Origins of the craze

Bailey Battling Demons Description of the Devil and Sabbath Elements of witchcraft

Clark Thinking with Demons Devils powers manipulate the elements, control the spirits and humours of the body, ability to predict, intercourse with humans (unable to procreate) No one (except Bodin and a few) believed in metamorphosis Natural magic was powerful threat to witchcraft beliefs Devil was weaker than witches, reason for their use

Trevor Roper The European Witchcraze Papal bull by pope Innocent VIII led to spread of witchcraft belief in Germany. Dominican Inquisitors able to publish Malleus Maleficarum, spread ideas to rest of Europe (propaganda to create hatred of witches) New demonology pact with the Devil Use of judicial torture to obtain a confession product of Inquisitorial procedure Dark ages had no witch craze lacked judicial torture Types of torture Belief on witches used to be considered a pagan custom total opposite Clergy and lawyers Beliefs begin to dissolve

France
Clark Thinking with Demons Demonic possession became associated with witchcraft Demoniacs were patients experiencing acute neurosis or hysteria Demons were cause of madness, not madness the cause of demons Demonic possession was among plagues and curses that God threatened on sinful mankind Masse 3 historical defeats for devils Schaller Devil taking control of the moral and spiritual lives and bodies, sign of the coming of the Last Judgement Demoniacs became battlegrounds for demons Devil father of lies Linked to ending of the world strengths of the Devil/God Differences between Catholic and Protestant beliefs

Roper Oedipus and the Devil Early modern concepts of the body Catholic and Protestants theologies of the body Catholic false religion expressed physically, exorcism carried out by priest, cult of saints, virginity Protestant weakened link between physical and divine (4 changes accomplished by the Reformation) Exorcism physical, pain and writhing. Successful when female retains female persona Catholic exorcisms were collusions with devil, true exorcisms quick and painless Exorcisms proved Priests power and authority, special relation to divine Magic and the body men and women

Ferber Demonic Possession Reasons for exorcisms used to reinforce foundations of Catholic Church, strengthen faith, show that God granted an exorcist power to control supernatural forces. Definition of exorcism Increased fear of the Devil due to religious wars, witch trials and affective spirituality Case of Urbain Grandier what happened

Rapley A Case of Witchcraft Trial of Urbain Grandier Background to demonic possession

Jean Bodin (trans. Scott) On the Demon Mania of Witches Popular folk culture world full of supernatural and magical beings, spells were weapons of the weak against the strong Elite culture ideas of evil/devil escalated (Black Death and Reformation ending of the world) Protestants and Catholics identify each other as agents of Devil

Demonology develops The Devil father of lies, pact, Sabbath, demonic possession, women susceptible to devil Secular system and inquisitorial system (Spain and Italy) Statistics number executed System of parlements Demonology connected to defence of Catholicism What is demon mania?

Pierre de Lancres (trans. Stone and Williams) On the Inconstancy of Witches Demonological text Forms and appearances the devil takes Why did God give himself an enemy as powerful as the Devil More female witches than males Time Devil leads witches to the Sabbath Devil kisses childrens rears 4 ways to transport witches to the Sabbath Age Satan takes a girls virginity Devil does not mate with a female witch for pleasure Can demons procreate Account of the Sabbath Description of sexual activities/sexual organs

Monter French and Italian Witchcraft (journal) 1300s witchcraft and heresy equated with secular courts Inquisitors diabolised religions opponents condemn conflicting faiths Most recorded witch trials during C15th and witchcraze came from surrounding lands rather than central France e.g. Lorraine Parlement of Paris not many put to death Amount of torture applied in France and French lands Women survived torture better than men but could be result of a charm of insensitivity from Devil Some burnt alive, most strangled first In Italy minor punishments, no demonologists Remodelling of popular beliefs Differences and similarities in belief - Protestant and Catholic Economic and political changes affected quality of village life Guilt and scapegoats old, female Before 1610, demonic possession was religious history, not witchcraft history. Urbain Grandier case Ended witch trials quite early perhaps because they succeeded in reforming Christianity among the rural villages or political and economic stability (end of religious warfare and peasant revolts)

Briggs Communities of Belief Local courts less likely to give a fair trail want to convict Witch trials result of social tensions at local level and judicial activity from ruling classes Authorities control not instigate Torture useful threat, exclude it from proofs Diabolism secondary belief in peasant attitudes Persecution of cunning folk threat to doctors, church Theologians elaborated Christian theory of witchcraft became a heresy Elite and popular beliefs never merged fully growing divide between educated and mass Witchcraft paganism and superstition. Need to eradicate it Populace little importance to Devil, God was responsible for evil (punishments) In Kingdom of France great royal courts impose power of lower courts Populace coped with witches through less formal agencies protective folklore available Lawyers and clerics tried to equate all magical practises to power of the Devil Accusations against children uncommon in villages (power in hands of mother/father) Witchcraft risk of ordinary life. Fatalism List of misfortunes attributed to witchcraft Age of Faith control and punish deviants became preoccupation of the state 2 main groups of accused denounced by fellow villages, denounced by convicted witch Poor not too concerned with taking them to court. Problem for Bodin. Sequence of events Bodin, Remy and Boguet cures were form of witchcraft Bodin and de Lancre blamed everyone for failure to repress witchcraft Danger of physical attacks of witches if acquitted Swimming test prohibited Judges did not deny witchcraft problem of proving it Pyramidal organisation of judicial system full time, professional judges Cases of demonic possession impact. (Loudan political motivation) Timing of persecutions linked to socio economic context witchcraft was an explanation for misfortunes Individuals only proceed with support of kin/neighbours

Briggs Early Modern France Official persecution and burning of witches came to an end under Louis XIV Actually sporadic and local phenomena, distorted by lurid accounts and affairs such as Devils of Loudan Witchcraft associated with isolation Suspicions were widespread but only a tiny fraction brought to court extreme measure. Other ways of dealing with it Stability of peasant beliefs, shifting attitudes among the ruling elite Healing and maleficent powers were believed to be hereditary

Wide range of hostile acts caused accusations (refusal for loans/ food not as important as in England no attack on old notion of charity in French countryside) Witchcraft fears related to strains imposed by agrarian economy All cases had to go to Parlement of Paris Scepticism based on dubious evidence which makes whole process unreliable Example made of 3 local officials who murdered a suspected witch Parlement of Roven - only one really determined to pursue witches Belief retreated to popular level where it had emerged major part of peasant life Extreme doctrines e.g Bodin never fully accepted among elite Courts reluctant to employ denunciations gained from torture need for fair trails France developed from a Renaissance state into a distinctive absolutist monarchy

Wilkins Attitudes to Witchcraft and Demonic Possession Bodin response to Jean Wier (said that witches needed humane treatment) List of publications that supported the witch hunts mainly written by priests and magistrates (put beliefs into practise) Eventually, opinions of medical mean such as Wier became accepted Naude (sceptic) magicians investigate the natural world Parlement of Paris arranged automatic appeal for witches Royal edict of 1682 magic was an illusion, forbidden Aubin Loudun was fake Bekker (Protestant) looks to bible to find evidence of the devil of an agent of possession and of pact between devil and magician, but finds none Demonology was used by religion to reinforce its increasingly weakening position dArgenson demonic possession was a sign of madness or criminal impostors de Saint-Andre - negative view of the Sabbath Defoe view of demonic possession La Menardaye Grandier was guilty, agent of the devil C18th learned arguments about witchcraft died out. Reasons why Continued presence of C16th and C17th demonologists Bodin was still widely read

Germany
Behringer Witchcraft Persecutions in Bavaria Peak of witch hunting-1560 1630 Crisis of C16th Link between agrarian crisis and witch hunting First wave of persecutions in the south-west related to widespread epidemics (harvest failures) Inflation and plague effects Cheap years no great witch hunts, only minor Witch hunts were not inevitable consequences of agrarian crisis Witches held directly for affecting the weather and so causing harvest failures Accusations were socio-psychological side effect of agrarian crisis increase in anxiety levels Last quarter of C16th brutalisation of the criminal justice system increase of executions/cruelty Cult of Mary revived by Wilhelm V and extended by Maximilian link/contrast between Eve, Mary and witches Princes believed their subjects were responsible for Gods punishments they lived lives of sin, princes lived lives of devotion Laws and decrees passed to amend morals of populace All denominations agreed on existence of witches and need to root it out Times of inflation witchcraft accusations accumulated and witches blamed for many misfortunes Witchcraft was a secret crime, how were they recognised? 3 groups that provoked witch trials (believed witches, people who could recognise witches, the possessed) Persecutions occurred when beliefs of populace and elite coincided Every trial provoked by accusations from the people, never a purely official inquisition responsible Only tiny % ended lives at the stake at regional level witch trials were rare events Persecutions around 1590 were central event in history of witchcraft persecutions in southeast Germany Mass of criticism occurred from that date did not attack trails, criticised the way they were held Counter Reformation Germany became almost all Catholic again Catholic policies heavily influenced resolution of the witchcraft question Great agrarian crisis affected large parts of Western Europe explains why rhythm of persecutions was same Direct connection between mentality of rulers and handling of witch trials rulers less interested in religion/ more traditional were less interested in witch hunting, almost all zealous religious innovators were among witch hunters

