OH
C
H
C
H
C
\ / \/ C CH HC
HC
C
HC
HC
/ \/ C\
C
C-OH
CH
CH
H
is official,
H
and
is
Alpha-naphthol.
Beta-naphthol.
Beta-naphthol
deodorizer,
used as an antiseptic,
in doses of 2 to 5 gr.
and antifermentative
Phthalic Acid (C 6
(CO2 H)2).
it
This
is
a dibasic acid
called phthalic acid, because it can
be obtained from
forming
naphthalene.
When
COOH
heated
decomposes,
phthalic anhydrid:
X COOH
Phthalic acid.
/OX / )0 X /
CO/
Phthalic anhydrid.
H,0
Phthalic
anhydrid,
when heated with
H SO
2
and
phenol, forms phenolphthalein.
Phenolphthalein
is
used as an indicator in chemical
work, forming with alkalis a beautiful red color, and a

colorless solution
with acids.
It has of recent years

i
been
used as a purgative in doses of
to 5 gr.
HETEROCYCLIC HYDROCARBONS
Benzene and naphthalene are representatives of the "cyclic" or "closed chain" hydrocarbons, from the
formula of which
it will
be seen that they only contain
carbon
and
hydrogen.
When
other
elements
are
found in the chain, these compounds are called "hetero-
TERPENES
cyclic" or
151
mixed chain hydrocarbons.
Three
different
types exist:
HC
HC
II
CH
CH
II
*8
152

are generally lighter than water, but a few are
They
heavier.
Terpenes produce a
stearoptens, of
sentatives.
compounds known as which camphor and menthol are represeries of

is
Camphor (doHi6 O)
with
a white, translucent
solid, sol-
uble in alcohol, ether, chloroform, and fats.
Heating
HNO
produces camphoric acid,
CsH^CC^H^.
diaphoretic,

stimulant,
sedative.
It is antispasmodic,
carminative,
stomachic,
and
Dose,
to 3 gr.
Preparations Containing Camphor.

0.8 per cent.; liniment of camphor,
Aqua camphora,
20 per cent., in
cotton-seed
oil;
cerate of camphor, 2 per cent.; spirits
of camphor, 10 per cent.
Menthol (Ci Hi 4 OH).

of peppermint.
This stearopten
it is
is
found in
oil
Chemically
a secondary alcohol-
It occurs in white, colorless crystals, soluble in alcohol. It has a very strong odor of peppermint.
Terpin Hydrate (Ci Hi 8 (OH).H2 O)

action of
is
obtained by the
HNO
upon turpentine.
It is a white, crystal-
line substance,
with a slight odor, insoluble in water,
soluble in alcohol.

pectorant, diuretic,
It is antiseptic, ex-
and
diaphoretic.
Dose,
2 to 15 gr.
CARBOHYDRATES
153
CARBOHYDRATES
The term "carbohydrates"
a multiple of
six) in
is
given to a class of comof carbon
pounds containing, in the molecule, 6 atoms

(or
combination with hydrogen and
oxygen, the latter elements in the proportion to form

water.
While
this is the original classification, it
can be
shown that there are many compounds included under this heading in which the carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen
differ in
proportion from that above stated.
Carbo-
hydrates are found in plants and in animals (glycogen).
They
are usually designated
by the
suffix
"ose" added to
some appropriate base. Thus, indicate milk- and malt-sugars

ically
l&ctose
and maltose
respectively.
Chemalde-
they vary
in their composition,
some being
hyds, while others are ketones.

sugars, starches, gums,
They
This
is
constitute the
and
celluloses.
Cellulose, Plant Fiber; Lignin.

of plants. It is also
the framework
found as cotton,
4,
When treated with H2 S0

and
it
its
hemp, and flax. structure becomes changed

but
is
forms parchment.
It is insoluble in water,
dissolved
by ammoniac
solution
3
of
copper sulphate.
When
treated with
HN0
is
it
forms gun-cotton or pyroxyl-
lin, several varieties of
which are known.
When
and
gun-cotton
it
added to a mixture
of alcohol
ether,
dissolves
and forms
collodion,
which
is
used in surgery and forms a protective coating.

collodions are official
:
Several
Cantharidal collodion, 60 per cent,
cantharides, used as a blistering fluid; styptic collodion,
l$4
20 per cent, tannic acid; flexible collodion, containing
Canada balsam and
castor
oil,
to
make
it
more
pliable.
mixture of camphor and collodion, upon proper treatment, forms celluloid.

Starch.
This
is
obtained from various sources, and
each individual kind can be distinguished by certain

characteristics,
under the microscope.
Starch can be
told chemically
by the action
of iodin,
the blue starch iodid.
It is insoluble in cold water,
which produces but
when
boiled for a short time with water swells
and forms
a gelatinous mass.
By the action of dilute acids starches

2
are converted into glucose and dextrin:

3 C6
10
2C6H 12
Glucose.
C H 10
6
Starch.
Dextrin.
Dextrin, British gum, as
shown above,
color.
is
obtained
from starch.
It is soluble in water,
forming mucilage,
and produces with iodin a red

Cane-sugar, Saccharose
in certain fruits
(C^HÔn).
This
is
found
Solu-
and
also in sugar-cane
if
and
beets.
tions of cane-sugar,
of sufficient concentration,
do not
ferment, but
by
the action of dilute acids or yeast cane-
sugar
is
converted into glucose and levulose, which under-
go fermentation:
12
H On + H
22
Cjm
Glucose.
CH
6
12
Cane-sugar.
Levulose.
Cane-sugar does not reduce Fehling's solution, while

glucose
and levulose
do.
Lactose, milk-sugar (Ci 2
22
Oii.H 2 0),
is
obtained by
ALKALOIDS
crystallization of the
155
It is a crystalline
whey
of milk.
substance,
soluble
in
water,
but not possessing the
sweetness of the other sugars.
By
fermentation
it is
converted into alcohol and lactic acid.

Glucose, Grape-sugar (C 6 Hi 2 O 6 ).
grapes, honey,
Originally found in
and acid
fruits.
It is obtained
upon a
commercial scale by the action of dilute acids upon

starch.
article
White grape-sugar is a solid. The commercial is in the form of a thick syrup, and is largely used
It is
as a substitute for cane-sugar.

sugar.
not as sweet as cane(See under
Glucose
is
found in diabetic urine.
Urine.)
ALKALOIDS
These are groups of nitrogenous substances possessing basic properties, found in all parts of plants, and to
them the
active medicinal properties of the plants are
largely due.
"alkali-like,"
The name
in
"alkaloid"
to
their
is
given them from
allusion
alkaline properties.
When
the
obtained from animals, they are termed "pto-
mains," and possess properties identical with those of

former.
Chemically,
they
are
either
volatile,
amins or
amids.
latter
The former
solid
are liquid
and
and the
with
and
non- volatile.
They
combine
acids to form salts.
They are usually obtained by extraction of the drug with acidified water, and adding to this solution an
alkali,
which precipitates the
alkaloid,
which
is
dissolved
156
in

suitable solvent
some
and
crystallized.
The
alkaloids
are nearly insoluble in water.

hol,
They
are soluble in alco-
ether,
chloroform,
benzine,
and benzene.
They
are precipitated
also
by
alkali hydroxids, except
morphin;
by the alkaline carbonates and bicarbonates, except strychnin and veratrin; and by tannin, picric acid, mercuric chlorid,
Mayer's reagent, and phosphomolybdic
acid.
Toxicology.
After
emptying stomach, give tannic

it,
acid or liquids containing
like tea or coffee, followed

is
by
emetics.
When
the nature of the alkaloid
known,
the proper physiologic antidote should be administered.
The The
principal liquid alkaloids are: Piperidin,
C 5HnN;
from
nicotin, Ci 6 Hi 4N; coniin,
C8Hi 5N; and
spartein,
CisEW^.
sulphate of the latter is official.

tops,
It is obtained
broom
Dose,
and
is
a cardiac stimulant and narcotic.
to i gr.
is
Nicotin
obtained from tobacco.
It is poisonous,
is
and has a
general
characteristic odor.
Poison
a
treated after
methods,
giving
as
physiologic
gr. or
antidote
stimulants and nitroglycerin, T
more.
It has a
Coniin
is
obtained from poison hemlock.
penetrating, mouse-urine odor.
Alkaloids from Cinchona.
Cinchona bark contains
from 21 to 32 alkaloids, the principal among which are quinin, quinidin, cinchonin, and cinchonidin.
They
and
possess tonic, antipyretic, febrifuge, stomachic,
antiseptic properties.
Quinin in acid solution pro-
ALKALOIDS
duces a bluish fluorescence; with chlorin
it
1 57
turns green,
upon the addition

