Tourism Routes, Local Economic Promotion and Pro-Poor Development

The Case of the Crocodile Ramble

In southern Africa, there is growing interest in the potential for establishing tourism routes as vehicles for tourism expansion and the promotion of local economic development. This article contributes towards understanding the potential and importance of organising routes for local tourism promotion and economic development. The history and unfolding evolution of one South African tourism route initiative the Crocodile Ramble is examined. This case study is distinguished by a shift of local route planning from an exclusive pro-growth focus, to incorporating elements of planning for pro-poor tourism.

International Context The Concept and Planning of Tourism Routes

The concept of a tourism route refers to an initiative designed to bring together a suite of activities and attractions under a unied theme, and thereby to stimulate entrepreneurial opportunities in the form of ancillary products and services.2 As observed by Moulin and Boniface,3 the concept of a tourism route is not a new phenomenon. For example, the centuries-old Silk Route, an extensive interconnected network of trade routes across the Asian continent, existed long before the emergence of the tourist equivalent in recent times. In more recent times, organisations such as United Nations Educational, Scientic and Cultural Organisation (Unesco) and the Council of Europe have sponsored a range of cultural and heritage route initiatives, particularly in Western Europe,4 in line with furthering wider educational, social and cultural aims. Route promotion has progressively assumed an economic or developmental goal, and the development of themed routes as tourism attractions has gained prominence in recent years5 Contemporary route tourism involves joining

Hilary Stoddart and Christian Rogerson1

Hilary Stoddart is a postgraduate student of the School of Geography, Archaeology and Environmental Studies at the University of the Witwatersrand, South Africa. Christian Rogerson is Professor in the School of Geography, Archaeology and Environmental Studies at the University of the Witwatersrand, South Africa.

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the tourism resources of a number of smaller centres and collectively marketing them as a single tourism destination region, especially for tourists travelling by road.6 Routes vary considerably in length and scale, as well as themes adopted and visitors attracted, in terms of characteristics as well as numbers. Meyer7 isolates several objectives that underpin the development of route-tourism initiatives: to diffuse visitors and disperse income from tourism to bring lesser-known attractions and features into the tourism business/product to increase the overall appeal of a destination to increase length of stay and spending by tourists to attract new tourists and attract repeat visitors to increase the sustainability of tourism products. Among the most successful examples of rural tourism routes are the wine and food circuits, which have been documented in Europe, North America and Australasia.8 In the Niagara region of southern Ontario, Canada, the wine routes are an integral part of a strategic alliance to promote agritourism among the regions food producers, processors, distributors, restaurants as well as wineries.9 In addition to routes based upon wine and food, there are major European examples of route-based cultural tourism of which the most notable is the Camino de Santiago in Spain and France.10 France is considered a pioneer of route development linked to heritage, with many examples of routes designed to channel visitors to churches or rural chapels representative of Baroque art.11 Beyond France, there are examples of heritage trail or cultural route development in other parts of Europe, including Portugal, Slovenia, Bulgaria and the Baltic States.12

Route Tourism in Africa

In several parts of Africa there is growing interest in the potential for developing tourism routes as vehicles for tourism expansion.13 Many different tourism routes are being established or planned, particularly across South Africa and extending into neighbouring countries, including Lesotho, Mozambique, Namibia and Swaziland.14 For example, the Lubombo tourism route was launched in 2006, traversing southern Mozambique, eastern Swaziland as well as Mpumalanga and northern KwaZulu-Natal in South Africa.15 The birth of this particular route was the outcome of several years of work undertaken through the Lubombo Spatial Development Initiatives to strengthen cooperation between South Africa, Swaziland and Mozambique around tourism and economic development.16 Route-tourism planning in Africa also extends to the Indian Ocean island of Reunion, which offers a spice route linking attractions and producers and opportunities to buy around the spice theme,17 to the slave routes of West Africa18 and to Uganda where heritage trails have been established.19 The most high-prole and ambitious route-tourism initiative in Africa is the African Dream Project, which is organised by the Open Africa Foundation in South Africa. This initiative seeks to bring together the tourism splendours of Africa into a continuous network of tourism routes extending from the Cape to Cairo.20 The themes of these routes can be varied and encompass arts and crafts, heritage, townships, fossils, shipwrecks and old mission stations.21 At present, South Africa exhibits the highest concentration of route-tourism initiatives on the African continent.22 The countrys rst tourism routes go back to the 1970s with the establishment of wine routes in the Cape Winelands.23 Beyond the wine routes of the Western Cape, several other themed route-tourism initiatives

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can be observed in contemporary South Africa, the most established and mature being the arts and crafts cluster of the Midlands Meander in the province of KwaZulu-Natal.24 Birding represents one of the more recent themes for routetourism development in rural South Africa. Indeed, the growth of rural tourism is considered one of the major potential advantages for the extension of routes in South Africa.25 A number of recent investigations in South Africa demonstrate emerging synergies between route tourism and local economic development planning across various parts of the country.26 Research by Briedenhann and Wickens,27 ECI Africa28 and the Human Science Research Council (HSRC)29 suggest the considerable potential for tourism routes to be a catalyst for community-based local economic development in poorer communities and remote rural areas. Indeed, it is clear that the route concept can be a very strong tool in unifying attractions and products under one marketing umbrella.30 It is against this background of the emergence and growth of route-tourism planning in several southern African countries that this article seeks to contribute towards a greater understanding of the potential and importance of organising routes for local tourism promotion and economic development. This issue is of major policy relevance on the local and regional research agenda of tourism and development.31 More widely, the study represents a contribution to the undeveloped scholarship in the developing world concerning local and regional tourism policies.32 Specically, the article examines the chequered history and unfolding evolution of one route-tourism initiative in South Africa, namely the Crocodile Ramble. In terms of existing literature concerning route-tourism planning in southern Africa, what is of particular interest in the case of the Crocodile Ramble is that unfolding planning for

this tourism route is moving from being an exclusively pro-growth private sector-led initiative to incorporating new planning considerations for promoting pro-poor tourism. The approach of pro-poor tourism refers to initiatives that tilt the benets of a tourism project towards maximising opportunities for the benet of poor people33. Pro-poor tourism is increasingly being linked to planning considerations for local economic development, especially in subSaharan Africa.34

