Overview One of the critical problems facing the world is the growing demand for energy.

The significant growth in the worlds populations along with growing industries has necessitates that provisions be made to meet this demand. Currently, the main means by which energy is supplied is through the use of fossil fuels. It therefore means that a large supply of fossil fuel is needed in meeting the current demands. However, the world is faced with the reality that these resources are dwindling and will not last to supply the future generations. In addition, countries that still have oil reserves are located within an unstable zone (Adamantiades and Kessides, 2009). Even if this was not the case, in utilising fossil fuels another problem presents itself, the global warming epidemic. The use of fossil fuel results in the emission of carbon dioxide (CO2). CO2 a greenhouse gas (GHG) is said to be a major contributor to global warming and if our current trends continue by the year 2050 CO2 emission will be twice its current value (Apergis et al., 2010), putting the world in a devastating predicament. Plagued with this dilemma and charged with meeting growing energy demands it is necessary that alternative form of energy be advanced. This can be readily seen. Over the years past, research has been undertaken in developing these alternate sources of energy. Sources such as solar power, hydropower, wind power and nuclear power have made significant strides, all proving to aid in the reduction of GHG. Although these forms of energy supply can be advantageous as it relates to reducing CO2 they are not without limitations and or disadvantages. In view of this the class was sub-divided into teams. Each team being tasked with reviewing all sources of energy currently being used and identifying one source they wished to target. The group was required to investigate that source and determine the issues plaguing that form of energy generation. After some deliberations, group 6 selected nuclear power. It was chosen because it has been the most controversial from its inception. However, it possess the ability to provide long term benefits in relation to the environment and the economy of the country in which it is used(Benz, 2013). With this in mind, the group proceed to brainstorm and research this topic. After research the team regrouped to present their findings and a mind map was constructed (see appendix). There were four main problems found which was associated with nuclear power, these include: the lack of efficiency in power generation, issues related to the environment and human safety, high cost associated with initialising and decommissioning reactor and finally the social and political issues which hindered its implementation. After the main issues were identified each member of the group selected one and ventured on to do their own personal research. The social and political problems is the emphasis of this paper, the remainder will be covered by other group members. It is the aim of this research to expand the overarching issues into subcategories and show how they affect nuclear power as a source of energy and finally provide solutions to this issue. Noteworthy, it was a requirement to provide solution that will Shinella Latoya Johnson - z3447887 -1-

result in the source of energy being sustainable. However, due to the nature of this issue this cannot be applied.

Introduction Nuclear reaction was first experience by the world in a horrific manner (Koerner, 2013). During the second World War (WWII) the United States (US) dropped two atomic bombs on Hiroshima and Nagaski in Japan (Yim, 2006) revealing secret technology with frightful consequences. But this technology could be used for more than just warfare. In the shadow of the atomic bomb was the capability to use nuclear reactions for civilian purposes. The fissile material produced by the nuclear weapons programme could be used for power generation. The world was now in possession of technology that could produce a cheap, clean and abundant 1 form of energy to rival fossil fuels(Hammond, 1996). The cost of extraction for uranium the material needed for the nuclear reaction process was relatively low and there was no fear of degradation when stockpiled(Adamantiades and Kessides, 2009). So it was, that the peaceful use of nuclear related technology and information was promoted by US President Eisenhower in the 1950 in an initiative dubbed Atoms for Peace (UCS, 2003). The nuclear power industry thrived in the 1950 and 1960 as the energy market experienced instabilities (UCS, 2003, Hammond, 1996). However, this was short-lived as the energy industry regained stability and cost overruns were experienced during nuclear plant construction. The nuclear industry struggled with fewer plants being ordered or constructed. Prior to 2011, 29 countries operated approximately 440 reactors(Karakosta et al., 2013) and nuclear power only contributed 14% of the worlds electrical energy(Dittmar, 2012). Electrical energy generated by nuclear power as previously mentioned uses uranium mined in countries such as Australia, Canada and Kazakhstan and nuclear reactors. A brief overview is presented hereafter. There are two types of reactors currently in use: the pressurised water reactor (water is held under pressure preventing it from boiling) and the boiling water reactor (water is allowed to boil so that steam is formed). Nuclear reactors use nuclear fission reactions (splitting apart of atoms due to neutron bombardment(UCS, 2003)) to generate heat, this converts water to steam which is able to drive the turbines in an effort to produce electricity. Control rods capable of absorbing neutrons produced through the reaction are lowered into the reactor to ensure that overheating doesnt occur. The reactors are encased with a thick layer of concrete to prevent the escape of radiation(Sample, 2008). Although uranium is the least abundant material due to its radioactivity mention must be made of its capability using only one pound to produce the same amount of energy as three millions pounds of coal(UCS, 2003). This further emphasises the cost-effectiveness of this route of energy supply. Following the struggle, the last five years have recorded resurgence in the interest of nuclear power. A large number of countries have proposed the construction of new plants mainly due
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to efforts in reducing GHG emission. Unlike traditional fossil fuels, nuclear energy does not contribute to CO2 or cause acid rain(sulphuric dioxide and nitric oxides) (Hammond, 1996). Reports posit that through the entire life cycle of nuclear power generation (from cradle to grave) only 30g of CO2 is produced(Adamantiades and Kessides, 2009).