Strychnin.
of
is
NH OH.
4
This
found in mix vomica and ignatia

It exists
bean, combined with brucin and igasuric acid.

in the
form
of small crystals,
i
and
is
so intensely bitter
it is still
that in solutions containing

perceptible.
part to 700,000
Medicinal
tonic,
lant.
Properties
and
Uses.
Motor
excitant,
stomachic, respiratory, muscle and nervous stimu-
Dose, eV to
gr.
is
Toxicology.
Poisoning
of
characterized
by
tetanic
spasms.
The muscles
respiration are rigidly con-
tracted with great pain and fixation of the jaws, similar

to lock-jaw.
Pupils contracted, with opisthotonos and
ghastly grin.
Place in horizontal position in dark room, remote from

all noise.
Chemical
antidote,
potassium
permanganate with
of chloro-
tannin and charcoal.

sorption.
Empty
bladder to prevent ab-
Chloral, bromids,
and inhalations
form
may
be
beneficial.
Tests.
Strychnin, with a small crystal of potassium
dichromate and
H S0
2
4,
produces a play of colors
blue
to purple, violet, crimson, orange,
and yellow.
Opium, which is the dried juice of the poppy, contains 19 alkaloids combined with meconic, lactic, and sulphuric
acids.
Those principally used
in medicine are
morphin
and codein.
158
They
are poisonous,
sedative, narcotic, anodyne, hypnotic,
Dose: of morphin,
Toxicology.
to \ gr.; of
and diaphoretic. codein, from J to 2 gr.

its
Poisoning by opium or
alkaloids
is
characterized
by slow breathing,
cyanosis, moist skin,
and contracted, pin-hole pupils. Treatment: Follow general methods; and administer potassium permanganate for chemical antidote. Flagellation with wet
towels, electricity,
and
artificial
respiration
must
also
be used.
Morphin, with HNOs, gives a blood-red color; with ferric chlorid, a blue color; and with H 2 SO4, containTests.
ing a trace of formaldehyd, a deep violet color.
Codein
with
H SO
2
4,
with a trace of iron, gives a blue This

is
color.
arti-
Apomorphin Hydrochlorid.
ficial alkaloid,
a salt of an
obtained by heating morphin or codein
for
two
hours, in sealed tubes,
with HC1, to a temperashould not

as emetic,
ture of 150
be used.
I
Upon exposure it oxidizes and Dose: as expectorant, V to -$ gr.;

C.
to i gr.
Heroin, Diacetyl Morphin.

loid,
This
is
an
artificial alka-
from morphin.
It is a
cough sedative and respiraDose,
tory stimulant, neither analgesic nor hypnotic.
A to TV
gr.
Atropin.
This
is
obtained
It
is
from
belladonna,
or
deadly nightshade.
mydriatic, sedative, diuretic,

peristalsis.
antispasmodic, and increases

-fa gr.
Dose,
rjhr to
ALKALOIDS
Toxicology.
159
is
Poisoning by atropin or belladonna
manifested by giddiness, drowsiness, incoherent speech,

dryness of the
flushed face.
poisoning, with
Test.
mouth and
throat, dilated pupils,
and
Follow treatment for general alkaloidal
opium
as physiologic antidote.
Atropin, treated with
HNO
and evaporated,
of
produces a yellow residue, turning violet upon addition

of alcoholic solution of caustic potash
and a fragment
KOH. Homatropin
Aconitin
is
is
a synthetic alkaloid used as a
substitute for atropin.
an alkaloid found
in aconite root,
com-
bined with aconitic acid.
It is a cardiac
and nerve
Dose,
sedative, anodyne, diaphoretic,

nirr to
and
antipyretic.
*fo
gr.
Toxicology.
Anxious
tingling of
countenance,
clammy
skin,
numbness and
failure.
mouth and
fauces,
and cardiac
Treatment:
General methods, with strychnin.

is
Cocain.
is
This alkaloid
found in coca leaves.
It
a white, crystalline powder.

It
is
soluble in water.
The hydrochlorid is anesthetic upon mucous memlittle effect
branes and subcutaneous tissue, but has
upon
unbroken
skin.
Cerebral
stimulant,
tonic,
2 gr.
diuretic,
diaphoretic,
and mydriatic.
Inhalations of
Dose, J to
Toxicology.
chloral, artificial respiration,

Tests.
Solutions of
ammonia or amyl nitrite, and general methods. cocain, with HC1 and potassium
dichromate, yield an orange crystalline precipitate.
160
3 per cent, solution of potassium permanganate with

cocain produces a violet precipitate.
Cocain solutions must not be
sterilized
by
heat, which
decomposes them.
Veratrin, hydrastin, and physostiglittle use.
min
are alkaloids of
Physostigmin,
Bean).
Eserin
(an
Alkaloid
from
Calabar
The sulphate and

is
salicylate are official.
The
salicylate
used largely in ocular practice as a myotic.
The
and
alkaloids are depressants, sialagogues, purgatives,

diaphoretics.
Dose,
to
gr.
PART
III
PHYSIOLOGIC CHEMISTRY
PHYSIOLOGIC chemistry
is
that division of chemical
science treating of changes taking place in the living
organism of both animal and vegetable
life.
Changes
occurring in the healthy organism are normal, while

those produced under the influence of disease are ab-
normal
classified
or
"pathologic."
The
substances
fats,
generally
under this head are proteins,
and carbo-
hydrates.
PROTEINS
These form the
chief part of the solid
and
liquid
constituents of the body, such as blood, muscle, nerves,

etc.
Proteins are also found in small quantities in every
part of plants and, in larger amounts, in seeds, such as

peas,
beans,
etc.
Proteins have
are
not been prepared
composed of carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, oxygen, and salts, and may also contain sulphur, phosphorus, and iron.
artificially.
They
Classification.
Since the exact composition of the

is
proteins
possible;
11
is
not understood, an exact classification
im-
two methods are adopted.
The
first
depends
161
162

their source,
upon
and divides them into two
classes:
loss of
native proteins, which

their, properties;
may
be isolated without
proteins,
and derived
which are de-
by the action of heat and reagents upon native The second method of classification is accordproteins.
rived
ing to their composition and subdivides

proteins, conjugated proteins,
them
into simple
and derived
yield
proteins.
Simple
Proteins.
These
only
alpha-amino-
acids or their derivatives,
and are found

all fluids of
in muscle, albu-
mins, globulins, and in

tears
the body, except

of
and sweat.
Under the
is
influence
HC1, the
nitrogen of the protein

viz.,
subdivided into four forms,
NH
3,
amido- and di-amido-acids, and a guanidin
residue.
Alkalis cause the nitrogen to split off as

of the sulphur to
NH
and a part
form a sulphid; the other

Hydrolytic agents,
split
part of sulphur forms sulphates.
such as dilute acids and certain ferments,
the
simple protein molecules into proteins of lower molecular weight;
these
are readily diffusible,
and are no
longer coagulated
Tests.
by heat. Heat some of the substance with
HN0
coagulation of the protein takes place.

Heller's Test.
Upon a
layer of
HNO
cautiously add
is
a solution of protein: a white opaque ring

the point of contact.
Solutions of
formed at
the heavy metals coagulate proteins.
This explains the use of albumin as an antidote in

metallic poisoning.
PROTEINS
163
Potassium ferrocyanid, picric acid, tannic acid, and

trichloracetic acid also precipitate proteins.
Subdivisions of Simple Proteins.

uble in water and coagulated
Albumins are
sol-
by
heat, such as white of

fluid, lactal-
egg, serum-albumin of the blood and serous
bumin
of milk,
and myo-albumin
of muscle.
Globulins are insoluble in water, but soluble in water
containing neutral salts, and are coagulated
by
heat.
They
are found in milk, blood,
and
fibrinogen.
Acid and alkaline albumins are obtained by the action

of acids or alkalis
upon albumin.
Syntonin, obtained
during digestion,
is
an acid albumin.
Coagulated proteins are obtained
by
action of heat,
enzymes, or acids on native proteins, and have been
and other glands. lated protein formed by the action of

found in the
liver
Fibrin
fibrin
is
a coagu-
ferment upon
the fibrinogen of the blood.