Midelfort Witch Hunting in Southwestern Germany Stereotype of a witch deteriorated during largest hunts all social classes became susceptible Not all regions hunted witches using a demonology Religion had a big impact More witch trials in Catholic areas than Protestant

After 1601, Catholic rate of executions rose. Why? Specific type of Catholicism/Protestantism Plantsch (theologian) witches in league with Devil deserved death but they should repend Brenz misfortunes were punishments from God, need to end wickedness of life, devil deluded witches into thinking they caused storms etc Alber and Bidembach (court preachers) magic and witchcraft was not physically dangerous, better to let 1000 guilty go free than convict 1 innocent Lotter people should be more concerned with why God sent the storms Thumm 3 types of witches, so deserve different types of punishments, need to distinguish 2 schools of thought concerning witchcraft (not monolithic) - episcopi tradition of Wurttemberg and malleus tradition During C16th, Catholics and Protestants were involved in both schools, by end of the century, Catholic view had developed Catholics rejected episcopi tradition, Protestants retained it accounts for increase in persecution of Catholic regions Catholic scholars from C16th said Reformation was cause of witch hunts Why did Germany become more enthusiastic about witch hunting? Changes in law (inquisitorial process), new aggressiveness in religion Not all accusations ended in trail, not all trails ended in accusation (stats) Decline after 1632 - invasion and occupation by foreign troops but in 1660s it was revived Plague and famine continued Massive social dislocation caused decline in witch burning after 1634 solider took role of scapegoat for a few years

Roper Witchcraze: Terror and Fantasy (lots of examples included) Germany was not a unified state during witch hunts so varied patterns of witch hunting With Counter Reformation and second generation of the Reformation, witch hunting really took off Image of witch cannibalistic, attended Sabbath, creates storms Fragmentation of political and legal authority easy for panics to get out of control Witch craze apocalyptic battle between God/Satan Southern Germany had most serious outbreaks of witch hunting Europe experience Little Ice Age bad harvests people feared 4 horsemen of apocalypse Carolina imperial law code by Charles V limited proceedings against witches Clerics actively involved in campaign against sin and witchcraft By end, over half of those being burnt for witchcraft were clergy confusion for German people Women accused, why? Attack fertility of earth, people and animals Midwives under suspicion witches attacked young infants and women in childbed Confessions extracted under torture, but admission had to be confirmed without torture Victims life was investigated create personal profile Techniques of torture Hangman/executioner touch was dishonourable, witch feared this Witches shaven and stripped searched for devils mark

If women retaliated in physical way e.g. spitting, curse showed interrogators they were dealing with satanic forces In Catholic areas, interrogators made use of Holy objects Some witches understood trial as divine dogma felt closer to God by confessing sins, others felt despair and alienation from God Interrogators had to take seriously the concerns of the populace Unequal relationship between interrogator and witch listen and respond, shape story Suspected witches were said to have swollen genital areas evidence of promiscuous life with Devil, but also result of rape/ torture Execution festival meal for the hangman orgy of eating and drinking blotted out guilt of killing and strengthened the bonds of fellowship among dishonourable folk All condemned criminals offered confession and communion, but clergy didnt want this for witches (they abused Host) Solution receive communion 4 hours before execution, time to digest and no dishonour would occur Most witches given merciful killing of sword spared of executioners touch Cannibalism case study of Nordlingen Cannibalism was associated with heresy but became established charge of witchcraft During French Wars of Religion, Protestants used images of mutilated, eaten bodies to portray the Catholics as inhuman Grave desecration grave diggers were interrogated. If graves not disturbed, showed the Protestant belief of how Devil worked in the world, through delusion Cannibalism linked to communion Protestant reformer Zwingli Birth and motherhood were key themes in witchcraft accusations Final event that occurred in Nordlingen gravedigger and his wife Detailed accounts of sex with the devil/demons Devil made promises to the witches (marriage and love) starts with courtship, ends as degrading, filthy Sex with the Devil made the witch his physical counterpart of pact Described as ideal lover young, sexually knowing Marriage very important to women security, status Tempted to commit adultery and suicide (sin and crime) Accused men admitted diabolic intercourse Devil could take many shapes Devil described as a creature with animal features Sex was cold, joyless and fruitless could not get pregnant Description of the Sabbath issues on flying, dance (led to sin, murder and miscarriage), diabolic lovers, kiss the Devils anus, grand feast, These motifs were not original myth of witchcraft took original myths (jews, cathars)and applied it to latest of the Devils brood the witch Description of salve-making emphasises the image of everything people most feared about women (cooking, reproduction) Agents of death and abused fertility Torture used to produce stories of pleasure

Roper Witchcraft and Fantasy (link to women and witchcraft) Trials in Augsburg case of Anna Ebeler link between birth/motherhood and witchcraft (theme) Mothers accused other women soon after birth Witchcraft accusations involved deep antagonisms between women Reformation and Counter Reformation aims found in witchcraft accusations root out prostitution and adultery Main theme in this article maternity Envy primary emotion in witchcraft accusations Accuser fertile, mother, accused infertile, old, lying in maid Confessions were products of interrogators mind and beliefs forced confession out of the woman Pain was needed for a witch to confess Witch felt no pain so unmaternal woman, link to Mary who felt pain when she bore Jesus Not all witches renounced God and their faith Summary of witches crimes read out before her execution, formed basis for broadsheets and pamphlets Relationship between executioner and witch he deals with her, gets to know her Witches knew the common confession, what details were included, what was expected of them Accusers stressed the physical elements, no mention of the Devil Witches killed children through their mothers, e.g. dry up breast milk, attack on mother = attack on baby Witch was opposite of maternal harms instead of nourishing and healing Steal a babys fluids for herself and Devil, steal a mans seed trucken pressing down on mother or infant, represents 3 different contexts Lying in maid evil mother, replacement mother, threat to weak mother (her own future and sexual threat illegitimate children and mothers husband) What was a lying in maid? Not a respected job Accused only when lying in maid left child believed to be safe Envy (seven deadly sins) important in accusations lying in maid envious of mother and midwife Thirty Years War population decrease, worried about fertility

Midelfort Heartland of the Witchcraze Story of Maximilian I who kept a magician Weyer complained that the men got off, while deluded old women were convicted and executed Witchcraft was a social crime the use of harmful magic by a secret conspiracy of women Common folk feared witchcraft as a practical threat, not as a demonic conspiracy Examples of horrific panics where many witches were executed Ecclesiastical territories were most ferocious exterminators of witches Stereotype common to all of Europe old, poor, women, widows Prime crime to elites worship of the Devil (peasantry unaware of this) Publication of Malleus Maleficarum led to penetration of witch/devil idea Sabbath was absent from the MM but became common obsession among the ruling elite

Carolina did not make full theological sense more lenient treatment of the most diabolical magic as long as no harm was done Crime of witchcraft became one of diabolicism, death regardless of magic/harm German persecution of witches depended on torture and idea of the Sabbath German legal system had a big impact bishops and ecclesiastical figures had unparalleled degree of influence in their territories Decline of witchcraft without support of magistrates and learned elite, witch trials were no longer possible Many trials involved children evidence from minors was not credible Comments of Denmark, Norway and Sweden (imitated the legal excesses of the prince-bishops of central Germany) Intervention of learned elite that was responsible for mass persecutions

Scribner Witchcraft and Judgement in Reformation Germany Typical sequence of events in a witch panic Case study of 60 year old Ursula Fladin accusations move from maleficium to diabolicism, shows torture had no limits, her family appeal for her innocence even after her death Additional case studies Case studies show that a person could engage in sorcery without being accused of witchcraft, accusations could be met with popular and official scepticism, popular hostility could force magistrates to take action

