The Garden History Society

Symbolism and Design in Ancient Egyptian Gardens Author(s): Alix Wilkinson Source: Garden History, Vol. 22, No. 1 (Summer, 1994), pp. 1-17 Published by: The Garden History Society Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/1586999 . Accessed: 05/06/2013 01:00
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ALIX WILKINSON

SYMBOLISM AND DESIGN IN ANCIENT EGYPTIAN GARDENS

with manyof thefeaturesknownnowfrom later wereconstructed AncientEgyptiangardens motivated considerations whichdictated But the were theformof byreligious gardens. designers thegardens and whatplantswereusedin them.
MEANING, FUNCTION AND FORM

In the creationof gardens, as in the creationof language, three elements are involved: meaning, function, and form. Form is universal:the designer of a garden has to take accountof the extent and gradientsof the space chosen, and devise a layout. Function, which is the use made of a garden, varieswith the status and needs of the owner. The garden may be a place for growing particular plants, or it may be designed to accommodategreatcrowds, or it may be a spacefor a few people, or even just one, to sit and enjoy its sights and sounds. Meaningis the philosophy behind the creationof the garden. It can be expressedin statuary,layout, inscriptions, and in the plants, which have significancefor the people of the time. Form and function are constant in garden making;meaningwas importantin earliercenturies. The Countessof Bedfordlaid out universe. Vicino her garden at TwickenhamPark in the form of the pre-Copernican in statuaryin his gardenat his autobiography Orsiniin the sixteenthcenturyrepresented Bomarzo.2The seventeenth-century labyrinthat Versaillesheld its own secretmessage.3 Loudon, in the nineteenthcentury,believedthatlandscapegardenerscould improvethe moralfeelings of the visitor.4Gardenswere createdwhich told a story, such as Bunyan's Pilgrim'sProgress,sor the journey from birth to death.6 Plants,7 symbolic of various humanqualitieswereused in the Medievaland Renaissance periods.8In the latterpartof the twentieth centuryin the West, symbolism9has largelybeen absent,10except in the work of such designers as Sir GeoffreyJellicoe,11or as a way of creatingatmosphere, althoughrecently a series of essays has been devoted to the meaning of gardens.12
INTRODUCTION GARDENS TO MEANING, FUNCTION, AND FORM IN ANCIENT EGYPTIAN

AncientEgyptiangardensweredesignedwith all threeelements, meaning,function, and form in mind. Function, entwined with meaning, dictated form. The differencebetween the ancient Egyptianand modern landscapistsis that the Egyptians began from the mystical properties of a particularplace. Every spot they
7 TennielClose, London W2 3LE

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ANCIENT

EGYPTIAN

GARDENS

selected for a sacred building was where a deity was believed to reside. They also of the placewheresome mythologicalevent had happened, re-created the characteristics and architectural by adding plantfeatureswhichwould be remindersof the myth. These creation of the world, the after-life,and aboutthe lives of the gods. were about the myths The Egyptians were not searching to impose meaning, in the manner of those who createda park in Mexico City as a culturalreminderof the lost city of Tenochititlan.13 Nor were they like the English garden designers of the eighteenth century who used classical mythology and their Gothic heritage as the language of their buildings and statuary,as, for example, at Rousham. 4 Meaningwas alreadythere, and understood. They were more in the spirit of Henry Hoare, who, at Stourhead,whether playfullyor not, acknowledgedthe water deities of the site and compared the foundation of his dynastichome with Aeneas'sfoundationof Rome, as interpretedby Virgil.15 In Egypt, the territory in which a garden was planted already had its own significanceand residentdeities. Thus the goddess Hathorwas believed to dwell in the mountainchainwhich ranfrom Deir el Baharito Deir el Medineh. Shrinesdedicatedto herwerebuilt over the yearsat eachend of the range,northand south. At Karnak,across wargod, and Amun, calledthe 'Hidden One', the river,the gods, Mont, a falcon-headed alreadyinhabitedthe site on which the temples and gardenswere built. A gardenmirroredthe featuresof a mythologicallandscape,and of the world of the after-life.This landscapehad to be as permanentas possible, and sustainableby future generations.It was a marvelwhich would impressthe priests and courtierswho would understand the symbolism,andamazethe generalpopulaceandforeignerswho would be awedby the size and splendourof the buildingsand theirgrounds.The palacesin which the kings lived were also sacredprecincts, because the king was himself a god. Palace as well as gardenswere the setting for the ceremonialreceptionof foreign ambassadors for the entertainmentof the king and the court. Tomb gardenswere intendedto be placeswherethe soul of the dead could find rest and refreshment.The form which resulted from these requirementswas a courtyard filled with trees, under which stood a basin of water for the soul, as bird or human, to drink.
MEANING

Thesymbolism of temple gardens Meaningwas fundamentalto Egyptianarchitectureand garden design. The design of temple gardensdependedon whetherthey were the cult temple, wherethe imagesof the living gods resided, or were funerary,and were intended for occasionaluse. Gardens were an integralpart of the cult shrine, which was itself a cosmos, representingboth Egypt and the universe. 6 Temple gardensincorporatedwater, which representedthe originalwaterwhich coveredthe earthat the beginningof time, and was the god called Nun, and the vegetationwhich grew aroundand in it. The plants grown in these gardens all had their own symbolism. The waterlilies lotus,Nymphaeacaerulea) (Nymphaea floatingon the lakes were remindersthat the sun from the was the had and papyrus(Cyperus god waterlily,17 originallysprung papyrus) home of Hathor,18the sky, and mother goddess, and was also the place where Isis had hidden her son, Horus, after the murderof Osiris, her husband, by his brother, Seth. Palms were sacred to the gods of the sun, moon, and fertility.19Date palms (Phoenix dactylifera)were particularlyconnected with the sun god, doum palms (Hyphaene

