Embodiment or Envatment?

Reflections on the Bodily Basis of Consciousness Diego Cosmelli and Evan Thompson

Short Title: Embodiment or Envatment?

Diego Cosmelli Centro de Estudios Neurobilogicos, Departamento de Psiquiatra Universidad Catlica de Chile Santiago de Chile Chile Evan Thompson corresponding author! Department o" Philosoph# Universit# o" Toronto Toronto, $ntario %&S '() Canada evan*thompson+utoronto*ca

,ord count- .)'. including notes and re"erences/ not including title page!* To appear in 0ohn Ste1art, $livier 2apenne, and E3equiel di Paolo, eds*, Enaction: Towards a New Paradigm for Cognitive Science, %4T Press*

2 Embodiment or Envatment? Reflections on the Bodily Basis of Consciousness Diego Cosmelli and Evan Thompson

Suppose that a team o" neurosurgeons and bioengineers 1ere able to remove #our brain "rom #our bod#, suspend it in a li"e5sustaining vat o" liquid nutrients, and connect its neurons and nerve terminals b# 1ires to a supercomputer that 1ould stimulate it 1ith electrical impulses e6actl# li7e those it normall# receives 1hen embodied* (ccording to this brain5in5a5vat thought e6periment, #our envatted brain and #our embodied brain 1ould have sub8ectivel#

indistinguishable mental lives* 9or all #ou 7no1:so one argument goes :#ou could be such a brain in a vat right no1*' Daniel Dennett calls this sort o" philosophical thought e6periment an ;intuition pump< Dennett '..&!* (n intuition pump is designed to elicit certain intuitive convictions, but is not itsel" a proper argument;intuition pumps are "ine i" the#=re used correctl#, but the# can also be misused* The#=re not arguments, the#=re stories* 4nstead o" having a conclusion, the# pump an intuition* The# get #ou to sa# >(ha? $h, 4 get it?= Dennett '..&, p* '@)!* Philosophers have used the brain5in5a5vat stor# mainl# to raise the problem o" radical s7epticism and to elicit various intuitions about meaning and 7no1ledge Putnam '.@'!* The basic intuition the stor# tries to pump is that the envatted brain, though "ull# conscious, has s#stematicall# "alse belie"s about the 1orld, including itsel"* Some philosophers re8ect this intuition* The# propose that the envatted brain=s belie"s are reall# about its arti"icial environment or that it

3 has no real belie"s at all* (ccording to these proposals, the mental lives o" the t1o brains do not match, despite their being sub8ectivel# indistinguishable* Dennett '.A@! tells a classic variant o" the brain5in5a5vat stor#, one in 1hich he sees his o1n envatted brain and 7no1s it remotel# controls his o1n bod#, but still cannot e6perience himsel" as located 1here his brain is located* Bere the thought e6periment serves to raise questions about the locus o" the sel" in the ph#sical 1orld* Underl#ing these varied uses and rival assessments lies a "undamental, shared intuition:that a suitabl# 1or7ing human brain is not onl# necessar#, but also su""icient all on its o1n "or the instantiation or reali3ation o" our sub8ective mental li"e* 2iven our 7no1ledge that the ph#sical processes crucial "or human mentalit# occur in the human brain, it seems imaginable that these processes could occur in the absence o" the rest o" the bod#, as long as the right causal supports 1ere provided, and that such disembodiment

1ould ma7e no di""erence to our sub8ective e6perience* This idea is the deeper ;(ha? $h, 4 get it?< intuition the brain5in5a5vat stor# pumps* (s Dennett notes, philosophers o"ten "ail to set up their intuition pumps properl# b# "ailing to thin7 care"ull# about the requirements and implications o" their imagined scenarios* Crain5in5a5vat stories t#pi"# this shortcoming* Philosophers help themselves to this scenario and the basic intuition it is supposed to pump 1ithout thin7ing about 1hat the scenario actuall# demands o" our imagination 1hen 1e tr# to spell out the stor# in su""icient detail* 4n this 1a#, the# ma7e substantive empirical assumptions about the biological requirements "or consciousness that ma# 1ell be "alse, and the# ignore the di""icult conceptual problem o" ho1 to distinguish 1ithin those biological

4 requirements bet1een production o" 1hat contributes onl# causall# to the

sub8ective e6perience and 1hat constitutes or instantiates or reali3es sub8ective e6perience* ,e propose to ta7e Dennett=s advice to heart and thin7 care"ull# about the details o" this thought e6periment* 2iven our 7no1ledge o" the brain, 1hat do 1e need to speci"# in order to imagine properl# a brain in a vatD 4n addressing this question, 1e intend to put the brain5 in5a5vat thought e6periment to a ne1 use, namel#, to address the biolog# o" consciousness and to develop some ne1 considerations in support o" the enactive approach in cognitive science )EEA!* Thompson

The Argument Nutshell

in

,hen theorists invo7e the notion o" a brain5in5a5vat, the# invariabl# ta7e a unidirectional control perspective and vie1 the brain as a 7ind o" re"le6ive machine 1hose activit# is e6ternall# controllable* Fet numerous neurobiological considerations count against this vie1point and indicate that the brain needs to be seen as a comple6 and sel"5organi3ing d#namical s#stem that is tightl# coupled to the bod# at multiple levels* The "ollo1ing points in particular deserve mention Crain activit# is largel# generated endogenousl# and spontaneousl#* Crain activit# requires massive resources and regulator# processes "rom the rest o" the bod#*

5 Crain activit# pla#s crucial roles in li"e5regulation processes o" the entire organism and these processes necessitate the maintenance o" viable sensorimotor coupling 1ith the 1orld* Thus the neurall# enlivened organism meets the 1orld on its o1n, endogeneousl# generated, sensorimotor terms* 2iven these points, 1e propose the "ollo1ing null h#pothesis "or the brain5in5a5vat thought e6periment- (n# trul# "unctional ;vat< 1ould need to be a surrogate bod# sub8ect to control b# the brain* C# ;bod#< 1e mean a sel"5 regulating s#stem comprising its o1n internal, homeod#namic processes and capable o" sensorimotor coupling 1ith the outside 1orld* 4n short, the so5called vat 1ould be no vat at all, but rather some 7ind o" autonomous embodied agent* This supposition has an important implication* 4t implies that our de"ault assumption should be that the biological requirements "or sub8ective e6perience are not particular brain regions or areas as such, but rather some crucial set o" integrated neural5somatic s#stems capable o" autonomous "unctioning* This assumption is one o" the core 1or7ing assumptions o" the enactive approach Thompson )EEA!*

