Rian Hardiansyah 1302147

Octane rating
Oct Jump to: navigation, search ane rating or octane number is a standard measure o the per ormance o a motor or aviation ue!" #he higher the octane number, the more compression the ue! can $ithstand be ore detonating" %n broad terms, ue!s $ith a higher octane rating are used in high&compression engines that genera!!y have higher per ormance" %n contrast, ue!s $ith !o$er octane numbers 'but higher cetane numbers( are idea! or diese! engines" )se o gaso!ine $ith !o$er octane numbers may !ead to the prob!em o engine *noc*ing

+rincip!es
Octanes are a ami!y o hydrocarbon that are typica! components o gaso!ine" #hey are co!our!ess !i,uids that boi! around 12- ./ '200 .1(" One member o the octane ami!y, isooctane, is used as a re erence standard to benchmar* the tendency o gaso!ine2petro! or 3+4 ue!s to resist se! & igniting" %n a norma! spar*&ignition engine, the air& ue! mi5ture is heated due to being compressed and is then triggered to burn 're!ative!y( s!o$!y by the spar* p!ug and ignition system" % it is heated and2or compressed too much, then it $i!! e5p!ode $hen triggered 'detonate(, or even se! &ignite be ore the ignition system spar*s" #his causes much higher pressures than engine components are designed or and can cause a 6*noc*ing6 or 6pinging6 sound i !ight, or ma7or engine damage i severe" #his can brea* connecting rods, me!t pistons, b!o$ head gas*ets, damage rod bearings, as $e!! as damage other components" #he octane rating is a measure o ho$ resistant a ue! is to spontaneous!y or e5p!osive!y ignite under such conditions" #he higher the number, the more resistant the ue! is" 8ngines that have aggressive designs 'high compression pistons, high inta*e density and2or temperature( or unusua! operating conditions '!o$&speed, air&coo!ed engines such as sma!! aircra t( re,uire higher octane ue!s"

%sooctane 'upper( has an octane rating o 100 $hereas n&heptane has an octane rating o 0" #he most typica!!y used engine management systems ound in automobi!es today have a *noc* sensor that monitors i *noc* is being produced by the ue! being used" %n modern computer contro!!ed engines, the ignition timing $i!! be automatica!!y a!tered by the engine management system to reduce the *noc* 'detonation( to an acceptab!e !eve!" #he octane rating o gaso!ine is measured in a test engine and is de ined by comparison $ith the mi5ture o 2,2,4&trimethy!pentane 'iso&octane( and heptane that $ou!d have the same anti& *noc*ing capacity as the ue! under test: the percentage, by vo!ume, o 2,2,4&trimethy!pentane in that mi5ture is the octane number o the ue!" 1or e5amp!e, petro! $ith the same *noc*ing characteristics as a mi5ture o 90: iso&octane and 10: heptane $ou!d have an octane rating o 90";2< = rating o 90 does not mean that the petro! contains 7ust iso&octane and heptane in these proportions, but that it has the same detonation resistance properties" >ecause some ue!s are more *noc*&resistant than iso&octane, the de inition has been e5tended to a!!o$ or octane numbers greater than 100" Octane ratings are not indicators o the energy content o ue!s" '?ee section 4 o this page and heating va!ue(" %t is on!y a measure o the ue!@s tendency to burn in a contro!!ed manner, rather than e5p!oding in an uncontro!!ed manner" Ahere the octane number is raised by b!ending in ethano!, energy content per vo!ume is reduced" 8thano! >#)s can be compared $ith gaso!ine >#)s in heat o combustion tab!es"

= )? gas station pump o ering ive di erent 'RBC(22 octane ratings %t is possib!e or a ue! to have a Research Octane Dumber 'ROD( more than 100, because %?O& octane is not the most *noc*&resistant substance avai!ab!e" Racing ue!s, avgas, 3+4 and a!coho! ue!s such as methano! may have octane ratings o 110 or signi icant!y higher" #ypica! 6octane booster6 gaso!ine additives inc!ude C#>8, 8#>8, isooctane and to!uene" 3ead in the orm o tetraethy!!ead $as once a common additive, but its use or ue!s or road vehic!es has been progressive!y phased&out $or!d$ide, beginning in the 1970s";3<