The Crocodile Ramble in South Africa

This section presents an analysis of the evolution, local-development impact and planning issues surrounding the Crocodile Ramble (Figure 1), a South African route-tourism initiative under the organisation of the Crocodile Ramble Association (CRA). The route takes its name from the Crocodile River which traverses through the region. Geographically, the area covered by the Crocodile Ramble straddles both Gauteng and North West provinces. Signicantly, the area spanned by the Ramble adjoins and partially overlaps the area of a competing tourism route, namely the Magalies Meander, which links a number of restaurants, conference venues, outdoor activities and accommodation facilities just south of the Magaliesberg mountain range.35 The majority of the tourism businesses on the Ramble fall within the administrative boundaries of the Mogale City Local Municipality (centred in Krugersdorp), which adjoins the City of Johannesburg. Nevertheless, the Ramble also incorporates a cluster of enterprises that fall within suburban areas of Johannesburg as well as small villages and rural areas in the hills of the Magaliesberg range. Further outliers of the Ramble go north to

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Figure 1 The Location of the Crocodile Ramble, South Africa

Source: Authors own

Hartbeespoort, which lies within the Bojanala Platinum District Municipality of North West Province. Finally, in an experimental pro-poor initiative, the Ramble has recently been linked to promoting a so-termed Route to Township Tourism, represented by emerging tourism enterprises situated in the townships of Kagiso, Mohlakeng and Bekkersdal (Figure 1). The discussion below draws upon primary information in the form of detailed interviews conducted during 2007 with members of the CRA and other stakeholders in the area.36 Issues of concern are: (i) the evolution of the CRA; (ii) the characteristics of Ramble enterprises; and (iii) local-development impact, including planning of the Route to Township Tourism. In total, 47 interviews were completed with product owners: 32 established product owners of the Crocodile Ramble and 15 emerging product owners on the Route to Township Tourism.

The Evolution of the Crocodile Ramble Association

The Crocodile Ramble is the oldest functioning route-tourism association in the Magaliesberg area. It should be noted that while an

earlier route-tourism initiative, the Rustenburg Ramble, did exist, this particular route has been defunct for a number of years.37 The Crocodile Ramble route was launched in 1987 through the establishment of a private sector association called the Crocodile River Ramble Arts and Crafts Association (CRRACA).38 At its foundation, the Crocodile Ramble covered a much smaller geographical area than its present boundaries. The responsible organisation the CRRACA was founded by a small group of professional artists who sought to achieve additional art sales by opening their studios to the public at weekends. The natural beauty of the Magaliesberg area functioned as a drawcard for consumers to travel from art markets in Johannesburg and Pretoria.39 The activities of the CRRACA continued on a small scale for a period of 10 years. Conict between artists and other product owners beset the early years of this association. A key issue of conict emerged over what was art as opposed to craft. This conict served to block several emerging craft businesses in the area from joining the original Ramble. Illustratively, one professional dollmaker a former member of the Midlands arts and crafts meander in KwaZuluNatal who relocated to the Magaliesberg area in 1994, was told that her membership application for the Crocodile Ramble was not welcome as she was not an artist.40 By the early 1990s, however, the CRRACA was experiencing difculties. Many of the original group of artists had closed their doors to the public and withdrawn from the Ramble. Interviews disclosed that the reason for withdrawal related to the fact of artists being heartily sick of the public having picnics in their driveways, and the connement of being available all weekend to all and every passerby.41 By 1997, a decade after the Rambles inception, this erosion of the core group of artists

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left a total of only ve artists. By 199798, the Ramble and its original association had ceased to function. During this period of stagnation in the activities of the CRRACA, a competing route association, the Magaliesberg Meander Association (MMA), was established during 1998 to cover areas further west and south, specically around the small towns of Magaliesberg and Hekpoort (see Figure 1). From its launch, the Magalies Meander enjoyed stronger leadership than the CCRAC in the form of a highly motivated committee. The MMA was perceived to be a growing and vibrant route association. Lourens42 maintains that it had the potential to become the leading private sector association in the area. After a period of inactivity, however, in 1999 the Crocodile Ramble route was revived and relaunched under the leadership of a crafter. Although former members of the Ramble were in favour of reviving the association, the earlier conict between artists and crafters surfaced once more as older members preferred to keep the route focused on art. Nevertheless, it was recognised that the establishment of competing art markets in Johannesburg and Pretoria was drawing visitors away from the Ramble area. The preference of local artists for participating and selling their work at markets in Johannesburg and Pretoria rather than opening up their studios to weekend visitors meant that an exclusive focus on art could no longer be justied. Another critical impetus for change in the character of the Ramble from its original and exclusive arts focus, was the death of the original founder of the concept of an artsthemed tourism route. At the time the new CRA was launched in 1999, the former CRRACA had been taken over by other product owners engaged in the activities of crafts, the supply of restaurants or

provision of accommodation. A further aspect of change was that the new association was run more along business lines than had formerly been the case.43 The new map and spatial extent of the Ramble reected a shift away from an exclusive arts focus to incorporate the activities of other product owners. In the new CRA, arts activities are in the minority within an organisation dominated by accommodation, recreation and restaurant providers. At the launch of the new tourism route brochure in May 2000, a total of 75 products were advertised; by 2006 this number had grown to approximately 140 products along the Ramble, an indicator of the growth of this private sector route-tourism initiative.44 Members of the Crocodile Ramble association pay an annual fee for advertising and administration linked to the production of a brochure which is printed for launch at the annual Tourism Indaba.45 For a fee of R3 000 per annum, product owners secure a 6.6cm advertisement in the map brochure, exposure at all trade shows and information centres in Gauteng, a website listing and marketing assistance through the 120 000 brochures which are distributed.46 Day-to-day running expenses for management and administration, lobbying local councils, and information dissemination are a constant issue between the organiser and members.47 The current situation is seen as untenable as the product owner who manages the Ramble has been paying for these costs itself in the interests of keeping the association going.48 Most product owners of the CRA are only willing to pay for items that have tangible results, such as brochures, and do not understand the additional funds needed for the management of a functional route association. It is therefore difcult for the operator of the CRA to give value to the membership in the absence of fulltime staff and nancial support.49 Further, the