Proteoses are hydrolytic products of protein.
They
are soluble in water
and not coagulated by heat. Peptones are somewhat similar products, and are
obtained by the action of unorganized ferments upon

proteins.
Conjugated or Compound Proteins.
These contain
the protein molecule combined with other molecules
otherwise than as a
salt.
Upon
hydrolysis they yield
the simple protein and a non-protein substance.

constitute
teins,
They
the glycoproteins,
hemoglobins,
nucleopro-
and phosphoproteins.
164

These contain a carbohydrate group,
Glyco proteins.
capable of reducing alkaline copper sulphate solution,
such as the mucins, mucoids, and chondroproteins.
Nudeoproteins.
nucleic acid
cules.
These proteins are composed of combined with one or more protein mole-
Phosphoproteins.
The
proteins of this group contain
a simple protein molecule combined with a substance containing phosphorus, other than nucleic acid or lecithin.
Derived Proteins.
The
proteins
included
in
this
group are obtained, as the name implies, by the action

of acids, alkalis, heat, or
enzymes upon
proteins.
MILK
Milk
is
a sweet, opaque, bluish-white

of the
fluid, secreted
by the mammary gland
mammalia.
The com-
position varies in different animals, but always contains
the necessary elements for the normal development of

the
young
of
any particular animal.
PERCENTAGE COMPOSITION OF NORMAL MILK

(after
Holland)
Cow.
Human.
87.29
12.71
1.03
Water
Solids, as tabulated
87.41
below
12.59
3.01
Caseinogen
Albumin
Albuminoids
Fats
0.75
1.26 2.29
3.76
.
....
3.66
4.92
3.78
6.04
0.31
Milk-sugar
Ash
0.70
MILK
Its density varies
165
in ex-
treme cases,
Reaction.
may
The
is
from 1.029 to 1.033, and, vary between 1.018 to 1.045.

reaction of
human milk and

it
that of
the herbivora
generally alkaline, although

is, it
may
be
amphoteric, that
may
be both acid and alkaline at
the same time, due to the presence of acid phosphates
and
also secondary phosphates.
The average
i
daily quantity secreted
by a woman
is
liter.
Standard of Strength.
standards.
Various States have different

of
The average standard

less
cows'
milk
is
that
it
should contain not
than 13 per cent, of total
solids, 3.5
per cent, of which
is fat.
Preservation.
Milk may be prevented from under-
going fermentation by refrigeration or by sterilization.

If
subjected to a temperature below 59
F., it
may be
kept several days
without
change.
it
Cold does not

kill
preserve milk indefinitely; nor will

alter the
bacteria or
toxalbumins
it
may have
contained, but will
retard their development.
The
best
method
of preservation is sterilization.
It
has been conclusively proved that at a temperature of

154
to 167
F. the digestibility
is
not altered, but
this degree of heat will destroy
any saprophytic germs

is
that the milk
may
contain.
sterilizer.
This process
best con-
ducted in a steam
feeding
is
Sufficient milk for
one
placed in separate bottles, loosely stoppered
with absorbent cotton, which permits the escape of
166
steam, but prevents the admission of germs from the
These bottles are placed in the sterilizer and allowed to steam for forty-five minutes. They are then
air.
placed upon ice until required for use.
Pasteurizing will
not destroy the toxalbumins or poisons the milk
may
have contained.
Milk contains oxidizing enzymes whose functions are to aid its digestibility. These enzymes are destroyed by heating above 167 F., and their presence
is
shown by shaking
c.c.
in a test-tube 10 c.c. of milk with
of freshly prepared tincture of guaiac, 5 c.c. of
turpentine,
velop.
and
c.c.
of
HO
2
a blue color will de-
The absence
of such color indicates that the
enzyme has been destroyed.

Detection of Preservatives in Milk.
dition
is it
Under no con-
justifiable to use
any chemical preservatives
in milk, as they retard digestion.
Formaldehyd.
Into a test-tube place some HiSC^
containing a trace of ferric chlorid.

cautiously, so as not to
tested,
Upon
this
add
mix the
liquids, the
milk to be
and
in the presence of formaldehyd a blue or
purple color will develop.
Borax or Boric Acid.

i
Place in an evaporating dish
drop of milk with 2 drops of
HC1 and
drops of tinc-
ture of turmeric.
cool,
Dry
the mixture on a water-bath,

4
and add
drop of
NH OH by means of a glass rod.

25
c.c.
greenish color indicates borax or boric acid.

Salicylic
Acid.
Acidify
of
the
milk with
MILK
acetic acid, boil,
167
and
filter.
The
filtrate is
extracted
with ether by shaking in a separately funnel. The ethereal extract is separated and shaken with a very
dilute solution of ferric chlorid,
violet color to
which
if
will
impart a
acid
is
the aqueous layer
salicylic
present.
Benzole Acid.
the preceding
This
is
shown
in a similar
manner
2
as
2
test,
but the
filtrate is
shaken with
HO
before extracting with ether.
The
converts the
benzoic acid into salicylic acid.
Milk upon standing separates into two

change being complete in twelve hours.
layer,
fat.
layers,
the
The upper
all
known
as the cream, contains practically

layer
is
the
The lower
skimmed
milk.
it
From
the table of the composition of milk
will
be seen that
human milk
differs
from cows' milk in conin-
taining about half the percentage of proteins and
organic salts and about one-third

milk-sugar.
opalisin,
more
of lactose, or
It also contains a protein rich in sulphur,
found exclusively in
human
it
milk.
When
the
child is fed
upon
artificial
milk
should be so modified
of the several ingre-
as to contain the
same percentage
dients as contained in mothers' milk.
The
quantities
are not definite for the entire period of infant growth,
and are changed
periodically.
graduate known
as the
"Materna"
(Fig. i) is
made
Its
especially for this purpose,

of such milk without the
and
simplifies the preparation
need of any calculation.
i68

is
outer circumference
divided into seven panels, each
showing the quantity of milk-sugar, milk, cream, lime-
Fig,
i.
Estraus materna graduate.
water, and water to be used to produce a milk of desired
strength for a child of certain age.
URINE
The
In
it
urine
is
the most important animal excretion.
are to be found the nitrogenous waste of catabsalts.
olism and soluble mineral
It varies widely in its composition, being influenced
by the quantity and kind of food and drink, the state of digestion, muscular and nervous activity, temperature,
etc.
URINE
169
(after
AVERAGE COMPOSITION OF NORMAL URINE

Percentage
composition.
Holland)
Grains
Water
Solids, as tabulated
96.000
below
Urea
Uric acid
4.000 2.000
0.040
0.075
0.075
Hippuric acid
Creatinin
Pigment,
mucus,
xanthin,
other
0.680
.
extractives, etc
Chlorids of sodium and potassium.
0.680
Sulphates of sodium and potassium, o.no Phosphates of magnesium and cal-
cium
Phosphates of potassium
0.080 0.120
1 70

first
When
ing,
voided
it is clear
and transparent, with

reaction.
faintly aromatic odor
and acid
Upon
stand-
a cloudy film of mucus

sinks.
may
be formed, which
If
slowly
Its
acidity
it
increases.
allowed
to
stand in a
warm
place
develops an ammoniacal odor,
due
urea
.to
the action of the bacteria urea and micrococcus

urea,
upon
converting
them
into
ammonium
ranges from
carbonate.
Specific Gravity.
The
specific gravity
1.012 to 1.030 or higher.
specific gravity
over 1.030
indicates sugar.
urine of low specific gravity fre-
quently denotes albumin.
The
specific
gravity
must
be taken from the total urine passed in twenty-four

hours.
Volume.
ditions.
This varies under normal physiologic con-
It
may
range from 900 to 1500
c.c.;
decreased
in acute nephritis; increased in chronic nephritis, dia-
betes mellitus, and diabetes insipidus.
Reaction.
It is generally acid,
but
may become
The
.
neu-
tral or alkaline shortly after passing.

is
acid reaction
due to monosodium phosphate, NaH2 P0 4 Occasionally it may be both acid and alkaline (amphoteric), owing to its containing both alkaline and acid
sodium phosphates.
Total Solids.
The average amount
of total solids is
about 60 grams per diem, of which one-half is urea. It can be approximately determined from the specific
gravity
by multiplying the
last
two
figures of the specific
URINE
gravity
171
c.c.
by
2.2.
For instance, 1450
of urine
were
voided in twenty-four hours with a specific gravity of

1.018.
Multiplying the last two numbers of the specific
gravity (18)
by
2.2 yields 39.6 in
1000
c.c.,
or 57.42, for
the 1450 a definite volume of urine

c.c.
For exact determination

is
of total solids
evaporated on a water-bath,
is
and the weight obtained
calculated for the total
quantity passed in twenty-four hours.
Urea (N2 H 4 CO) is the chief solid constituent of urine, and is also most important physiological!^ as well as Urea is the chief nitrogenous endpathologically.
product of the metabolism of proteins in the body, and
carries off
far the largest quantity of all the nitrogen
by
ingested with the food.

is
The
all
daily
amount excreted
about 40 grams, equal to
the other solids of the
urine.
The determination
of the
amount
of urea ex-
creted gives us a clinical picture of the metabolic changes
occurring within the body.
In diabetes the amount of
urea secreted
the liver there
is is
increased.
In degenerative changes of
a diminution of urea formation.
of urea secreted.
Diet also plays an important r61e in the quantities A protein diet will increase the urea
output.
Upon
a strictly vegetable diet

Urea.
it is
decreased.
Determination of
of
There are quite a number
The
is
methods suggested for the determination of urea. simplest method giving fairly approximate results
Hinds' modification of Doremus'.