Ceasurement methods
Research Octane Dumber 'ROD(
#he most common type o octane rating $or!d$ide is the Research Octane Dumber 'ROD(" ROD is determined by running the ue! in a test engine $ith a variab!e compression ratio under contro!!ed conditions, and comparing the resu!ts $ith those or mi5tures o iso&octane and n& heptane"

Cotor Octane Dumber 'COD(

#here is another type o octane rating, ca!!ed Cotor Octane Dumber 'COD(, $hich is a better measure o ho$ the ue! behaves $hen under !oad, as it is determined at 900 rpm engine speed,

instead o the 000 rpm or ROD" COD testing uses a simi!ar test engine to that used in ROD testing, but $ith a preheated ue! mi5ture, higher engine speed, and variab!e ignition timing to urther stress the ue!@s *noc* resistance" Eepending on the composition o the ue!, the COD o a modern gaso!ine $i!! be about F to 10 points !o$er than the ROD, ho$ever there is no direct !in* bet$een ROD and COD" Dorma!!y, ue! speci ications re,uire both a minimum ROD and a minimum COD"

=nti&Gnoc* %nde5 '=G%(

%n most countries, inc!uding =ustra!ia and a!! o those in 8urope, the 6head!ine6 octane rating sho$n on the pump is the ROD, but in /anada, the )nited ?tates, >raHi!, and some other countries, the head!ine number is the average o the ROD and the COD, ca!!ed the =nti&Gnoc* %nde5 '=G%, and o ten $ritten on pumps as 'RBC(22(" %t may a!so sometimes be ca!!ed the +ump Octane Dumber '+OD("

Ei erence bet$een ROD and =G%

>ecause o the F to 10 point di erence noted above, the octane rating sho$n in /anada and the )nited ?tates is 4 to - points !o$er than the rating sho$n e!se$here in the $or!d or the same ue!" #his di erence is *no$n as the ue!@s sensitivity, and is not typica!!y pub!ished or those countries that use the =nti&Gnoc* %nde5 !abe!!ing system" ?ee the tab!e in the o!!o$ing section or a comparison"

Observed Road Octane Dumber 'RdOD(

=nother type o octane rating, ca!!ed Observed Road Octane Dumber 'RdOD(, is derived rom testing gaso!ines in rea! $or!d mu!ti&cy!inder engines, norma!!y at $ide open thrott!e" %t $as deve!oped in the 1920s and is sti!! re!iab!e today" #he origina! testing $as done in cars on the road but as techno!ogy deve!oped the testing $as moved to chassis dynamometers $ith environmenta! contro!s to improve consistency<

=viation gaso!ine octane ratings

4aso!ine used in piston aircra t common in genera! aviation have s!ight!y di erent methods o measuring the octane o the ue!" ?imi!ar to =G%, it has t$o di erent ratings, a!though it is re erred to on!y by the !o$er o the t$o" One is re erred to as the 6aviation !ean6 rating and is the same as the COD o the ue! up to 100"#he second is the 6aviation rich6 rating and corresponds to the octane rating o a test engine under orced induction operation common in high& per ormance and mi!itary piston aircra t" #his uti!iHes a supercharger, and uses a signi icant!y richer ue!2air ratio or improved detonation resistance" #he most common!y used current ue! 10033, has an aviation !ean rating o 100 octane, and an aviation rich rating o 130";7<

85amp!es
#he ROD2COD va!ues o n&heptane and iso&octane are e5act!y 0 and 100, respective!y, by the de inition o octane rating" #he o!!o$ing tab!e !ists octane ratings or various other ue!s";F<;9< 1ue! he5adecane n&octane n&heptane 'ROD and COD 0 by de inition( diese! ue! 2&methy!heptane n&he5ane 1&pentene 2&methy!he5ane 3&methy!he5ane 1&heptene n&pentane re,uirement or a typica! t$o&stro*e outboard motor;10< +ertamina 6+remium6 gaso!ine in %ndonesia 6Regu!ar6 gaso!ine in Japan 'Japanese %ndustria! ?tandards( n&butano! Deopentane 'dimethy!propane( 6regu!ar6 gaso!ine in =ustra!ia, De$ Kea!and, /anada and the )? +ertamina 6+ertama56 gaso!ine in %ndonesia ?he!! 6?uper6 in %ndonesia n&butane ROD I &30 &10 0 1-J223 234 44 00 02 09 FF 90 92 91J92 92 92 94;11< COD =G%

