Johanncs Gutcnbcrg

Univcrsitat Mainz
cpartmcnt ol nglish
and Linguistics F8 c
r. phil. Raincr Nagcl
Articial Languagcs and
Languagc Planning
Julian Jarosch
. ctobcr acc
rcviscd to
May ac.c
Quenya in the
Standard Average European
European Context
Features of Tolkiens Quenya
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Table of Contents
1. Introduction 3
2. Standard Average European 3
2.1 Definite/Indefinite Article 4
2.2 Relative Clause 4
2.3 Perfect Tense 4
2.4 Reduplication 5
2.5 Nominative Experiencers 5
2.6 Causative/Inchoative Alternation 6
2.7 Comparison 7
2.8 Subject Person Marking 8
2.9 Conjunction 8
2.10 Second Ordinal 9
2.11 Alienable/Inalienable Possession 9
2.12 Inclusive/Exclusive Plural 9
3. Conclusions
3.1 SAE Membership of Quenya 10
3.2 Noun Phrase Final Case Marking 11
4. Works Cited
4.1 Books 13
4.2 Periodicals 14
4.3 Online Sources 14
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1. Introduction
Tc articial languagc callcd Quenya (lvish, Tolkicn .: .,6) rst bccamc
known to a widcr audicncc whcn in . its invcntor, 8ritish author and philo
logist J. R. R. Tolkicn, publishcd thc rst volumc ol Te Lord of the Rings, con
taining a Qucnya tcxt corpus ol approximatcly words. vcr sincc thcn, scholars
havc tricd to dcducc thc grammatical structurc ol thc languagc, csscntially crcat
ing an lvish philology. 8ut, to thc bcst ol my knowlcdgc, until now no onc has
considcrcd Qucnya lrom a typolo gical point ol vicw.
Tolkicn wrotc that Qucnya is . . . intcndcd . . . to bc dcnitcly ol a u
ropcan kind in stylc and structurc (not in dctail) . . . (.: .,). To cvaluatc
whcthcr or to what cxtcnt Tolkicn achicvcd this objcctivc, this papcr will put thc
languagc in a uropcan contcxt cspccially by comparing it to thc dcnition ol
thc Sprachbund known as SA proposcd by Haspclmath (acc.).
Qucnya, bcing an articial languagc, hardly poscs lcss, but rathcr dicr
cnt problcms lor linguists than a natural languagc, bccausc only a limitcd tcxt
corpus and incomplctc, cvcn scllcontradictory inlormation is availablc. Tolkicn
workcd on dcvcloping Qucnya lor thc bcttcr part ol his lilc with shilting princi
plcs and aims so thc cxtrcmc divcrsity ol thc cxisting matcrial is not surprising,
but calls lor somc manncr ol standardization. Tcrclorc ! prclcr to takc into ac
count tcxts publishcd by Tolkicn himscll (in Tolkicn acc, Tolkicn/Swann acca)
and tcxts bclonging to thc pcriod altcr thc publication ol Te Lord of the Rings
(such as in Tolkicn ., .c), disrcgarding carlicr stagcs ol thc cxtcrnal dcvcl
opmcnt.
2. Standard Average European
Haspclmath (acc.) has proposcd twclvc major dcning and vc likcly (Haspcl
math acc.: .c.) lcaturcs ol Standard Avcragc uropcan (hcncclorth abbrcviatcd
SA), as wcll as ninc lurthcr lcaturcs that could provc rclcvant to thc dcscription
ol ol SA. Not all ol thcsc lcaturcs can bc provcn or disprovcn to cxist in Qucnya
duc to thc scarcity ol data. !n this scction, only thosc SA lcaturcs that can with
rcasonablc ccrtainty bc lound in Qucnya will bc discusscd, mostly in thc ordcr in
which thcy appcar in Haspclmath (acc.).