Barry, Hester and Roberts Witchcraft in Early Modern Europe Midelfort argues the in the largely Protestant southwest, the will to persecute after 1600 was limited to Catholic rulers Behringer disagrees Catholic controlled imperial city of Augsburg decided against prosecutions, government of Duchy of Bavaria (leader of Counter Reformation) was divided by factions, moderate faction always triumphed Schormann large territories with stable, successfully centralised states tended to avoid persecutions and stepped in quickly to stop them, regardless of confessions Authorities did not focus of magical folk culture concerned about maleficent magic that harmed crops, humans and animals MM and Christian demonology held responsible for targeting women as witches, but women were actually executed for witchcraft throughout middle ages (some examples) Massive desire for persecutions stemming from general populace Successful and early state formation could check the irrational need to persecute from the populace, due to effective administration, but medium and small territories often had poorly functioning systems of administration communities could exercise greater control

Roper Oedipus and the Devil Witch fantasy had to persuade the interrogators of the truth created by the witch from the elements that were available Threat of torture used to extract/develop certain points

Interrogator and witch both needed to create the fantasy Anton Fugger and crystal ball able to spy on his subordinates Female sorcery was feared women controlled bodily magic, controlled men

Scotland
Levack Witch Hunting in Scotland James I largely responsible for politicisation of Scottish witch hunting believed a group of witches were conspiring to kill him witchcraft was associated with treason against God and King Religious justification establish the Godly state, goal of the Protestant Reformation Sin and a crime described in religious terms through Exodus 22:18 and burned, traditional execution for heretics In England, witchcraft was only a crime, not a biblical sin and the devil was not a prominent part of life High level of religious intolerance more likely to hunt witches as they challenged the Godly state Main law system was accusatorial (jury), but did adopt some aspects of inquisitorial (definitions of both) 3 ways to persecute individuals petition privy council, ask Lord Advocate (but the accuser was the prosecutor, Act of 1587 changed this), judges could prosecute Torture could only go ahead with warrant from Privy Council Juries could convict without a confession, so why the need for torture? Privy council needed a confession before it would grant a commission for trial illegal torture used High level of witchcraft convictions was a result of poor management of local trials by government (absence of judicial officer of the crown) Conviction and execution rates for local courts and justiciary courts 1650s decline in number of executions, criminal system entrusted to English judges (3 changes) Gradual decline in executions and convictions government were determined to control excesses of local witch hunting, tightened up laws and control 2 examples of central control (tight Spain, loose Holy Roman Empire) Clergy played active but limited role witchcraft was a statutory crime, so secular courts Definition of absolutism as theory and practise How Scotland was connected to state building and how it affected witchcraft persecution Scottish state was fragile and achieved limited success, why? Central governments role in witch-hunting was minimal, it was actually their weakness that caused the problems Parliament passed witchcraft act mainly in response to pressure from Church to establish a Godly discipline and state government not really interested in witchcraft Witchcraft only became a political crime when James equated it with treason

Larner Enemies of God Witch hunting actively promoted by ruling class government administration needed to organise large scale pursuit, so not movement of the peasantry, although they did pressurise Definition of witch hunt European witch transformed from enemy of her neighbour to enemy of God/Godly society Witch hunt was a cleansing process Black and white magic not tolerated source of power outside of the Church 5 peaks of intensive persecution

4 categories of witch hunts (national, localised, small, isolated witch) Witchcraft became a criminal offence in statute law secularisation of the control of witch hunting Power vacuum after initial success of the Reformation movement Witchcraft only womans crime in the period in Scotland Women are feared as a source of disorder in patriarchal society Stereotype of w witch direct opposite of a Saint 4 types of women how they dealt with accusations Witch hunting as woman hunting hunting women who do not fit with the male stereotype of women Reformation/ Counter women become responsible for own souls (initially been responsibility of husbands/fathers status of a child ) Treated as adult criminals Accused by women who conformed to male view, felt threatened by them

Goodare The Scottish Witch Hunt in Context Reformation and growth of modern states witch hunts occurred Evidence of witch trials was constructed at the trials Male fears about sexuality and impact of Reformation programme of moral discipline main moral offence fornication witches were fornicating with the Devil Peasants knew of a few witches in their community elite pushed them to prosecute Scepticism was always present witch hunting was never normal, even at heights of persecution Argues people had be persuaded to prosecute witches, easily discouraged Yeoman by 1629, elite had eliminated themselves from suspects Witches existed in popular mind 2 differences to late middle ages elite had a different relationship with witch believing common folk, legacy of witchcraft could not be erased from common people Smith The Reign of James VI and I In primitive societies 2 types of witchcraft, black and white In C16th and C17th, third type of witchcraft added demonological, which increased persecutions 3 reasons why Christian witchcraft theory had a dramatic effect Mania reached different places at different times Reign of James VI and I of Scotland/England cover 3 phases Until 1590, James not interested in demonology Clergy more interested in persecuting witches than the laity Witchcraft trials became treason trials the King was Gods anointed, biggest enemy the Devil could have on earth To acquit an accused witch mock the treasonable threat to the King (doctrine of Divine Right of Kings) James was the principle introducer of demonology to the populace influenced from Denmark where witch hunting was common. Introduced to new continental concepts Kittredge James quickly became a sceptic after arrival to England

Background to his publication, Daemonologie (written in response to work of Reginald Scott) James wanted to stop persecutions, but witch doctrine had taken complete hold or clergy/gentry, with departure for England, ensure witch trials would continue In England, had reputation of zealous witch hunter C Lestrange Ewen witch-hunting act of 1604 led to more severe persecutions than Elizabethan act of 1563

Graham The Uses of Reform reformed church discipline modify behaviour of existing church Social issues needed dealing with sexuality (vagrancy, fornication, adultery) Act of Parliament (1563) government not concerned with diabolical aspect Kirk sessions cooperated with secular courts (only they could impose death sentence) Folk healers/suspected witches were tried before a church court but either released with a warning or forced to perform public repentance Reformed Kirk attacked Catholic magic but had failed to offer an alternative For the Kirk, the problem was that people were willing to seek services of cunning folk, at risk of offending God

Todd The Culture of Protestantism Protestant Reformation replaced the cult of sensual and ceremonial spirituality with a cult of the word preached, read, understood and repeated Early modern beliefs in witchcraft has been read as Protestantisms failure to meet the needs of the people e.g. no holy water, saints etc Preachers tried to associate it with diabolic power Elders recognised charmers as part of a rival religious culture Preachers who reported their own prophecies and miracles etc knew the danger of such claims

Levack The Great Scottish Witch Hunt Witch hunt of 1661-62 massive, spread to other parts of the country Many never came to trial or were acquitted In line with continent for severity of witch hunting Attributed to the end of English rule Scotland regained control of their legal system, much less lenient than English judges , determined to rid country of backlog of witches that had accumulated No torture or belief that witches made pacts with the Devil in England few executions Between 1653-1659 prosecutions and executions kept to a minimum List of reasons why witchcraft rates were low during the Cromwellian period (political) Witches that had been arrested for witchcraft but not charged during English rule were later imprisoned and executed in Scottish control End of Cromwellian rule and restoration of regular judicial authority/personnel in 1661 provided pre-condition for the hunt Clergy had a big part in hunt took control of prosecuting and interrogating witches Clergy used power of pulpit to raise awareness of dangers of witchcraft Witches accused of a wide variety of harmful deeds (list)

Earl of Haddington issued a petition for removal of witches who were inhabiting his land then began great hunt of 1661 Search for the Devils mark (sign of loyalty) specifically recommended by James VI Location of mark was important to villagers prickers personal witch hunters, operated for profit, partly responsible for increase in hunting Why was great hunt confined to East Lothian and Midlothian? Kincaid (most famous pricker) and his associates operated mainly in that area Directed mainly from above through magistrates, clergy, gentry and through beliefs, fears and policies of them Popular fears and accusations played an important part determined who would be prosecuted and supplied the evidence Women based witch hunting, witch conformed to stereotype on the continent Why women? Did people share views of MM that women were morally weaker than men? Unlikely as village accusations rarely involved the Devil, more about the maleficium Types of women accused midwives/healers, widows and the morally deviant Stereotype remained throughout the hunt Crisis of confidence many judges became sceptical and realised many victims were innocent Some escaped trial local communities could not afford the economic burden of imprisoning them As long as privy council continued to issue commissions, witch hunting could continue Scepticism led to revival of law warrant needed to arrest, torture, interrogate and prosecute a witch and pricking was forbade Caused 3 problems for Great hunt at local community level unable to take action (warrant, torture and imprisonment of prickers) Hunt took place when royalist and counter revolutionary sentiment was strong Link between rebellious sin of witchcraft and political activities of the Covenanters Hunt gained strength from anti-revolutionary fervour of royalist authorities List of reasons for the hunt and why it continued and grew