0 23"F 20"0 40"4 --"0 01"9 07F 71 F0"2 F2JF3 F2 90"1

20

07 F3 F3 F7 F7

%sopentane 'methy!butane( +ertamina 6+ertama5 +!us6 gaso!ine in %ndonesia ?he!! 6?uper 85tra6 in %ndonesia ?he!! 61ue!?ave 6 in Ca!aysia 68uro?uper6 or 68uro+remium6 or 6Regu!ar un!eaded6 in 8urope, 6?+9-6 in 1rance 6+remium6 or 6?uper un!eaded6 gaso!ine in )? '10: ethano! b!end( ?he!! 6L&+o$er 976 in Ca!aysia ?he!! 6L&+o$er 9F6, /a!te5 6+!atinum 9F $ith #echron6, 8sso Cobi! 6?ynergy F0006 and ?+/ 638LO 9F6 in ?ingapore 4reat >ritain, ?!ovenia and ?pain, 6?+9F6 in 1rance 6?uper+!us6 in 4ermany #esco 6ComentumM996;12< in )G 6+remium6 gaso!ine in Japan 'Japanese %ndustria! ?tandards( +ertamina 6+ertama5 Racing6 in %ndonesia ?he!! L&+o$er in %ta!y and 4ermany 8ni'or =gip( >!u ?uper B'or #ech( in %ta!y %+ +!us 100 in %ta!y #amoi! AR 100 in %ta!y ?an Carco +etro!i 1&101 in %ta!y'northern %ta!y on!y, 7ust a e$ gas stations( +etro&/anada 6)!tra 946 in /anada ;13< =ra! ?uper 9- in 4ermany =ra! ?uper 9- 810 '10: 8thano!( in 4ermany =ra! ?uper+!us 9F in 4ermany =ra! )!timate 102 in 4ermany %8? 9F +!us in %ta!y 2,2&dimethy!butane 2,3&dimethy!butane 855onCobi! =vgas 100;14< ?he!! 6L&+o$er Racing6 in =ustra!ia & discontinued Ju!y 200F 6isooctane6 'ROD and COD 100 by de inition( benHene i&butane 6>+ )!timate 102 & no$ discontinued6;17< t&butano! 2,3,3&trimethy!pentane ethane
;1-<

999997 97 9F 9F 9F 99 100 100 100 100 100 100 101 101"999F 102 9F

90"3 F-

90

F-JF0 F7&FF

90J91 92&93

F9J90 F9J90 FF F7

93J94 93J94

FF F7

94

FF FFFF FF 93"4 94"4 99"'min(

94

100 100 101 102;10< 102 103 100"1;1F< 10F

100 97"0 93J94 91 99"4;1F<

100

97J9F 97 103

2,2,3&trimethy!pentane to!uene 8F- gaso!ine propane 2,2,3&trimethy!butane 5y!ene isopropano! methano! ethano! 2,-&Eimethy! uran methane hydrogen