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ALIX WILKINSON

with the scribe of the gods, Thoth, and with Min, the fertilitygod. Anotherof thebaica) Min's plants was the humble lettuce (Latucasativa).20 The symbolism of tombgardens Tombs were based on the design of the tomb of the god, Osiris, who had been restored from death to life. By imitativemagic, the humandead could enter eternallife by being buried in a tomb like that of Osiris. This tomb consistedof a mound of earthwith trees of this conceptwas aroundit, enclosinga tomb chamber(Figure I). An actualrealization made at Abydos by King Seti I. It is a temple-like structureon an island, with a tomb beside it, buried under a great
mound of earth and sand. Around the mound were planted conifers and tamarisks in six, huge bricklined pits. A tamarisk was believed to be the place where the soul of the j
J Figure I. Illustrationof the tomb of the in Marseilles c coffin of Petosiris rV ie M ie Vandier. Manuel Source: Jacques egyptienne (Picard, d'archeologie Paris, I952-69), fig 319

a mound.On within thegodOsiris

god, Osiris, in the form of a bird, i rested (Figure 2). It was also believed to be where the king as the sun was reborn.21 Accordingto the solarmyths, the dead king becamethe sun, which the sky goddessswallowedeachnight and gave birthto each dawn. King Mentuhotep (c. 20o-1960 B.C.) planted tamarisks(Tamarixarticuin frontof his tomb and funerarytemple at lata) and sycomore-figtrees (Ficussycomorus) Deir el Bahari(Figure 3). Sycomore-figtrees were the home of the sky-goddess, called alternatively,Hathor, Nut, and Isis. On the easternhorizonof heaven, the sun emerged The sycomoretree had anotherrole, as nourisher between sycomore-figsof turquoise.22 In of the deceased(see Figure 8). paintingsin courtiers'tombs, the sky-goddessappears from the sycomore-fig tree at the corer of a pool, holding out bread and fruit and pouringwater. Mentuhotepthus madesurethatthe two treessignificantfor his rebirthas the sun were beside his tomb. Date palms representedthe sun, and had the practical advantageof being able to withstand drought. Single palm trees and flowerbedswere plantedin the open courtyardsof priests'and courtiers'tombs at Memphisand Thebes. The meaning and messageof the gardenswas frequentlyin the sculpture, both in the round and in relief, which representedthe owner in various guises and performing various activities. The sculptures intimated things historical and mythological. The things historical were the relation of the owner to his ancestors, and the things mythologicalwere about the relationshipof the ownerto the gods. The owner appeared in variousguises, and performedvariousactivities,both in sculpturein the roundand in the ownerhimself. It was the living scenesof relief. In tomb gardens,a statuerepresented and respectdue to him. Over attention the receive and had to of the deceased, presence life-sizefiguresof Mentuhotepstood in frontof the avenueat his funerarytemple at Deir el Bahari.They were fixed into the rock by meansof deep pedestalswhich wereburiedin the rock. Lion-bodiedsphinxes, with the face of QueenHatshepsut,lined the way across the lowest terraceof her funerarytemple beside that of Mentuhotepat Deir el Bahari. The status of the owner is demonstratedby the size of the gardenand its enclosure, and by the size and splendour of the buildings and their decoration. Royal gardens were much larger than those of anyone else: Mentuhotep's grove at Deir el Bahari was about 50 m square: a garden at el-Amaranacovered an area of about a length of
96 m.

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ANCIENT EGYPTIAN GARDENS Figure 2. The soul of Osiris in the form of a bird perchedin a tamarisk.In the temple of Hathor at Dendera Manuel Source: Vandier, Jacques (Picard, d'arch6ologie 6gyptienne
~Paris, 1952-69), fig. 319

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The royal dominance over nature is demonstrated by bringing plants into the desert, rather than by draining areas of marsh, as for example, at Versailles, or carving out a clearing in a forest. Summary Temples were not, as in eighteenth-century Europe, 'trifles best seen by chance'.3 but the main building, and raison d'etre of the garden. Statuary and sculpture were not just decorative features. They were bearers of religious as well as political messages. FUNCTION The function of temple gardens was to produce the floral, vegetable, and fruit offerings needed for the rituals of the gods, as well as for the perfumes used for anointing the statues, and to provision the staff of priests and workpeople in the temple.24 Hatshepsut and some of her successors tried to grow incense trees, Commiforamyrrha, and possibly

nt trees from Boswelliasacra,in their gardens.25 Hatshepsutsaid she brought 'greenan Punt (Figure 4). 'Greenant and with frankinidentifiedboth with myrrh26 has enth space provided provided by by gardens gardens was used for processions within the temple temple cense. The space

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ALIX WILKINSON .WILKINS..O S...ef, r. and , ?iA had to accommodate enclosure, '~?~~:~:~~nsu~

5
.Egypt from Punt

large gatherFigure 4. Incense trees broughtto

Th open-air temple. It had a central lake, surrounded by temples and other buildings.
enclosure may have represented earth,Bahari , east-west Deir (London 894oriented

is

the 8), route of

Amama there was a walled park-like area, called Maru-Aten, which may have been an Kar temple of ak, h Amun, Mut, and Khonsu, were caied by priests, accompanied by an

temple of Karnak, Amun, Mut, and Khonsu, were carried by priests, accompanied by an and othe gods of KaThiak excited throng, to the Luxor temple. At the Festival of the Valley,2s sailed across thver, so that the statues of the 'lving gods' could visit the 'dead gods' in the funerary temples on the west bank of the Nile. In order to reach Hatshepsut's temple formed at at Deir el Baharibetween temples which as the would procession go from her riverside Vafley Tempstivals, probably also surrounded by trees,29 along a tree-lined canal to her funerary temple. Menageries were included in gardens. Live animals in the royal gardens reflected the king's ambition to collect the living world around him, and to have animals of particular significance as his attendants. Lions, the royal animal par excellence, decorated his throne and chariot. Lions were kept in cages at the entrance to royal gardens at Karnak (see Figure 12), and antelopes, oryx, and ibex were kept at Karnak and Amarna. Aviaries were probably part of the garden design at Amarna in the 'Northern Maru'. Birds illustrated at Amarna, and presumably living in the gardens, included rock pigeon, turtle dove, great spotted cuckoo, grey-lag goose, pied kingfishers, geese, and ducks. Ducks and geese were ornaments as well as being edible, as were the fish. Animals were bred at various temples. Some were the animals sacred to the deity of the temples, such as rams at Mendes and Elephantine, bulls at Memphis, Bubastis, and Akhmim, and pigs at Memphis. Others were needed for the offerings in the temple. During the Old Kingdom (2600-2I50 B. C. ) birds were reared at the sun temple of Niuserre. Kings arranged for the construction of fowl-yards in the temple of Amun at Karnak. Seti II said the temple was,