2) is filled
The Doremus-
Hinds' ureometer (Fig.
with a solution con-
172
sisting of equal

volumes of freshly prepared solution
of
chlorinated soda, "Labarraque's solution," and sodium
hydroxid, care being taken to see that no air
is
present.
The
urine
is
placed in the
graduated side tube
and a
Fig.
2.
Doremus-Hinds' ureometer.
definite
amount
is
allowed to pass into the ureometer.
It
is
allowed to stand for thirty minutes and the peris
centage of urea
ureometer.
read
off of
the graduated scale of the
PATHOLOGIC CONSTITUENTS OP URINE AND TESTS

Albumin.
Place some urine in a test-tube and heat
If
upper portion.
a cloud appears,
it
may
be due to
albumin or phosphates. The lower cold portion will serve as a guide for comparison. Add a few drops of
acetic acid until acid in reaction.
it is
If
the cloud clears up,
due to phosphates.
PATHOLOGIC CONSTITUENTS OF URINE AND TESTS

Heller's Test.
173
In a test-tube
or,
more
is
preferably, a
conical wineglass about 20 c.c. of urine

this is
placed.
To
added, by means of a pipet,
HNO
in such
manner
that the acid flows from the pipet to the bottom of the
vessel,
forming
two
distinct
layers.
If
albumin
is
present, a white cloud will appear at the zone of contact.
Potassium Ferrocyanid.
10
c.c.
of
urine are acidified with 5 to 10 drops

of acetic acid,
and
to the mixture
of
is
added a few drops
solution
of
potassium ferrocyanid.
will
turbidity
be produced in the presence of

This test
is
albumin.
cate,
extremely
deli-
and gives no reaction with phospeptones, mucus,

alkaloids,
phates,
urates, or pine acids.
The
quantitative determination of
albumin
may
be readily carried out

It will
Fig. 3.
by Esbach's albuminometer.
less
not give correct readings in amounts
Esbach's
than 0.5 part per 1000.
When
that
is,
albuminometer, im-
the
albumin
proved form.
ranges
high,
above "four" on the

urine with
i
scale, it is advisable to dilute the
or 2
volumes
of water, and, after testing, to
multiply the result

dilution.
by
or 3, according to the degree of
If the urine
was diluted with an equal volume
of water, the result is multiplied
by
2; if 2
volumes
of
174

i
water were taken to

multiplied
volume
of urine, the result is
by
3.
The albuminometer
is
consists
of
strong glass tube, graduated as
shown
in Fig. 3.
The
to
test solution consists of 10

citric
c.c.,
grams
of picric acid,
20 grams of
acid,
dissolved in sufficient water
make 1000
or
i liter.
The tube
is filled
to the
mark "U" with
clear urine, then
with the reagent or test
up to the mark "R" The tube is closed solution.
with the stopper and the contents mixed by reversing

the tube about ten times.
It is then to
remain in the
upright position for twenty-four hours.
The
height of
the sediment, read off on the etched scale, indicates the
weight of dried albumin in 1000 parts of urine.

Carbohydrates.
Dextrose, or glucose,
It
is
present in
minute amount in normal urine.
may
is
also be present
when
large
amounts
of sugar are
it
consumed and the
system unable to burn
up,
and
known
of
as "ali-
mentary glycosuria";
Determination.
cupric tartrate:
Copper Solution No.
i.
this is
not a serious condition.

test
Fehling's
solution
alkaline
Alkaline solution No. 2.
Copper
sulphate,
sufficient
in
Potassium
34.64 gm.
tartrate
and
sodium
173 gm. " 125
.
pure crystals.
Water
to
Potassium hydroxid
c.c.
make
500.00
Water
sufficient to
make 500
c.c.
These solutions are preserved separately in small, well-stoppered bottles, and when required for use are
mixed
in
equal proportions.
If
these
solutions
are
PATHOLOGIC CONSTITUENTS OF URINE AND TESTS 175

mixed and allowed to stand, the resultant solution decomposes and becomes worthless. To make sure that
good it is tested by boiling, and if no change occurs it can be deemed to be all right. The test is conducted by diluting the mixed Fehling's
the solution
is
solution with
tion just
some water and heating, keeping the solubelow the boiling-point. The urine is added
If the
drop by drop and a yellowish or brick-red precipitate

will take place in the presence of sugar.
is
quantity
small, this will only take place after standing for
some
time.
H aines'
Test.
The reagent
is
made by
dissolving 30
gr. of pure crystallized copper sulphate in J fluidounce
of distilled water,
5 fluidounces of
is stable.
adding f fluidounce of glycerin and

S. P.
U.
Liquor potassa.
i
This solution
In applying the test
dram
of the solution is
boiled in a test-tube, adding 8 to 10 drops of urine,
and
again boiling.
In the presence of sugar a red pre-
cipitate of cuprous oxid,
Cu2 O,
is
deposited.
Purdy's Test.
tative
This
is
both a qualitative and quanti-
method, and has the advantage of being quickly conducted, with a fair degree of accuracy.
The
solution consists of the following:

4-742 gin. "
Copper sulphate
Potassium hydroxid Concentrated ammonia- water
Glycerin
23.500
450.000
38.000 looo.ooo
c.c.
"
Water
sufficient to
make
"
35
c.c.
of this solution represents 0.020
gm. of glucose.
176

test is
The
with
is
conducted as follows:
35
c.c. of
the solu-
tion are accurately

2
measured from a buret and diluted
volumes
of water.
From another
by
buret the urine
slowly discharged, drop
drop, into the boiling
solution contained in an evaporating dish until the

color begins to fade, then
more
slowly, three to five
seconds between each drop, until the blue color entirely

disappears and a perfectly transparent colorless solution
is
produced.
This must be done quickly, as
it
turns
blue upon standing.
The
result is then calculated.
It requires 4 c.c. of urine to decolorize Purdy's solution.
We know
by
Glucose.
:
that the 35
calculation
Urine.
:
:
c.c.
represents 0.020
gm.
of
glucose; then
Urine.
we
:
obtain:
Glucose.
4
c.c.,
c.c.
0.020
100
c.c.
0.500 gm. in
100
or 0.5 per cent.
Bottger's Test.
In applying this
test,
the absence of
will
If
albumin must be assured, as the bismuth

black by the sulphur of the albumin.
present,
it
be turned
is
albumin
must
first
be removed by boiling and
filtering.
is
To
the urine an equal volume of

of
If
KOH
solution
added and a few grains

boiled for half a minute.
bismuth subnitrate, and

sugar
is
present, a gray or
dark brown deposit,

formed.
finally
is
The
precipitate
becoming black, will be either bismuth oxid or
metallic bismuth, or a mixture of both.
Nylander's Test.
The
solution
is
made by
dissolving
tar-
bismuth
subnitrate, 2
gm., potassium and sodium
PATHOLOGIC CONSTITUENTS OF URINE AND TESTS

trate,
177
4 gm., sodium hydroxid, 10 gm., in 90

the solution
is
c.c.
of water
5 c.c.
and
filtering; \ c.c. of
heated with
of urine.
brown or black
precipitate will
form after
a few minutes' boiling, in the presence of sugar.

Blood.
Urine
is
made alkaline with NaOH and boiled.

This test
is
In the presence of blood, the precipitate of phosphates

will
be colored red.
not absolute, as any

contain will prois
other coloring-matter the urine
may
duce similar
results.
The
precipitate
filtered
and
washed, and acetic acid added to the precipitate on the

filter.
In the presence of blood, the
filtrate
will
be
colored red, gradually disappearing

air.
upon exposure to
mixture of freshly prepared tincture of guaiac and

oil of
ozonized
turpentine
is
allowed to flow
down
the
sides of a test-tube containing urine so as not to
mix
them.
If
blood
is
present a white ring, gradually turn-
ing blue, will appear at the point of contact of the two

fluids.
In place of the turpentine a mixture of
HO
2
and ether may be used.