109"0;1F< 121 102&10112 112"1;1F< 11F 11F 10F"7;20< 10F"0;20< 119 120 N 130

99"9;1F< 10107 114 F-&F7 94&90;19< 97 101"3;1F< 100 11110"9F 10F ;20< FF"0 9F"0;20< F9"7 99"1120 120

8 ects
Higher octane ratings corre!ate to higher activation energies: #his being the amount o app!ied energy re,uired to initiate combustion" ?ince higher octane ue!s have higher activation energy re,uirements, it is !ess !i*e!y that a given compression $i!! cause uncontro!!ed ignition, other$ise *no$n as autoignition or detonation" #he compression ratio is direct!y re!ated to po$er and to thermodynamic e iciency o an interna! combustion engine 'see Otto&cyc!e(" 8ngines $ith higher compression ratios deve!op more area under the Otto&/yc!e curve, thus they e5tract more energy rom a given ,uantity o ue!" Euring the compression stro*e o an interna! combustion engine, as the air 2 ue!s mi5 is compressed its temperature rises '+LOnR#(" = ue! $ith a higher octane rating is !ess prone to auto&ignition and can $ithstand a greater rise in temperature during the compression stro*e o an interna! combustion engine $ithout auto& igniting, thus a!!o$ing more po$er to be e5tracted rom the Otto&/yc!e" % during the compression stro*e the air 2 ue! mi5 reaches a temperature greater than the auto& ignition temperature o the ue!, the ue! se! or auto&ignites" Ahen auto&ignition occurs 'be ore the piston reaches the top o its trave!( the up&rising piston is then attempting to s,ueeHe the rapid!y heating ue! charge" #his $i!! usua!!y destroy an engine ,uic*!y i a!!o$ed to continue"

#here are t$o types o induction systems on interna! combustion engines: Dorma!!y aspirated engine 'air is suc*ed in using the engine@s pistons(, or orced induction engines 'see supercharged or turbocharged engines(" %n the case o the norma!!y aspirated engine, at the start o the compression stro*e the cy!inder air 2 ue! vo!ume is very !o$, this trans!ates into a !o$ starting pressure" =s the piston trave!s up$ard, abnorma!!y high cy!inder pressures may resu!t in the mi5ture auto&igniting or detonating, $hich is $hy conservative compression ratios are used in consumer vehic!es" %n a orced induction engine $here at the start o the compression stro*e the cy!inder pressure is a!ready raised 'having a greater vo!ume o air 2 ue!( 85p" 200 *+a '14"7+si(, the starting pressure or air 2 ue! vo!ume $ou!d be 2 times that o the norma!!y aspirated engine" #his $ou!d trans!ate into an e ective compression ratio o 20:1 vs" 10:1 or the norma!!y aspirated" #his is $hy many orced induction engines have compression ratios in the F:1 range" Cany high&per ormance engines are designed to operate $ith a high ma5imum compression, and thus demand ue!s o higher octane" = common misconception is that po$er output or ue! e iciency can be improved by burning ue! o higher octane than that speci ied by the engine manu acturer" #he po$er output o an engine depends in part on the energy density o the ue! being burnt" 1ue!s o di erent octane ratings may have simi!ar densities, but because s$itching to a higher octane ue! does not add more hydrocarbon content or o5ygen, the engine cannot deve!op more po$er" Ho$ever, burning ue! $ith a !o$er octane rating than that or $hich the engine is designed o ten resu!ts in a reduction o po$er output and e iciency" Cany modern engines are e,uipped $ith a *noc* sensor 'a sma!! pieHoe!ectric microphone(, $hich sends a signa! to the engine contro! unit, $hich in turn retards the ignition timing $hen detonation is detected" Retarding the ignition timing reduces the tendency o the ue!&air mi5ture to detonate, but a!so reduces po$er output and ue! e iciency" >ecause o this, under conditions o high !oad and high temperature, a given engine may have a more consistent po$er output $ith a higher octane ue!, as such ue!s are !ess prone to detonation" ?ome modern high per ormance engines are actua!!y optimiHed or higher than pump premium '93 =G% in the )?(" #he 2001 & 2007 >CA C3 $ith the ?-4 engine

is one such car" /ar and Eriver magaHine tested a car using a dynamometer, and ound that the po$er output increased as the =G% $as increased up to appro5imate!y 90 =G%" Cost ue! i!!ing stations have t$o storage tan*s 'even those o ering 3 or 4 octane !eve!s(: those motorists $ho purchase intermediate grade ue!s are given a mi5ture o higher and !o$er octane ue!s" 6+remium6 grade is ue! o higher octane, and the minimum grade so!d is ue! o !o$er octane" +urchasing 91 octane ue! '$here o ered( simp!y means that more ue! o higher octane is b!ended $ith commensurate!y !ess ue! o !o$er octane, than $hen purchasing a !o$er grade" #he detergents and other additives in the ue! are o ten, but not a!$ays, identica!" #he octane rating $as deve!oped by chemist Russe!! Car*er at the 8thy! /orporation in 1920" #he se!ection o n&heptane as the Hero point o the sca!e $as due to its avai!abi!ity in high purity" Other isomers o heptane produced rom crude oi! have great!y di erent ratings"