Social and political Issue In as much as nuclear power presents the benefits previously mentioned, four main issues regarding nuclear power being a sustainable form of energy were found. One such issue was the social and political environment that has hindered the progressive implementation of nuclear power. After much investigation, it was found that this main issue could be expanded further as was established before. These groups seem to have significant impact on the powers utilisation. It is necessary that these be expounded upon, beginning with the publics unwillingness to accept nuclear power as a source to be used. It is believed that this stemmed mainly from the initial use of nuclear reaction as presented to the world in the WWII incident. Research posits that this was etched in the mind of the people preventing them from drawing a distinction between peaceful use and weapons (Koerner, 2013). They are unable to accept that this form of energy was safe but the fact that this occurred so many years ago it should be at least forgotten by this time. Apparently, this is not the case as that incident was followed on by others, which pierced the perception of the public even more. Different generations experienced catastrophic nuclear power related accidents. The three widely publicised accidents were the Three Mile Island (USA) in 1979(McCormick, 1982), Chernobyl (Ukraine) in 1986 and most recently Fukushima (Japan) in 2011. So, not only was there fear of nuclear weapons, there was the fear (especially in countries currently operating plants) of the likelihood of nuclear radioactive waste being released into their environment as a result of a similar accident(Sample, 2008). This issue was further compounded especially in the case of the Fukushima incident as media coverage portrayed the industry as one with inadequacies. Further, the Japanese governments response in relaying information was poor and much was withheld. In the initial stages of the accident the government failed to give a truthful view of the intensity and conditions of the plant. This skewed the perception of the government and their accountability to the people they govern and in extension the world (Benz, 2013). This would cause any nations people to feel unsafe in an environment with a government unable to protect their wellbeing. With the most recent incident in view, people of other nations with nuclear power facilities felts they were ill-informed and unequipped. They viewed the nuclear accident as one that was uncontrollable, of unknown origin, involuntary with catastrophic potential(Koerner, 2013). Another spike in the tyre of nuclear power generation is the issue of proliferation and misuse a global dilemma which has the potential to not affect only the individual but the world. Proliferation refers to diversion of fissile material and knowledge from nuclear power programmes for military purposes (Yim, 2006). Given the fact that nuclear capabilities were Shinella Latoya Johnson - z3447887 -3-

