Electric Motors and Generators

DIRECT CURRENT (DC) MACHINES Fundamentals

! Generator action:An emf(voltage) is induced in a conductor if it moves through a magnetic field. Motor action:A force is induced in a conductor that has a current going through it and placed in a magnetic field Any DC machine can act either as a generator or as a motor.

 For emf to be induced, the conductors must cut the flux lines as they move. Otherwise, ( v!B)= 0. eloop= eab+ ebc+ ecd+ eda eloop = Blv+ 0 + Blv+ 0 eloop = 2 B l v

Introduction
In this lecture we consider various forms of rotating electrical machines These can be divided into:
generators which convert mechanical energy into electrical energy motors which convert electrical energy into mechanical energy

Both types operate through the interaction between a magnetic field and a set of windings

A Simple AC Generator
We noted earlier that Faradays law dictates that if a coil of N turns experiences a change in magnetic flux, then the induced voltage V is given by d! ! V =N
dt

If a coil of area A rotates with respect to a field B, and if at a particular time it is at an angle ! to the field, then the flux linking the coil is BAcos!, and the rate of change of flux is given by
d! d(sin! ) d! = BA = cos! = "cos! dt dt dt

 Thus for the arrangement shown below

V =N d! d(sin! ) = NBA = NBA" cos! dt dt

V =N

d! dt

 Therefore this arrangement produces a sinusoidal output as shown below

 Wires connected to" the rotating coil" would get twisted Therefore we use" circular slip rings! with sliding" contacts called" brushes

A Simple DC Generator

23.3

The alternating signal from the earlier AC generator could be converted to DC using a rectifier A more efficient approach is to replace the two slip rings with a single split slip ring called a commutator
this is arranged so that connections to the coil are reversed as the voltage from the coil changes polarity hence the voltage across the brushes is of a single polarity adding additional coils produces a more constant output

 Use of a commutator

 A simple generator with two coils

 The ripple can be further reduced by the use of a cylindrical iron core and by shaping the pole pieces
this produces an" approximately" uniform field in the" narrow air gap the arrangement" of coils and core" is known as the" armature

DC Generators or Dynamos

23.4

Practical DC generators or dynamos can take a number of forms depending on how the magnetic field is produced
can use a permanent magnet more often it is generated electrically using field coils
current in the field coils can come from an external supply
this is known as a separately excited generator

but usually the field coils are driven from the generator output
this is called a self-excited generator

often use multiple poles held in place by a steel tube called the stator

 A four-pole DC generator

! DC machine Construction

Stator:Stationary part of the machine. The stator carries a field winding that is used to produce the required magnetic field by DC excitation. Often know as the field. Rotor:The rotor is the rotating part of the machine. The rotor carries a distributed winding, and is the winding where the emfis induced. Also known as the armature.

DC machine Construction

The picture shows the stator of a large DC machine with several poles. The iron core is supported by a cast iron frame.

DC machine Construction
!
DC Rotor construction

The rotor iron core is mounted on the shaft. Coils are placed in the slots. The end of the coils are bent and tied together to assure mechanical strength. Note the commutator mounted on the shaft. It consists of several copper segments, separated by insulation.

 Generated EMF in a DC Generator ! ! Where Z= total number of conductors, P = total number of poles a= P for lap winding, a = 2 for wave winding, "= flux, #= speed in rad/s n = speed in rpm.

Example

Example

Types of Generators
Field coil excitation
sometimes the field coils are connected in series with the armature, sometimes in parallel (shunt) and sometimes a combination of the two (compound) these different forms" produce slightly" different" characteristics diagram here" shows a" shunt-wound! generator

 DC generator characteristics
vary slightly between forms examples shown here are for a shunt-wound generator

! !

DC GENERATOR TYPES according to EXCITATION! !

There are four basic kinds of dc generators, namely separately excited, shunt, series and compound generators

DC Separately Excited Generators

The required field current is a very small fraction of the rated armature current of the order of 1 to 3 percent in the average generator. A small amount of power in the field circuit may control a relatively large amount of power in the armature circuit, i.e., the generator is a power amplifier. Separately excited generators are often used in feedback control systems when control of the armature voltage over a wide range is required.

DC Shunt Generators
! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! !
The field is a function of the terminal voltage, Vt. Hence, voltage decrease at the armature terminals cause a corresponding decrease in the field flux and hence in the induced emf, Eg in return a decrease in Vt again. This continues until an equilibrium is found. The reverse of the above process is followed in building up Vt.

! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! !

DC Shunt Generators (Cont.)

! ! ! ! ! ! !
For a field resistance rf, the operating point is the intersection point of the rf line and magnetization curve.

DC Shunt Generators (Cont.)

Its output voltage sharply decreases with the armature reaction as it is ecpected. The effect of the armature reaction is more severe for this kind of generator.