'filled with geese, cranes, ducks, doves and [otherkinds of fowl] to provide the divine
offerings for his father Amun'. In the later periods, they were reared so that pilgrims

could offer them as sacrificesto the deity of the temple. Mummifiedibises, have been
found in huge numbers at Saqqara, Hermopolis, Athribis, and Abydos, and cats, apes,

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ANCIENT

EGYPTIAN

GARDENS

and crocodiles,at Tuna el Gebel, Mareotis,and in the Fayum. Shrinesof the crocodile god, Sobek, are illustratedfrom the Old Kingdomup to the Ptolemaicperiod. Temples of Sobek are known at several places including Kom Ombo, Edfu, and Hermonthis (Armant),where the water-penfor the crocodileshad a movable hatch through which they were fed. The function of temple gardens was to provide floral, vegetable, and animal offeringsand provisions,whereasthe functionof tomb gardenswas to be availableto the spiritof the deceasedas a placeof shadeand refreshment,and to thatend they wereoften illustratedon the walls inside the tomb. The externalgarden was the place to which relativesand priests could bring waterand offeringsfor the spirit of the deceased.
FORM

Garden designin general and set the agendain form Since they areat the beginningof the storyof garden-making, for gardensthroughoutthe Near Eastand beyond, ancientEgyptiangardenshave many of the features well known from later times. The glory of gardens depends on their design, on the way they are laid out and structured, and on the decorative features, skilfullyplacedto enhancea view or evoke ideas. Afterthese foundationshave been laid, the plantingbringscolour, light, and shade, and variationsin height. Ancient Egyptian gardenswere no exception. They wereaxiallyplanned,as for example, HatshepEgyptiangardenswereformal.30 sut's funerary temple at Deir el Bahari which was approachedby a series of rising courtyards.A building, whether tomb or shrine, was the focus and point of departure. The unity of the buildingand the gardenswas usuallyevident. Straightlines predominated in the design and in the plantings. Symmetryis found in the repetitionof like with like. For example, twin groves, twin trees, and twin pools. Geometryis exemplifiedin the arrangementof rectangleswithin a garden. In the illustrationwhich survives of a walledareain the centreof which is gardenat Karnak,the layoutconsistsof a rectangular a vineyard(Figure 5) surroundedby walled gardens, some of which are orchards,and some of which have pools and a shrine. Identicaltrees were planted in avenues at the funerarytemple of Mentuhotepat Deir el Bahari,and on the approachto the temple of Karnak,where there was an avenueof sycomore-figtrees, underplantedwith vines and papyrus(Figure 6). Elements of thedesigns Gardenswere laid out with a strong structure,makinguse of differentlevels linked by terraces, and often centred around pools of water. Steps and stairways emphasized changes in levels and viewpoint. Terraces, which 'can be the supreme expression of gardenart',31had balustradessupportingthe steps linking the different levels, as, for example, at Queen Hatshepsut's temple at Deir el Bahari. Trees were grown on the lowest terrace.32 At the bottomof the ramp, aroundthe papyruspools were about66 pits cut in the rock, probablyfor flowerbeds,33 ratherthanfor the incense treesbroughtfrom Punt.34It is not certainwhere these were planted. The gardenof the 'King's House' at Amarnawas terraced,35 as is an estate at Karnak(see Figure 12). Areas with their own individualitywere separatedby walls or trees. Within these for plants. areas,arcadesand colonnadesprovideda varietyof texturesanda background

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ALIX WILKINSON

Figure 5. The gardenillustratedin the tomb of SennuferTT 96. Paintingmade by Dr Ricci for Henry Salt. Courtesy of the Trustees of theBritishMuseum Photo:author

Figure 6. The approachto the temple of Karnak. Source: Norman de Garis at Thebes(New York,I948) Davies,The Tombof Nefer-Hotep

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ANCIENT EGYPTIAN GARDENS

Sunken atriumgardensinside buildings have been found in excavationsin four ceremonial areasat Amarna:in the 'centralpalace', inside gardenbuildings in the open air in the 'NorthernMaru', and at the site to the south of the city, temple, the Maru-Aten, calledKom el Nana. Courtswith pools andflowersaroundthem besidediningroomsand bedroomsin the palaceat Amarnaare illustratedin severalofficials'tombs (Figure 9). These floralrepresentations may be paintedpavements,actualexamplesof which were found at Amarna. Vistas were controlledby avenues, and concentratedthe eye on a particularview. Fromthe funerary templeson the west bankat Thebes, the vistasconvergedon the Nile, andbeyondit on the templeof Karnak.Equally,a processionleavingKarnakwould have its sights set on the temples at Deir el Bahari.
Constituentswithin a garden