first revealed as weapons, the use of the technology for this purpose should not pose a threat. However, if consideration is given to the cataclysmic possibilities should the technology be misused, this issue takes the forefront. It must also be mentioned the ease in which a nuclear weapon can be construction (whether it be an atomic or hydrogen bomb) once enough weapon-suitable nuclear material is available. In countries (nuclear weapon states) with facilities in place it can be constructed using plutonium a by-product of reprocessing of used uranium or enriching U-235 to weapon-grade by isotope separation. In non-nuclear weapon states it is can be gained by any means necessary. Understanding that reprocessing posed a security risk US President Carter stopped it (Wilson and Mistry, 2013). The world is now faced with the possibility of a nuclear war. Especially with the current status of the global political environment, smaller, weaker ones feel the need to keep themselves safe with nuclear weapons (Yim, 2006). Policies to prevent this occurrence should be put in place and this has been done. Numerous efforts at the international level have been made to discourage proliferation and ensure the safe use of nuclear technology. One such effort was the establishment of a treaty which should be able to restrict (minimise) the proliferation (spread) of nuclear weapons. The NonProliferation Treaty (NPT) was established in 1970 to facilitate the promotion of peaceful application of nuclear technology within nuclear-weapon states(IAEA, 1970). The treaty was furthered strengthened in 1992 to prevent nuclear proliferation but still maintain the transfer of information within member states. Once countries accepted the treaty all of their nuclear activities will be monitored by the international body. This body is the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) which was created in the United Nations to monitor and supervise the development of peaceful nuclear energy(IAEA, 1970). However, there remain countries which have not assented to this treaty and are considered a serious threat especially after these states (Iraq, Iran and North Korea) revealed their nuclear-weapon capacity. This revelation established that the treaty does not prohibit the development of nuclear weapons especially under the guise of civilian nuclear power development(Yim, 2006). Additional, the Fukushima incident revealed the current system is inadequate in effectively providing nuclear safety and prevent accidents(Benz, 2013). Zooming in much closer for a country to be in view Japan appears on the radar. An analysis of Japans regulations and policies used to govern the use of nuclear power it was found that a substantial number of accidents have occurred suggesting that flaws lie within the regulatory and safety system. In wake of the Tokaimura incident in 1999 the government made the decision to develop a new policy to deal with emergency preparedness making them reactive rather than proactive. It was also seen that organisational independence was lacking which led to more regulatory problems. The agency tasked with regulating the nuclear power industry was within an overarching body tasked with promoting nuclear power. Here the regulator organisation had two competing roles. In addition to this issue, the regulatory body tasked with overlooking nuclear power industry was often run by retired personnel who are not experts in the field, which meant that they were unable to prepare procedures on their own and require the help of experts. This would mean that any oversight made by the experts could not be identified by the regulatory agency(Benz, 2013). However, Japan is not the only country that has

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encountered regulatory failures, the US with a better safety recorded has also experienced shortfalls (Benz, 2013).

Solutions Having given the issues thorough consideration the point has been reached for solutions to be provided. It requires that a realistic approach be taken in light of the fact that in an imperfect world issues cannot be completely eliminated. However, measures can be instituted to reduce the effects of the sub-category mentioned, this will aid in promoting nuclear power as sustainable energy form. The first issue considered is the publics reluctance in accepting nuclear power as a safe form of energy. Without the publics acceptance this energy form will continue to be a controversial one that can be easily vetoed without their support (Goodfellow et al., 2011). The process begins with supplying the public with all the information they require. This will require the uses of expert knowledge given by scientists. They are the only ones that possess the knowhow and should disseminate this information in an easily understandable manner for the public and policy makers. They should also be allowed by the government and international agencies to present an unbiased view of nuclear power. The strengths and weaknesses of this energy form should be presented along with consideration being given to alternative forms as well. For example, emphasising new findings in which risk probability suggest the this energy is much safer than some everyday activities but not failing to state that there is the likelihood of detrimental consequences should a high scale accident occurs. Providing them with knowledge empowers the people, aids in restoring the governments credibility and builds trust. In addition to having this knowledge, they should also be made aware (as some already are) of current issues facing the world. The issue of global warming and the diminishing supply of traditional fossil fuels. There needs lifestyle changes no longer should they live for the here and now but thought should be given to the future generations and how things will favour with limited to no resources left for them. Furthermore, citizens should be allowed to hold their government and regulatory accountable (especially in the occurrence of an accident) by insisting that information be provided in a timely manner and as accurate as possible(Benz, 2013). They should be authorised to establish an independent organisation tasked with scrutinizing the regulatory bodies. Once these bodies are aware of this they are likely to make more responsible decision. Allowing this will show that the government seeks to show their commitment to ensuring the health and well-being of their people and their credibility will be enhanced. The final key to ensuring public acceptance is engendering public participation that is they should be kept involved in all stages of nuclear power(Benz, 2013). Unlike public acceptance proliferation is a greater world related is problem. Especially with the understanding that international laws and regulations cannot be imposed on a country and there are no barriers effective enough to prevent proliferation. Noteworthy, with the expansion in nuclear power on the rise, increased proliferation risk is envisaged. In light of Shinella Latoya Johnson - z3447887 -5-