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2.1 Definite/Indefinite Article
Haspclmath (acc.: .) dcncs thc cxistcncc ol a dcnitc and an indcnitc ar
ticlc to bc a distinguishing lcaturc ol SA with languagcs having both articlcs
at thc corc and languagcs with only a dcnitc articlc at thc pcriphcry ol thc
Sprachbund. Qucnya has a dcnitc articlc, namcly i, as may bc sccn in (.):
(.) S man i yulma nin enquantuva?
. . . . Vho now shall rcll thc cup lor mc: . . . .
(Tolkicn acc: ,,l., cl. Fauskangcr: Namric)
Howcvcr, thcrc is no indcnitc articlc in Qucnya as is madc clcar in this phrasc:
Elen sla . . . , a star shincs . . . (Tolkicn acc: .). Rcgarding this lcaturc, thcrc
lorc, Qucnya is at thc pcriphcry ol SA.
2.2 Relative Clause
Haspclmath dcncs thc kind ol rclativc clausc typical ol SA as lollows:
Tc rclativc clausc is postnominal, thcrc is an inccting rclativc
pronoun, this pronoun introduccs thc rclativc clausc, and thc
rclativc pronoun lunctions as a rcsumptivc, i.c. it signals thc
hcads rolc within thc rclativc clausc . . . (acc.: .)
All thcsc critcria arc lulllcd by (a):
(a) . . . tellumar, yassen tintilar i eleni . . .
. . . domcs, whichin (pl.) twinklc thc stars . . .
(Tolkicn/Swann acca: 66l.)
Tellumar, domcs, is thc hcad noun, it is lollowcd by thc rclativc pronoun yassen
incctcd in thc plural locativc casc and thc rclativc clausc tintilar i eleni. Fur
thcrmorc, thc rclativc pronoun rcsumcs thc rolc ol thc hcad noun in thc rclativc
clausc by taking incctional marking (Faus kangcr: Namric). As Haspclmath
(acc.: .) cmphasiscs, this stratcgy ol rclativc clausc construction is rarc outsidc
uropc and thcrclorc a spcciality ol SA.
2.3 Perfect Tense
Tc habeopcrlcct thc construction ol thc pcrlcct tcnsc by mcans ol an auxiliary
with thc mcaning to havc is undcrstood to bc typical ol uropcan languagcs
(Haspclmath acc.: .), but it docs not cxist in Qucnya. Tc pcrlcct havc passcd
away (pl.), lor cxamplc, is cxprcsscd by avnier (Tolkicn/Swann acca: 66), in
onc word and without any auxiliary.
2.4 Reduplication
!t is convcnicnt to considcr onc morc lcaturc rclatcd to thc pcrlcct tcnsc in this
placc: Haspclmath (acc.: .c) suspccts that thc abscncc ol productivc grammat
ical rcduplication is typical ol contcmporary uropcan languagcs. n thc othcr
hand, in ancicnt Grcck (Rix .a: aca) and at lcast supposcdly also in Proto
!ndouropcan (Mcicr8ruggcr acca: .,, Rix acc.: a.a), thc pcrlcct tcnsc was
lormcd by mcans ol prcxing rcduplication. Tc samc is truc ol Qucnya:
() a) . . . utlien.
. . . ! am comc. . . . (Tolkicn acc: 6,)
() b) . . . utvienyes! ! havc lound it! . . . (Tolkicn acc: ,.)
Tcsc pcrlcct tcnsc lorms arc lormcd by prcxing rcduplication ol thc stcm vow
cls out ol tul- comc and tuv- nd, rcspcctivcly (cl. Fauskangcr: Qucn yallo). Tc
similarity to ancicnt Grcck is not surprising, as Tolkicn himscll has statcd that
Qucnya was inucnccd by Grcck (.: .,6).
Tolkicn also uscd anothcr lorm ol rcduplication in Qucnya which hc
callcd lrcqucntativc (.: aa), lormcd as in fru- lrom r- dic, ladc: slowly
ladc away (Tolkicn .: aa), to dcnotc protractcd or ongoing actions (Faus
kangcr: Markirya).