Enactive versus Consciousness

Neurocentric

Vie s

of

Ce"ore loo7ing at the supporting evidence "or the above argument, 1e need to introduce some important concepts and distinctions* ,e can begin 1ith the "ollo1ing enactive proposal about the brain basis o" consciousness-

6 G,He con8ecture cruciall# on the that consciousness depends

manner in 1hich brain d#namics are embedded in the somatic and environmental conte6t o" the animal=s li"e, and there"ore that there ma# be no such thing as a minimal internal neural correlate 1hose intrinsic properties are su""icient to produce conscious e6perience Thompson and Iarela )EE', p* J)&!*

(ccording

to

this

proposal,

the

processes

crucial

"or

consciousness are not con"ined to the brain, but include the bod# embedded in the environment* 9or e6ample, somatic li"e5regulation processes contribute to a""ect and sense o" sel" Damasio '...!, 1hile d#namic sensorimotor activit# contributes to the qualitative content o" perceptual e6perience Burle# and NoK )EEL!* Ned Cloc7 )EE&a! has recentl# argued that this sort o" proposal "ails to distinguish clearl# bet1een causation and constitution, that is, bet1een 1hat causall# contributes to consciousness and 1hat vie1,

neurobiologicall# constitutes consciousness* 4n the orthodo6

although conscious e6perience causall# depends on the bod# and environment, it is directl# determined b# brain activit#*) This vie1 can be given either a neuroscienti"ic or philosophical "ormulation* (ccording to the neuroscience version, some speci"ic neural s#stem or set o" neural processes is the minimal biological substrate "or conscious e6perience* (ccording to the philosoph# version, some speci"ic set o" neural processes is the minimal su""icient condition or minimal supervenience base or minimal reali3ing s#stem "or conscious e6perience* ( proper statement o" this orthodo6 vie1, ho1ever, requires some re"inements* ,e need to distinguish bet1een the core neural realization and the

7 total neural realization o" consciousness or a given conscious state Cloc7 )EE&b/ Chalmers )EEE!* 4n general, the core reali3ation o" a propert# or a capacit# su""ices "or that propert# or capacit# onl# 1hen placed in the conte6t o" a larger s#stem that constitutes the total reali3ation Shoema7er '.@'/ ,ilson )EE'!* Cloc7 proposes that ;the core NCC Gneural correlate o" consciousnessH is the part o" the total NCC that distinguishes one conscious state "rom another:the rest o" the total NCC being considered as the enabling conditions "or the conscious e6perience< Cloc7 )EE&b, p* JA!* Fet even this "ormulation remains incomplete* 4n general, the total reali3ation o" a propert# or a capacit# su""ices "or that propert# or capacit# onl# given the appropriate background conditions ,ilson

)EE'!* So the total neural reali3ation su""ices "or consciousness onl# given certain bac7ground conditions, 1hich in the normal case include nonneural parts o" the bod# and the environment* ,e can no1 give a "uller statement o" the orthodo6 and neurocentric vie1 o" consciousness* 2iven the appropriate bac7ground conditions e*g*, in the bod# and the environment!, the total neural reali3er su""ices "or consciousness all b# itsel", 1hile the core neural reali3er su""ices to determine a given conscious state as speci"ied b# its content! and thus to distinguish one conscious state "rom another* ,hen 1e spell out the neurocentric vie1 in this 1a# 1e bring to light a number o" important problems that have been largel# ignored b# philosophical discussions that rel# on the causal5versus5constitutive distinction "or the brain basis o" consciousness* Bere is a list o" these problems-

8 4n the case at hand, it is not clear ho1 to dra1 the causalMconstitutive distinction* ,hat are the criteria "or determining 1hat is causal and 1hat is constitutive in the neurobiolog# o" consciousnessD The same question can be raised about the notions o" core reali3ation, total reali3ation, and bac7ground conditions* ,hat are the criteria "or dra1ing these distinctions and appl#ing

them to the neurobiolog# o" consciousnessD ( given core reali3er andMor constitutive supervenience base are usuall# identi"ied b# appealing to 1hat pla#s the most salient causal role 1ith regard to the instantiation o" some propert#* 4n the case o" the brain basis o" consciousness, ho1ever, 1hat pla#s the most salient causal role in an# given case is "ar "rom clear see the ne6t point!* The question, ,hat pla#s the most salient causal roleD, t#picall# cannot be ans1ered "or comple6 nonlinear! s#stems, such as the brain, b# pointing to the behavior o" individual elements independent o" the conte6t o" all the other state variables o" the s#stem Cosmelli et al* )EEA/ ,agner '...!* 4n dense

nonlinear s#stems 1here all state variables interact 1ith each other, an# change in an individual variable becomes inseparable "rom the state o" the entire s#stem* 4n such cases, the distinction bet1een regular causes regularities in the s#stem=s behavior! and singular causes unique nonrepeatable events that change the s#stem=s behavior! becomes meaningless ,agner '...!,

and there is arguabl# no core reali3er "or a given propert# or behavior less than the s#stem itsel"* 9inall#, causal salience is an interest5relative and conte6t5 sensitive notion* There"ore, 1e seem to have no independent grip on constitution or