Larner Witchcraft and Religion Denmark crucial link in diffusion of demonology to Scotland After Reformation, power vacuum and many ecclesiastical crimes became secular crimes through a series of acts passed by parliament Upsurge of prosecutions happened with James VI and his trip to Denmark Witchcraft became centrally managed by the state Main era of prosecutions Highland cases were extremely rare, why? Geographical patterns Majority of cases processed through privy council Problems with witchcraft figures and numbers for Scotland Definition of Kirk session Witchcraft was given same status as treason by James VI What happened when a witch was arrested? (torture, confession, commission) Denunciations were accepted

Ideas of populace and elites did overlap peasants searched for devils mark (confirmed demonic pact had taken place), lawyers demanded evidence of maleficium from neighbours before they would convict

Crime of witchcraft processed under aspects of law and legal processes that were new (Kirk session, statute and commission procedure) Whole chapter on comparison between English and Scottish witchcraft trials /accusations etc

England
Thomas Religion and the Decline of Magic Witch was either sex, could mysteriously injure others, maleficium could take many forms On continent suspected of interfering with the weather and sexual relations between humans very rare in England Ways the witch exercised her power Cunning folk and maleficent witches were different, but sometimes overlapped Late middle ages new element added witch owed power to deliberate pact made with the devil Witchcraft was Christian heresy renunciation of God/faith Roman Catholic Church responsible for introduction of the new concept large literature on demonology built up by intellectuals, but only really an extension on older ideas Idea of compact with the Devil is as old as Christianity itself Largely isolated from intellectual/judicial trends that encouraged persecution on the continent independence of English Church MM read by intellectuals, but no English translation ever written until modern times Intellectuals/theologians were converted to continental ideas, influence of ideas on populace was less successful Many demonological treatises remained in Latin witchcraft was an activity, not a belief/heresy 3 acts of Parliament that made witchcraft a statutory offence Distinguish between types of magic not all witchcraft involved a Devil pact (not accepted by theologians ALL witches deserved death) Witches Sabbath was very foreign to English trials sporadic and inconclusive references Incubus and succubus, night flying and transforming into animals very rare Witches mark and familiars indicates some link between sorcery and the devil Judges unlikely to execute unless murder was involved (Matthew Hopkins was exception) Chronology of witch beliefs/trials/executions During C17th, educated elite became sceptical, scepticism had always been there After statute had been repealed populace still made informal accusations, took witch hunting into own hands, death of witch sometimes occurred C16th continental ideas poured into England after invention of printing press, witchcraft became biggest crime of all as soon as witches seen as heretics/enemies of God, campaign launched to root them out which led to increase in trials/persecutions Professor Robins persecution had no social roots, imposed from above Witch hunting was expensive for a community no financial gain Hopkins exploited existing fears about witchcraft, how? Trials sometimes conducted in horrendous conditions Popular fears of maleficium was driving force behind witch persecutions, not lawyer led campaign Why only in C16th and C17th that legal action was taken against witches? Beliefs had long existed Believed that poor/injured curses were likely to take effect God would assist Cursing was a substitute for political action Curses employed by weak against the strong

When curses killed others, witchcraft charges began Use of image magic to avenge the poor did appear in witch trials Never a witch cult of demonology, individual magic not group Torture was forbidden, but sleep deprivation was common (used especially by Hopkins) Authorities never had any doubt that witches were mainly women weaker sex Common reason to resorting to witchcraft escape poverty devil offered meat, clothes, money Witchcraft method of bettering oneself, when all else had failed Sometimes, sorcery forced the role of witchcraft upon its victims High value on conformity witch was extreme example of non conformist Suspected witch might be victim of informal violence Witch sought revenge for her hardship by inflicting personal damage on others, instead of seeking some form of political/social reorganisation

Macfarlane Witchcraft in Tudor and Stuart England (looks at Essex) Witchcraft branch of heresy, ecclesiastical crime, later punished by secular courts Information of statute of 1604 Death by hanging treated as a felony Normal legal evidence (confession, 2 direct witnesses) was unlikely due to secret nature Important to discover the character of the suspect social background Children permitted to give evidence against parents 3 degrees of evidence (strong evidence, strong presumptions, sufficient proofs) Sometimes not necessary for accused to admit guilt, could still be convicted Confession absolute proof of guilt, severe pressure to obtain this Public confession was acceptance of societies verdict Considerable growth of population growing pressure on economic resources, increased tensions/hatred towards the poor Migration affected peoples feelings of security Accusations not normally made against newcomers as a method of controlling movement Link to agriculture Witches poorer than victims Begging was a characteristic feature No single economic factor can explain distribution of Essex witchcraft trials Suspected of witchcraft because they acted like a witch, searched for witches mark later Personality type of witches Witches were non conformists moral deviance Male witches were usually related to female witches (stats) Women were weak (towards Satan), vicious (towards humans) Not born with power of a witch, had to acquire it usually from parents - hereditary 2 techniques employed by witches (familiar, remark) No evidence to show that Puritans were especially interested in witchcraft Witchcraft treated as a breach of Christianity forced to confess sins, ask forgiveness of God Informal attacks on suspected witches after prosecutions had ceased at courts

Reasons for variation in witch hunting intensity (law/court procedure provides action, intellectual framework thoughts/words of one can harm another) Less collectivist religion, market economy, social mobility, break up of personal ties effected belief that one persons malice can cause another person harm Blaming a witch for death/illness was to explain misfortune in personal terms Blaming misfortunes on ones on sins (punishment from God) gives control over accident and suffering avoidance of sin will lead to a happy life During period 0f 1560-1650 institutions that had dealt with old/poor were strained this was period of witchcraft accusations Less affluent neighbours/kin became the problem they were members of community to refuse them broke long held values Very poor vagrants, beggars- not a concern because they could be whipped and sent on Conflict between ideas and behaviour that lay behind accusations died away people did not have to refuse money to the poor formal institutions took over responsibility Accusations were result of tensions between a village and an individual not 2 individuals

Barry, Hester and Roberts Witchcraft in Early Modern Europe Matthew Hopkins trials overview of events Sleep deprivation/forms of pressure used in interrogation Many suspected of keeping and consorting with evil spirits, as well as maleficium Many confessed to keeping familiars, allowing to suck blood, making pacts with devil and having sexual intercourse with him MH trials challenged standard interpretation of English witch trials rarely concerned with devil Thomas MH trials were highly untypical, influenced by continental ideas, temporarily changed image of witch Traditional stereotype did not break down women, poor, though there were some exceptions Harm inflicted was similar to other trial minor and serious matters Many incidents involved the tensions that followed the refusal to give goods Suspects had a long established reputation of witchcraft Some accounts involved meeting with the devil challenged the accepted interpretation of English witchcraft as non-diabolical Devil offered revenge or material wealth in exchange for a covenant with him Frequent references to sexual encounters with him Devil appeared in a number of forms animal or human Some witches encountered the devil of the learned demonologists Widespread belief in familiars witchcraft not just based on village maleficium Presence of Hopkins and Stearne as catalysts was a novel feature on English trials Populace aware of the threat of the devil to the commonwealth parliamentarian propaganda added to this view royalists were agents of the devil Hopkins tract demonstrates little knowledge of learned continental ideas

Teall Witchcraft and Calvinism in Elizabethan England What caused the increased universal belief in witches English Calvinism was especially responsible for inducing the hysteria 3 main writers Gifford, Perkins and Scott According the MM, witchcraft was compounded of 3 essential elements (divine permission, satanic power and human agent) Through the witch, Satan could lead another human soul to perdition Devil able to easily tempt a human agent sought after an old woman, usually living in poverty who wanted money and so committed sin of greed Satan worked with Gods permission Canon Episcopi Sabbath was imaginary and never occurred Calvin devil and witch could harm humans/animals but not create or transform anything Perkins even if parts of witchcraft are illusory, it is still a crime, the witch has become a traitor by working with the devil Gifford witches do exist but should be punished for their thoughts, rather than harm No link between Calvinism and urge to hunt witches Gifford and Scott to say Satan worked with Gods permission insulted His omnipotence, if witches harm, it must be Gods positive and active justice