Benzidin Test.
10
c.c. of
urine are treated with
i c.c.
of glacial acetic acid,
and to the mixture a third
of its
volume
of ether
is
added, with 5 to 10 drops of alcohol,
and well shaken.

as an upper layer.
layer
is
Upon
standing, the ether separates
By means of a pipet the ethereal removed and transferred to another tube conmade by mixing
0.5 c.c.
taining the benzidin reagent,
of a freshly prepared solution of a little benzidin in 2 c.c.

12
178

with 3
c.c.
glacial acetic acid
HO
2
2.
If
blood
is
present,
the reagent turns green or blue in two minutes; after

five
minutes
Bile.
changes to a dirty purple. Gmelin's Test. To a mixture of

it
HN0
3,
con-
taining
some nitrous
is
acid,
contained in a test-tube,
some urine
added, so as not to
mix the two
liquids.
If bile is present,
a play of colors will be produced
green, blue, violet, red

Pettenkofer's Test.
and yellow, or yellowish green. Cane-sugar is dissolved in some and concentrated
of the urine to be tested,
H SO
2
is
allowed to trickle
tube.
finally
down
the side of the inclined testbile,
In the presence of
a play of color
is
seen,
becoming cherry
red.
Pus.
tion of
In the presence of pus, urine treated with solu-
KOH
will
produce a tough, gelatinous mass.
added to urine containing pus will give an effervescence of oxygen, but this is not absolute, as other
2
HO
substances the urine

result.
may
contain will produce a similar
an equal volume of HC1. Mix thoroughly, and then add a few drops of H2 O2 and allow to stand a few minutes. To the mixture 5 c.c.
Indican.
to the urine
of chloroform is added,
Add
and well shaken.
Allow to
stand,
and
if
indican
is
present, the chloroform will
be turned blue.
Acetone.
To
a test-tube
half-full
of
urine add
5
few drops of strong solution of

solution
of
NaOH
and a
per cent,
be-
sodium
nitroprussid.
The mixture
PATHOLOGIC CONSTITUENTS OF URINE AND TESTS 179

comes
red,
but
will turn to purple
by addition
and
is
of
an
excess of glacial acetic acid, in the presence of acetone.
The
urine
is
made
alkaline with
NaOH,
boil,
filter.
To
the filtrate a few drops of Lugol's solution

If
added,
and gently heated.

Di-acetic Acid.
chlorid
is
acetone
is
present small yellow
crystals of iodoform will be produced.
To
the urine
some
solution of ferric
added, drop by drop, and the precipitate of iron phosphate is removed by filtration. The filtrate
is
treated with
more
ferric chlorid.
when, in the presis
ence of diacetic acid, a wine color

pearing upon boiling.
produced, disap-
INDEX
ACETANILID, 149
Acetates, 135
Acid, hydrofluoric, 67 hypophosphorous, 55

igasuric, 157
iodic,
Acetic acid, 135

ether, 133
67
137
Acetone, 130
121 Acetylene hydrocarbons, Acid, acetic, 135
iodous, 67
lactic,
malic, 138
amino-, 139
metaboric, 46
ammo-acetic, 139
aminoformic, 139
metaphosphoric, 58
muriatic, 61
nitric,
anhydrid, 39 benzoic, 146

boric, 45
35
nitrohydrochloric, 62
nitromuriatic, 62
oleic,
bromic, 67
136
bromous, 67
butyric, 135
oxalic,
136
carbamic, 139
carbonic, 41
chloric,
perbromic, 67 perchloric, 67
per-iodic, 67
67
phosphoric, 57
glacial,
chlorous, 67
cholic,
58
139
chromic, 95
citric,
phosphorous, 56 phthalic, 150

picric,
138
143
definition of, 12
dibasic, 136
prussic, 43
pyrogallic, 140
formic, 135
gallic,
pyrophosphoric, 58
pyrosulphuric, 51
radicle, 14
salicylic,
148
halogen, 67
hippuric, 139
146
hydriodic, 64
stearic,
136
hydrobromic, 66
hydrochloric, 61
sulphuric, 50
fuming, 51
sulphurous, 50
hydrocyanic, 43
181
182
Acid, tannic, 148
tartaric,
INDEX
Ammonium
Amyl
nitrate, 81
138
Amygdalin, 44
nitrite,
taurocholic, 140
133
thiosulphuric, 52
valeric, 135
Anhydrous, 30
Anilin, 148
Acids, amino-, 139

classes of, 13
Antifebrin, 149
hydroxy, 138
Antimony, 116 and potassium

chlorid. 117
tartrate, 117
"meta-," 46
organic, 134
"ortho-,''
oxid, 117
46
sulphid, 116
"pyro-," 47
Aconitin, 159
Air, 37
wine
of,
117
Apomorphin, 158 Aqua ammonia, 33

regia, 62
pressure of, 37 Alcohol, absolute, 126

ethyl, 126
Aromatic hydrocarbons, 141

spirits of
ammonia, 81
methyl, 125
Alcohols, 125
sulphuric acid, 50
Arsenic, 114
antidote, 115
iodid, 115
Aldehyds, 128
Aliphatic hydrocarbons, 120
Alkali, metals of, 71
Alkaline earth, metals

Alkaloids, 155
of,
81
114 Arseniuretted hydrogen, 114

trioxid,
Arsine, 114
Aspirin, 147
Allotropism, 26
Aluminum, 87
hydroxid, 88
sulphate, 88
Atmosphere, 37
Atom, 21 Atomic weight, 19

Atropin, 158
Alums, 88 Amids, 140

Amino-acids, 139
BARIUM, 85
chlorid, 85
Amins, 140
Ammonia, 32
aromatic
spirits of, 81
dioxid, 85
Bases, 18
Beer, 127
Ammonia-water,
33,
80
Ammonium
bromid, 81 carbonate, 80
troches
Belladonna, 158
Benzaldehyd, 146
Benzene, 142
dihydroxy, 145
Benzine, 123 Benzoic acid, 146
Benzole, 142
chlorid, 81
of,
81
compounds, 80 hydroxid, 80
iodid, 81
INDEX
Biliary salts, 140
183
!arbamic acid, 139
Binary Bismuth, 104

citrate,
elixir,
acids, 13
Carbamid, 141 Carbo animalis, 39

citrate,
and ammonium
106 106
106
ligni,
39
Carbohydrates, 153
Carbon, 38
subcarbonate, 105 subgallate, 106

subnitrate, 105
subsalicylate, 106
amorphous, 38
compounds, dioxid, 38 snow, 40

monoxid, 42
identification of, 1 20
Black draught, 87
lead, 38
disulphid, 52
Bleaching powder, 59
hemaglobin, 42
Carbonates, 42
Carbonic acid, 41
Blood in urine, 177 Blue mass, 109

ointment,
pill,
no
anhydrid, 39
oxid, 42
no
103
vitriol,
Carron
oil,
83
kaolini, 46,
Borax, 47 Boric acid, 45

ointment, 46
Cataplasma
soda, 72
89
Caustic potash, 72
Celluloid, 154
Cellulose, 153
Boron, 45
Brandy, 127 Brimstone, 48

British
Chalk mixture, 83
precipitated, 83
gum, 154
Bromin, 65 Bromoform, 125

Brucin, 157 Butane, 122
Charcoal, 38
Chemistry,
physiologic, 161
Chili saltpeter, 76
Butter of antimony, 117
China
clay, 89
Chloral, 130
CALCINATION, 82
Calcium, 82
hydrate, 130
Chlorin, 59
acids of, 67
bromid, 84
carbonate, 83
chlorid, 84
Chlorin-water, 60
Chloroform, 124
liniment, 124
hypophosphite, 83 oxid, 82
sulphate, 84
Chloroform- water, 124
Chromic
acid, 95
Calomel,
no
Chromium, 95
sulphate, 96
trioxid, 95
Camphor, 152
Cane-sugar, 154
i8 4
Cinchonidin, 156
INDEX
Elixir, vitriol,
50
Cinchonin, 156
Emplastrum hydrargyrum,
Emulsin, 44
no
Cinnabar, 109
Citric acid, 138
Epsom
salt,
87
Coal
oil,
123
Eserin, 160
Esters, 132
Coal-tar, 142
Cobalt, 97
Ethane, 122
monochlor, 125
Ether, acetic, 133
spirits of, 131
Cocain, 159
Codein, 157
Collodion, cantharidal, 153
flexile,
154
Ethers, 131
styptic, 153
compound, 132
haloid, 123
Collodions, 153
Compound
Copper,
ethers, 132
Ethyl acetate, 133

alcohol, 126
1 02
carbonate, 103
nitrate, 103
carbamate, 139
chlorid, 125
oxid, 103
ether, 132
nitrite,
sulphate, 103
133
Copperas, 91 Corrosive sublimate,