9 reali3ation as metaph#sical notions! apart "rom particular e6planator# conte6ts* These considerations suggest the "ollo1ing thoughts* (t present, 1e have no clear 1a# to dra1 the line bet1een 1hat is constitutive and 1hat is causal in the biolog# o" consciousness* To dra1 this line 1e 1ould need to have a "ar more developed understanding o" the brain as a comple6 s#stem and ho1 its activit# as a comple6 s#stem is related to the bod# and environment* 4n the absence o" this 7no1ledge, 1e cannot assume that the brain su""ices to reali3e consciousness all on its o1n apart "rom the bod#, or that particular neural s#stems su""ice to reali3e one or another conscious state independent o" the rest o" the brain and the bod#* Bo1, then, might 1e proceed in the "ace o" these problemsD $ne 1a# 1ould be to as7 1hat 1e could remove on the bodil# side "rom a normal embodied brain 1hile still preserving consciousness* 4ndeed, the brain5in5a5vat thought e6periment proceeds e6actl# this 1a#, b# assuming that 1e could remove the bod# entirel#, as long as ever#thing else in the brain 1ere held constant* 4n this 1a#, the bod# can be sho1n to be inessential "or the reali3ation o" consciousness, that is, as merel# causall# supportive or enabling, but not

constitutive* Fet 1hat i" it 1ere not possible to hold ever#thing in the brain constant in the absence o" the bod#D 4" certain brain processes simpl# could not be reali3ed in the absence o" the bod#, and these brain processes included those crucial "or consciousness, then 1e 1ould have reason to believe that the bod# is not merel# causall# enabling "or consciousness, but also constitutive* The argument o" this paper is that the brain5in5vat thought e6periment, 1hen spelled out 1ith the requisite detail, suggests precisel# this result*

10

A Close !oo" at the Brain in a Vat ,e no1 need to e6amine in some detail the supporting evidence "or this argument* 4n particular, 1e need to consider '! the demands

o" 7eeping the brain alive and up and running, )! the spontaneous and endogenous activit# o" the brain in relation to the bod#, and L! 1hat it ta7es to mimic precisel# the stimulation the nervous s#stem normall# receives "rom the environment*

Keeping the brain up and running Ce"ore getting to the point 1here 1e can stimulate the envatted brain or nervous s#stem in a 1a# that duplicates the stimulation it normall# receives "rom the bod# and environment, 1e need to 7eep it alive and "unctioning* This alread# is no mean "eat* 9irst, 1e need some protective apparatus "or the brain* This apparatus serves to replace the s7ull and spine, i" 1e choose to 7eep the spinal cord!* To ensure the brain=s "lotation, the protective device must be "illed 1ith a liquid analogous to the cerebrospinal "luid CS9!* This liquid needs to be able remove 1aste products o" neuronal metabolism and there"ore needs to be continuall# rec#cled Cro1n et al*, )EEJ/ Davson and Segal, '.A'/ Segal, '..L!* $ne 1a# to achieve such rec#cling 1ould be to couple the protective "luid to the second thing 1e need:a circulator# s#stem* (lmost ever#one has e6perienced the intense di33iness that accompanies standing up "ast and the resultant cognitive impairment* The unimpeded suppl#

11 o" blood to ever# part o" the brain is critical "or its "unctioning and b# no means a trivial ph#siological accomplishment* To envat the brain, 1e must provide an adequate blood suppl# or alternativel#, a "luid 1ith similar biochemical properties!* 9or this tas7 1e could probabl# choose to 7eep the vascular s#stem in place as a deliver# structure*

(lternativel#, in the true spirit o" the thought e6periment, 1e can imagine replacing the entire cerebral vasculature 1ith some s#nthetic device that sho1s similar properties o" selective permeabilit# and local and s#stemic responsiveness to the ongoing demands o" the brain5to5 be5 maintained* Such local and s#stemic responsiveness is

absolutel# crucial* ,ithout it there 1ould be no 1a# to compensate "or even minimal departures "rom homeostasis due to neuronal activit#, 1ith "atal consequences "or our e6periment* (s earl# as '@.E No# and Sherrington proposed that there should e6ist ;an automatic mechanism b# 1hich the blood suppl# o" an# part o" the cerebral tissue is varied in accordance 1ith the activit# o" the chemical changes 1hich underlie the "unctional activation o" that part< No# and Sherrington '@.E!* The coupling o" blood "lo1 and

neuronal activit# is a 1ell established and basic ph#siological "act 7no1n as "unctional h#peremia B#der et al* '.../ Naichle and Stone '.A'/ Shulman et al* )EE)!* 4ndeed, man# o" the results in"orming contemporar# h#potheses about the relation bet1een brain and mind come "rom measurements o" neuronal activit# "%N4, PET! that rel# on di""erent aspects o" this coupling Oogothetis and P"eu""er )EEJ!*

(lthough the actual mechanisms underl#ing this tight coupling are not "ull# understood, it appears that a variet# o" processes participate in the regulation o" local blood "lo1, including direct neuronal release o" vasoactive metabolic "actors such as BP, QP, lactate,

12 adenosine, glutamate5induced neuronal production o" nitric o6ide, and several neurotransmitters/ see Qandel et al* )EEE/ Qrimer et al* '..@/ Paspalas and Papadopoulos '..@/ Fang et al* )EEE!, astroc#te5mediated QP siphoning "rom active s#naptic regions to the local microvasculature, and Ca)P dependent release o" vasoactive molecules through the astroc#te perivascular end"eet (nderson and Nedergaard )EEL/

Ronta et al* )EEL!* $ur sustaining s#stem must there"ore be capable o" responding locall# to these and probabl# other! "actors in a highl# speci"ic and e""icient 1a# in order to sustain the local needs arising "rom ongoing neuronal activit#* 4t is not di""icult to see that an# such s#nthetic apparatus 1ould probabl# be as sophisticated as an actual vascular s#stem in both its structural "eatures and "unctional capacities* Suppose 1e have succeeded in setting up such an immensel# comple6 s#stem* 4t 1ould then be necessar# to move the "luid through the deliver# structure* Bere some 7ind o" pump is needed, as 1ell as some minimal and highl# selective rec#cling s#stem "or

replenishing the "luid=s necesssar# components, glucose, and the numerous soluble

including

o6#gen,

ions, proteins, and other

biomolecules that account "or the "luid=s osmotic, nutrient, and regulator# properties* This pump and rec#cling s#stem needs to be responsive to the brain=s actual demands* To achieve this goal, some level o" the brain=s activit# needs to be coupled to the "unctioning o" the circulator# s#stem* Such coupling 1ould ensure the local availabilit# o" the soluble "actors provided b# the circulator# s#stem and 1ould 7eep the concentration o" the circulating molecules and ions 1ithin a ph#siological range despite continuous demands "rom the neuronal tissue*L