Johnstone The Protestand Devil The Sabbath was never known or important in England The Reformation did not challenge position of the devil Protestant demonism involved change in emphasis on temptation rather than a change of theology Reformers realised their initial religion had been corrupted by Satan Major writers of the early Reformation produced no dedicated works of demonology No attempt to deny the devil the power that had been attributed to him Catholicisms doctrines and ceremonies were inherently diabolic Baptism ceremony was reformed removed the traditional form of exorcism all children underwent, children now had to prove their faith to lead Godly lives Protestants catholic ritual was unable to provide adequate protection against Satan, God allowed diabolic temptation in order to test a mans faith, but Satan would never be permitted to test a godly man beyond his endurance Most important weapon against the Devil was prayer

Sharpe Witchcraft in Early Modern England (European witchcraze) Trials in Switzerland established the belief that the witch made a pact with the devil Ideas developed and became more complex witches were part of a demonic, anti Christian heretics sect Post reformation period heightened concerns over religious conformity Witch hunts result of ignorance, bigotry and general stupidity of the people, rise in capitalism and break up of traditional village community, by product of patriarchy, misogyny and oppression of women, effects of ergot poisoning

Why so few witch burnings? Cultural impact of Reformation/Counter Christianisation of the populace State formation divine right of Kings/confessional absolutism meant rulers took more interest in religious matters Relating witch hunting to activities of church/state presents a view of witchcraft from above Macfarlane and Thomas in England, witchcraft accusations were result of relations between villages, not set in motion by judges/clergy Pressure of population increase splits between rich and poor villages Witchcraft female form of power Free of some of the bizarre elements found in continental witchcraft English demonological writers were familiar with works of continental demonologists Witchcraft established as a felony Witchcraft appeared as a crime before English theologians had established a model of satanic witchcraft For witchcraft to operate, 3 elements were needed Extirpating witchcraft was one aspect of establishing a godly commonwealth Eradicate beliefs and practises which English Protestants saw as superstition Cunning folk even worse than malevolent witches magic was a facade, draw in the populace and derived power from devil No single hegemonic theological line on witchcraft (real threat, illusory) Education restricted to training in Latin and Greek classical texts overt references to witchcraft Dramatists made heavy use of European demonologies e.g. Macbeth Courts that could try witchcraft ecclesiastical (cunning folk), secular Trials experienced/senior judges who were culturally distanced from world of village squabbles Chronology of witch trials Witch trials formed a tiny fraction of courts criminal business, acquittal rates were high, over 90% were women Craze/trials could not have occurred without a legal system which accepted malefic witchcraft as a crime and was willing to prosecute Quality of life for village communities problematic due to socio economic change (demographic growth, poor food production, unemployment, high prices) creation of a mass of the very poor English witchcraft was largely a peasant phenomenon Accusing poor of witchcraft helped overturn feelings of guilt which they felt by refusing charity Populace maleficium, educated theologians pact with the devil Gossip people continually being evaluated by their neighbours People accused of witchcraft were able to mobilise considerable support within their communities Accusations did not automatically lead to trial and execution Familiars notions of animal demons found in classical literature Discovering the witches mark was definite proof search carried out by groups of women Women involved on accusing and giving evidence Many accusations concerned children mothers accused post-menopausal women

(England witchcraze)

Witch was a figure of a bad mother Males accused by association

New England
Norton In the Devils Snare Salem misogynistic persecution of women Summary of events Women major instigators and victims of Salem Variety of interpretations of the crisis (natural causes, ergot poisoning, witchcraft, faking) Salem village, Massachusetts legal practise, Puritan attitudes to women essential background Related to political and military affairs in northern New England Many events lacked obvious, physical explanations Early New Englanders lived in a world of wonders Gossip was an important factor no newspapers, magazines etc, information travelled by mouth Most accused of practising maleficium Large geographical reach 22 places Key accusers in previous witchcraft trials had been men, at Salem, mostly young women/girls Accused of torturing and tempting them spectrally Frequently accused people they had never encountered before Special Court of Oyer and Terminer handled witchcraft trials Within a few weeks, support for trials had evaporated few doubted existence, but validity of convictions was called into question First and Second Indian Wars dramatically changed northern settlers circumstances for the worse Salem village and Salem town served as temporary havens for refugees during and after first war and permanent settlements after the second Many people involved in the wars were involved in the witchcraft crisis

Boyer and Nissenbaum Salem Possessed Summary of events what happened Prisons were overflowing and exhausting demands were being made of magistrates, sheriffs etc entire system that arrested, examined and imprisoned was showing signs of strain Not one trial had been made- Massachusetts without a legally established government (original government had been abolished by English authorities, but their replacement was overthrown in a coup detat) New governor, Sir William Phips was arriving with new charter but until he and charter were physically present in Massachusetts, it was illegal to proceed with formal prosecution Creation of special court of Oyer and Terminer to deal with enormous backlog of witchcraft cases Always been strong opposition to arrests, examinations and trials ministers levied decisive pressure to stop Cotton Marther and Increase Marther critical use of evidence as witchcraft is difficult to prove Testimonies appear naive and ridiculous, but needs to be looked at in context of the time Types of evidence (confession, trustworthy testimony, witchs tit, anger followed by mischief, spectral but impossible to prove)

Salem society confronted with an outbreak of confusing crime at a time of severe political and legal disruption, but still tried to administer justice and restore order People realised executions were not successful in stopping the witches Events at Salem were interpreted as witchcraft by adults, not the young girls only when asked did they blame others Ministers social position had been affected by encouraging and exploiting the unusual behaviour of the young people in their communities, able to use it to their benefit First three women accused could be seen as deviants or outcasts in their community, but new pattern emerged whereby affluent and successful members of the community were accused trials cannot be seen as a communal effort the purge the poor, deviant and outcast The alleged witches and those who accused them resided on opposite sides of the village those who defended the witches were usually their neighbours

Demos Underlying Themes in Witchcraft Why are people so interested in Salem? Witchcraft existed and was widely practised accused witches were probably guilty Re-evaluate the relationship between the accused and victims 2 types of victims those who experienced maleficium (secondary importance), those who were tortured spectrally (primary importance to the trials) Fact (actual life of witch), fantasy (life of witch according to accuser) Salem developed very quickly, but characteristics of the witches were similar to those other New England witches Majority of witches were women, men and women witches were married, between ages of 41-6o, men and children accused where kin of accused female witches (not prime targets) Accusers single girls between age of 11-20 (differs to other trials) Witnesses mainly men (but uncommon for women to take an active part in legal proceedings) Witchcraft beliefs were spread among all age groups Wealth was not a factor, but some kind of social deviance was e.g. theft, folk healing, slander Structural conflict young girls of Salem were at the mercy of the older, lead to powerful resentment? Witchcraft was a form of social control control the deviants Accusations/episodes seemed to begin after a conflict Fits were treated as tortures imposed by the witches and the Devil Sex is not featured in the Salem cases Victims were pressured by witches to go over to the Devils side, brides and threats used in an effort to break down Christian loyalties Many individuals found it difficult to express their own aggressive impulses witchcraft accusations allowed them to pass over their aggression, aggression denied in their self Seizures of afflicted children engage in much aggression, but blamed on devil inside of them Searched for witches mark Young girls directed aggression felt for own mother to middle aged women Accusers can be seen as those individuals who were especially sensitive to the problems created by their environments, pushed over the edge into serious illness

Witchcraft and Women

Hester Lewd Women and Wicked Witches Context of male supremacy male/female sexualities are contrasted as unequal and different Women objectified so made subordinate, men are positioned as dominant Men have to actively maintain control over women force, threat of force, ideological pressure Witch hunt social control of women at a time of great social change, where men were controlling more influential positions in a capitalist society/economy Witch hunt instance of sexual violence against women Economic, political, legal, ideological and religious factors combined allowed/prompted persecution of witchcraft Term witchcraze is problematic implies they were carried out by crazed individuals 7 explanations for witch hunts Belief in witchcraft was ideological, why? Many historians omitted any description/analysis of female/male relations Period generally considered progressive are only progressive for men, women suffer relative loss of status Sex related and sex specific two approaches to witch hunts Larner Enemies of God witch hunting was not about women hunting Accused women presented a challenge to patriarchal defined ideal woman timing of witch hunts fits in with development of new religions ideology that placed women in an ambiguous position But Larner argues this ideology was part of a wider assertion of ideological conformity Rise of nation state witchcraft was a mechanism for imposition of a new social order Monter and Muchembled persecution of women - linked to other examples of female oppression Ehrenreich and English explanation for witch hunts men wanted to control healing During period of persecution medicine established as legitimate form of healing, backed by church and state, wise women healing was outlawed as heresy 3 factors led to elimination of old healing by male dominated ruling class But focus on healing and medicine is too narrow, Larner challenge to female midwives by men took place after witch trials had finished, mainly in towns (most accusations came from rural) Daly witch craze was an attempt at controlling women who actively opposed male supremacy Single women and widows were taking a stand against male supremacy witch trial material does not prove this though Karlsen women accused of witchcraft as they were seen as stepping beyond role and position assigned to them by men Women over 40 were vulnerable no longer had restraint on their heterosexual behaviour conferred by pregnancy, single women/widows did not have restraint of a husband carnal lust would be out of control led them into sexual temptation with the devil Why did trials end in New England? Elizabeth I did not fit in with male image of a woman honorary male supported prevalent gender ideology, remain unmarried by marrying her country (virgin queen)