Waterwas the centralfeatureof many gardens.The temple lake was not only the water sourcefor the temple, but was the placewhereritualswereperformed,such as takingthe statue of the deity out in a boat. On the pathwaybeside the lake, processionspassed on variousfestivalssuch as for the Burialof Osirisat Karnak.36 Sometemplelakeswerevery the one at Karnak measured m. The in 80 lake the Maru-Aten,at Amarna large, 132 by was I20 m by 60 m. Othertemple-lakeswere smaller:33 m by 28 m at Dendera, or i8 m by 20 m at the Eighteenth-Dynastytemple at Medinet Habu. The king was rowed on a lake in a specialbargeas partof a religiousceremony,37 and afterhis deathhis statuewas rowed out on memorialdays.38Private gardens sometimes contained lakes. Officials describedthe extensivelakes on their properties,39 and a lake largeenough for a boat to travelon is illustratedbesideDhutnufer'shouse (ThebanTomb 80). Peoplevaluedpools as sourcesof refreshment and coolness. In them they bred fish and birds for food. There were also cisterns,which storedwaterfor supplyingthe plantsin the gardens.Pools were stepped, so that the watercould be reachedwhen the pool was nearlydry (Figure 7). The edges of some pools provided terraces for marsh plants. The shapes of pools were and T-shaped. The T-shapewas the form in which the channelsin front of rectangular temples were arrangedas landing areas. The T-shape also reflects the form of a place whereofferingswere made(Figure 8). It is this meaningwhich explainsthe shapeof the pools beside the rampsin the courtyardof Hatshepsut'stemple at Deir el Bahari.These pools were filled with growingpapyrus,indicatingthe point where the goddess Hathor, as a cow, appearedout of the mountain. is a ceremoniallandingplatform One of the featuresillustratedin the wall-paintings surrounded by a low balustrade. An actual platform was found at the temple of RamessesIII, at MedinetHabu, juttingout into the pool in front of the temple gateway. These platformsforeshadowthe lakeside jetties still remainingin Moghul gardens.40 Bridges have not survived, but a long, stone-builtquay was found jutting out into the Such a jetty remains in the Shalamargarden at lake at Amarna, in the Maru-Aten.41 Lahore.Waterwas broughtin canalsto feed the gardens,andwas a featurearoundwhich a gardenwas created.A pond markeda focus of interest, sometimesa gardenkiosk was set beside it (see Figure 5). Buildings in gardens were the dwelling of gods, whether they were magnificent stone temples covering several acres, like the temple of Amun at Karnak, or small, stucco-coveredbrickshrinesin the gardensof privatehouses. Buildingscould simply be bowersmadeout of papyrus,or pleasurepavilionsprovidingshadeand somewhereto sit,

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__

ALIX WILKINSON ~ / /-~ ---_i--, ;:

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Figure 7. Cisternwith stepped in an orchard.Relief in the of Meryreat Amarna
: Source:Norman de Garis Davies, (London, 1903-08)

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Figure 8. T-shaped pool paintedin the tomb of Tjanefer.Theban Tomb 158

Source:Keith Seele, The Tomb of Tjanefer (Chicago, 1959) pl. ii. Courtesy of the OrientalInstituteof the Universityof Chicago

or make love,42 or give birth.43Such gardenpavilionssurvivedin Cairenegardensuntil at least the time of Napoleon's expedition(Figure io). Shrinesalong the route between the Karnakand Luxortempleson the eastbankof the Nile weresurroundedby their own gardens. The route itself, by the time of the Thirtieth Dynasty, was 'a magnificent avenueenclosed within walls plantedwith trees made dazzlingwith flowers'44and lined with recumbentstone sphinxes. The pits for the trees, the canal and the sphinxes have been found in excavation.45 Excavationsshow that gardenswere usually walled. High, plasteredwalls, sometimes with paintedor tile decoration,hid the participants takingpartin processionsfrom the staresof the vulgar.Paintedand tiled wallsin gardenscontinuedup to the eighteenth

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ANCIENT EGYPTIAN GARDENS . .Figure ?I.! :i ^: ^% | __ ~ y1!i::i _ (I t 1 ; Eli *x y i 3 E I w A j

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9. The royalcouch beside flowerbeds.Over the bed, the the canopy. Relief in the tomb of Parennefer Source: de Garis Davies,The Norman RockTombsof El Amarna (London, 1903-o8)

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century in Portugal.46Sometimes walls were serpentine (sinuous)47and may have providedprotectivesurfacesfor growingfruit trees. Serpentinewalls have been found at Karnak,48and at Hermopolis, where they lined the avenue in front of the temple.49 Trellisesand 'treillage'paintedon the walls supportedtemptingvines and pomegranates l'oeil. mirroringthe real fruit growingin the gardenand providinga kind of trompe Pergolas were another way of dividing up the garden, and were also used to surroundpools. Pergolasfor vines were the centralfeatureof severalgardenspaintedin tombs (Figures 11, 12). A pergola consisting of square brick pillars close together covered an area of about 70 m by I20 m south of the main ceremonialbuilding in the centre of Amarna.This buildingwas calledthe 'Coronation Hall' by the excavators,but it is more likely to have been a vineyard.50 The walls or floorswere decoratedwith inlaid tiles with floralmotifs and aquaticscenes. Monumental gates stood at the entrance to some gardens, as can be seen in illustrationsin tombs, such as that of Sennufer(see Figure 5). Gatepostsof a garden, which surrounded a lake within the precinct of the temple of Amun, and called the 'Libation of Amun', have been found at Karnak.51 Gatehouseswere a feature of both and actual of the most One elaborate and extensive which has been illustrated, gardens. excavatedwas at Amarnaleadinginto the Maru-Aten. A sacredtree, or grove of trees, was grown in its own enclosurein some temples, such as at the temple of Hermopolisduringthe Middle Kingdom, or in Ptolemaictimes, at Medamud.A specialtree was given prominencein others, as in the funerarytemple of Mentuhotepat Deir el Bahari,where a particularsycomore-figshelteredan altarand a statueof the king. There was a groveof sycomore-fig trees, sacredto the goddess Hathor, at Deir el Medineh. Eachtreewas plantedin its own container,or in a pit, so that it could be individuallywatered. At temples up and down the river, trees were broughtinto the courtyards,enhancingthe stone-imitative plantelementswith naturalvegetation.Inside the courtof the Romantempleof Khnumat Elephantine,realpalmtreesgrewup in front of stone imitationsof papyrus, lotus, and palms.52 The terrain in whichgardens weremade In orderto createthese magnificentgardensthe Egyptiandesignershad to deal with two potentiallyoverwhelmingelements:the desertand the river. In the desert there was too

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ALIX WILKINSON

II Figure o1. Pavilionin the gardenof Elfy Bey de l'Egypte,I Source: Description Michel Paris, Sidhom, (Reedition
1990).