13 To meet these needs, the brain normall# relies on a series o" mechanisms involving multiple regulator# loops in addition to those controlling the mechanical circulation o" the blood!* 9or e6ample, the main

neuroendocrine regulator# loop responsible "or the control and allocation o" glucose:probabl# one the most important parameters "or brain "unction )EEJ!:is Under the Qandel et al, )EEE/ Peters et al* )EE)/ Peters et al* limbic5h#pothalamic5pituitar#5adrenal conditions, the brain controls the OBP(! a6is* o"

normal

allocation

glucose through at least t1o mechanisms* $n the one hand, a tight coupling e6ists bet1een neuronal activit# and glucose upta7e "rom the blood through the astroc#te end5"eet glucose transporter 2OUT'* This local and rapid on5demand mechanism depends on s#naptic glutamate release and an adequate electrochemical sodium gradient across the astroc#tic membrane, and there"ore alread# represents an important level o" coupling bet1een energ# availabilit# and ion balance* $n the other hand, the brain can regulate the level o" glucose in the blood through the OBP( s#stem, 1hereb# it controls the release "rom adrenal corte6 o" cortisol 1hich acts as a "eedbac7 signal to control the activit# o" receptors! and the OBP( s#stem through "rom corticosteroid adrenal brain

adrenalin release

the

medulla

through s#mpathetic innervations!* The release o" these hormones: along 1ith the inhibition o" insulin release "rom the pancreas and suppresion o" muscular and adipose tissue glucose upta7e:results in the rise o" glucose concentration in the blood in a manner that directl# depends on the actual 1or7ings o" the brain and probabl# the bod#!* The multiplicit# and comple6it# o" analogous regulator# loops involving organs outside the brain, including such "actors critical to neuronal "unction as electrol#te balance Bebert et al* '..A/ Simard and Nedergaard )EEJ/ Fano et al*

14 )EEJ! and 1ater homeostasis (mir#5%oghaddam and $tterson )EEL/ 2rubb et al*, '.AA!, can be seen b# revie1ing an# standard ph#siolog# te6tboo7* Oet us summari3e the discussion up to this point* Bo1ever simpli"ied the li"e5sustaining s#stem 1e produce "or a brain in a vat, this s#stem must involve at least the capacit# to 7eep up 1ith the energetic, ionic, osmotic, and rec#cling needs o" the brain* 4t 1ill there"ore include some 7ind o" circulator# s#stem plus the necessar# pumps, o6#genating devices, and additional subs#stems "or ensuring the maintenance o" ph#siological levels in the circulating "luid* These points are obvious* The "ollo1ing point, ho1ever, is not so obvious,hat the brain requires at an# given instant depends on its o1n ongoing, moment5to5 moment activit#* There"ore, the li"e5sustaining s#stem must not onl# be supportive o" this activit#, but also locall# and s#stemicall# receptive and responsive to it at an# given instant, independent o" an# e6ternal evaluation o" the brain=s needs*

Consequentl#, to 7eep the brain alive and "unctioning, this responsive s#stem 1ill most li7el# need to be energeticall# open, and sel"5 maintaining in a highl# selective manner* 4n other 1ords, it 1ill need to have some 7ind o" autonom#* This s#stem is starting to loo7 less li7e a vat and more li7e a bod#*

ife! "omeod#namics! and the $od#% Coupled $rain 4n tr#ing to "ill in some o" the design speci"ications "or a s#stem capable o" 7eeping an envatted brain up and running, 1e began b# ta7ing an e6ternal and unidirectional control perspective* 9rom this perspective, the issue is ho1 to control the brain "rom outside so that it remains alive and "unctioning* Fet once

15 1e ta7e into account the brain=s endogenous 1or7ings, it becomes obvious that our li"e5sustaining s#stem must be intimatel# coupled to the nervous s#stem=s labile activit# at almost ever# level o" this s#stem=s construction and operation* This "undamental requirement necessitates a radical shi"t in ho1 1e thin7 about our vat* ,hatever li"e5sustaining s#stem 1e construct, the "unctioning o" its ever# part, as 1ell as its overall coordinated activit#, must be 7ept 1ithin a certain range b# the nervous s#stem itsel" in order "or the brain to 1or7 properl#* Bence the e6ternal and unidirectional control perspective is not generall# valid* 4nstead, our li"e5sustaining s#stem and the brain need to be seen as reciprocall# coupled and mutuall# regulating s#stems* The tight coupling bet1een brain and bod# lies at the heart o" the maintenance o" organismic unit# Damasio '.../ She1mon )EE'/ S1anson )EE)!* $n the one hand, the nervous s#stem tightl# couples to the "unctioning o" the bod# through numerous regulator# loops/ on the other hand, the bod#=s proper "unctioning ensures the brain=s persistence as a "unctional subs#stem* The nervous s#stem=s basic role is to ensure the maintenance o" a homeod#namic regime* The nervous s#stem evolved to coordinate movement:probabl# one o" the most challenging threats to homeostasis:b# s#stematicall# coupling motor and sensor# sur"aces 1hile providing a stable, internal biochemical milieu S1anson )EEE, )EE)!* 4n constructing our vat, 1e need to 7eep in mind this crucial "act o" neurall# mediated organismic it provides the o" basic re"erence point "or

integration,

because the

understanding

signi"icance

neuronal

activation

overall*

(ccording to a number o" authors, it also provides the basic underpinnings "or sub8ectivit# or the phenomenal sense o" sel" Craig )EE)/

16 Damasio '..@, '.../ Pan7sepp '..@a, '..@b/ Parvi3i and Damasio )EE'/ Saper )EE)!* 9rom Da Iinci=s pithed "rog to current studies on the tight relationship bet1een damage to midbrain structures and comatose or persistent vegetative states, the importance o" the nervous s#stem "or 7eeping the organism alive, a1a7e, and behaving adaptivel# has been ampl# demonstrated Clessing, '..A!* Fet speci"ic proposals about ho1 consciousness is related to bodil# li"e5 regulation have onl# recentl# appeared Damasio '.../ Pan7sepp '..@a, '..@b/ Parvi3i

and Damasio )EE'!* (ccording to these proposals, the ph#siological constitution o" a stable #et d#namic ;core sel"< acts as an essential organi3ing principle "or consciousness and derives "rom the nervous s#stem=s capacit# to monitor and ensure the bod#=s integrit#* 4" our envatted brain is to have a sub8ective sense o" sel" comparable to that o" an embodied brain, then 1e need someho1 to preserve this core sel" "or the brain in a vat* To appreciate the comple6it# o" this