So, in using rcduplication productivcly, Qucnya is dicrcnt lrom mo
dcrnday SA, but links back to oldcr !ndouropcan languagcs and probably
cvcn to Proto!ndouropcan.
2.5 Nominative Experiencers
Tc usual way ol SA languagcs to cxprcss cxpcricnccr argumcnts ol vcrbs ol
scnsation, cmotion, cognition and pcrccption (Haspclmath acc.: .) is as no
mi nativc subjccts.
() Man kenuva lumbor na-hosta (Tolkicn .: aaa)
Vho will scc (thc) clouds gathcr: (Fauskangcr: Markirya)
() shows thc intcrrogativc man who as thc (nominativc) subjcct ol cenuva
sccvu::, tting in thc SA schcmc. Tc problcm is that in Qucnya ncithcr thc
nominativc nor thc accusativc casc is markcd morphologically, so that onc has to
rcly on thc word ordcr to bc subjcct vcrb objcct (as Pcsch acc: .., has pro
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poscd, cl. Haspclmath acc.: .c). Howcvcr, ! scc no rcason to assumc that this
scntcncc has thc rcvcrscd word ordcr with thc objcct bclorc thc subjcct, cspccially
as a rcmark by Tolkicn (.: aa) suggcsts that lumbor clouds is thc objcct in
dccd (Fauskangcr: Markirya). Tcrclorc ! proposc that Qucnya conlorms to SA
in this lcaturc.
2.6 Causative/Inchoative Alternation
!n causativc / inchoativc vcrb pairs likc raise /rise or lose /get lost, cithcr onc ol thc
vcrbs is dcrivcd lrom thc othcr, or thcy lorm a nondircctcd altcrnation (lor dc
tails cl. Haspclmath .: ca). Tc dircction ol dcrivation in dircctcd altcrna
tions is thc basis ol anothcr lcaturc ol SA: among uropcan languagcs, somc
show a clcar prclcrcncc lor pairs in which thc inchoativc vcrb is dcrivcd lrom thc
causativc vcrb thcy arc ol thc anticausativcpromincnt typc (Haspclmath acc.:
.,). Tc nondircctcd altcrnations may bc lurthcr subdividcd, as in tablc .:
Table Causativc /inchoativc vcrb pairs in Qucnya
verb meaning causative inchoative type
brcak (tr.) /(intr.) rac- ascat- sup.
burn (tr.) /(intr.) usta- (urta-) urya- cquip.
kill /dic nahta- r- sup.
gathcr (tr.) /(intr.) hosta- hosta- lab.
changc (tr.) /(intr.) vista- ahya- sup.
raiscd /rosc ortan oront antic.
nish (tr.) /(intr.) telya- tel- caus.
turn (tr.) /(intr.) quer- quer- rc. pr. antic.
stop (tr.) /(intr.) pusta- pusta-/hauta- lab. /sup.
Abbrcviations: antic. - anticausativc altcrnation, caus. - caus ativc altcr
nation, cquip. - cquipollcnt ctc, lab. - labilc ctc, sup. - supplctivc ctc,
rc. pr. - rccxivc pronoun (cl. Haspclmath .: ca, .c.).
! havc collcctcd thc ninc vcrb pairs in tablc . lrom Fauskangcr (Qucnyanna,
Qucnyallo) on thc basis ol thc . vcrb pairs in Haspclmath (.: ,). For Haspcl
maths aa othcr vcrb pairs no ccrtain Qucnya translations wcrc availablc.
Notc that urta- to burn (tr.) is a (plausiblc) assumption by Fauskangcr
(Qucnyallo), and that my classication as an cquipollcnt altcrnation rclics on thc
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corrcctncss ol that assumption. !l Fauskangcr is wrong, it is a supplctivc pair and
still a nondircctcd altcrnation.
Tc pair ortan oront is givcn in incctcd (past tcnsc) lorm, bccausc
thc stcm orta- in itscll is a labilc vcrb. !n thc past tcnsc, howcvcr, thc dicrcntia
tion ol transitivity cntcrs. Ortan is a rcgular past tcnsc lormation, whilc oront
sccms to bc an irrcgular lorm (Fauskangcr: Qucnyallo). ! thcrclorc takc thc lat
tcr to bc thc dcrivcd lorm, and accordingly classily thc pair as anticausativc.