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Figure I . Vineyard in the garden of the palace of the Queen of ~' .- "' Pharaoh Ay

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Davies,The de Garis Source: Norman Tombof NeferHotepat Thebes(New

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'u lions' cages, a gatehouse, a ^^Y ifSSg// iii'-'^H l | ?^J^ 1 " trees and an animal Xvineyard, aA _rt\ _S i7' QtO ( {^S' -f illustratedon a relief ,enclosure yL VYz~~ V J^^S -^y?|A^!~ ^^^^ 1 P. Anus,Bulletinde l'Institut Source: _S U riB^i ^ Orientale 69 d'Archeologie $w ^Francais ii l e ^^^

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(1970)

little vegetation; and along the river bank there was too much. On the slopes of the westernmountainat Thebes, the architectswere tryingto extend the riverbank into the
desert, and had to do it by artificially providing water. This mountain was the site of the royal funerary temples and courtiers' tombs. Here the dead rested 'Upon the Crag of the Lady who is the West of Thebes'.53 This was seen by the Egyptians as a hard, hilly

desert, scatteredwith the round-toppedmarkersof manytombs, with somewherea lush

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I2

ANCIENT

EGYPTIAN

GARDENS

papyrusmarshwere poppiesalso grew, into which the sky goddess, as a cow, steppedto welcome the dead, who were inside their tombs in the tall, pink rock beside these
markers.54

Landscape of thewest bankat Thebes The Egyptianscreatedbuildingsand gardenswhich were integratedwith the surrounding naturalscenery.The royalfunerarytempleswere rangedalongthe hillside with their backsto the mountainandtheirgardensstretchingdowninto the plain. This layoutis the same as that at the Taj Mahalwhich also has the tomb-pavilionat one end of the central axis.55During the EighteenthDynasty, the gardensformedterracesof trees againstthe and Mimusops desert mountainbackdrop.Sycomore-fig laurifoliagrew below Hatshepsut's greatfunerarytemple in deep pits cut in the rock. Date and doum palms stood in individualcourtyardsof the privatetombs on the lower slopes of the hillside during the Eighteenth and Twenty-Sixth Dynasties. The decorationon the walls of some of these courts shows that trees and flowers were planted in the place to which offerings were brought. Further south, in front of the same mountain range, this landscapingwas continued. The funerarytemple of TuthmosisIII may have been approachedby a canal endingin a rectangular pool in frontof a monumentalgateway.A canalled fromthe river to Amenophis III's temple, in front of which was a great lake full of plants, and deep enough for boatsto sail on, takingthe statuesof the dead king and queen on ceremonial voyages. This lake would have spreadout in frontof the colossi of Memnon, which were statuesrepresenting the king, which stood in frontof the pylonicentranceto the temple. Behind the temple of his royal master, was the funerarytemple of the royal architect, Amenophisson of Hapu, one of the very few courtiersalloweda temple actuallyamong those of the kings. On the lower terracein front of the temple, trees surroundedthe pool.56Away acrossthe desertlay the huge lake of Birket Habu surroundedby profuse vegetation; and the palace of Amenophis III which had its vineyards and orchards aroundit.57 In the Nineteenth Dynasty the landscapebelow the mountainswas probablystill as lush, althoughlater kings pillagedAmenophisIII's funerarytemple of its statuaryand building material in order to create their own monuments.58 Ramesses II'S (I279-1213 B.C.) funerary temple, the Ramesseum, had an avenue in front of it and a garden flankinga canal, inside, between the pylons, accordingto a possible interpretationof a paintingin the tomb of the officialwho was Overseerof the Gardensof the Ramesseumin the Estate of Amun, Nezemger.59This gardenmay have been inside the temple on the southernside of the secondcourt. No evidenceof the canalhas been foundin excavation.
In front of Ramesses III's (1187-1156 B.C.) funerary temple, Medinet Habu, at the

southernend of the sweep of trees, lakes and funerarymonuments, were a canal, pool andtrees. Insidethe templewereseveralgardensaroundpools. In succeedingyearssmall funerary chapels were built behind Medinet Habu, with trees in the courts at the entrances,imitatingthe plantingsin the greattemple. Somewhereon the mountainside, and now lost, was the funerarytemple of Tuthmosis I where, during Ramessidetimes, his memorialrites were celebratedon a tree-linedlake, accordingto a painting in the tomb of Userhat.60 The temples, with theirgardens,lakesand canals,were in living and verdant contrast to the desert and rocky scarp of the mountain. They lastedcollectively,though not all at one time - fromthe reign of Hatshepsut,at least until the death of RamessesIII; a period of more than 300 years, during which time they were

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ALIX WILKINSON

I3

tended and visited by theirown priests, and by the priestsand courtiersfrom the temple of Amun at Karnak,as well as by the generalpopulacewho took part in the festivals. On the east bankof the riverthe landscapewas just as verdant.The maintemples of Karnakand Luxor had gardensinside and out. of Amarna Landscape At Amarna,the site sacredto the sun god, the desert plain was made green by parks at either end; and temples, palacesand houses with their own gardensfilled the built-up area.At the southernend was the vast open-airtemple, and at the northernend, another more enclosed temple or palace,with a gardenin the centre. In between these parks, lay clustersof buildingswith avenuesleadingup to them, and gardensaroundthem, some of them with pools. In the suburbs, the gardens surroundinga few of the great houses formedoasesbetweenthe whitewashedbuildings.The riverbank, whereships unloaded in frontof the palace,was plantedwith treesand flowersin containers,and a flowerbed, The effect fromthe landingstage beside the naturallygrowingpapyrusand mandrake.61 must have been of the river bank creepingtowardsthe easternmountain. around Memphis Landscape At Heliopolis, Ramesses III decreed that date and olive groves be established, and orderedgardensand incense trees to be planted at Memphis.62 Whetherthe pyramidsat Gizahad any trees or gardensaroundthem is not known, althoughthereis the suggestionof a gardenbetweenthe Step Pyramidand the Causeway of Unas. At the riverend of the causewaystherewasplentyof vegetation,but thatwas not contrivedby man. Landscape of theDelta In the much more fertile Delta, a vast orchardand vineyardsurroundedthe palacesand temple at Avaris (Tell Dabaa) and Pi-Ramesses.RamessesiII orderedthe planting of orchardshere, and at many religious centres.
ANCIENT DESIGNERS AND CLASSIFICATIONS OF GARDENS