Sex related

Sex specific

Peasant beliefs and ruling class inquisitorial system important for witch hunts Witch hunting relied on peasant beliefs, but could not have occurred without upper elites Church/clergy occult practises were associated with non-Christian religion paganism Authorities first created idea of satanic pact England/ Europe experienced great change Catholic, tenant farmed and monarch ruled social structure transformed to Protestant, wage labouring and influential parliament led to tensions, made society appear unstable

Financial constraints on marriage so lower classes married later population with large numbers of unmarried, especially women Transition for feudalism to capitalism Women finding it hard to make a living and income was lower than mens dependent on others for financial support Those accused of witchcraft were those among most vulnerable in society Ideology among populace and elite sexual nature of women made them naturally deviant, prone to ultimate deviance of siding with the Devil Catholic view of women (creation story in Genesis) Marriage important institution sexual deviance defined in opposition to marriage Trevor-Roper decline in witchcraft because scientific revolution brought entire change in ideas regarding witchcraft belief was no longer possible Changes in gender ideology saw women as passive rather than active Sceptics Weyer womens nature led them to be victimised by the Devil, Scott women who believed in demons were actually ill (especially post-menopausal women) William Harvery (doctor) involved in countering witchcraft accusations and stopping women from being midwives and involved in medicine Different gender construct placed women in passive and domestic role so use of formal witchcraft accusation was superseded as a means of controlling women

Ehrenreich and English Witches, Midwives and Nurses Women have always been healers barred from education but learnt from each other called wise women by populace, witches by authorities Suppression of women health workers and rise of dominance of male profession was an active takeover by male professionals, not a natural phenomenon Status of women healers has risen and fallen with status of women when women healers attacked, attacked as women Political struggle suppression of female healers by medical establishment female healers were doctors of the people, men of the ruling class (owe victory to intervention of ruling class) Witch craze ruling class campaign of terror directed against female peasant population Witches represented a political, religious and sexual threat to Church and the State Most virulent witch hunts were associated with periods of great social upheaval 2 medical interpretations for the witch hunts Witch hunts were well organised campaigns, initiated, financed and executed by Church/state 3 central accusations that emerged repeatedly sexual crimes, organised, magical powers Male upper class healing was acceptable, female healing as part of a peasant subculture was not

Church saw attack on healers as an attack on magic, not medicine Magic/charms was not controlled by the Church, but prayers were healing powers Distinguish Gods cures from the Devils work through priests/doctors, not peasant women Witch healers methods were as threatening as results witch was an empiricist (surrender to the senses), Church was deeply anti-empiricist Partnership between church, state and medical profession in witch hunts Church legitimised doctors professionalism, non-professional healing heresy

Purkiss The Witch in History No evidence that majority of those accused were healers and midwives Little evidence that convicted witches were unmarried, sexually liberated or lesbian Men were not responsible for all accusations many accused by women Persecution was as severe in Protestant areas as in Catholic MM main source for view that witch hunting was woman hunting Story of the witch healer view of radical feminism

Daly Gyn/Ecology Witches were accused of sexual impurity Women tortured to such an extreme degree that they confessed to anything and everything Intent was break down and destroy strong women, dismember and kill the Goddess Bodin demanded death at the stake for witches and all those that did not believe the new demonology Witch craze focused on women who rejected marriage and those who survived it womens physical, intellectual, moral and spiritual independence threatened the male monopoly Widows and spinsters were defenceless because of their isolation Witch craze got out of hand socially digestible women were getting caught in it Protestants and Catholics each used the orthodoxy of the other to entrap women under the witch label Purification of the mystical body of Christ heretics were diseased members and needed to be killed for the good of the whole organisation provided readymade solution for witch problem Kramer and Sprenger males were protected from crime of witchcraft because Jesus was a man Witches obscene acts were performed with the Devil so their Christian killers could feel religious and righteous doing Gods will Background to MM and papal Bull Caputi spread of witch beliefs was fostered by invention of the printing press ideas of elites was embedded in minds of populace Victims were not from high social/economic classes but constituted a threat to the rising professional hierarchy possessed un-legitimised higher learning Use/abuse of children young children who attended Sabbath with mother were flogged and watched their mother burn, used as witnesses in mothers case Demonic distortion of womens minds remembers that she had been used to condemn her mother to death, carried a burden of self-loathing this would be branded on their own daughters

Torture and burning of women as witches violent elimination of the female presence in the mystic body of Christ

Blecourt The Making of Female Witch Witnesses depostions, reports of the trials and entries of fines important for study of witchcraft When looking for cunning folk, witch doctors looked for women Briggs many historians are relucant to stufy non-English material, assume situation in England/New England was typical of all of Europe View that men are more interested in judicial aspects of witch trials, links to economy and state formation, whereas women pay more attention to socially sympathic micro-history is wrong Larner found differences between witch hunting and women hunting more significant than similarities Witches were initially hunted as witches What transformed a woman from a potential to an actual witch? Why is the male witch ignored? Levack there was nothing in the definition of a witch that excluded males Sharpe women were less the victims of male oppression mainly women who blamed women Witchcraft accusations remain a struggle between women for control of female and social space Barstow women sometimes try to outdo their oppressors in scorning people perceived as outsiders, in the hope of being accepted or tolerated Confession was only sure and acceptable evidence male force used to elicit it Some comments on Dutch witchcraft (compared to Germany) Male witches equal partners to the devil, expected monetary gain Patriarchy protected women who stuck to the norms The making of a witch was a social process and the ties that a woman had within her community determined whether an accusation would stick Prosecutions distorted the initial local witch image e.g. introducing the devil Some witches gained witch label locally, others through the judicial process (denunciations) The option of witchcraft was a convincing explanation for misfortunes, ingrained into people from a young age Society was characterised as dependent on communal values and neighbourly assistance Witchcraft accusation corrupted a womans position as neighbour and transformed role as giver of nutrition and life thought of losing her gender identity compelled her to comply to patriarchal communal norms of womanhood Women who conducted an independent trade or owned their own land were more vulnerable

Gaskill The Devil in the Shape of a Man (case study of a Kentish farmer) How did men come to be accused still important to look at male witches Woman hunting is no longer a good explanation for witch hunting Women adopted the male characteristics by appearing in court, men did not adopt women characteristics of witchcraft Why did prosecutions not happen more often? Summary of William Godfreys case

No theological objection to the male witch, law did not impose restrictions upon who the witch might be The accused were witches first, women second Charges against men and women were frequently similar 3 ways that allowed for witch prosecution existence of conflict, prevalence of witch beliefs and legal framework Conflict was generated by social and economic integration conflict between individuals could escalate into full blown feuds between households Although driven by hatred and anger, accusers primary emotion was fear If parliament had not legislated against witchcraft, no one would have been formally executed

Larner Witchcraft and Religion Stereotype of a witch independent adult woman, does not conform to male idea of proper female behaviour, not require/give love, does not nurture, power of words for defence All women threaten male hegemony with power to give life Social order depends on women conforming to male ideas of female behaviour Witch hunt = woman hunt stereotype of a witch in Christian Europe has always been a woman Initially, women were responsibility of fathers/husbands certain activities of women were made into crimes for the first time Witch hunt was not directed primarily by men against women not misogynistic male judges simply responding to pressures from below (from women) Failure to realise that a patriarchal social structure divides women women attack others who do not conform, dependent on men for their livelihood Cursing and bewitching women were female equivalent to violent males no more a persecution of women than prosecution of killers/maimers was a persecution of men Purpose of a witch hunt prising out dangerous persons who were enemies of God, state and people Added fuel to misogyny rather than a direct consequence of it Why did women appear threatening to the patriarchal order of the time, why did the cease to be so threatening by 1700?