Following Haspclmath (.: l.), telya- is classicd as dcrivcd lrom
tel-, bccausc it is phonologically (and probably also morphologically, cl. Faus
kangcr: Qucnyallo) morc markcd.
Tc lollowing conclusions can bc drawn lrom tablc .: l thc dircctcd al
tcrnations, onc is probably causativc, onc is ccrtainly anticausativc and anothcr onc
is (partly) anticausativc all in all two thirds anticausativcs. ! concludc that in
rclativc numbcrs, approximatcly c 66,6 ol thc nondircctcd causativc/in
choativc vcrb pairs in Qucnya arc anticausativc altcrnations. Comparing this with
Haspclmaths map .c,.6 (acc.: .,), ! proposc that in this lcaturc, Qucnya is at
thc pcriphcry ol SA.'
8ut this is not thc only conclusion to bc drawn lrom tablc .. l thc ninc
altcrnations, six arc nondircctcd (66,6 , to put it in rclativc numbcrs). Tis is a
rcmarkably high proportion, in Haspclmaths samplc (.: .c., tablc ) it is only
surpasscd by Japancsc (,.) and, morc rcmarkably, nglish (). !n this rcspcct,
Qucnya shows a ccrtain similarity to nglish.
2.7 Comparison
According to Haspclmath (acc.: .), SA languagcs typically lorm compara
tivc constructions by mcans ol a comparison particlc. Qucnya apparcntly prclcrs
thc construction typc which is prcvalcnt in Alrica: Vcldcn (acc.: a, italics in
thc original) quotcs A (n) kalima l 8, mcaning A is bright bcyond 8 lrom
Haspclmaths classication ol nglish as .cc anticausativcpromincnt (acc.:
.,, map .c,.6) rclics on no morc than two anticausativc altcrnations in his samplc (Haspcl
math .: .c., tablc ). Tcrclorc ! takc thc prcscnt ndings to bc signiant as wcll.
Pcrhaps thcrc arc cvcn morc nondircctcd altcrnations, likc panta- to opcn
(Faus kangcr: Qucnyallo), which possibly is labilc.
an unpublishcd cssay on comparison by Tolkicn. Tis corrcsponds to thc cxcccd
comparativc which docs not occur in uropc (Haspclmath acc.: .).
Notc that calima bright abovc docs not carry a comparativc incctional
markcr, which would bc cxpcctcd in uropcan languagcs (Haspclmath acc.: .c.,
Fauskangcr: Qucnyallo).
2.8 Subject Person Marking
Haspclmath notcs that outsidc uropc, |s|ubjcct pcrson axcs as strict agrcc
mcnt markcrs arc cxtrcmcly rarc (acc.: .cc). Tat is to say that nonprodrop
languagcs occur almost cxclusivcly in thc SA Sprachbund, although cvcn thcrc
thcy arc not widcsprcad (Haspclmath acc.: .cc, map .c,...) thus thcy arc rathcr
at thc corc ol SA.
Qucnya is a rclcrcntialagrccmcnt or prodrop languagc. !n Qucnya,
subjcct pcrson axcs arc not (ncccssarily) agrccmcnt markcrs, bccausc thcy can
bc uscd in scntcnccs without ovcrt subjcct noun phrascs, as () and () show.
() Nai hir-uva-lye Valimar.
bc it that nd wiltthou \alimar.
. . . . Maybc thou shalt nd \alimar. . . . (Tolkicn/Swann acca: 6,)
Tc vcrb hir- nd carrics thc sccond pcrson singular sux -lye (Fauskangcr: Na
m ric). !n this rcspcct, thus, Qucnya is not at thc corc ol SA. 8ut ncithcr is it
cntircly outsidc SA, as in pcriphcral languagcs ol thc Sprachbund subjcct pro
nouns arc obligatory, whilc thcrc is no (subjcct) pcrson agrccmcnt marking on
thc vcrb (Haspclmath acc.: .cc). Tc samc construction is possiblc in Qucnya:
(6) Nai elye hir-uva.