Garden Designers Ancient Egyptiangardenswere made by architects,some of whom are known by name: Senenmut,who advisedQueenHatshepsut,andAmenophis,son of Hapu, who designed AmenophisIII's (1390-I353 B. C.) monuments,aretwo of the most famous. The names of some individualworkersin the gardensare also known. The ancientEgyptiansclassifiedtheirgardensby theirform, by whatthey grew, and the buildingsto which they were attached.Forms could be a piece of grounddivided by into squaresfor cultivation,an open terracedarea, a sunken or level peristyleor atrium within a building, or a park,which might containa pool. Gardenscould alsobe described by the plantswhich grewin them, such as vegetablegardens,olive groves, fruitorchards, vineyards,groves of incense trees, and trees for use in carpentry.There were words for describing the gardens of specific buildings: of tombs, palaces, and temples, and of estates, both of the living, and of the dead.63Gardenshad individual names, just as buildingshad names. The gardencreatedby Akhenaten(I353-1336 B. c.) at Amarnafor of the Aten'. And the shrines the globe of the sun, the Aten, was called'The Seeing-Place
2

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14

ANCIENT EGYPTIAN GARDENS

with gardens on the route between the Karnak and Luxor temples had names like 'Hatshepsutis united with the perfectionof Amun'. Summary The sacredgardensof ancientEgyptat Thebes andAmarnaweredecoratedwith manyof the garden features which survived through Roman and Islamic times, and became fashionablein eighteenth-centuryEurope. The power and splendourof the ruler were demonstratedin extensive gardensin front of their funerarytemples at Deir el Bahari, and in and aroundthe temple of Amun at Karnak.At Amarna,in the Maru-Aten,there was a large artificiallake, an ornamentedquay, temples, garden walks, avenues, a gatehouse, and maybe even a banquetinghouse. Its companiongarden, the 'Northern Maru', included a sunken atrium gardenand a menagerie,as well as a centralpool and small shrines.
//
=~

^TFigure -l.\ '::f v / /WV

< ., Jv ^A-''' C_W

13. A gardenerpouring waterfrom the bucket of the shadufinto a runnel which leads o^ i n ^ t into the brick containerholding a date palm / t
5

--^ '?--Jf/

Source:Normande GarisDavies,

.1 5Thebes

The Tombof NeferHotepat (New York,I933)

AncientEgyptianlandscapegardeners createdlavishplantationsat templesand city sites. Greatsweeps of desert, coveringover a mile at a time, were kept full of trees. The Egyptians' main practicalproblem was connected with the control and provision of water,which they managedto overcomeby creatingcanalsand pools inside, and in front of, their buildings, and by the constantuse of the shaduf and bucket (Figure 13). The gardeners'success was spectacular,and sustainedover many hundredsof years.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Researchfor this article was begun at Dumbarton Oaks, in the Centerfor Studiesin LandscapeArchitecture. I should like to thank Dumbarton Oaks, Trustees for Harvard University, for two Fellowships (Summerand an academicyear), which gave me time and space for study, and the use of their
REFERENCES

libraries. I am particularlygrateful to John Dixon Hunt and Joachim Wolschke-Bulmahnwho, as Directors of Studies in Landscape Architecture, I shouldalso gaveme greathelp andencouragement. like to thankAnnie Thacherand LindaLott for their patienceand kindnessto me.

x. Roy Strong, The Renaissance Garden in England (London, I979), p. I20. 2. Lynette M. F. Bosch, 'Bomarzo: A study in personal imagery', Garden History IO:2 (I982), p. 07.

(DumbartonOaks ResearchLibraryand Collec4. JamesStevensCurl, 'JohnClaudiusLoudon Hisand the gardencemeterymovement',Garden maintainedthat the 'artof gardening'was 'capable of stimulatingmore widely divergingemotions
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Methods edited by J. Dixon Hunt Approaches,

Notre's Labyrinthe', in Garden History, Issues,

3. Michel Conan, 'The conundrumof Le

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ALIX WILKINSON than architecture',quoted by Lucia H. Albers, His'The perceptionof gardeningas art', Garden tory19:2 (199I), p. 170; and WilliamChambers believed with others in the latterpart of the eighteenthcenturythat 'beautifulor sublimegardens should have an effect on the emotions', David Jacques'On the supposedChinesenessof the History I8:2 English LandscapeGarden'.Garden 5. R. C. Turner, 'Mellor'sGardens',Garden HistoryI5:2 (1987), pp. 157-66, at Hough-Hole House, Rainers, Macclesfield,which was based on ideas of Swedenborg(1688-1772) being a 'garden of correspondence relatingto things of this world and scripturalhistory'. It originallycontained plants mentionedin the Bible. Collectionsof plants mentionedin the Bible have been made in this country(and in Jerusalem)by Dr Nigel Hepper and are to be found in severalgardensin the United States. 6. John Colleran,and Eileen McCracken,'The JapaneseGarden,Tully House, Kildare', Garden
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I5

in Garden Methods, History,Issues,Approaches, edited by J. Dixon Hunt (DumbartonOaks ResearchLibraryand Collection,Washington, LandI5. Kenneth Woodbridge,TheStourhead scape,pp. 18-I9. 16. RainerStadelmann,'Swt-R'wals Kultstatte des Sonnengottesim Neuen Reich', Metteilungen desDeutschen Instituts, Abteilung Archaologischen Kairo25.2 (1969), p. 161: 'Der Tempel wird dabei ein Abbild der Welt gedachtdie der Sonnengottin Gestaltdes Amun-Retaglichiiberquert';Wolfgang i Helck, EberhardOtto, LexikonderAgyptologie, (Wiesbaden),p. 397. Architectur:'So ist der Tempel ein Weltmodell,ein 'Fahrplandes Kosmos'. 17. WolfgangHelck, EberhardOtto, Lexikonder v (Wiesbaden),p. I58. Agyptologie, I8. PierreMontet, 'Hathoret les papyrus',Kemi I4 (I957), p. Io8. I9. IngridWallert,Die PalmenimAltenAgypten tichs als Pflanzedes Min', StudienzurAgyptischen Kultur8 (I980), p. 87. 21. RaymondO. Faulkner,AncientEgyptian CoffinTexts,II, p. 247, Spell 682, 'His motherNut bore him in the Field of Tamariskwhich protected the god in the nest'. 22. R. O. Faulkner, TheBook of theDead (New
York, I972), ch. I09: 'I know those two trees of (Berlin, 1962), pp. 97-I13. 20. RenateGermer,'Die Bedeutungdes LatD.C., 1992), p. I6o.