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opening linked to provincial government of the iconic Cradle of Humankind World Heritage Site of palaeo-anthropological signicance50 has introduced a new layer of complexity for tourism marketing in the Magaliesberg area.51 Lack of commitment to the association is a key problem, which is reected in poor attendance at public meetings that have been advertised and organised. At one organised meeting of the CRA, only one product owner arrived; at a second meeting only three product owners attended. A third meeting was attended by two product owners, a fourth by one owner and a fth meeting was cancelled due to lack of interest. This poor attendance at association meetings demonstrates that most members considered themselves to be just members, rather than active members. This situation is problematic for a route-tourism association that is not externally funded and requires volunteer input to ensure the growth of the route.52 Indeed, it is evident that the CRA is unpopular with a section of membership due to internal associational politics and its failure to form a central organisational and administrational centre. Further problems for the association surrounded the general lack of cooperation from the local authority, the West Rand District Municipality, as well as from the developers of the Cradle of Humankind. It was observed in an interview with the head of the Ramble association that local council and mayors are not interested, will not return calls and wont come to meetings.53 In many respects, this limited support from the local authority mirrors a wider set of ndings concerning the lack of capacity or willingness of local authorities across South Africa to support private sector tourism initiatives for local economic development.54 A core problem that faces development and improvement of the Ramble and of the economic health of its members is signage. During 2005,

signage for the Ramble was unclear, not standardised and ineffectively positioned.55 Indeed, at that time it was only possible for visitors to follow the Crocodile Ramble route if they were already in possession of another alternative map.56 Further, the signage did not make clear what products existed along the route. The absence of coherent signage, a factor which has been identied as critical to the success of many international routes,57 resulted in confusion for tourists driving in the area. To address this problem, the CRRACA did provide signs with a crocodile logo on them, but some product owners failed to erect the signs. In addition, other signs were stolen and taken to nearby informal settlements to be used for the construction of shacks. The signage situation has been made even more complex by different roads being the responsibility of different government departments. In 2007, a new numbering system was introduced for the annual brochure to provide product owners on a particular road with a distinctive number. The intention was to have signs at turning points indicating all products on that road and thus creating a system like that of the Midlands Meander, where turning points have signs saying, for example, numbers 1-10 this way. Due to the development of Cradle of Humankind site in the area, obtaining signage has been complicated further by the fact that use of the Cradle of Humankind logo can be secured only for enterprises that have been graded by the Tourism Grading Council of South Africa. Finally, in terms of marketing, the CRA prints 120 000 maps per year, 20 000 copies in each of six publishing runs. Nevertheless, while the provincial Gauteng Tourism Authority expressed a wish to have Ramble maps more freely available, it is signicant that the core provincial tourism-support organisation refused to purchase any advertising space in the Ramble brochure, which might cover the

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expenses of the extra print run specically for its own distribution.58

Figure 2 Location of the Ramble Enterprises and Different Routes

Tourism Enterprises of the Crocodile Ramble

By 2006, it was estimated that a total of 1.5 million visitors annually frequented the area of the Crocodile Ramble. Most of this total is accounted for by (predominantly white) daytrippers from the major urban centres of Gauteng. Although leisure-related pursuits constitute the major market for the enterprises in the Crocodile Ramble, business tourism is a growing and important element for the area.59 In parallel with the ndings related to other route-tourism initiatives both internationally and in South Africa, domestic tourism is overwhelmingly the most important element in the economy of the Crocodile Ramble. Regional tourism is represented by small numbers of tourists passing through the area from Botswana en route for shopping in Johannesburg or to visit the leisure-casino complex at Sun City. There are relatively few international visitors on the Ramble and at most, the international market represents 5% of the customer market. Most of these international and regional African visitors travel in tour groups and often for purposes of attending a conference.60 The 2007 version of the Crocodile Ramble map shows 144 route participant enterprises which spread across the six routes that form the Ramble in its entirety (Figure 2). The Ramble around Hartbeespoort Dam is distinctive and separated by some distance from the original Ramble area around the Crocodile River; it is listed separately on two pages at the back of the brochure. In looking at the number and mix of participants on the Crocodile Ramble, it must be observed that there are several listings of product owners no longer in operation as well as some duplication, with certain businesses being listed twice under different names due to different purposes or products which are offered.

Source: Authors own

Table 1 Patterns of Product Suppliers on the Crocodile Ramble, 2007

Types of Products/Activities Accommodation Adventure activities Art studios and galleries Camping and caravanning Childrens activities Cottage furniture and antiques Craft, gifts and dcor Health and beauty Heritage and culture Nurseries and owers Pantry Restaurants Water activities Tour operators Conferences & wedding venues Wildlife lodges Picnic spots Other
Note: CR = Crocodile Ramble major routes HR = Hartbeespoort Dam route

*CR 36 20 8 3 20 5 11 6 8 4 1 48 0 2 37 11 7 4

**HR 11 9 2 3 5 0 5 0 2 2 1 11 1 2 8 5 5 0

Total 47 29 10 6 25 5 16 6 10 6 2 59 1 4 45 16 12 4

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Table 1 indicates the product mix in 2007 and represents separately the gures for the main Crocodile Ramble area and the route around the Hartbeespoort Dam. It is evident that the original arts-centred product mix has shifted to a much broader product mix, which is now dominated by restaurants, accommodation suppliers and conference or wedding venues. The range of accommodation suppliers spans expensive lodges, guesthouses, bed and breakfasts, selfcatering cottages, camping sites, and even a backpacker lodge which is housed in a converted double-decker bus. Other notable activities in the Crocodile Ramble area encompass the provision of adventure-tourism activities (especially hiking trails), special activities geared towards children, and several craft outlets, including a number of art galleries.61 A survey was undertaken during 2007 to examine the characteristics of entrepreneurs, their enterprises and the local impact62 of the Crocodile Ramble. The survey of 32 product owners along the Ramble embraced the following sample of enterprises: 12 accommodation providers, eight restaurants; four recreation tourism products; three arts and crafts establishments; two conference/wedding venues; two manufacturers of furniture; and one health spa. Signicantly, all product owners were white, the majority South African-born and 50-plus years of age. In common with the results from previous route-tourism studies in South Africa, respondents were well-educated with more than half the sample having tertiary qualications. The kinds of enterprises established along the Crocodile Ramble attract primarily a middle-to-upper-income clientele. Examples of niche markets targeted at mainly upper-income clients include exclusive cheese producers, makers of pianos or specialist furniture, expensive restaurants and exclusive guest lodges. Typically, one guest lodge decorated with a