Decline of the Witch Craze

Behringer Witches and Witchcraft Quote from Weyer Idea of cumulative crime of witchcraft why were not much more than 50,000 people killed always been scepticism and dislike for inquisitors Criticism backed up by quotes from classical authors Early Christian doubts about efficacy of sorcery remained strong canon Episcopi Only authority given to Inquisitors by the papacy broke the bulwark of traditional methods Argument that there were no witches before appearance of papal inquisitors Germany/Austria persecutions stopped immediately, Inquisition was stripped of its rights by the secular rulers Critics/sceptics published their ideas in print could no longer be silenced Printing revolution created new audiences and fostered rise of public opinion (no longer controlled by the Church) Erasmus of Rotterdam ridiculed zealous inquisitors who sacrificed innocent victims to serve their own crazy theories Alciati Branded witch hunts in the Alps as inhumane , attacked MM in his book Emperor Charles V Carolina code witch hunters complained under the terms, hardly anyone could be convicted of witchcraft Reformation contributed to a decline in witch hunts in long term Protestant countries abandoned inquisition courts altogether Weyer old women were innocent, even if confessed to guilt, actually suffering from melancholy (Galenic humoral medicine) his theory had a big impact, new interpretation Scot blamed lack of education for degree of superstition and credulity Confessional polarisation took place under impact of first great wave of persecutions Catholics referred to MM, realised Protestants were main critics, denial of witchcraft was outlawed Some authors decided to disguise their religious identity completely Many sceptics called four abolition of torture, but they remained outsiders Spee published book anonymously, why? states without stakes confirmed idea that witches were created by witch hunting After mid C17th intellectuals began to attack witch beliefs and ridicule its defenders Witchcraft turned into a party cause whigs and tories During ages of industrial revolution and imperialism/colonial rule ruling and intellectual elites lost interest in witchcraft, why? no longer felt threatened due to state formation, standing armies, effective administrations and prospering economies Process of modernisation improved living standards (food production, nutrition, housing, hygiene, medical care and education) witchcraft beliefs became marginal Not a product of institutional or intellectual change changing living pattern

Midelfort Witch Hunting in South Western Germany Plague epidemics and war, which brought famine but period of rapid and general decline in witch hunting

Total disruption of coinage which meant prices soared Element that determined witch hunting mood mood of governors, townspeople, villages, lawyers and judges depends on more than superstition and hardship affected by national/ international surges of feeling

National mood in Germany despair among Protestants, joy among Catholics Magistrates were learning that judicial process did not always serve justice When court members were denounced for witchcraft, accusations and convictions undermined the normal faith in magistrates crisis of confidence what caused this crisis? (3 reasons) Not so much formal theology that changed Crisis of confidence destroyed populaces trust in magistrates, court system Magistrates realised no one could accurately tell who the witches were War in Germany gave the populace a new target for their hatred the scapegaoted soldier

Thomas Religion and Decline of Magic Long before the repeal of the witchcraft act, it had become increasingly difficult to mount and sustain a successful prosecution in the courts changed attitude of educated classes List of leading sceptical writers all urged that the continental conception of the devil was unacceptable because it had no judicial justification Wesley giving up witchcraft was in effect giving up the bible Exodus xxii18 declared no witch should live Sceptics argued old testament witches had not been devil worshippers wizards/diviners Modern myth of devil worshipping invention based on pagan superstition Scott accepted witchcraft but not the demonic pact Leading authorities had always stressed the importance of not making allegations of witchcraft before other possible explanations had been considered How to distinguish maleficium from natural illness? Optimistic attitude that it would be possible to explain mysterious events witches mark, incubus Social reasons why accusations began to dwindle poor law no more giving charity man who turned away a beggar could do so with a clearer conscience Witch accusations had reflected a conflict between the communal norms of mutual aid and individualistic ethic of self help by end of C17th norms had disappeared Witch beliefs lasted longer in village communities misfortune still seem in personal terms Informal violence, counter magic and lynching illegal and poor substitute for old witch trials Wrong to think of witchcraft panics in England (except maybe Hopkins) Witchcraft accusation was a local phenomenon better understood when more is known about history and structure of English village

Trevor-Roper The European Witch Craze Protestant countries led the way in bringing witch trials to an end England/Holland had long since emancipated while Catholic prince-bishops were still burning in Germany Inside Germany Protestant states had abandoned persecution a full generation before Catholic Where Calvinist and Lutheran clergy still had effective power, craze continued Witch craze began in Switzerland, ended in Switzerland - last legal burning (protestant country)

Witch craze first formulated by clergy, continued by lawyers If witch craze was to be attacked at its core, was necessary to challenge the whole conception of the Kingdom of Satan Weyer, Scott nor Spee had done this Bekker attempted to challenge whole idea of Satans kingdom, destroyed belief in devil in theory, but in fact Thomasius believed only in certain aspects of devil and witches Weyer, Spee and Scot demonology of Christian church is a mixture of Pagan and Jewish superstition, confessions produced by torture are false Devil decayed with the witch belief How did critical arguments become plausible by 1700? C19th liberal historians Burr persecution began because the inquisition had fulfilled its original purpose of destroying Albigensian heretics and found its self with nothing to do decided to destroy witches As long as there is religion, there will always be superstition If men were to revise views on witchcraft, the whole social context had be revised Those who questioned witch beliefs could not reject them isolation if they reject witch beliefs it is because they are prepared to question the accepted philosophy of the natural world, of which witch beliefs are an extension 2 ways in which a man could express his discontent with orthodox demonologists A rival faith was needed to drive out old cosmology Renaissance Platonism

Levack The Witch Hunt in Early Modern Europe Decline did not occur simultaneously in all European countries and regions Large hunts European communities realised the social dysfunction that mass panics produced determined to prevent any more from occurring Individual witchcraft prosecutions ended only after the laws had been passed prohibiting them or if judicial authorities refused to try the cases Within upper levels of society, scepticism took hold but popular witch beliefs showed little sign of changing member of populace pushed for prosecution but were frustrated by refusal of elites One scholar argued that the most extreme witch beliefs (those most capable of sustaining a witch hunt) came from the upper elites Populace played important role in stopping large hunts they helped sustain mood of large hunts and denounced and testified against neighbours when this ended, so did hunts Numbers of formal accusations did decline, only because the legal framework was absent End of trials series of significant changes in European judicial systems, mental outlook of educated/ruling elite, religious climate and living conditions of the populace Judicial changes 3 main legal and judicial developments that contributed to decline of witchcraft (demand for conclusive evidence, adoption of stricter rules regarding use of torture, promulgation of decrees either restricting or eliminating prosecutions) Magistrates and judges became sceptical ideas gradually spread Always been sceptics arguments against them no longer had persuasive force Intellectual revolution destroyed scholasticism as predominant philosophy system

New mental outlook

Changes in mental outlook (rejection of dogma and inherited authority, growing conviction that universe functioned in orderly, regular fashion, natural explanations for mysterious phenomenon, many unusual diseases could be explained without reference to supernatural/witchcraft)

Doctors eventually succeeded in undermining witch beliefs Witch beliefs in lower classes changed very little Burke withdrawal of elite from popular culture Clergy and physicians contact with lower class so able to weaken some beliefs, but did not achieve a great deal of success in changing popular opinion Tactics of ridicule and satire was used by elites to win over support from upper classes do not want to conform to lower class thought scepticism became fashionable distance between elites and populace Religious zeal and enthusiasm was waning after 1650 International conflict concerned with self interest and dynastic matters rather than religious ideology After 1650 few religious wars in Europe Age of Reformation was gradually coming to an end a more secular, rational age was starting Not all prosecutions were dependent on religious zeal, especially if just concerned with maleficium Many trials and hunts inspired by determination of magistrates, clergy and entire community to purify world by waging war of Satans agents as this militancy and millenarianism declined, so did witchcraft prosecutions that it had encouraged Social and economic conditions had more impact of original suspicions/accusations rather than actual prosecutions Difficult to show what changes made villages feel more secure and less vulnerable to maleficium 3 ways in which socio-economic change might have helped bring great witch hunt to an end general improvement in living conditions, witches did not present same threat as before, Europe entered a period of social, political and religious stability Decline in witch beliefs was a gradual process Decline in France, England, Scotland and Germany Populace held fears for a long time being based on maleficia meant they were much more durable Local communities occasionally took illegal action on suspected witches authorities prosecuted the attackers Witch hunting became a form of popular, vigilante style just that magistrates tried to prevent and control Judicial system and legal procedures crucial importance to origins of witch hunts and in their elimination decline was much more the work of lawyers, magistrates than theologians