History 5:1 (1977), pp. 35-38.

Gar7. ClaudiaLazzaro, TheItalian Renaissance dens(I991), reviewedby VanessaStephen, Garden History20:I (199I), p. 9o: 'Plantswere woven into the design', and formed 'partof the allegoricalcontent of the gardens'. 8. Roy Strong, TheRenaissance Gardenin
England (London, 1979) p. 10: 'Each flower within

a great gardenwas seen to mirrorone of her regal virtues, while its overallcompositioncould proclaim Elizabethin her varyingroles as Spenser's

turquoisebetweenwhich Re goes forth'. Books, edited by Peter 23. TheShell Gardens

Hunt (London, 1962), p. I8o.

the eglantinerose. 9. Being replacedby 'theme parks', such as the fume: ibid. iv, p. 286. Beatlesgardenin the Liverpoolgardenfestival, Jane Brown, TheEnglishGardenin ourTime 25. WolfgangHelck and EberhardOtto, Lexikon derAgyptologie, vI (Wiesbaden),Weihrauch, (Woodbridge,I986) p. 222. Io. The discussionsin English landscapegarFlowers, pp. I 67-89; F. Nigel Hepper, Pharoah's TheBotanicalTreasures (London, dening circles from the late nineteenthcentury of Tutankhamun onwardsare about form: 'formal'versus 'natural' I990), p. 20. andMyrrh.A (LaurenceWeaver,Housesand Gardens byE. Lutyens 26. By Nigel Groom,Frankincense (Woodbridge,I98I reprint),p. xviii, or 'modern' studyof theArabianIncenseTrade(London, New versus 'Englishgarden'(as exemplifiedin Jason York, 1981), p. 25, who notes that antyw was used Hill's Gardener's in making an ointment, which he states had to I936). JaneBrown, Companion, TheEnglishGardenin ourTime(I986) p. I29. have been obtainedfrom myrrhwhich could be I . Geoffreyand SusanJellicoe, TheLandscape mixed with balanosoil, whereasfrankincense cannot be used for makingperfume. of Man (London, 1987) p. 386, Sutton Place, Festdaten Guildford,which was an allegoryof creation,and 27. SiegfriedSchott, Altagyptische p. 389, the Moody Gardens,Galveston,Texas, (Wiesbaden, I950), p. 71; Norman de Garis which was designed to illustrate'the way in which I0 (1924), Davies, Journalof Egyptian Archaeology civilizationshave assembled,nurturedand intepp. 12-13. 28. WolfgangHelck, EberhardOtto, Lexikonder gratedplants of all kinds into their variousforms of gardensand landscapes'. vi (Wiesbaden),pp. 187-89. Talfest. Agyptologie, 12. Mark Francis, RandolphT. Hester, The SiegfriedSchott, Das SchoneFest vomWustental. Idea, Place andAction(CamMeaningof Gardens: (Wiesbaden, I952). bridge, Mass., 1990). 29. TheodoreDavis, EdouardNaville, and HowardCarter,Theodore M. Davis Excavations, 13. SutherlandLyall, DesigningtheNew LandBiban el Moluk. The Tombof Hatshopsitu scape (London, 1991), pp. 60-63. (London, I4. John Dixon Hunt, 'Verbalversusvisual 1906), p. 59, state that there were gardensaround meaningin gardenhistory:The case of Rousham', this temple. Referringto the relief of a gardenin

"most royall queen or empresse" . . . the garden ... became Gloriana's glass'; p. 47, Elizabeth I was

24. Offerings,floral:JamesHenry Breasted,

Ancient Records of Egypt (Chicago, I906-07), Iv, pp. 244, 30I; vegetable: ibid. IV, p. 244; fruit: ibid. IV, pp. 234, 294-45; incense: ibid. IV, p. 294; per-

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ANCIENT EGYPTIAN GARDENS the centralshrineof the funerarytemple of Hatshepsut,the authorssay: 'The garden... must have been in the wateredand cultivatedground perhapsat the extremityof the little valley which was the site of the avenueleadingto the temple, where have been found remainsof a building'. 30. Criteriafor formalgardens:MarkLaird, FormalGardens: Traditions of Art andNature Ornament 31. Peter Hunt, TheBook of Garden (London, 1974), p. 209. 32. EdouardNaville, The Temple of Deir el
Bahari (London, 1908), vi, p. I. In front of the (London, I992), p. 6.

4I. About 37 m long, I2 m of which projected into the lake, Thomas E. Peet and C. Leonard (London, I923), I, Woolley, TheCityof Akhenaten p. I15, pi. xxIx. 42. UbaonerStory, Raymond0. Faulkner, EdwardWente, WilliamKelly Simpson, The Literature of Ancient Egypt(New Haven, London, 43. WolfgangHelck and EberhardOtto, Lexikon derAgyptologie, vi, pp. I282-84. 'Wochenlaube', and referencesin Alan Schulman, Journalof the American Center in Egypt22 (1985), p. 99, Research
note IO.
1972), p. 17.