requirement, it is 1orth mentioning a "e1 details "rom these proposals about the neural constitution o" the core sel"* (ccording to Damasio '..@, '...!, the nervous s#stem

provides a stable ongoing map o" the bod# b# continuall# tracing the state o" the bod# through a series o" core neural structures* This neural map constitutes a ;proto5sel"< that provides a re"erence point "or cognitive and conscious capacities, thereb# anchoring these capacities in a "undamental li"e5preservation c#cle Parvi3i and Damasio )EE'!* The relevant core neural structures comprise several levels o" the neura6is, including brainstem nuclei o" bodil# regulation,

h#pothalamus and basal "orebrain, and insular and somatosensor# cortices, including medial parietal areas* 4n this "rame1or7,

interoception provides the organism 1ith

17 continuous updated in"ormation about the internal state o" the entire bod#, not 8ust the viscera Craig )EE), )EEL/ Saper )EE)!* Signals

converging onto core neural structures

mainl# at the level o" the

brainstem! "rom proprioceptive, vestibular, visceral, and other internal sources, combined 1ith corresponding e""erent regulator# processes that 7eep these parameters 1ithin a tight domain o" possible values, establish internal d#namical regularities that ensure the organism=s viabilit# through changing internal and e6ternal conditions* To support ;mental processes and behaviors conducive to "urther homeosatic regulation< Parvi3i and Damasio )EE', p* '&'!, global bodil# signals need to be integrated 1ith the state o" activation o" the corte6* This integration occurs through brainstem nuclei providing a comple6 net1or7 o" modulator# e""ects on cortical activit#,J structures 1hile rostral

such as the am#gdala, cingulate g#rus, insula, and

pre"rontal corte6! provide descending in"luences on these brainstem structures* The importance o" the basic sel"5preserving and sel"5monitoring organi3ation o" the nervous s#stem 1ithin the bod# is li7e1ise a central theme in Pan7sepp=s 1or7 on a""ective neuroscience Pan7sepp

'..@a, '..@b!* (ccording to Pan7sepp, a speci"ic region in the midbrain, the periaqueductal gra# P(2!, quali"ies as a massive

convergence 3one 1here emotional and attentional circuits coming "rom rostral regions in the "orebrain interact not onl# 1ith sensor# and vestibular signals converging "rom the ad8acent colliculi and deep tectal areas, but also 1ith motor maps present in the deep la#ers o" the superior colliculi SC! as 1ell as motor signals "rom the

mesencephalic locomotor region Pan7sepp '..@b!* Pan7sepp proposes that primar# consciousness is more closel# lin7ed to internal motor processes than e6teroceptive sensor#

processes* The primal motor

18 map than in do the the SC maintains more stable motor coordinates

corresponding sensor# maps and thus provides a secure sel"5 re"erential set o" internal motor coordinates upon 1hich various sensor# and higher perceptual processes can operate Pan7sepp

'..@b!* P(2 constitutes the core o" the visceral5 h#pothalamic5limbic a6is responsible "or the primitive sel"5centered emotional and

motivational s#stems that interact 1ith the cognitivel# oriented core o" the somatic5thalamic5neocortical a6is* Thus, in Pan7sepp=s vie1, P(2 serves as the substrate "or a primal a""ective and sensorimotor sense o" sel"* (lthough speci"ics, Damasio and Pan7sepp di""er on various

the# converge on certain "undamental points* 9irst, li"e5

regulation processes involving neural mappings o" the bod# constitute a core sel" that grounds both neural activit# activit# relevant to consciousness in overall and neural

particular* Second, primar#

consciousness includes an invariant basal a1areness that remains constant across changing sensor# contents* Third, this basal a1areness is structured b# an a""ective sense o" phenomenal sel"hood and thus constitutes a minimal consciousness or "orm o" sub8ectivit#* 9inall#, primar#

sub8ectivit# needs to be seen as a large5scale

"eature o" the homeod#namic li"e5regulation processes e""ected b# the nervous s#stem* $ne more t#pe o" evidence "or the notion o" a vigilant and homeod#namicall# evidence dedicated brain bears mention here* This

comes "rom

"unctional

magnetic

resonance

imaging

"%N4! studies* C# anal#3ing a series o" studies sho1ing s#stematic tas75independent decrease in activation in certain brain areas, 2usnard and Nichle )EE'! uncovered a set o" cortical regions that appear to be continuousl# active during the resting state and 1hose activit# decreases onl# upon goal5directed behavior* These cortical

regions "all into "our

19

20 main groupsi! parietal regions posterior medial cortices, including medial

these regions "orm part o" the proto5sel" "or Damasio!/ ii! in"erior lateral parietal cortices that also sho1 signi"icant activation 1hen recovering "rom anesthesia/ iii! ventral medial pre"rontal areas, 1hich interestingl# receive convergence o" internal bodil# in"ormation and e6ternal sensor# in"ormation through the orbital regions, and have

strong connections to limbic structures, am#gdala, ventral striatum, h#pothalamus, P(2, and other brainstem nuclei/ and iv! dorsal medial pre"rontal corte6, 1hich is also active during sel"5directed behavior, such as monitoring one=s o1n mental state 2usnard and Naichle

)EE'!* These results are consistent 1ith the h#pothesis that the brain, during resting conditions, is in a state o" active bodil# sel"5monitoring* 9urthermore, Naichle discusses another relevant issue in this conte6t "rom a cost5anal#sis perspective Naichle )EES/ Naichle and %intun )EES!- 2iven that the brain needs no more than 'T o" its total ;energ# budget< to deal 1ith environmental demands,

maintaining endogenous activit# 1ithin viable limits is probabl# the most relevant tas7 "or the brain* 4n our vie1, this point suggests that sel"5sustaining ongoing activit#, 1hich is cruciall# coupled to the "unctioning o" the bod#, holds the highest level in the

control o" brain "unctioning* Oet us return once again to our brain in a vat* 4" the above proposals and h#potheses are sound, and i" 1e 1ere able to set up a li"e5sustaining s#stem that also enabled the brain to maintain these sel"5related homeod#namic regimes, then 1e 1ould have reason to believe that some 7ind o" phenomenal sub8ectivit# had been reali3ed or instantiated b# the envatted brain* This instantiation o" sub8ectivit# 1ould depend on the integrit# o" the regulator# loops both 1ithin