8c it that cvcn thou nd will |it| (8rackcts by thc author.)
. . . Maybc cvcn thou shalt nd it . . . (Tolkicn/Swann acca: 6,)
!n (6) only thc luturc tcnsc markcr -uva is suxcd to thc vcrb hir-, whilc thc scc
ond pcrson singular pronoun appcars as a lrcc morphcmc, elye (Fauskangcr: Na
m ric).
2.9 Conjunction
Among thc likcly lcaturcs ol SA, Haspclmath namcs thc subtypc A and8
(acc.: .ca) lor thc construction ol noun phrasc conjunctions.
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(,) . . . Varda . . . ortane m-rya-t . . . , ar lumbule undu-lve ilye tir . . .
. . . . \arda . . . has upliltcd hcr hands . . . , and all paths arc drowncd
dccp in shadow . . . . (Tolkicn/Swann acca: 6,)
(,) shows that thc cunjunction particlc uscd in Qucnya is ar (Fauskangcr: Na
mric), and that it occurs at thc bcginning ol thc sccond ol two noun phrascs in
conjunction. Tis corrcsponds to thc SA pattcrn.
Notc, howcvcr, that Haspclmath cvaluatcs this lcaturc as . . . lcss dis
tinctivc than thc othcrs mcntioncd so lar . . . (acc.: .ca).
2.10 Second Ordinal
According to Haspclmath (acc.: .c), thc cxistcncc ol a supplctivc lorm ol thc
sccond ordinal (a) is a charactcristic ol SA. Qucnya has thc spccial lorm tatya
sccond, which is archaic and supposcd to havc bccn rcplaccd by atta sccond, a
rcgular dcrivation lrom atta two (Fauskangcr: Qucnyallo). Tus, bcsidcs thc com
mon sccond ordinal thcrc also cxists a supplctivc lorm not rcgularly in usc. Tc
samc sccms to bc truc cvcn ol thc third ordinal: apart ol neld thrcc cxist (rcgu
lar) nelda third and (supplctivc) nelya third (Fauskangcr: Qucnyallo).
2.11 Alienable/Inalienable Possession
Haspclmath (acc.: .c) suspccts that thc abscncc ol an opposition bctwccn alicn
ablc and inalicnablc posscssion is charactcristic ol SA. !n Qucnya, no such dis
tinction is attcstcd ncithcr in thc distinction bctwccn thc gcnitivc and thc
posscssivc casc, nor in posscssivc pronouns (Fauskangcr: Qucnya). !n this lcaturc,
Qucnya quitc clcarly conlorms to SA.
2.12 Inclusive/Exclusive Plural
According to Haspclmath, thc |l|ack ol an inclusivc /cxclusivc opposition in rst
pcrson nonsingular pronouns . . . (acc.: .c) possibly is a lcaturc ol SA.
Qucn ya, howcvcr, makcs a clcar distinction bctwccn thc inclusivc and cxclusivc
lorms ol thc rst pcrson plural pronouns:
() a) . . . omentielvo . . . . (Tolkicn acc: .)
mccting..vi.ixci.vosscvx
() b) . . . laituvalmet . . . (Tolkicn acc: )
praiscvu::..vi.vxci.vi
Tc pronoun suxcs in () arc: a) -lva rst pcrson plural inclusivc posscssivc
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(with gcnitivc -o displacing thc nal -a) and b) -lme rst pcrson plural cxclusivc
(Fauskangcr: Qucnya). Conccrning this lcaturc, Qucnya is distinctly dicrcnt
lrom SA.
3. Conclusions
3.2 SAE Membership of Quenya
Morc than twclvc lcaturcs ol Qucnya havc bccn cxamincd and comparcd to SA
in this papcr. Most ol thcm arc listcd in tablc a. Notc that only inhcrcnt distinc
tions bctwccn corc and pcriphcry in lcaturcs ol SA arc rccctcd in thc tablc.