these, governments would need to use diplomacy in persuading nations in volatile regions wanting to have nuclear weapons to take into account their population and the risk they will find themselves in without the watchful eye of a monitoring agency such as the IAEA. But there is no way of knowing that this will be accepted. In addition, the ethos of nonproliferation for those countries under the umbrella of the IAEA should be strengthened. They must continually demonstrate to the world, there commitment to maintaining a clear distinction between military and non-military applications(Yim, 2006). The final issue on the plate is that of regulations and policies referring to both national and international forums. Having highlighted the flaws in Japans system it is suggested that all regulatory bodies be autonomous. A body subjected to the authority of the government or a government entity is going to be swayed. In addition, worst case scenario disaster preparedness plan being a mandatory requirement for all plant owners should be written into all countries nuclear policy. Further, the international system should be so redesigned that they are given more power, resources and facilities necessary to show that this entity means business, a force to be reckoned with. As such they able to use persuasive force to ensure nations comply with their policies(Benz, 2013).

Conclusion In fulfilment of the aim of this research the social and political issue three sub-categories were identified. Analysis of these issues showed that they all affected the implementation of nuclear power as a sustainable energy form. These include the publics reluctance in accepting nuclear power as safe energy, proliferation and misuse and regulations and policies. Solutions presented in this paper does not suggest that the issues will be completely nullified but should they be put in place, an environment suitable for the expansion and sustainable use of nuclear power will be had.

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Reference ADAMANTIADES, A. & KESSIDES, I. 2009. Nuclear power for sustainable development: Current status and future prospects. Energy Policy, 37, 5149-5166. APERGIS, N., PAYNE, J. E., MENYAH, K. & WOLDE-RUFAEL, Y. 2010. On the causal dynamics between emissions, nuclear energy, renewable energy, and economic growth. Ecological Economics, 69, 2255-2260. BENZ, E. 2013. Lessons from Fukushima: Strengthening the Intenational Regulation of Nuclear Energy. William and Mary Environmental Law and Policy Review, 37, 40. DITTMAR, M. 2012. Nuclear energy: Status and future limitations. Energy, 37, 35-40. GOODFELLOW, M. J., WILLIAMS, H. R. & AZAPAGIC, A. 2011. Nuclear renaissance, public perception and design criteria: An exploratory review. Energy Policy, 39, 6199-6210. HAMMOND, G. P. 1996. Nuclear energy into the twenty-first century. Applied Energy, 54, 327-344. IAEA 1970. Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of nuclear weapons. In: AGENCY, I. A. E. (ed.) INFCIRC/140. United Nations, New York. KARAKOSTA, C., PAPPAS, C., MARINAKIS, V. & PSARRAS, J. 2013. Renewable energy and nuclear power towards sustainable development: Characteristics and prospects. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 22, 187-197. KOERNER, C. L. 2013. Media, fear, and nuclear energy: A case study. The Social Science Journal. MCCORMICK, N. J. 1982. Changes in the nuclear power industry after TMI. Progress in Nuclear Energy, 10, 245-248. SAMPLE, I. 2008. Nuclear Power. The Guardian. UCS, U. O. C. S. 2003. How Nuclear Power Works [Online]. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Union of Concerned Scientists. Available: http://www.ucsusa.org/nuclear_power/nuclear_power_technology/how-nuclearpower-works.html [Accessed 10th September 2013]. WILSON, J. & MISTRY, D. 2013. Economic Engagement and Nuclear Security in Asia. Asian Security, 9, 132-141. YIM, M.-S. 2006. Nuclear nonproliferation and the future expansion of nuclear power. Progress in Nuclear Energy, 48, 504-524.

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Appendix
Terrorism

Proof of group work

Misuse/proliferation

Public acceptance

Policies

High construction cost

Social and political

Cost effectiveness

Lengthy construction time High decommissioning cost

ISSUES Efficiency Environmental Nuclear power/Energy

BENEFITS

Environmental

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Plan of action: 1. Research was conducted by team members individually on the topic of nuclear power 2. Team members brainstormed to determine how the topic will be handled 3. The issues related to nuclear power were highlighted 4. Each member selected a specific issue they were willing to tackle and proceeded to do further individual research 5. Team shared finding of their research 6. The individual reports were compiled

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