mixture of antiques, Persian carpets and South African products boasts the countrys top chef and seeks to attract a more discerning clientele. Other businesses geared to high-income consumers include ballooning enterprises and adventure-tourism activities around extreme sports and ying. Average length of membership by enterprises on the Ramble was between two and ve years. One member had been associated with the route for 20 years, four enterprises for between 10 and 15 years, and ve for between six and nine years. Advertising and marketing support were the main reasons given (in 22 of 32 interviews) for joining the association. The main benets of the organisation were considered to be advertising and visibility on the map. In interviews, certain criticisms were directed at the fact that the original feel of the Ramble had been lost, and while it was now more comprehensive, it was no longer about artists. Overall, the sample of interviewees considered that the best form of advertising was through word of mouth. Indeed, many interview respondents reported that they had up to 90% repeat business from loyal customers. In terms of marketing importance, after word of mouth, magazine advertisements were considered the next most useful form of advertising. Signboards were mentioned as important (by 12 of 32 interviewees), even though there were many problems with obtaining the ofcially approved brown signs. Pamphlets were also rated as useful. Many larger enterprises also agged the rising importance of having websites. Few interviewees reported using newspaper adverts as marketing tools. The numbers of visitors received per enterprise each day varied enormously and depended upon the type and size of business or activity. For most enterprises, the weekend was generally peak time for visitors. Some

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businesses notably the accommodation providers had no dened low or high seasons and experienced consistent demand throughout the year. In particular, those lodges that offered additional activities, such as shing, found that visitor numbers did not drop in winter, but that the mid-week period was quiet. This was a marked trend among those accommodation providers not receiving corporate or government visitors during the week. As a whole, accommodation providers reported having more conference visitors in winter, and more families and couples in summer. Venues with multiple target groups tended to ll up with different groups at different times of the year. Weatherrelated activities, such as adventure or extreme sports, gliding and other outdoor activities experience the summer months as high season. Another variation for product suppliers who dealt mainly with families or children was the period of school holidays, with many more visitors recorded during summer and Easter school holidays than at other times of the year. Ownership of enterprises ranged from individual or family ownership, through partnerships to corporate enterprises, which included the hotels and larger adventure tour operations. Apart from those persons involved in long-established family businesses, the majority of operators of Ramble enterprises entered tourism from a non-tourism background. The diverse nature of previous occupations of the owners of Ramble enterprises included backgrounds in education, engineering, geology, computing, nance, farming, consulting, retailing, and in one case, a former owner of an ice-cream factory. Lifestyle considerations were a factor in opening many of the enterprises along the Ramble. Several interviewees indicated lifestyle choices in terms of being passionate about art, adventure sports, weaving, food or ballooning, or having a hobby that became a business. Illustratively, in the

case of one engineer who found travelling and time spent away from home very difcult, his hobbies became businesses through the establishment of a cheese factory on the Ramble. Other interviewees indicated that the initiation of an enterprise was linked to a life crisis or the desire for the freedom and quality of life offered by working for themselves while living in tranquil country surroundings. For the majority of respondents, the enterprise on the Ramble was the core source of household income; in a small number of cases it was recorded that the Ramble enterprise was a supplementary income source. Those entrepreneurs who operated businesses on family farms were often still involved in farming. Frequently, farm income would be more remunerative than the return from the (supplementary) Ramble business. A signicant nding was that several owners operated multiple businesses either along the Ramble, or combined a Ramble enterprise with another business outside the area. For example, the operator of an adventure academy along the Ramble also has a shop in Johannesburg which retails extreme sports equipment. As is common within tourism, small enterprise development in South Africa,63 the majority of Ramble entrepreneurs used their own savings or capital accumulated from a previous business for nancing the start-up of their businesses. Formal sector nancing through bank loans was of limited signicance for the establishment and growth of these tourism-route enterprises.64

Local Impacts and Planning for the Route to Township Tourism

The most critical local economic development impacts of the Crocodile Ramble relate to the creation of job opportunities. In terms of employment, the largest individual employer on the Ramble is the special case of Lanseria

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airport with 182 full-time employees. All the other businesses fall into the category of Small, Micro and Medium Enterprises (SMME) in terms of employing less than 50 workers. Two large hotels employ between 25 and 30 staff with additional part-time or casual employees taken on at peak season. Many of the smallest businesses only had part-time employees and some, such as the art galleries, employed workers on a commission-only basis. Family employment was mostly accounted for by the owner working in the business, with seven surveyed businesses employing two family members, and one employing three family members. Managerial staff ranged from one to 10 employees, and were almost exclusively white employees. By contrast, the majority of unskilled workers were black and mainly male. The majority of unskilled workers were drawn from the local area; it was observed, however, that a number of foreigners (particularly from Malawi) were engaged by Ramble enterprises in unskilled work. The upgrading of local labour skills is another signicant impact of tourism-led local economic development. In the Crocodile Ramble, the training offered by businesses to members of the local community was almost exclusively informal, on-the-job training. The specic type of training was dependent on the tourism product itself. For example, accommodation venues provided reception, domestic and gardening training to employees, and restaurants trained kitchen staff to a high standard to meet the nature and demands of their clientele. Some smaller accommodation providers were gradually training domestic staff to take over the activities of reception and bookings, in order to run the establishment when the owners were away. Undoubtedly, the major contributions made by these tourism businesses to local community development was through the provision of employment or training opportunities. Social

responsibility was also evident in many enterprises. One venue supported local companies which were compliant with Black Economic Empowerment (BEE) criteria, employed people from the area, and reduced their prices for local black schools. Many interviewees reported specically employing local people whenever construction or big events required a temporary increase in staff. Several venues had full BEE programmes of training and sought to promote black staff to more senior and skilled positions within the organisation. Lastly, most employers reported assisting staff and the immediate community on an ad hoc basis when emergencies arose. In terms of sourcing inputs or supplies for the running of the business, most enterprises relied either on local suppliers located in and around the Magaliesberg or on suppliers based in Johannesburg, Krugersdorp or Pretoria. The interview research revealed, however, limitations of both quality and cost among local suppliers of food produce, leading to several larger hotels and restaurants increasingly sourcing supplies from Johannesburg. The existing geographical pattern of sourcing of supplies points to a missed opportunity for local economic development in the areas surrounding the Crocodile Ramble. Overall, in a pattern that is similar to that recorded by other route-tourism initiatives in South Africa, the local developmental impacts of the Crocodile Ramble have been uneven and limited, especially with respect to the local black communities in the Magaliesberg area. It is against this backdrop that the West Rand District Municipality (WRDM) entered into a partnership with the Crocodile Ramble and launched a pro-poor initiative, the Route to Township Tourism, which aims to bring the townships and informal settlements into the product mix of the Crocodile Ramble. By doing