Table Typological lcaturcs ol Qucnya in rclation to SA
SAE non-
feature core periphery SAE
a.. dcnitc/indcnitc articlc
a.a rclativc clausc
a. pcrlcct tcnsc
a. (rcduplication)
a. nominativc cxpcricnccrs
a.6 causativc/inchoativc altcrnation
a., comparison
a. subjcct pcrson marking
a. (conjunction)
a..c (sccond ordinal)
a... (alicnablc/inalicnablc posscssion)
a..a (inclusivc/cxclusivc plural)
Tc numcration and dcsignations ol lcaturcs rclcrcncc thc hcadings ol
this papcr. For dctails, scc thc rcspcctivc scction. Tc lcaturcs in parcn
thcscs arc not among thc twclvc major lcaturcs ol SA as proposcd by
Haspclmath (acc.).
Qucnya sharcs vc ol thc major lcaturcs ol SA listcd abovc somc ol thcm
only pcriphcrally, though. As may bc sccn in Haspclmaths map .c,.. (acc.: .c),
a broad basis ol uropcan languagcs, constituting thc pcriphcry ol SA, sharc at
lcast vc ol thc major lcaturcs. Tis, thcn, qualics Qucnya as a pcriphcral mcm
bcr ol SA.
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n thc wholc, this papcr prcscnts cight instanccs in which Qucnya con
lorms to thc lcaturcs dcscribcd by Haspclmath (acc.). Counting all thcsc, Qucnya
would bc locatcd at thc corc ol SA, according to Haspclmaths map .c,.. (acc.:
.c). Howcvcr, givcn thc unccrtain status ol thrcc ol thcsc lcaturcs in rcspcct to
thcir rclcvancc lor SA (cl. Haspclmath acc.: .c., .c), and somc unccrtaintics
in this papcr (cl. a., a.6), and thc lact that in thrcc lcaturcs Qucnya is distinctly
at thc pcriphcry ol SA, ! will not claim morc than a pcriphcral mcmbcrship ol
Qucnya in SA.
Many ol thcsc rcsults and obscrvations (cspccially in a.6 and a.,) may bc
comc obsolctc, as ncw linguistic matcrial conccrning Tolkicns articial languagcs
is bcing publishcd at intcrvals. n thc othcr hand, such ncw matcrial could pro
vidc inlormation conccrning thc . lcaturcs prcscntcd by Haspclmath (acc.) about
which no statcmcnts in rclation to Qucnya can bc madc with ccrtainty until now.
To answcr thc initial qucstion: Tolkicn wantcd Qucnya to bc . . . dc
nitcly ol a uropcan kind in stylc and structurc . . . (.: .,). Taking into ac
count thc rcsults abovc, ! think Qucnya may condcntly bc classicd as a
uropcan languagc in structurc.
3.2 Noun Phrase Final Case Marking
8ut what about stylc: ! will try to makc a lcw points rcgarding this qucstion, al
though a survcy ol morc basic typological lcaturcs ol Qucnya, likc thc phonolo
gical structurc or thc dcgrcc ol agglutinativity, could possibly providc lurthcr
illuminating insights.
nc morc lcaturc ol Qucnya which is csscntially unrclatcd to SA but
rclcvant in thc uropcan contcxt nccds to bc cxamincd: thc marking ol casc at thc
cnd ol noun phrascs. Tis is common practicc in 8asquc:
!n noun phrascs containing a singlc noun only thc last word ol
thc phrasc carrics casc and numbcr incction, which is markcd
by suxcs. Tc word in thc noun phrasc incctcd lor casc /num
bcr is not ncccssarily thc hcad noun. !l an adjcctivc or anothcr
modicr lollows thc noun thc incctional suxcs will appcar
on this word. Tat is, in 8asquc numbcr and casc incction is a
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propcrty ol noun phrascs. (Hualdc and rtiz dc Urbina acc:
.,.)