New religious climate

Social and economic change

Conclusion

Sharpe Instruments of Darkness European witch craze was a judicial operation Background to court systems (roman law, inquisitorial, torture, common law) Torture was open to many abuses in order to gain a confession

England common law trial by jury, no torture Until either the existing set of beliefs about witchcraft could be broken or something more by the way of proof was required, guilty verdicts would continue Form of neo-torture the swimming test never had any legal formal status Justice of the Peace Sir Robert Filmer critique of Perkins and his 18 proofs Pro witch hunters had always regarded voluntary confessions as source of ammunition against sceptics counter arguments by Scot English assize judges were more aware than their counterparts in other areas of the difficulty in trying a witch and the need to distance themselves from local tensions/malice North dismissed witchcraft beliefs as mere popular superstition Early enlightenment writers attributed the witch hunting to priestly bigotry Many woman writers saw churchs input into late medieval construction of demonology as a key factor of misogynistic thinking of the period Christianity was an oppressive ideology which fostered persecution of witches 2 positions on witchcraft derived from MM and canon Episcopi Reformation period ending and Thirty Years War ended period of religious calm on course for Age of Reason witch beliefs began to disappear silent revolution For the educated, belief in witchcraft could be rejected on intellectual grounds C17th period of scientific revolution but what was the link between science and witchcraft? Scientific rationalism and experimental methods defeated the ignorance and superstition of a belief system based on religion and acceptance of established authority Even by 1680s, ideas of a scientific revolution had not penetrated the educated culture of England sufficiently to allow them to be drawn on to any deep degree by writers on reality of witchcraft Gradual process of marginalisation rather than a dramatic overturning of existing belief systems Direct contribution of scientific revolution to decline of the belief in witchcraft was minimal New physics that Newton was associated with was that the physical universe was now seen as operating under predictable rules growth in optimism about being able to control natural environment left less room for supernatural beings

Sharpe Witchcraft in Early Modern England Scientific revolution affected belief in witchcraft Knowledge of intellectual developments had led to claims that new scientific ways of thinking were in large measure responsible for displacing notions of witchcraft and magic Superstition replaced by modern rationality Scepticism was always present throughout witchcraze period Demonologists were aware that witchcraft accusations might come from malice/superstition low conviction rates suggest that judges were equally aware Theological strand accepted by some English Protestants most witchcraft accusations came from ignorance of the correct religion or lack of Christian instruction Interpretation which sees rejection of witchcraft among educated elite purely in terms of rationalism does not work Hutchinson and Juxon reasons for rejecting witchcraft were very similar to those put forward by Scot, 150 years before, more people willing to accept them mental world has changed

Actually, mental world of elites had changed, lower orders still accepted the beliefs Transition from a view of the cosmos that saw it as disordered, to one of order and predictability Judges rejected existing attitudes to witchcraft accusation unwilling to convict Act of repeal only one speaker against this, saw it as an offence to correct religion mocked by others and his career ended as a politician Those claiming to tell fortunes, use magic could be prosecuted still frauds rather than agents of the devil Witch beliefs no longer fashionable among the educated elites, survived among populace till C20th finally banished by spread of educated values (universal education)

Levack Witch Hunting in Scotland Reduction in number of trials, rise in acquittals and drop in execution rate Decline has initially been attributed to emergence of modern rationalism, rise of science and disappearance of ignorance and superstition this interpretation arose during the Enlightenment became the backbone of liberal and Whig historiography assumed decline in prosecutions came from a decline in beliefs of the educated elite Expression of sceptical ideas either had limited impact on the intellectual classes or took place after prosecutions had began to wane Weyer and Scot did not take an extreme position arguing that witchcraft did not exist Bekker and Thomasius did take an extreme view but it emerged at a time when most of Europe had began to end their trials Philosophical and intellectual opposition was very weak in Scotland no arguments that witchcraft was an impossible crime among judges, magistrate and clergy Sir George Mackenzie furthest he would go in challenging contemporary witch beliefs was to deny possibility of witches flight of their metamorphosis A religiously inspired rejection of belief in witchcraft based on biblical scholarship (witches being prosecuted were different to the witches mentioned in the bible) failed to take hold in Scotland Bekker deployed massive biblical scholarship to show that Satan could not have exercised power in the world and so persecution of witches should cease Decline can be attributed to judicial rather than philosophical scepticism Judicial scepticism was highly instrumental in reducing the number of trials and executions in many countries Great Scottish witch hunt identified abuses within the judicial system unauthorised arrests, torture and pricking of suspects 3 developments that reduced the number of convictions and executions (trials supervised by central judicial authorities, reduction in judicial torture, more careful weighing of evidence) Main pressure to prosecute witches came from local communities central governments responded could either facilitate or impede success the trials The intensity of witch hunting in a particular area depended to a great extent upon the way in which the central government responded to local pressures

Growth of judicial scepticism

The role of the central government

Privy council took steps to reduce the intensity of witch hunting local authorities who wished to prosecute witches had to petition the council for new commissions Sometimes there was a breakdown of the system in large hunts, the government would grant a commission although they did not always have time to fully evaluate each request Delegating judicial authority to local untrained amateurs encouraged local identification and prosecution of witches Percentage of cases heard before the justiciary court increased resulted in more acquittals Successful implementation of an effective circuit court system Central involvement or supervision of the local trials Torture was not illegal, it just wasnt being applied with proper authority large efforts were made to prosecute local officials who violated the rules of the proclamation The council were making conscious effort to control local persecution of witches Greater care when evaluating evidence at witchcraft trials Advocates began to represent witches, even in some local cases lawyers had a dramatic impact on the course of witchcraft trials, how? Growing number of acquittals coincided with the greater frequency of legal representation All that was necessary to ensure an acquittal was evidence that natural causation was possible James Robertson (advocate for Paisley witches) raised serious doubts about the possibility of actually proving the crime of witchcraft at law Scepticism of lawyers and judges regarding the guilt of witches could not by itself bring an end to witchcraft executions in a country where the verdict was determined by lay juries decline can actually be attributed to the difficulty local communities had in securing a commission Towns and villages who wanted to persecute witches had 3 options after government stopped authorising local prosecutions Remained a local affair, central government tried to control, regulate and eventually eliminate, not always with complete success

Reduction in the use of torture

Evaluation of evidence

End of prosecution

Extra notes (cunning folk, demonic possession/exorcisms) Levack The Witch Hunt in Early Modern Europe Christianisation of the European populace all Christians should learn the elements of true religion, true Christian faith and proper forms of worship Magic great rival of true religion, needed to be suppressed (practise of healing, divination and love magic) The Catholic clergy tried to eliminate the various forms of white magic Believed that all magic comes from interaction with the devil all need punishing those who could cure, could also harm

Briggs Witches and Neighbours No important Protestant state undertook a major persecution of the cunning folk probably at greater risk in Catholic Europe Use of exorcism as a therapy was largely rejected by mainline Protestants and raised increasing doubts at the upper levels of the Catholic hierarchy The Catholic Church usually continued to offer exorcism at a local level functioned as a mechanism for identifying suspects The popular view verged on treating possession as a simple result of bewitchment the more extreme the symptoms, the greater the need to eliminate the witch responsible Theologians inclined to define possession as a divine punishment for sinful individuals the afflicted person was very wicked rejection of the view that someone else was responsible any cure was dependent on repentance and amendment of life, as much as on the exorcism Most Catholic writers believed possession could be inflicted by a witch Ability to drive out the devil showed they represented the true Church Eventually, Catholic attitudes to exorcisms changed fierce determination to suppress anything which threatened good order and discipline spectacular public exorcisms gave voice to the kinds of wild, uncontrolled, largely feminine religiosity which the Catholic hierarchy mistrusted

Clark Thinking with Demons How did the populace, fearing bewitchment/witchcraft respond? Not allowed to counteract by resorting to magic or superstition Writers of all denominations agreed they should appeal to the spiritual and moral protections of the judge Lutherans/Calvinists had removed entire areas of traditional therapeutic range Catholic could offer the ecclesiastical protections (exorcism, sign of cross, fasting, holy water, name of Christ) no Protestant could expect to ward off maleficium with relics and holy water Quote by Perkins good witches were far worse than bad, why Devil responsible for both sets of actions, he set up good witches alongside the bad so the bewitched would resort to them, effectively turning to the Devil

Barry, Hester and Roberts Witchcraft in Early Modern Europe Clergy was hostile to rural magical practitioners and to the populaces use of remedies because they were outside the Churchs control