21 the brain and bet1een the brain and its supporting vat5s#stem, "or these loops are 1hat ensure the e6istence o" the sel"5sustaining domain o" ph#siological activit# crucial "or sub8ectivit#* 9rom a neurocentric and unidirectional control perspective, it 1ould seem that the brain is the superordinate controller o" these regulator# loops* Cut this perspective is one5sided* 4t overloo7s basic ph#siolog#, 1hich tells us that the brain=s "unctioning is also subordinate to the maintenance o" bodil# homeostasis* (s 1e have seen, the nervous s#stem=s activit# is ine6tricabl# coupled to the bod# and subordinate to the integrit# o" regulator# processes that e6tend throughout the bod#* Thus brain and bod# are simultaneousl# both subordinate and superordinate in relation to each other* Put another 1a#, neither one is intrinsicall# subordinate or superordinate/ rather, the# are reciprocall# coupled and mutuall# regulating* The point 1e 1ish to stress no1 is that this sort o" dense reciprocal coupling bet1een neuronal and e6traneuronal s#stems must be in place in order "or our envatted brain to instantiate or reali3e the neural processes crucial "or phenomenal sel"hood or sub8ectivit#* Bence the total reali3ation base "or the sub8ectivit# o" the envatted brain corresponds to the s#stem constituted b# the coupling o" these neuronal and e6traneuronal subs#stems* 4n other 1ords, the total reali3er su""icing "or sub8ectivit# is the brain5plus5vat and not the brain alone* ,hat about the core reali3er "or sub8ectivit#D 4s it purel# neuralD 4t is di""icult to sa#* 4" 1e could turn sub8ectivit# on and o"" b# a""ecting neuronal activation alone 1hile leaving ever#thing e6traneuronal unchanged, then 1e 1ould most li7el# conclude 1e had "ound

the core neural reali3er "or

22 sub8ectivit#* $" course, unless our brain in a vat could someho1 report its states to us, 1e 1ould have no 1a# o" 7no1ing 1hether 1e 1ere turning sub8ectivit# on and o""* Philosophers are "amiliar 1ith this sort o" problem/ it is a variant on the problem o" other minds* 4t is not this problem, ho1ever, 1e 1ish to emphasi3e, but rather the "ollo1ing one* 2iven the dense reciprocal coupling bet1een neuronal and

e6traneuronal s#stems, there can be no neural change 1ithout a cascade o" changes in man# e6traneuronal parameters* Turning sub8ectivit# on and o"" 1ould entail s#stematic alteration o" these e6traneuronal parameters 8ust as much as s#stematic alteration o" the neuronal ones* (s 1e have seen, an# change in neuronal activation implies a departure "rom homeostasis that demands immediate ph#siological compensation and this compensation must itsel" be regulated b# the nervous s#stem* To use d#namical s#stems language, neuronal and e6traneuronal state variables are so

densel# coupled as to be nonseparable* 9rom this perspective, the core reali3er "or sub8ectivit# loo7s to be nothing less than some crucial set o" densel# coupled neuronal and e6traneuronal processes* 4" this is right, then there ma# be no such thing as a purel# neural core reali3er "or sub8ectivit#*

&imicking stimulation

environmental

,e still need to consider 1hat it 1ould ta7e to produce speci"ic conscious states, distinguished b# their sensor# contents, in the envatted brain* Bere the minimal requirement is to deliver stimulation to the neuronal terminals that duplicates or matches precisel# the stimulation the brain normall# receives "rom the environment*

23 The "irst point to be stressed is that such stimulation 1ould have to be delivered 1ithout disrupting the li"e5sustaining s#stem alread#

established* This point is crucial* (dequate stimulating devices need to be constructed so that the# can be integrated seamlessl# into the vat* The comple6it# o" such devices cannot be underestimated* 4magine an arti"icial device capable o" stimulating ever# "iber o" the optic nerve in per"ect correlation 1ith the light pattern o" the scene to be recreated, guaranteeing all the d#namic receptive "ield relations "ound originall# among retinal cells, maintaining per"ect s#nchron# 1ith the e6plorator# motor e""erence o" the brain as it scans through the virtual image, and updating its activit# so as to match precisel# the sensor# rea""erence* $ur arti"icial stimulating devices must there"ore meet t1o basic requirements* $n the one hand, the stimulation delivered to the neuronal terminals must mimic that obtained b# the embodied nervous s#stem* $n the other hand, the devices must not disrupt the overall homeod#namic domain o" activit# crucial "or li"e5regulation and sub8ectivit#* These requirements suggest that our arti"icial stimulating devices must themselves be sub8ect to tight regulation "rom the nervous s#stem through arti"icial sensorimotor loops* 4t is 1orth considering in this connection some e6amples o" the important role that peripheral, nonneuronal processes pla# in the generation o" neural activit#* Consider "irst the development o" spinal re"le6 circuits Schouenborg )EEL, )EEJ!* Bere it is crucial that the sensorimotor circuit be "inel# matched to the peripher# "or "unctional adequac#* Sensor# "eedbac7 "rom spontaneous muscle analogous to human t1itches ocurring during sleep and

"etal movements! is critical "or adapting the Petersson et

connections in spinal re"le6 modules to bod# anatom# al* )EEL! and "or determining the somatotopic