Creosote, 145 Creosote- water, 145
Cresols, 144
Exsiccated, 30
in
FATS, 127
Ferric hydroxid, 90
Creta preparata, 83
Ferrous bromid, 92
carbonate, 91
Cyanogen, 43
mass
DELIQUESCENCE, 30
Dermatol, 106
Destructive distillation, 32
Dextrin, 154
of,
92
92
pills of,
saccharated, 92
chlorid, 91
iodid, 92
Diamond, 38
Diastase, 126
sulphate, 91
Flake white, 100

Flash-light powders, 86 Flowers of sulphur, 48
Fluorin, 66 Fluorspar, 66
Donovan's
solution, 115
EFFLORESCENT, 30
Elements, found in body, metallic, 68
Formaldehyd, 129 Formic acid, 135

Fowler's solution, 114
non-metallic, 22
Elixir,
Fuming
sulphuric acid, 51
bismuth, 106
Furfurol, 151
INDEX
GALENA, 99
Gallic acid, 148
Hydrocarbons, 122
acetylene, 121
aliphatic, 120
Gasolene, 123
Glacial phosphoric acid, 58
Glass, 45
aromatic, 141
heterocyclic, 150 Hydrochloric acid, 61
Glauber's
salt,
74
Globulins, 163
Hydrocyanic
Hydrogen, 22
134
acid, 43
Glucose, 155
Glycerin, 127
nitro-, 127,
Hydrofluoric acid, 67
arseniuretted, 114 dioxid or peroxid, 30
suppositories, 127
Glycerite, acid, tannic, 127
phosphoretted, 54
replaceable, 14
boro-, 127
phenol, 127
Glycerol, 127
sulphid, 49
Hydroxybenzenes, 142
Glycin, 139
Glycocoll, 139
"Hypo," 52, 75 Hypophosphorous

INDICAN
acid, 55
Goulard's extract, 100

Grape-sugar, 155
Graphite, 38
in urine, 178 Infusion of senna, compound, 87 lodin, 62
Gray powder, 109

Green
vitriol,
91
ointment
92
of,
64
Griffith's mixture,
solution of, 64
tincture of, 64
Guaiacol, 146
Gum,
British, 154
lodoform, 124
lodol, 151
Gun-cotton, 153
Gypsum, 84
HALOGENS, 58
acids of, 67
Iron, 89
by hydrogen, 89
chlorid,
90
tincture of, 90
derivatives of, 123
hydroxid, 90
Haloid ethers,
Heroin, 158
23
hypophosphite, 92
iodid, 92
pills of,
Heterocyclic hydrocarbons, 150 Hexane, 122
92
syrup
of,
92
Hive syrup, 117 Hoffmann's anodyne, 131 Homologous, 122 Homologues, 122
Hydrastin, 160
phosphate, 92
protochlorid, 90
pyrites, 89
scales salts of, 92
subsulphate, 91
sulphate, 91
Hydriodic acid, 64
Hydrobromic
acid,
66
dried, 91
i86
INDEX
Lithium bromid, 80 carbonate, 80 citrate, 80 salicylate, 80
Lugol's solution, 64
Iron sulphate, solution of, 91 Isomeric aromatic hydrocarbons, 144
Isomerism, 144
KAOLIN, 89
cataplasma
Ketones, 130
of,
Lunar
89
caustic, 108
MAGNESIA,
milk
of,
calcined, 86
86
LABARRAQUE'S solution, 84 Lac sulphur, 48

Lactose, 154
Magnesium, 86
carbonate, 86
oxid, 86
Laughing-gas, 34
ponderosa, 86
sulphate, 87
Lead, 99
acetate, 101
Malic acid, 138
carbonate, 100 iodid, 102

nitrate, 101
Manganese, 93
dioxid, 93
hypophosphite, 94
sulphate, 94
oxid, 100
plaster, 101
Mass, 21
red, TOO
Massa hydrargyrum, 109

Matches, 53
sugar of, 101 Lime, 82

chlorid of, 59, 83
Materna graduate, 168

Matter, 21
chlorinated, 59, 83
Menthol, 152
Mercaptans, 131
Mercaptols, 131
milk
of,
82
83 Lime-water, 82
syrup
of,
Liniment, chloroform, 124

of lime, 83
Mercury, 109 ammoniated, 113

chlorids,
no
soap, 128
Liquid glass, 45
cyanid, 43 iodid, 112

nitrate, 112
Liquor antisepticus, 46
arsenii et hydrargyri iodidi, 115
calcis,
ointment
of,
113
83
chlori compositus,
iodi compositus,
60
no plaster, no
oxid,
64
subsulphate, 113
sulphid, 113
sodae chlorinata, 84
phosphatis compositus, 75 Litharge, 100
with chalk, 109
"Meta," 144
Meta-acids, 46
Lithium, 80
benzoate, 80
Metaboric acid, 46
INDEX
Metallic elements, 68
OIL, carron, 83
coal, 123
187
Metals, heavy, 68 light, 68
mirbane, 142
of bitter almonds, 146
of vitriol, 50
of wintergreen, 134
Metaphosphoric acid, 57
Methane, 122
tribromid, 125
trichlorid,
tri-iodid,
124
phosphorated, 52
volatile, 151
124
Methyl
alcohol, 125
Ointment, boric acid, 45

citrine, 113 diachylon, 101
chlorid, 124
salicylate,
134
Milk, 164
of sulphur,
iodin,
64
48
mercury,
no
preservatives, 165
zinc oxid, 97
sugar
of,
154
Oleic acid, 136
Mixture, Griffith's, 92 Molecular weight, 20

Molecules, 21 Monsel's solution, 91
Opium, 157
Organic chemistry, 119
"Ortho," 144
Ortho-acids, 46
Morphin, 157
di-acetyl, 158
Oxyacids, 13
Muriatic acid, 61
Oxygen, 23 Ozone, 25
NAPHTHALENE, 149
Naphthols, 149
Nickel, 96 Nitric acid, 35
"PARA," 144
Paraffin, 120
series,
122
Paraldehyd, 129
Pearl white, 105
Nitrobenzene, 142
Nitrogen, 31
Pentane, 122
of,
and oxygen, compounds

dioxid, 34
34
Peptones, 163
Petrolatum, 123
Phenol, 142
trinitrate, 143
monoxid, 34
pentoxid, 35
peroxid, 35
trioxid, 35
Phenolphthalein, 150
Phenols, 142
Nitroglycerin, 127, 134
Phenylamin, 148
Phosphin, 54
Phosphoproteins, 164
Nitrohydrochloric acid, 62 Nitromuriatic acid, 62
Nitrophenol, 143 Nitrous oxid, 34
Phosphoretted hydrogen, 54
Phosphoric acid, 57
Nomenclature, 12
Nucleoproteins, 163
Phosphorous
acid, 56
Phosphorus, 52
i88
Phthalic acid, 150
Physiologic chemistry, 161
INDEX
Reduced
iron,
89
Replaceable hydrogen, 14
Resorcin, 145 Rochelle salts, 138
Physostigmin, 160
Picric acid, 143
Pipe-clay, 89
Plaster, mercury, Paris,
Rum,
127
no
SACCHAROMYCES
Saccharose, 154
Salicylic acid, 146
84
cerevisia,
126
soap, 128
Plumbago, 38
Potassium, 72
bicarbonate, 74
Sal
ammoniac, 81
80
soda, 74
volatile, Salol, 147 Salt,
bromid, 78
carbonate, 73
chlorate, 79
common,
69
77
dichromate, 96
hydroxid, 72
Saltpeter, 35, 76
Salts, 17,
hypophosphite, 78
iodid, 77
nitrate, 76
nitrite,
acid or bisalt, 70
basic or subsalt, 70
biliary,
140
77
double, 71
Glauber's, 74
permanganate, 94
sulphate, 74 Propane, 122
Proteins, coagulated, 163
normal, 69
of tartar, 73
Seidlitz
Silicon, Silver,
powders, 138
45
conjugated, 163
derived, 164
simple, 162
107 cyanid, 108
Proteoses, 163
iodid, 109
nitrate, 107
Prussic acid, 43
Pyro-acids, 47
Pyrogallol, 140
oxid, 1 08
Smith's antidote, 44
phosphoric acid, 58
sulphuric acid, 51
Soap, Castile, 128 liniment, 128

plaster, 128
Pyroxylin, 153
Pyrrol, 151
Soaps, 128
QUEVENNE'S
Quinin, 156
iron,
89
Soda water, 40 Sodium, 71

arsenate, 115
Quinidin, 156
bicarbonate, 74
bromid, 78
RED
lead, 100
carbonate, 73
precipitate,
no
chlorid, 77
INDEX
Sodium hydroxid, 72
hypophosphite, 78
hyposulphite, 52
iodid, 77
nitrate, 76
nitrite,
189
Sulphuric acid, aromatic, 51

fuming, 51
anhydrid, 39
ether, 132
Sulphurous acid, 50
Suppositories, glycerin, 127
77
phosphate, 75
dried, 76
Symbols, 12
Syrup, hive, 117
of hypophosphites, 79
of lime, 83
granular effervescent, 76
solution of, 76
pyrophosphate, 76
sulphate, 74
sulphite, 76
of squills,
compound, 117
TANNIC
thiosulphate, 52, 78
Solution, Donovan's, 115
acid, 148 Tartar emetic, 117
Tartaric acid, 138
Fowler's, 114
Terpenes, 151
lead subacetate, 100