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so, it seeks to provide more experiences that international tourists would be drawn to, concerning the history of apartheid and showcasing the new South Africa.65 The Route to Township Tourism is an example of a pro-poor tourism initiative and is undertaken on the part of the WRDM. The initiative was based on recommendations made by a consultancy rm in detailed studies completed in 2005.66 The Route to Township Tourism involves cooperative advertising of township tourism products, which it is hoped will expand local tourism with impacts for increased local economic development and job creation in local communities. The initiative is a partnership between the CRA and the WRDM, the latter having funded the costs of printing for the four pages related to township tourism. Planning for township tourism to link with the Crocodile Ramble is part of the strategic plan to strengthen the tourism product portfolio of the West Rand as a whole.67 The tourism development strategy for West Rand prepared during 2005 made a series of recommendations for improving the existing tourism base of this region, which includes the four municipalities of Mogale City, Randfontein, Westonaria and Merafong City. Among the recommendations made to the WRDM was to build on and lever the successful tourism routes in the area to promote the potential for township tourism.68 The strategy proposed the establishment of a township package through encouraging cooperation between different township operators (accommodation, food and beverage outlets, township attractions) to form an integrated townshiptourism experience.69 In terms of route tourism, the most interesting proposal was to facilitate a partnership with the Crocodile Ramble and complementary product owners that form the Route to Township Tourism. Community meetings were held to publicise potential opportunities

linked to the development of township tourism in the area, and especially opportunities for black entrepreneurs to launch businesses in order to take advantage of synergies with established tourism products listed on the Ramble. At the base of the initiative is the inclusion of details of the Route to Township Tourism as the last four pages of the Crocodile Ramble brochure. Table 2 Enterprises Involved with the Route to Township Tourism
Type of Product or Activity Accommodation Heritage and culture Crafts, gifts and dcor Restaurants/shebeens Tours Art venue Pre-school Total 8 35 32 17 5 2 1

Note: Several enterprises were categorised as offering more than one type of product or activity.

In total, 94 tourism products are listed across various categories of activity, as shown in Table 2. The largest category of enterprises are involved in what would broadly be classed as the supply of heritage or cultural products, and includes community youth-development groups and cultural groups involved in different forms of traditional dance, choirs, specialist gumboot dancers, majorettes, gospel bands, poetry and hip-hop. It must be noted that emerging township enterprises listed in the brochure do not pay any fees for their inclusion, the cost of which is covered by the municipality. In order to obtain a picture of the progress and development of this pro-poor tourism route initiative of the Route to Township Tourism, 15 interviews were conducted during 2007 with product owners operating in the following

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areas: Kagiso, Munsieville, Bekkersdal, Lusaka, Mogale City, Mohlakeng, Randfontein and Zuurbekom. At the outset, a clear difference exists between the education levels of township operators and those of the Ramble. Among township entrepreneurs, formal education levels were much lower, with some operators having only Standard 6 to 8 as the highest educational qualication. The largest number of interviewees had a matric qualication, and several had diplomas, including in nursing. As indicated in Table 2, the mix of activities offered by township tourism entrepreneurs is in marked contrast to the kinds of activities marketed to the upper- and middle-income markets targeted by enterprises of the Crocodile Ramble. The township package experience is directed to complement rather than compete for the markets which are the focus of the Ramble. The reasons for business establishment and previous occupations of entrepreneurs varied widely. Of signicance was the fact that many of the township businesses were launched by necessity entrepreneurs with redundancy payments received after the loss of formal-sector work opportunities. For example, one entrepreneur had been a former manager at a Kentucky Fried Chicken outlet, and had started his restaurant business with redundancy monies. Another former stock controller used his retrenchment pay-out to start a shebeen as this business was his passion. Likewise, a former training ofcer and retrenched mineworker were among the group of township tourism operators. Another entrepreneur had worked at a plastics factory in Isando close to Johannesburgs OR Tambo International Airport; after the death of the factory owner and subsequent relocation of production overseas, he was unable to nd formal work and so launched a tourism enterprise. Overall, the establishment of marginal or second-economy tourism businesses has been

observed elsewhere as a common feature of township tourism.70 Several of the township businesses were started to assist with community development rather than as explicitly opportunistic tourism ventures. For example, one entrepreneur started her cultural group as a means to keep children off the streets; the children are mostly orphans. Another respondent wanted to help women nd employment, and linked to tourism to gain benet for the sewing done by local women. Another respondent had been unemployed but claimed she had a passion for sewing. She was able to start the business with R300 given to her by her brother to buy her rst machine; by 2007 she had six sewing machines and two overlockers which had been purchased from her business earnings. The teacher who was running the choir more or less as a hobby was qualied in terms of music diplomas and passionate about singing, and was asked by the community to launch a community choir. Not all businesses, however, would be categorised as emerging out of necessity rather than choice. In the case of a tour operator, the entrepreneur had formerly worked as a security guard at the University of the Witwatersrand in Johannesburg. The tour business started on a part-time basis on weekends, guiding international visitors to the University and around the Gauteng area. As this activity was so successful due to word-of-mouth and repeat business, it grew into a full-time tour business. Two other respondents had worked respectively as a shop assistant and a nurse, and wanted to earn additional funds on retirement. Another interviewee started a community centre from home and then turned it into a business. A shebeen owner had been earning money since his school days doing beer deliveries from home, and proclaimed the business to be in his blood. Another township shebeen owner also claimed to be passionate