24 "unctional organi3ation o" the somatosensor# corte6 Qha3ipov et al* )EEJ!* (s Schouenberg that )EEJ! remar7s- ;it is not the a""erent input per se

is important*** but rather the sensor# "eedbac7 resulting "rom

activit# in the sensorimotor s#stem*< Convergent 1or7 on the development o" the auditor# corte6 also points to the crucial role o" peripheral structures in adapted neural activit#* %rsic59logel and collaborators used a ;virtual acoustic space< to enable in"ant "errets to hear through virtual ears o" mature animals* Their results sho1ed ho1 changes in spatial coding during

development o" the auditor# corte6 seemed to be entirel# due to changes in peripheral nonneuronal sensor# structures %rsic59logel et al* )EE'/ %rsic59logel et al* )EEL/ see also 2rubb and Thompson )EEJ!* This "inding rein"orces the point that the choice o" 1hich

peripheral structures to use to stimulate the envatted brain is not trivial* Necent 1or7 on a realistic model o" the neuromuscular s#stem responsible "or "eeding behavior in the mollusc 'pl#sia also reveals the importance o" the tight coupling bet1een central neuronal s#stems and peripheral nonneuronal ones Cre3ina et al* )EEE, )EELa, )EELb/ Cre3ina et al* )EE&!* (mong other things, this 1or7 addressed the "ollo1ing question- 2iven that central neural! motor commands sho1 stochastic o" behavior and 1hereas the peripher# the comple6 and

net1or7

muscle

modulator#

neurotransmitters

neuropeptides! presents a slo1, histor#5dependent d#namics, to 1hat e6ent is the peripheral s#stem under the control o" the nervous s#stemD Cre3ina and collaborators sho1 that the peripher# 1or7s to a certain e6tent in a semi5autonomous manner Cre3ina et al*, )EE&!* The nervous s#stem does not control the peripheral musculature in a hierarchical master5slave "ashion/ rather, optimal per"ormance

25 emerges onl# neuromuscular "rom the collective behavior o" the interacting

s#stem central and peripheral! in a given environment* These authors suggest that the peripheral net1or7 is responsible "or part o" the predictive and control "unctions o" the neuronal tissue* 4n their 1ords;4n vertebrates as 1ell as invertebrates, the structural and d#namical comple6it# o" the peripher# can be as large as that o" the central nervous s#stem, so that, seen more abstractl#, the computational capabilit# of the peripher# rivals that of the nervous s#stem that is attempting to control it< Cre3ina et al* )EE&!* Similar co5dependence o" "unctional outcome can be observed at the level o" neuronal net1or7s themselves* Net1or7 activit# is determined both b# the intrinsic properties o" the net1or7 and the modulator# environment, mainl# through the modulation o" s#naptic behavior together %arder '..@/ %arder and Thirumalai )EE)!* 1ith neuronal "iring, comple6 modulator# There"ore, interactions

bet1een central neuronal cells and peripheral nonneuronal elements determine the nervous s#stem=s response* These e6amples are intended to stress the immense

comple6it# o" the neural and e6traneural interactions that ultimatel# determine brain activit# in the living organism* The list o" "unctional s#stems dependent on brain5bod# coupling to provide the organism 1ith coherent perception o" the 1orld also includes the entire

interoceptive, autonomic s#stem Craig )EE), )EEL/ Saper, )EE)!, vestibular5autonomic regulation Calaban and Porter '..@/

Fates and %iller, '..@!, balance and somatic graviception rel#ing on h#drostatic properties o" blood pressure and inertial mass o" abdominal viscera %ittelstaedt '..S, '..A/ Iaitl et al* )EE)!, as 1ell interaction bet1een the senses occuring at both central and peripheral levels Bo1ard '..A!*

26 Oet us return to our brain in a vat* The "oregoing 7inds o" comple6 dependencies o" neural activit# on peripheral, e6traneural

s#stems must someho1 be established "or our envatted brain in order to mimic precisel# peripheral stimulation as 1ell as the 1a# the embodied brain responds to such stimulation* 2iven the computational comple6it# involved, it is hard to imagine ho1 to accomplish this "eat simpl# b# stimulating the neuronal terminals 1ith electrical impulses generated b# a supercomputer that 1e must equip the Dennett '..'!* Nather, it seems brain 1ith real sensorimotor

s#stems* 9urthermore, as 1e suggested above, the brain must be able regulate these peripheral s#stems* Thus, at an# given moment, the state o" the peripheral s#stems 1ill depend on the brain=s endogenous d#namics, 1hich al1a#s shapes the sensor# in"lo1 Engel et al* )EE'/ Iarela et al* )EE'!, 1hile the state o" the central s#stems 1ill depend on ho1 the peripheral s#stems are operating and 1hat the# have provided* $nce all these structural and d#namical "eatures are added to our alread# sel"5maintaining and energeticall# open vat, ho1ever, our so5called envatted brain loo7s a lot less li7e a brain in a vat and much more li7e an autonomous sensorimotor agent*

An Evo#$evo $igression Ce"ore 1e present the results o" our re"lections on the brain5in5vat thought e6periment, it is 1orth reminding ourselves o" some basic "acts about the evolutionar# and developmental biolog# o" the nervous s#stem* 9rom an evolutionar# perspective, brain and bod# are co5evolved structures that match one another=s properties through a histor# o" adaptive

27 ph#logenetic changes in di""erent species (boiti3 '..E, '..S/ Chiel and Ceer '..A/ 9unes and Pollac7 '..@!* This "act alread# suggests that considering the brain as some 7ind o" internal director o" the organism uniquel# responsible "or its cognitive capacities is not the onl# possible theoretical stance* 9rom a naturalistic standpoint, there is a strict correlation bet1een cognitive capacities and consciousness, on the one hand, and neuronall#5animated5bodies5in5the5 1orld, on the other hand, 1hereas there is no evidence o" "reel# 1andering nervous s#stems displa#ing cognitive capacities, even in liquid media* $ne might naturall# h#pothesi3e, there"ore, that cognitive capacites as 1ell as consciousness have tightl# coupled brain5bod# s#stems as their core biological reali3ers, and not simpl# the brain alone* Consider also the ontogen# o" the individual organism* 4t is 1ell 7no1n that comple6 the development o" neural tissue depends on a

pattern

o" interaction bet1een proneural and nonneural

tissues in the developing embr#o* This interaction happens through selectivel# inhibiting and promoting the e6pression o" a comple6 net1or7 o" soluble and cell5associated molecules, such as gro1th "actors, transcription "actors, and membrane proteins 2lavic et al* )EEJ/ ,einstein and Bemmati5Crivanlou '...!* Dorsal ectoderm, "or instance, 1hich is the origin o" the entire central nervous s#stem, di""erentiates into neural tissue in response to signaling "rom

nonneural! dorsal mesodermal tissue

the Spemann=s organi3er in

amphibians or the node in amniotes, such as the chic7 or the mouse! De Nobertis and Quroda )EEJ/ OaConne and Cronner59raser '...!* Neural crest cells, 1hich are the precursors o" the peripheral nervous s#stem, also give rise to bone tissue and smooth muscle, among other nonneural tissues OaConne and Cronner59raser '...!* 9urthermore, peripheral "actors, such as the