/etane number
1rom Ai*ipedia, the ree encyc!opedia Jump to: navigation, search /etane number or /D is a measurement o the combustion ,ua!ity o diese! ue! during compression ignition" %t is a signi icant e5pression diese! ue!" = number o other measurements determine overa!! diese! ue! ,ua!ity & measures o diese! ue! ,ua!ity inc!ude density, !ubricity, co!d& !o$ properties and su! ur content";1<

/ontents

1 Ee inition 2 #ypica! va!ues 3 =dditives 4 =!ternative ue!s

- /hemica! re!evance 0 Ceasuring cetane number

o o o o

0"1 %gnition ,ua!ity tester 0"2 1ue! ignition tester 0"3 /etane inde5 0"4 %ndustry standards

7 ?ee a!so F Re erences 9 1urther reading 10 85terna! !in*s

Ee inition
/etane number or /D is a measure o a ue!@s ignition de!ay, the time period bet$een the start o in7ection and the irst identi iab!e pressure increase during combustion o the ue!" %n a particu!ar diese! engine, higher cetane ue!s $i!! have shorter ignition de!ay periods than !o$er cetane ue!s" /etane numbers are on!y used or the re!ative!y !ight disti!!ate diese! oi!s" 1or heavy 'residua!( ue! oi! t$o other sca!es are used //=% and /%%" %n short, the higher the cetane number the more easi!y the ue! $i!! combust in a compression setting 'such as a diese! engine(" #he characteristic diese! 6*noc*6 occurs $hen the irst portion o ue! that has been in7ected into the cy!inder sudden!y ignites a ter an initia! de!ay" CinimiHing this de!ay resu!ts in !ess unburned ue! in the cy!inder at the beginning and !ess intense *noc*" #here ore higher&cetane ue! usua!!y causes an engine to run more smooth!y and ,uiet!y" #his does not necessari!y trans!ate into greater e iciency, a!though it may in certain engines"

#ypica! va!ues

4enera!!y, diese! engines operate $e!! $ith a /D rom 40 to --" 1ue!s $ith higher cetane number have shorter ignition de!ays, providing more time or the ue! combustion process to be comp!eted" Hence, higher speed diese! engines operate more e ective!y $ith higher cetane number ue!s" %n 8urope, diese! cetane numbers $ere set at a minimum o 3F in 1994 and 40 in 2000" #he current standard or diese! so!d in 8uropean )nion, %ce!and, Dor$ay and ?$itHer!and is set in 8D -90, $ith a minimum cetane inde5 o 40 and a minimum cetane number o -1" +remium diese! ue! can have a cetane number as high as 00";2< %n Dorth =merica, most states adopt =?#C E97- as their diese! ue! standard and the minimum cetane number is set at 40, $ith typica! va!ues in the 42&4- range" +remium diese!s may or may not have higher cetane, depending on the supp!ier" +remium diese! o ten use additives to improve /D and !ubricity, detergents to c!ean the ue! in7ectors and minimiHe carbon deposits, $ater dispersants, and other additives depending on geographica! and seasona! needs";citation needed<" /a!i ornia diese! ue! has a minimum cetane o -3";3<

=dditives
=!*y! nitrates 'principa!!y 2&ethy!he5y! nitrate;4<( and di&tert&buty! pero5ide are used as additives to raise the cetane number"

=!ternative ue!s
>iodiese! rom vegetab!e oi! sources have been recorded as having a cetane number range o 40 to -2, and anima!& at based biodiese!s cetane numbers range rom -0 to 00";-< Eimethy! ether is a potentia! diese! ue! as it has a high cetane rating '--&00( and can be produced as a bio ue!";0<