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about the industry. One woman stated that she had dreamt of having a business and was inspired to open a tourism business after reading a newspaper article about a successful township bed-and-breakfast enterprise operating in Khayelitsha, Cape Town. Typically, at business start-up, most (11 of 15) emerging entrepreneurs had to resort to their own (often redundancy) funds or secure support from family members. Others began businesses with donations from churches or with support from government programmes. In particular, government support was secured by accommodation providers to build additional rooms and develop catering capabilities for conferences in the area. The direct nancial assistance given to bed-and-breakfast providers was exceptional. In most cases, assistance provided to entrepreneurs for business development was nonnancial. One community organisation assisted by the church received donations of sewing machines, material and old cottons as well as a private sector social-development fund grant of R20 000. In addition, the local Westonaria Mines and Gold Fields donated the land, and the municipality gave them use of the building. One township tour operator received capacity-building and mentoring support from the national Department of Trade and Industry (DTI). Training was a further basis for business assistance for these emerging businesses in township tourism. Several product owners received support for the development of their businesses in terms of training in nance and marketing, from DTI support programmes as well as provincial tourism-support initiatives. In the case of two suppliers of bed-and-breakfast accommodation, business support was furthered by their adoption by Southern Sun Hotels, which offered marketing and mentoring assistance. As businesses on the Route to Township Tourism are new and emerging, only a small

amount of employment is being generated. Indeed, at the time of the interviews in 2007, the business growth performance of nearly all the enterprises was marginal. One tour company entrepreneur had not received any tourists and did not know how to change this situation on his own. The three interviewed bed-andbreakfast providers described business as very quiet. The highest number of visitors they had received in one year was 13 (in 2005), the year of the initial launch of the township-tourism initiative, which accompanied a spate of advertising sponsored by the municipality. For 2006 and 2007, the reported gures were of one or two visitors a year. One B&B had received no visitors at all. This underscores the survivalist character of these township enterprises, many of which were (overly) optimistic concerning an upturn for real tourism arrivals linked to the forthcoming 2010 FIFA World Cup. These extraordinary low occupancies reect the wider problems of township-tourism enterprises as a result of poor marketing, market saturation and the homogeneous or undifferentiated nature of the product offering in accommodation establishments which have burgeoned in South Africas urban townships since 2000.71 Indeed, these struggling tourism SMMEs would be described as falling under the category of secondeconomy tourism entrepreneurs.72 The only business receiving steady international business was the tour guide who had formerly worked at the University of the Witwatersrand and had a good reputation and connections in place before launching his business. This individual continues to receive repeat business from loyal customers as well as referrals by word of mouth. Another tour guide had been making trips to Soweto for churches but had received no tourists through the linkage with the Crocodile Ramble. In terms of seeking to stimulate business development, marketing

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seminars or workshops were attended by four of the 15 interviewees. All 15 interviewees said they were happy at being included on the Crocodile Ramble brochure; two interviewees were unaware that they had even been listed. On the whole, these emerging entrepreneurs in township tourism remain hopeful that through this advertising, township tourism will eventually take off. The local municipality has promised the entrepreneurs signage and four interviewees had already received or were awaiting the arrival of their signs. The lack of signage was viewed as a problem by several entrepreneurs. One shebeen receiving mostly Gauteng clientele did not open from Monday to Thursday as weekdays were so quiet, but felt that with better signage and listing in the brochure, business might improve. Other businesses had received signage but were waiting for municipal approval for the street signs, having already erected the signs for the actual property.73 It is clear that the vast majority of townshiptourism businesses on the Route to Township Tourism are struggling and operating at bare survival level. Overall, the group of surveyed business entrepreneurs expressed the view that additional marketing, training and customer service was needed to improve their businesses. Despite the struggling nature of these businesses and the limited benets so far from belonging to this pro-poor tourism initiative, interviewees described the benets of belonging to the Route to Township Tourism as the enjoyment of doing something constructive, going to meetings, being in the Ramble brochure and being part of something vibrant and new.74

Conclusion
Tourism is a lead sector for local economic development planning in many parts of South

Africa and southern Africa more widely.75 In terms of initiating tourism-led local development, the approach of route tourism is emerging as an increasingly popular policy focus.76 The international experience demonstrates that the activity of route tourism is critically important for tourism planning, especially in small towns and rural areas.77 At its core, route tourism requires developing cooperative planning arrangements and relationships between different localities and different tourism product suppliers in order for them to compete collectively. Joining together a series of attractions allows marketing interventions to take advantage of the impact of cumulative attraction where despite their physical separation over a large area, enterprises are joined conceptually together as if they are located en route, in proximity, or in logical sequence to each other.78 The South African experience of routetourism initiatives has been one in which the private sector has assumed the lead in organising, energising and marketing tourism routes. The character of these route-tourism initiatives links to the promotion of motoring tourism, mainly by domestic rather than international visitors.79 The developmental impacts of these route-tourism initiatives have been observed to be uneven, mainly pro-growth and largely beneting the established and almost exclusively white tourism entrepreneurs, with limited spread effects to surrounding communities.80 In reviewing the limited impact upon local communities and especially upon emerging black entrepreneurs, criticism has been directed at the often minimal involvement of local government in route-tourism planning initiatives across South Africa.81 It is within this context that the evolving Crocodile Ramble presents an interesting case study for scholars of route tourism. The Crocodile Ramble started out as a typical private sector-

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led route-tourism initiative that was ignored and received no support or assistance from the local authority. Since 2005, however, there has been a shift in the attitude of the local authority, which has sought to engage in a new partnership with the private sector association and introduce township tourism as a complementary set of tourism products. Route planning has shifted from an exclusive pro-growth focus to incorporate elements of planning for pro-poor tourism. The local authority is combining its assistance

and planning with support programmes offered by both the provincial and national government. The goal is to support and upgrade the businesses of a group of emerging black entrepreneurs engaged in the Route to Township Tourism. Although early signs do not appear promising, the unfolding progress of the Route to Township Tourism requires future monitoring as a potentially innovative example of public interventions seeking pro-poor outcomes linked to the planning of route tourism.