Lugol's, 64
Terpin hydrate, 152

Tests,
aluminum, 89
81
potassium arsenite, 114
ammonium,
arsenic, 115
sodium phosphate, compound, 76 Spirits of ammonia, aromatic, 81

of chloroform, 124
antimony, 118
barium, 85 benzoic acid, 146
bismuth, 107
borates, 46
Bottger's, 170 bromids, 66
of ether, 131
of niter, 133
Starch, 154 Stearic acid, 136
Stearoptens, 152
Strontium, 84
Strychnin, 157
calcium, 84
Sublimation,
no
carbonates, 42 chlorids, 61
Sublimed sulphur, 48
Sugar, 154
of lead,
1 01
chromium, 96
copper, 104
Fehling's, 174
of milk, 154
Haines', 175
Heller's, 173
Sulphonal, 131
Sulphur, 47
dioxid, 49
hydrochloric acid, 61
hydrogen dioxid, 31
hypophosphites, 55
iodids, 63
iron,
lotum, 48 milk of, 48

precipitated, 48
93
Sulphuretted hydrogen, 49
Sulphuric acid, 50
lead, 102
magnesium, 87
I9
INDEX
Veratrin, 136, 160
Tests, manganese, 95
mercury, 113
nitrates, 36
"Vital force," 119

Volatile oils, 151
phenol, 142
potassium, 79
Purdy's, 175
salicylates,
silver,
WASHED
sulphur, 48
146
Washing soda, 74
Water, 26 ammonia-, 33, 80 chlorin-, 60
chloroform-, 124
creosote-, 145
distilled,
109
sodium, 79
sulphates, 51
zinc,
99
Tetra-iodopyrrol, 151
Thiophen, 151 Tincture of iodin, 64

of iron, 91
28
drinking-, 28
hard, 27
mineral, 28
of crystallization,
soft,
Toluene, 142
Trichloraldehyd, 130
Trinitrophenol, 143
Trional, 131
30
27
Troches,
ammonium
chlorid, 81
Weight, atomic, 19 molecular, 20
sodium bicarbonate, 74
Turpeth mineral, 113
White
arsenic, 114
lead, 100
precipitate, 113
UNGUENTUM
Urea, 141
Ureids, 141
iodin,
64
phenol, 142
vitriol, 97 Wine, dry, 127
of antimony, 117
sweet, 127
Urethane, 139
Urethanes, 139
Urine, 168
XYLENE, 142
acetone
in,
in,
178
172
ZINC, 97
acetate,
albumin
bile in,
178
177
in,
98
blood
in,
bromid, 98
174
carbonate, 98
chlorid, 98
carbohydrates
di-acetic acid in, 179
pathologic constituents of, 172,
oxid, 97
178
ointment
178
of,
97
pus
in,
phenolsulphonate, 97
sulphate, 97
valerate, 99
VALENCE, 14
Valeric acid, 135
white, 97
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By CHARLOTTE A. AIKENS, formerly i2mo of Director of Sibley Memorial Hospital, Washington, D. C. Cloth, $2.00 net 56g pages, illustrated
Bolduan and Grund's Bacteriology

The authors have laid particular emphasis on the immediate It is an application of bacteriology to the art of nursing. applied bacteriology in the truest sense. study of all the
ordinary modes of transmission of infection are included.

Applied Bacteriology for Nurses. By CHARLES F. BOLDUAN, M.D., Assistant to the General Medical Officer, and MARIE GRUND, M.D., Bacteriologist, Research Laboratory, Department of Health, City of New York, xarno of 166 pages, illustrated. Cloth, $1.25 net.
Fiske's
The Body
NEW
IDEA
Trained Nurse and Hospital Review says "it is concise, wellwritten and well illustrated, and should meet with favor in schools for nurses and with the graduate nurse."
Structure and Functions of the Body. By ANNETTE FISKE, A. M., Graduate of the Waltham Training School for Nurses, Massachusetts. i2mo of 221 pages, illustrated. Cloth, $1.25 net
Beck's Reference
Handbook
' '
NEW
(3d)
EDITION
This book contains all the information that a nurse requires The to carry out any directions given by the physician. Montreal Medical Journal says it is cleverly systematized and shows close observation of the sickroom and hospital regime/'
Reference Handbook for Nurses. By AMANDA K. BECK, Graduate of the Illinois Training School for Nurses, Chicago, 111 33010 volume of 244 pages. Bound in flexible leather, $1.95 net.
Roberts' Bacteriology
This new work
is
&
Pathology
The
text
specially for nurses,
Written practical in the strictest sense. it confines itself to information that the
All unessential matter
to the point, yet clear
is
nurse should know.

style is concise
is
excluded.
plain.
and
and
The
illustrated throughout.
Bacteriology and Pathofogy for Nurses. By JAY G. ROBERTS, Ph. G., isrno of 206 pages, illustrated. M. D.. Oskaloosa, Iowa, $1.25 net.
DeLee's Obstetrics for Nurses

Dr.
for
DeLee's book really considers two subjects
obstetrics
Trained Nurse arid nurses and actual obstetric nursing. abounds with practical "book the Review says Hospital
suggestions, and they are given with they cannot fail to leave their impress."
such clearness that
Obstetrics for Nurses. By JOSEPH B. DELEE, M. D., Professor of Obstetrics at the Northwestern University Medical School, Chicago.
i2mo volume of
508 pages, fully illustrated.
Cloth, $2.50 net.
Davis' Obstetric
The Trained Nurse and
& Gynecologic Nursing

(4th)
NEW
EDITION
" This is one Hospital Review says: of the most practical and useful books ever presented to the The text is illustrated. nursing profession."
Obstetric and Gynecologic Nursing. By EDWARD P. DAVIS, M. D., Professor of Obstetrics in the Jefferson Medical College, PhiladelBuckram, $1.75 net phia. i-2mo volume of 480 pages, illustrated.
Macfarlane's Gynecology for Nurses

JUST READY
NEW
(2d)
EDITION
Dr. A.
" It
is
M. Seabrook, Woman's Hospital of Philadelphia, says: a most admirable little book, covering in a concise but
way the subject from the nurse's standpoint. You keep up to date in all these matters, and are to be complimented upon your progress and enterprise."
attractive
certainly
A Reference Handbook of Gynecology for Nurses. By CATHARINE MACFARLANE, M. D., Gynecologist to the Woman's Hospital of Philadelphia. $1.25 net.
32mo of 156 pages, with 70
illustrations.
Flexible leather.
McKenzie's Exercise
Exercise
in
in
Education and Medicine
and Medicine. By R. TAIT B.A., M.D., Professor of Physical Education, and Director of the Department, University of Pennsylvania. Octavo of 406 pages, with 346 illustrations. Cloth, $3.50 net.
Education
MCKENZIK,
Bohm &
The methods
large.
Painter's
JUST
Massage
READY
described are those employed in Hoffa's Clinic methods that give results. Every step is illustrated, showing The pictures are you the exact direction of the strokings.
Octavo of QI pages, with q? illustrations. By MAX BOHM, M. D., Edited by CHARLES F. PAINTER, M. D., Professor Berlin, Germany. of Orthopedic Surgery, Tufts College Medical School, Boston.
Cloth, $1.75 net.
Eye, Ear, Nose, and Throat Nursing