Vt = eg - (I L + If ) ra

DC Series Generators
The field current of a series generator is the same as the load (or armature) current, so that the air gap flux and hence the voltage vary widely with load. As a consequence, series generators are not very often used.

DC Series Generators (Cont.)

Example: An 8-pole, lap wound, dc machine has 60 armature conductors is series between the brushes. The armature resistance, ra=0.04ohm and the field resistance rs=0.02ohm. When connected as a series generator and run at 1000rpm, it delivers a certain amount of current to a load at a terminal voltage, Vt=126V. If it is run at 700rpm, the terminal voltage decreases to 86V for the same load current. Calculate: a) the direct-axis flux/pole b) the power delivered to the load under consideration at a shaft speed of 1200rpm. 240 Z Soln: a = 60 conductors and a=p=8 for this machine. So K a = ! a

Vt = eg - Ia (ra + rs )

126 = eg1 - Ia (0.04 + 0.02)

86 = eg2 - Ia (0.04 + 0.02)

! eg1 - eg2 = 40 V

eg1 = K a ! d w1

eg2 = K a ! d w 2

! eg1 - eg2 = 40 = K a " d (w1 - w 2 )

DC Series Generators (Cont.)

1 "d = = = 0.0167 Web 240 2! 60 (1000 # 700) ! 60 !
! 240 1 1000 800 !eg1 = ! 60 60 2! = 6 = 133.3V ! 133.3 -126 7.33 = = 122.2 A ! Ia =

40

! ! ! ! !

0.06 0.06 240 1 1200 960 e g3 = 2! = = 160 V ! 60 60 6

Vt = 160 -122.2 x 0.6 = 160 - 7.33 = 152.7 V

Pout = 152.7 x122.2 = 18.5 kW

DC Compound Generators
In most of the usual applications of the dc generators the desired point is to have the same voltage at both no-load and full-load. A suitable combination of shunt and series generators gives the compound generator.

DC Compound Generators (Cont.)

The required number of turns in the series field winding is relatively small since the contribution of this winding is just to compensate the small terminal voltage drop with the loading. So this kind of compound generator is called the cumulatively compound generator.

DC Compound Generators (Cont.)

The series field winding can be purposely connected such that its flux does not add to that of the shunt field, then the resultant airgap flux is the difference of the series field flux from the main shunt field flux.

DC Motors
When current flows in a conductor it produces a magnetic field about it - as shown in (a) below

23.6

when the current-carrying conductor is within an externally generated magnetic field, the fields interact and a force is exerted on the conductor - as in (b)

 Therefore if a conductor lies within a magnetic field:

motion of the conductor produces an electric current an electric current in the conductor will generate motion

The reciprocal nature of this relationship means that, for example, the DC generator above will function as a DC motor
although machines designed as motors are more efficient in this role

Thus the four-pole DC generator shown earlier could equally well be a four-pole DC motor

 DC motor characteristics
many forms each with slightly different characteristics again can be permanent magnet, or series-wound, shunt-wound or compound wound figure below shows a shunt-wound DC motor

Electrical Machines A Summary

23.9

Power generation is dominated by AC machines

range from automotive alternators to the synchronous generators used in power stations efficiency increases with size (up to 98%)

Both DC and AC motors are used

high-power motors are usually AC, three-phase domestic applications often use single-phase induction motors DC motors are useful in control applications

Key Points
Electrical machines include both generators and motors Motors can usually function as generators, and vice versa Electrical machines can be divided into AC and DC forms The rotation of a coil in a uniform magnetic field produces a sinusoidal e.m.f. This is the basis of an AC generator A commutator can be used to produce a DC generator The magnetic field in an electrical machine is normally produced electrically using field coils DC motors are often similar in form to DC generators Some forms of AC generator can also be used as motors The most widely used form of AC motor is the induction motor

AC Generators or Alternators
Alternators do not require commutation
this allows a simpler construction the field coils are made to rotate while the armature windings are stationary
Note: the armature windings are those that produce the output

thus the large heavy armature windings are in the stator the lighter field coils are mounted on the rotor and direct current is fed to these by a set of slip rings

 A four-pole alternator

 As with generators multiple poles and sets of windings are used to improve efficiency
sometimes three sets of armature windings" are spaced 120 apart around the stator to form" a three-phase generator

The e.m.f. produced is in sync with rotation of the rotor so this is a synchronous generator
if the generator has a single set of poles the output frequency is equal to the rotation frequency if additional pole-pairs are used the frequency is increased accordingly

Example see Example 23.2 from course text

A four-pole alternator is required to operate at 60 Hz. What is the required rotation speed?
!

A four-pole alternator has two pole pairs. Therefore the output frequency is twice the rotation speed. Therefore to operate at 60Hz, the required speed must be 60/2 = 30Hz. This is equivalent to 30 " 60 = 1800 rpm.