Notes and References

1 Thanks are due to Wendy Job for the preparation of the gures in this paper and to the National Research Foundation, Pretoria for funding support. D Meyer, C Ashley and C Poultney, Developing Local Excursions for Tourists, Case Study Brief No. 5, Pro-poor Tourism Pilots (Southern Africa) Programme, available at www.pptpilot.org.za, 2004; X Greffe, Is Rural Tourism a Lever for Economic and Social Development? Journal of Sustainable Tourism 1994, 2: pp 23-40; K Meyer-Cech, Food Trails in Austria, Food Tourism Around the World: Development, Management, and Markets, CM Hall, L Sharples, R Mitchell, N Macionis and B Camborne (eds), London: Butterworth-Heinemann, 2003, pp 149-157; J Clarke, Effective Marketing for Rural Tourism, Rural Tourism and Sustainable Business, D Hall, I Kirkpatrick and M Mitchell (eds), Clevedon: Channel View, 2005, pp 87-102. C Moulin and P Boniface, Routeing Heritage for Tourism: Making Heritage and Cultural Tourism Networks for Socioeconomic Development, International Journal of Heritage Studies, 7 (3): pp 237-248, 2001. B Goodey, Heritage Trails: Rural Regeneration Through Tourism, Gloucester: University of Gloucestershire, 1997; Moulin and Boniface 2001; M Lourens, Route Tourism: A Roadmap for Successful Destinations and Local Economic Development, Development Southern Africa, 2007a, 24: pp 475-489. 5 6 Meyer, Ashley and Poultney 2004, p 1. D Meyer, Tourism Routes and Gateways: Key Issues for the Development of Tourism Routes and Gateways and Their Potential for Pro-poor Tourism, London: Overseas Development Institute, 2004; H-Y Shih, Network Characteristics of Drive Tourism Destinations: An Application of Network Analysis in Tourism, Tourism Management, 2006, 27: pp 1029-1039; M Lourens, The Underpinnings of Successful Route Tourism Development in South Africa, Unpublished MA dissertation, University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, 2007b; J Briedenhann and E Wickens, Tourism Routes as a Tool for the Economic Development of Rural Areas Vibrant Hope or Impossible Dream? Tourism Management, 2004a, 25: pp 71-79. Meyer 2004. DJ Telfer, Tastes of Niagara: Building Strategic Alliances Between Tourism and Agriculture, International Journal of Hospitality and Tourism Administration, 2000, 1 (1): pp 71-88; DJ Telfer, From a Wine Tourism Village to a Regional Wine Route: An Investigation of the Competitive Advantages of Embedded Clusters in Niagara, Canada, Tourism Recreation Research 2001b, 26 (2): pp 23-33; DJ Telfer, Strategic Alliances Along the Niagara Wine Route, Tourism Management 2001a, 22: pp 21-30; CM Hall, R Mitchell and L Sharples, Consuming Places: The Role of Food, Wine and Tourism in Regional Development, Food Tourism Around the World: Development, Management, and Markets, CM Hall, L Sharples, R Mitchell, N Macionis and B Camborne (eds), London: Butterworth-Heinemann, 2003, pp 25-59; L Correia, MJ Passos Ascencao and S Charters, Wine Routes in Portugal: A Case Study of the Bairrada Wine Route, Journal of Wine Research, 2004, 15 (1): pp 15-25; CM Hall, Rural Wine and Food Tourism Cluster and Network Development, Rural Tourism and Sustainable Business, D Hall, I Kirkpatrick and M Mitchell (eds), Clevedon: Channel View, 2005, pp 149-164; K Meyer-Cech, Regional Cooperation in Rural Theme Trails, Rural Tourism and Sustainable Business, D Hall, I Kirkpatrick and M Mitchell (eds), Clevedon: Channel View, 2005, pp 137-148; DJ Telfer and A Hashimoto, Food Tourism in the Niagara Region: The Development of Nouvelle Cuisine, Food Tourism Around the World: Development, Management, and Markets, CM Hall, L Sharples, R Mitchell, N Macionis and B Camborne (eds), London: Butterworth-Heinemann, 2003. pp 158-177. 9 Telfer 2000. 10 N Frey, Pilgrim Stories: On and Off the Road to Santiago, Berkeley: University of California Press, 1998; M Murray and B Graham, Exploring the Dialectics of Route-based Tourism: The Camino de Santiago, Tourism Management, 1997, 18: pp 513-524; LRC Gonzalez and JS Medina, Cultural Tourism and Urban Management in North-western Spain: The

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Pilgrimage to Santiago de Compostela, Tourism Geographies 2003, 5: pp 446460; DM Gilitz and L Kay, The Pilgrimage Road to Santiago, New York: St Martins Press, 2000. 11 Moulin and Boniface 2001, p 244. 12 Lourens 2007b; Goodey 1997; Moulin and Boniface 2001. 13 E Nel and CM Rogerson, Evolving Local Economic Development Policy and Practice in South Africa with Special Reference to Smaller Urban Centres, Urban Forum, 2007, 18 (2): pp 1-11; F Viljoen, Sustainability Indicators for Monitoring Tourism-route Development in Africa, Unpublished MA thesis, University of Stellenbosch, 2007; CM Rogerson, Tourism Routes as Vehicles for Local Economic Development in South Africa: The Example of the Magaliesberg Meander, Urban Forum, 2007. 18: pp 49-68. 14 W Kiambo, The Emerging Role of Tourism in Mozambiques Post-war Reconstruction, Africa Insight, 2005, 35 (4): pp 142148; ECI Africa, Community/routes Tourism Sector Study: Growth strategy, Unpublished report prepared for FRIDGE, Johannesburg, 2006a; Viljoen 2007. 15 Swaziland National Trust Commission, Ministers Launch New Lubombo Tourism Route at Indaba 2006, Available at www. sntc.org.sz/tourism/lubomboroute, 2007. 16 Swaziland National Trust Commission 2007, p 2. 17 Clarke 2005, p 94. 18 Viljoen 2007. 19 Meyer 2004. 20 G Visser, The World Wide Web and Tourism in South Africa: The Case of Open Africa, Tourism and Development Issues in Contemporary South Africa, 2004; HSRC (Human Sciences Research Council), Success and Challenges in Pro-poor Tourism, Unpublished report prepared for the Department of Environmental Affairs and Tourism, Pretoria, 2006a; Viljoen 2007. 21 HSRC 2006a. 22 Lourens 2007a, 2007b; CM Rogerson, Tourism-led Local Economic Development: The South African Experience, Urban Forum, 2002a, 13: pp 95-119; Rogerson 2002b; R Donaldson, Tourism in Small Town South