/hemica! re!evance
/etane is a co!!ection o un&branched open&chain a!*ane mo!ecu!es that ignites very easi!y under compression, so it $as assigned a cetane number o 100, $hi!e a!pha&methy! naphtha!ene $as

assigned a cetane number o 0" =!! other hydrocarbons in diese! ue! are inde5ed to cetane as to ho$ $e!! they ignite under compression" #he cetane number there ore measures ho$ ,uic*!y the ue! starts to burn 'auto&ignites( under diese! engine conditions" ?ince there are hundreds o components in diese! ue!, $ith each having a di erent cetane ,ua!ity, the overa!! cetane number o the diese! is the average cetane ,ua!ity o a!! the components 'strict!y spea*ing high&cetane components $i!! have disproportionate in !uence, hence the use o high&cetane additives("

Ceasuring cetane number

=ccurate measurements o the cetane number is rather di icu!t, as it re,uires burning the ue! in a rare diese! engine ca!!ed a /ooperative 1ue! Research '/1R( engine, under standard test conditions" #he operator o the /1R engine uses a hand&$hee! to increase the compression ratio 'and there ore the pea* pressure $ithin the cy!inder( o the engine unti! the time bet$een ue! in7ection and ignition is 2"407ms" #he resu!ting cetane number is then ca!cu!ated by determining $hich mi5ture o cetane 'he5adecane( and isocetane '2,2,4,4,0,F,F&heptamethy!nonane( $i!! resu!t in the same ignition de!ay"

%gnition ,ua!ity tester

=nother re!iab!e method o measuring the derived cetane number o diese! ue! is the %gnition Pua!ity #ester '%P#(" #his instrument app!ies a simp!er, more robust approach to /D measurement than the /1R" 1ue! is in7ected into a constant vo!ume combustion chamber in $hich the ambient temperature is appro5imate!y -7- ./" #he ue! combusts, and the high rate o pressure change $ithin the chamber de ines the start o combustion" #he ignition de!ay o the ue! can then be ca!cu!ated as the time di erence bet$een the start o ue! in7ection and the start o combustion" #he ue!@s derived cetane number can then be ca!cu!ated using an empirica! inverse re!ationship to ignition de!ay"

1ue! ignition tester

=nother re!iab!e method o measuring the derived cetane number o diese! ue! is the 1ue! %gnition #ester '1%#(" #his instrument app!ies a simp!er, more robust approach to /D

measurement than the /1R" 1ue! is in7ected into a constant vo!ume combustion chamber in $hich the ambient temperature is appro5imate!y -7- ./" #he ue! combusts, and the high rate o pressure change $ithin the chamber de ines the start o combustion" #he ignition de!ay o the ue! can then be ca!cu!ated as the time di erence bet$een the start o ue! in7ection and the start o combustion" #he ue!@s derived cetane number can then be ca!cu!ated using an empirica! inverse re!ationship to ignition de!ay"

/etane inde5
=nother method that ue!&users contro! ,ua!ity is by using the cetane inde5 '/%(, $hich is a ca!cu!ated number based on the density and disti!!ation range o the ue!" #here are various versions o this, depending on $hether you use metric or %mperia! units, and ho$ many disti!!ation points are used" #hese days most oi! companies use the @4&point method@, =?#C E4737, based on density, 10: -0: and 90: recovery temperatures" #he @2&point method@ is de ined in =?#C E970, and uses 7ust density and the -0: recovery temperature" #his 2&point method tends to overestimate cetane inde5 and is not recommended" /etane inde5 ca!cu!ations can not account or cetane improver additives and there ore do not measure tota! cetane number or additiHed diese! ue!s" Eiese! engine operation is primari!y re!ated to the actua! cetane number and the cetane inde5 is simp!y an estimation o the base 'unadditiHed( cetane number"

%ndustry standards
#he industry standards or measuring cetane number are =?#C E&013 '%?O -10-( or the /1R engine, E&0F90 or the %P#, and E&7170 or the 1%#"