35. John D. S. Pendlebury,TheCity of iii (London, I95I), pp. 86-87, plsi, Akhenaten, xlvi 'At the north end of the west side are two terracesat a lower level, but a small flight leads down to the lowest where there was evidentlyan arbour.' N. 3176 36. Paul Barguet,Le PapyrusLouvre
(Cairo, I962), p. 42, says that a passage in the

l'Egypte ancienne (Frankfort-am-Main, 1989), p. 72.

colonnadeon the lower terrace,i.e. the one with a relief of the transportof obelisks: 'We found that on both sides the open space was used as a kind of garden. There were many small roundpits about ten feet deep, filled with Nile mud in which trees had been planted. The stumps of two palm trees are still in situ, but there were other trees'. 33. D. Arnold, in WolfgangHelck, Eberhard I (Wiesbaden,I975Otto, LexikonderAgyptologie 86),.p. IoI9, says they are flowerbeds. Hugonot, LeJardin dans 34. As Jean-Claude

44. Moh. Abdel QaderMohammed,'Prelimincarriedout in the ary Reporton the Excavations Temple of Luxor, Seasons1958-59 and I959-60', Annalesdu ServicedesAntiquites de l'Egypte 60 (I968), p. 267. 45. Moh. Abdel QaderMohammed,Annalesdu ServicedesAntiquites de l'Egypte60 (1968), 46. Tiles in the Bishop'sGardenat Castelo Branco.Photo: Tony Aruzza,Portugal.Insight Guides(London, 1988), p. 243; Quintada Penha Gardens Cardoso,Portuguese (Woodbridge,1990), p. 80. 'Tile work which was almostentirelyrestricted to religiousarchitecture in the first half of the seventeenthcenturymakes its appearance in gardens'. 47. Which requirea third of the numberof bricksthat a straightwall needs becauseit is half as thick as a normalwall, but could reacha height of 15 ft, Jean O'Neill, 'Wallsin half circles and sertheir purposewas to grow fruit. Accordingto Stephen Switzer, 1742, the wall was 6-8 yd roundon the inside; at Hermopolisit was about 2 m: Joachim Sliwa, 'On the meaningof the so-calledsinusoidalwalls in Egypt duringthe Middle Kingdom' in Theintellectual of Egyptedited by Ulrich heritage Luft, FestschriftL. Kakosy (Budapest,1992), p. 523, which lists known examplesand suggests savingof buildingmaterial,rapidconstructionand resistanceto sand pressureas advantages. 48. Donald B. Redford,Journalof theAmerican
Research Center in Egypt 28 (1991), p. 9I, fig. I9. pentine walls', Garden History 8.3 (I980), p. 72, Verde Sintra (I640-50); Helder Carita and Homem pp. 233-34, pl. lxxxvi, xcv.

Book of the Dead, ch. 125, refersto putting into the coffin on the edge of the quay at night, the sacredobjectswhich symbolizedthe body of Osiris banksof a lake but the text shows that Pharoahin his role as Horus 'has wrappedhis fatherOsiris and taken care of his tomb at the head of the sacredlake' (which might be the shrineof Tuthmosis III at the westernend of the lake). 37. Sun cult at Amarna,BeatrixGessler-Lohr, Die HeiligenSeen agyptischen (Hildesheim, Tempel 1983), p. 213, Hathorcult, ElisabethStaehelin, 'Zur Hathorsymbolik in der agyptischenKleinfur Agyptische kunst', Zeitschrift Sprache o05 (1978), pp. 76-77. 38. E.g., BeatrixGessler-Lohr, HeiligenSeen (Hildesheim, 1983), pp. 99-10o, dgyptischen Tempel a statue of AmenophisIII being rowed on a lake. 39. E.g., Meten, Hans Goedicke, 'Die Laufbahn des Mtn', Mitteilungen desDeutschen ArchdologischenInstituts Kairo21 (I966), pp. 64-65, Abteilung or the descriptionof the estate of Raia;Miriam II (BerLichtheim,AncientEgyptianLiterature, in one's sleep'.
keley, 1974), p. I73. 'The lapping of waves sounds 40. E.g., Fatehpur Sikri, built by Akhbar, 1570, Theban Tomb 277. ... Not only does the 'mystery' take place on the

sche Altertumskundein Kairo 7 (1937), pp. IO-21. 50. ClaudeTraunecke,Bulletinde la Societe

49. GiintherRoeder, 'Berichtiiber die Ausgrabungen des Deutschen HermopolisExpedition desDeutschen Instituts fur dgypti1935', Mitteilungen

de Geneve9-Io (I984-85), pp. 285d'Egyptologie

307. 5I. ShehataAdam and Farid el Shaboury,'Rep1954-55 and 1955-56', Annales du Service des Anti-

ort on the work at Karnakduringthe seasons

or the Shalamar gardens,Lahore,of ShahJahan, 1642, WilliamHowardAdams, NaturePerfected: Gardens through History,pp. 79, 82.

schen Instituts, Abteilung Kairo 38 (1982), pp. 306-29.

de l'Egypte56 (I959), p. 39. pl. 5; CharlesC. quites Van Siclen, Two Theban Monuments fromtheReign II (San Antonio, Texas, 1982), p. I5. ofAmenhotep 52. WernerKaiser, 'Stadtund Tempel von EledesDeutschen phantine',Mitteilungen Archdologi-

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ALIX WILKINSON 53. RicardoCaminos,LateEgyptianMiscellanies 54. Theban Tomb 277, JeanneVandierd'Abbathebains a Gournet Mourrai(Cairo, die, Deux tombes Gar55. WilliamH. Adams, NaturePerfected: densThrough History,p. 83, commentson the posof the centralaxis, 'so that it can easily be seen from the JumnaRiver below', and thus departing from the chaharbaghpatternwhere the tombpavilionis in the centre. 56. ClementRobichonand AlexandreVarille,Le Fils d'Hapou(I935). Temple d'Amenhotep, 57. Lectureat the BritishMuseum 10 November I992 by Dr Hourig Sourouzian. 58. Lectureat the BritishMuseum o1 November I992 by Dr Hourig Sourouzianon the re-useof statuesof AmenophisIII by RamessesII at Luxor temple, and by Merneptahin his funerarytemple on the west bank at Thebes.
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