Africa, Urban Tourism in the Developing World: The South African Experience, CM Rogerson and G Visser (eds), New Brunswick NJ: Transaction, 2007, 307-325; H Stoddart, Route Tourism and Local Economic Development in South Africa: The Magalies Meander and the Crocodile Ramble, Gauteng and North-West Provinces, South Africa, Unpublished MA dissertation, University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, 2008; Rogerson 2007. 23 R Preston-Whyte, Wine Routes in South Africa, Wine Tourism Around the World: Development, Management and Markets, CM Hall, L Sharples, B Cambourne and N Macionis (eds), Oxford: Butterworth Heinemann, 2000, pp 103-114; R Nowers, E de Villiers and A Myburgh, Agricultural Theme Routes as a Diversication Strategy: The Western Cape Wine Routes Case Study, Agrekon, 2002, 41: pp 195-209. 24 D Matheld, Impacts of Accommodation and Craft-based Tourism on Local Economic Development: The Case of the Midlands Meander, Unpublished Masters Research Report, University of Natal, Durban, 2000; Meyer et al. 2004; Rogerson 2002a; Lourens 2007a, 2007b. 25 Briedenhann and Wickens 2004a; J Briedenhann and E Wickens, Rural Tourism Meeting the Challenges of the New South Africa, International Journal of Tourism Research, 2004b, 6: pp 189-203. 26 Donaldson 2007; Stoddart 2008; Rogerson 2007; E Nel and CM Rogerson (eds), Local Economic Development in the Developing World: The Experience of Southern Africa, New Brunswick NJ and London: Transaction Press, 2005; Lourens 2007a. 27 Briedenhann and Wickens 2004a, 2004b. 28 ECI Africa 2006a. 29 HSRC 2006a. 30 ECI Africa, Community/Routes Tourism Sector Study: Task 2 Desk Review, Unpublished report prepared for FRIDGE, Johannesburg, 2006b. 31 CM Rogerson and G Visser (eds), Pretoria: Africa Institute of South Africa, 2004, pp 335-354; G Visser and CM Rogerson, Researching the South African Tourism and Development Nexus, GeoJournal, 2004, 60: pp 201-215. 32 A Church, Local and Regional Tourism Policy and Power, A Companion to

Tourism, AA Lew, CM Hall and AM Williams (eds) Oxford: Blackwell, 2004, pp 555-568. 33 C Ashley and D Roe, Making Tourism Work for the Poor: Strategies and Challenges in Southern Africa, Development Southern Africa, 2002, 19: pp 61-82. 34 S Gardyne, TR Hill and E Nel, Tourism Promotion as a Local Government Response to Poverty: Ingwe Municipality, KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa, Africa Insight, 2005, 35 (4): pp 121-129; C Ashley and G Haysom, From Philanthropy to a Different Way of Doing Business: Strategies and Challenges in Integrating Pro-poor Approaches into Tourism Business, Development Southern Africa, 2006, 23: pp 265-80; CM Rogerson, Pro-poor Local Economic Development in South Africa: The Role of Pro-poor Tourism, Local Environment, 2006, 11: pp 37-60; CM Rogerson, Urban Tourism and Small Tourism Enterprise Development in Johannesburg: The Case of Township Tourism, GeoJournal, 2004b, 60: pp 249-257; Crocodile Ramble Information Centre, The Crocodile Ramble, Available at www.crocodileramble.co.za, 2006. 35 Rogerson 2007. 36 Stoddart 2008. 37 M Lourens, Personal Communication on Crocodile Ramble with Tourism Consultant, Johannesburg, 26 October 2006. 38 Lourens 2006. 39 M Brooke, Interview with Organiser of Crocodile Ramble Association, Johannesburg, 10 July 2007. 40 Brooke 2007. 41 Ibid. 42 Lourens 2006. 43 Brooke 2007. 44 Ibid. 45 Ibid. 46 Ibid. 47 Ibid. 48 Ibid. 49 Lourens 2006. 50 A Magnussen and G Visser, Developing a World Heritage Site: The Cradle of Humankind, Africa Insight 2003, 33 (1/2): pp 78-86.

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51 Lourens 2006. 52 Stoddart 2008. 53 Brooke 2007. 54 J Briedenhann, The Role of the Public Sector in Rural Tourism: Respondents Views, Current Issues in Tourism, 2007, 10: pp 584-607. 55 H Stoddart, Route Tourism and Local Economic Development in the Magalies Meander and Crocodile Ramble, Gauteng and North-West Provinces, South Africa, Unpublished paper, School of Geography, Archaeology & Environmental Studies, University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, 2005. 56 Stoddart 2005. 57 ECI Africa, Community/routes Tourism Sector Study: Growth strategy, Unpublished report prepared for FRIDGE, Johannesburg, 2006a, b; Meyer 2004; Lourens 2007b. 58 Stoddart 2008. 59 Ibid. 60 Ibid. 61 Crocodile Ramble Information Centre 2006.

62 Stoddart 2008. 63 CM Rogerson, Unpacking Tourism SMMEs in South Africa: Structure, Support Needs and Policy Response. Development Southern Africa, 2005, 22: pp 623-642; CM Rogerson, Tracking SMME Research in South Africas Priority Sectors, South African Journal of Economic and Management Sciences (NS) 2008, 11 (1): pp 54-68. 64 Stoddart 2008. 65 Ibid. 66 Atos KPMG Consulting, West Rand Tourism Development Strategy Phase One and Two Final Report, Report prepared for the West Rand District Municipality, Mogale City, 2005a; Atos KPMG Consulting, West Rand Tourism Development Strategy Phase Three Final Report, Report prepared for the West Rand District Municipality, Mogale City, 2005b. 67 Atos KPMG Consulting 2005a, 2005b. 68 Atos KPMG Consulting 2005a. 69 Atos KPMG Consulting 2005b, p 24. 70 Rogerson 2004b, 2005 71 Rogerson 2004b.

72 HSRC, A Study of the Tourism Second Economy, Unpublished report prepared for the Department of Environmental Affairs and Tourism, Pretoria, 2006b. 73 Stoddart 2008. 74 Ibid. 75 Nel and Rogerson 2007; Binns and E Nel, Tourism as a Local Development Strategy in South Africa, Geographical Journal, 2002, 168: pp 235-247; Nel and Rogerson 2005; Rogerson 2006. 76 Lourens 2007a, 2007b. 77 Briedenhann and Wickens 2004a, b; Meyer 2004; Clarke 2005. 78 Matheld 2000, p 54. 79 Lourens 2007b. 80 Rogerson 2002b; CM Rogerson, Tourism and Uneven Local Economic Development: The Experience of Route Tourism in South Africa, Tourism and Development Issues in Contemporary South Africa, CM Rogerson and G Visser (eds), Pretoria Africa Institute of South Africa, 2004a, pp 399-419; 2007. 81 Briedenhann and Wickens 2004a, 2004b; Rogerson 2007.

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