Medical Record says: "Every side of the question has been fully taken into consideration."
Nursing in Diseases of the Eye, Ear. Nose and Throat. By the Committee on Nurses of the Manhattan Eye, Ear and Throat Hospital, lamo of 260 pages, illustrated. Cloth, $1.50 net.
Friedenwald and Ruhrah's Dietetics for

lN
UrSCS
JUST READY
NEW
(3d)
EDITION
This work has been prepared to meet the needs of the nurse, both in training school and after graduation. American Journal of Nursing says it "is exactly the book for which nurses and others have long and vainly sought.
'
'
Dietetics for Nurses. By JULIUS FRIEDENWALD, M. D., Professor of Diseases of the Stomach, and JOHN RUHRAH, M. D., Professor of Diseases of Children, College of Physicians and Surgeons, Baltimore, izmo volume of 431 pages. Cloth, $1.50 net
Friedenwald
&
Ruhrah on Diet
By Juuus JOHN RUHRAH, M.D. Octavo
volCloth, $4.00 net.
Diet in Health and Disease.
WAI,D, M.D., and ume of 857 pages.
Galbraith's
Personal Hygiene and Physical
Training for
Women
ILLUSTRATED
Personal Hygiene and Physical Training for Women. By ANNA M. GALBRAITH, M. D., Fellow New York Academy of Medicine. 12010 of 371 pages, illustrated. Cloth, $2.00 net.
Galbraith's Four Epochs of

THE NEW
The Four Epochs
of
Woman's
Life
(2d)
EDITION
Life.
Woman's
With an Introductory Note by JOHN H. of Pennsylvania, izmo of 247 pages.
By ANNA M. GALBRAITH, M.D. MUSSER, M. D., University

Cloth, $1.50 net
McCombs'
Dr.
Diseases of Children for Nurses

(2d)
NEW McCombs' experience
EDITION
him
in lecturing to nurses has enabled to emphasize/z/?/ those points that nurses most need to know.
"We have needed a good book on children's diseases and this volume admirably fills the want." The nurse's side has been written by head valuable nurses, very being the work of Miss Jennie Manly.
National Hospital Record says:
Diseases of Children for Nurses. By ROBERT S. McCOMBS, M. D., Instructor of Nurses at the Children's Hospital of Philadelphia. 12010 of 470 pages, illustrated. Cloth, $2.00 net
Wilson's Obstetric Nursing

In Dr. Wilson's work the entire subject
is
NEW
EDITION
covered from the
beginning of pregnancy, its course, signs, labor, its actual accomplishment, the puerperium and care of the infant. American Journal of Obstetrics says: " Every page empasizes
the nurse's relation to the case."
A Reference Handbook of Obstetric Nursing. By W. REYNOLDS WILSON, M.D., Visiting Physician to the Philadelphia Lying-in Charity.
32010 of 355 pages, illustrated.
Flexible leather, $1.25 net
American Pocket Dictionary
NEW
(8th)
JUST READY EDITION
The Trained Nurse and Hospital Review says: "We have had many occasions to refer to this dictionary, and in every instance we have found the desired information."
American
Pocket Medical
A. M.,
DORLAND,
M.
D.,
Edited by W. A. Dictionary. Loyola University, Chicago.
NEWMAN
Flexible
$1.25 net
leather, gold edges, $1.00 net; with patent
thumb index,
Lewis'
Anatomy and Physiology
THIRD
EDITION
Nurses Joarnal of Pacific Coast says "it is not in any sense rudimentary, but comprehensive in its treatment of the subThe low price makes this book particularly attractive. jects."
turer
Anatomy and Physiology for Nurses. By LERov LEWIS, M.D., Lecon Anatomy and Physiology for Nurses, Lewis Hospital, Bay Cloth, $1.75 net City, Mich. i2mo of 326 pages, 150 illustrations.
Boyd's State Registration

State Registration for Nurses.
for
Nurses
N., GradPrice, 50 cents net.
By LOUIE CROFT BOYD, R.
uate Colorado Training School for Nurses.
Paul's Materia Medica

A Text-Book
Samaritan
NEW
(2 d)
EDITION
of Materia Medica for Nurses. By GEORGE P. PAUL, M.D., Hospital, Troy, N. Y. izmo of 282 pages. Cloth, $1.50 net.
Paul's Fever Nursing

Acute Infectious Fevers. i2mo of 246 pages, illustrated.
NE w
By GEORGE
^
P.
ED,T,ON
net.,
Nursing
in the
PAUL, M.D.
Cloth, $1.00
Hoxie
&
Laptad's Medicine for Nurses

JUST READY-NEW
(2d)
EDITION, REWRITTEN
Medicine for Nurses and Housemothers. By GEORGE HOWARD HOXIE, M.D., University of Kansas; and PEARL L. LAPTAD. i2mo of 351 pages, illustrated. Cloth, $1.50 net.
Grafstrom's Mechano-therapy
GRAFSTROM,
SECOND
EDITION
Mechano-therapy (Massage and Medical Gymnastics). By AXEL V, B.Sc. M.D., 12010, 200 pages. Cloth, $125 net.
Nancrede's Anatomy
NEW
(7th)
EDITION
Essentials of Anatomy. CHARLES B. G. DENANCREDE, M.D., Universi2mo, 400 pages, 180 illustrations. ity of Michigan. Cloth, $1.00 net
Morrow's Immediate Care

242 illustrations.
of Injured
New
(2d)
Immediate Care of the Injured. By ALBERT S. MORROW, M.D., New York City Home for Aged and Infirm. Octavo of 354 pages, with
Clotb, $2.50
.net.
Edition
Register's Fever Nursing

Practical Fever Nu'sing. By EDWARD C. REGISTER, M.D., North Carolina Medical College. Octavo of 350 pages, illus-
A Text Book on
trated,
t^loth, $2.?o net.
Pyle's Personal Hygiene
NEW
(5th)
EDITION
A Manual of Personal Hygiene. Edited by WALTER L. PYLE, M.D. Wills Eye Hospital, Philadelphia. i2mo, |zj pages, illus. $1.50 net.
Morris' Materia Medica
NE w
(7 th)
EDITION
Essentials of Materia Medica, Therapeutics, and Prescription Writing. By HENRY MORRIS, M.D. Revised by W. A. BASTEDO, M.D., Columbia University, N. Y. i2mo of 300 pages, illustrated. Cloth, $1.00 net.
Griffith's
ity
Care
of the
Baby
EDITION
The Care
Baby. By J. P. CROZER GRIFFITH, M.D., Universof Pennsylvania. 12010 of 455 pages, illustrated. Cloth, $1.50 net.
of the
THIS BOOK
IS DUE ON THE LAST DATE STAMPED BELOW
AN INITIAL FINE OF
25
CENTS
WILL BE ASSESSED FOR FAILURE TO RETURN THIS BOOK ON THE DATE DUE. THE PENALTY WILL INCREASE TO 5O CENTS ON THE FOURTH DAY AND TO $1.OO Otf JtfE SEVENTH DAY OVERDUE. _.
.
JLal1
SP 4
1947
BIOLOGY
Li.:;. .
UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA LIBRARY

Chemistry and Toxicology For Nurses by Philip Asher

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iOLOGY

PHILADELPHIA AND LONDON

are to devote their

and sacriwork to the

that his efforts will have been well repaid.

The author was

for a long time

interesting science, with its

desired, it is advised that

used in medicine there

given their medicinal properattempt has been made to

Hydrogen Oxygen Ozone Water

Hydrogen Peroxid or Hydrogen Dioxid

Acids of the Halogens

Potassium and Sodium

Lithium ............................. ...... .............

Ammonium Compounds ..................................

Calcium ........... .................................... Strontium .................. .............................

Magnesium ........... ................................. Aluminum ..............................................

Chromium .............................................. Nickel .......................................... ........ Cobalt ..................................................

Copper ................................................. 102 Bismuth ................................................ 104

Mercury ................................................ 109

CHEMISTRY OF CARBON AND ITS COMPOUNDS

CHEMISTRY AND TOXICOLOGY FOR NURSES

the science that teaches of the ele-

compounds, and investigates the laws

Elements are those

the present time, have not been reduced to simpler

reduced any further.

Water, on the other hand,

hydrogen and oxygen.

ELEMENTS FOUND IN THE BODY

These constitute about 97 per

cent, of the total

divided in various pro-

the following elements:

CHEMISTRY FOR NURSES

calcium, sulphur, sodium, potassium, chlorin, fluorin

are divided into two classes

/T&& elements are expressed by symbols.

are either single letters or two letters signifying the

element they represent.

of oxygen; it is the initial letter of that word.

commoner elements are usually expressed by a single

but when one element has the same

as another element its difference

small letter to the initial letter of the element.

The elements combine

divided into two main classes

compounds which the organic and

student can understand

are divided into a great

which the acids and

Acids are defined as those substances which possess

and which, when added

to metals, give off hydro-

divided into two main classes: the

binary acid, as its

one containing oxygen.

binary acid forms salts ending in "id."

binary compounds, that

those compounds com-

posed of but two elements, end in "id."