28 se6ual hormones testosterone and estrogen, as 1ell as the hormone adipoc#te5 derived leptin, pla# a critical role in determining patterns o"

s#naptogenesis and a6on guidance, and there"ore deepl# in"luence the development o" the nervous s#stem Oathe )EE'/ %orris et al* )EEJ/ Simerl# )EE&!* Thus, "rom a developmental perspective, it is not as i" a commanding nervous s#stem 1raps itsel" 1ith a bod#* Nather, it 1ould be better to sa# that the bod# constructs a nervous s#stem 1ithin itsel"* Clearl#, the brain pla#s an undeniable role in enabling cognitive "unctions, as neurops#chological patients poignantl# attest* Nevertheless, the brain is "irst and "oremost responsible "or the organism=s integrit# 1hile also being entirel# dependent on that integrit#* (s 1e have seen, the brain pla#s this role b# establishing and maintaining the internal regulator# processes and sensorimotor

regularities that ma7e up the homeod#namic domain that is the living bod#* (s Piaget '.A'! noted, this sel"5 regulating domain shapes all cognitive processes and provides the ground state upon 1hich an# neural process, including those crucial "or consciousness and

sub8ectivit#, can operate*

A Null %y&othesis for E'&eriment: A Body in a (orl d

the

Brain#in#a#Vat

Thought

The philosopher=s brain5in5a5vat thought e6periment abstracts a1a# "rom the ontogen# and evolution o" adaptive brain5bod#5environment interactions, and thus begins 1ith a brain that alread# has a set o" capacities or behavioral possibilities that transcend its actual structure* 4n other 1ords, the thought e6periment historical constraints on the biological abstracts a1a# "rom

29 reali3ation that such o" mind* (lthough some philosophers 1ould argue

historical constraints are relevant to 1hether a given biological structure at a given perceptual or time instantiates or reali3es a particular

cognitive state, almost all philosophers 1ould argue the metaph#sical question o"

that such constraints are irrelevant to

1hether a given biological structure at a given time instantiates or reali3es sub8ectivit# and consciousness* ,e 1ill not dispute this point* Nather, 1e 1ish to ma7e a di""erent observation* ,hen 1e ta7e into consideration the "unctional and structural interdependence o" brain and bod# that evolutionar#, developmental, ph#siological, and behavioral evidence suggest,

then the philosopher=s naUve vie1 o" the brain in a vat simpl# 1ill not do* The bod# is not 8ust some 7ind o" container, replaceable b# a vat, that supports a commanding brain* The bod# is an active partner in the immensel# comple6 and 1ide biological computations that the organism as a 1hole engages in 1hile encountering an unpredictable 1orld and maintaining its identit# through time Chiel and Ceer '..A/ Qutas and 9edermeier '..@/ Thompson and Iarela )EE'!* Bence an# ;vat< capable o" coupling 1ith the brain in the requisite 1a# must be able to duplicate these comple6 bodil# processes* ,e there"ore propose the "ollo1ing null h#pothesis "or the brain5 in5a5vat thought e6periment- (n# vat capable o" per"orming the necessar# "unctions 1ill have to be a surrogate bod# that both regulates and is regulated b# the nervous s#stem* 4n other 1ords, the vat 1ill have to e6hibt a level o" comple6it# at least as high as that o" a living bod# 1ith respect to bodil# s#stems o" li"e5regulation and sensorimotor coupling* Thus the entire s#stem vat plus brain! must satis"# these t1o basic requirementsopen and able to i! it must be energeticall#

30 activel# regulate the "lo1 o" matter and energ# through it so as to control its o1n e6ternal boundar# conditions capable o" activel# 1ith the outside regulating li"e5regulation!/ and its o1n ii! it must be interactions

sensorimotor

1orld sensorimotor agenc#!* 4n short, the entire

s#stem must amount to a biologicall# autonomous, sensorimotor agent* & The null h#pothesis is thus that a brain in a vat 1ould in "act have to be a bod# in the 1orld* 2iven this null h#pothesis, 1e can also advance the

"ollo1ing more general h#pothesis, the re8ection o" 1hich entails the re8ection o" the enactive position-

The total realizer for consciousness (including sub)ectivit# or phenomenal selfhood and specific states of

phenomenal consciousness* is not the brain or some neural subs#stem! but rather a whole living s#stem! understood as an autonomous s#stem made up of some crucial set of densel# coupled neuronal and e+traneuronal subs#stems,

)utting !ife Consciousness

Bac"

into

4n conclusion, let us highlight t1o implications o" our discussion that are relevant to the 1idel# ac7no1ledged e6planator# gap

bet1een consciousness and the brain* 9irst, given that consciousness is so clearl# subordinate to the organism=s homeod#namic integrit#, it ma# be more productive "or research to proceed on the assumption that consciousness is a "unction o" li"e5regulation processes involving dense couplings bet1een neuronal and e6traneuronal s#stems, rather than a "unction o" neural s#stems alone Thompson and Iarela

31 )EE'!* Second, mere al1a#s leave an neural correlates o" consciousness 1ill

e6planator# gap unless 1e 7no1 1hat role these neural correlates pla# in the conte6t o" the organism=s li"e5regulation and sensorimotor engagement 1ith the 1orld* The enactive approach aims to put li"e bac7 into consciousness b# building on these t1o points*

Notes
'

Searle thin7s #ou reall# are a brain in a vat right no1- ;the vat is

the s7ull and the >messages= coming in are coming in b# 1a# o" impacts on the nervous s#stem< Searle '.@L, p* )LE!*
)

,e are here setting aside the hard problem o" 1hat metaph#sicall#

constitutes consciousness*
L

(lthough the brain represents onl# appro6imatel# )T o" the total

bod# mass, it is responsible "or )ET o" the energ# "rom o6#gen consumption in the bod#*
J

These include not onl# global arousal levels, but also the "acilitation

o" selective patterns o" regional s#nchroni3ation 1ithin the general des#nchroni3ed cortical activit#*
&

9or the notion o" biological autonom#, see Nui35%ira3o and

%oreo )EEJ!/ Thompson )EEA!/ and Iarela '.A.!*

32

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