Tis construction is cxcmplicd in ():
() gizon gazte-ari
man younguv:.u~:
to thc young man (Hualdc and rtiz dc Urbina acc: .,.)
A similar construction occurs in Qucnya, although it is not cmploycd as rc gularly
as in 8asquc. Considcr (.c):
(.c) . . . Elendil Vorondo voronw. (Tolkicn .c: c)
lcndil laithlulcvx laith
. . . thc laith ol lcndil thc Faithlul . . . (Tolkicn .c: .,)
Tolkicn cxplaincd that . . . as is usual in Qucnya in thc casc ol two dcclinablc
namcs in apposition only thc last is dcclincd . . . (.c: .,). Howcvcr, it is also
possiblc, as in 8asquc, to mark thc last word ol a noun phrasc cvcn il it is not a
cognomcn:
(..) . . . isilme ilkalasse . . . (Tolkicn .: aaa)
moonlight whitc.glcamingioc (Tolkicn .: aa)
in thc glcaming moonlight (Fauskangcr: Markirya)
!t is quitc possiblc that Tolkicn loancd this lcaturc lrom 8asquc, bccausc apart
lrom this languagc it only occurs in Australian and Amazonian languagcs (8lakc
.: .c.). Tc probability that Tolkicn got thc inspiration lor this lcaturc lrom
such languagcs is cvcn smallcr than that hc rcinvcntcd it all by himscll.
To sum up: thc usc ol rcduplication, cspccially in thc construction ol thc
pcrlcct tcnsc, connccts Qucnya to oldcr !ndouropcan languagcs (scc a.), thc
high amount ol nondircctcd causativc/inchoativc altcrnations makcs it si milar to
nglish (scc a.6) which in itscll is not among thc most typical SA langu agcs
(Haspclmath acc.: .c) and thc noun phrasc nal casc marking is probably
loancd lrom 8asquc, possibly thc most cxtraordinary languagc in uropc. All this
givcs Qucnya a pcculiar, uniquc but still uropcan avour, distinct lrom just
any standard avcragc uropcan languagc.
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4. Works Cited
4.1 Books
8lakc, 8arry J. (.) Case. Cambridgc: Cambridgc Univcrsity Prcss.
Haspclmath, Martin (.) Morc on thc Typology ol !nchoativc /Causativc
\crb Altcrnations. !n: Comric, 8crnard and Polinsky, Maria (cds.)
Causatives and Transitivity. (Studics in Languagc Companion Scrics
a.), ,.ac. Amstcrdam: John 8cnjamins Publishing Company.
(acc.) Tc uropcan Linguistic Arca: Standard Avcragc uropcan. !n:
Haspclmath, Martin, ct al. (cds.) Language Typology and Language
Universals: An International Handbook vol. a. (Handbooks ol Linguis
tics and Communication Scicncc ac.a.), .a..c. 8crlin: Valtcr dc
Gruytcr.
Hualdc, Jos !gnacio and rtiz dc Urbina, Jon, cds. (acc) A Grammar of
Basque. (Mouton Grammar Library a6.) 8crlin: Mouton dc Gruytcr.
Mcicr8ruggcr, Michacl (acca) Indogermanische Sprachwissenschaft. ' cd.
8crlin: Valtcr dc Gruytcr.
Pcsch, Hclmut V. (acc) Elbisch: Grammatik, Schrift und Wrterbuch der Elben-
Sprache von J. R. R. Tolkien. 8crgisch Gladbach: 8astci Lubbc.
Rix, Hclmut (.a) Historische Grammatik des Griechischen: Laut- und Formen-
lehre. a cd. armstadt: Visscnschaltlichc 8uchgcscllschalt, .,6.
ct al. (acc.) Lexikon der Indogermanischen Verben: Die Wurzeln und Ihre
Primrstammbildung. a cd. Vicsbadcn: r. Ludwig Rcichcrt \crlag.
Tolkicn, John Ronald Rcucl (.) A Sccrct \icc. !n: John Ronald Rcucl
Tolkicn and Christophcr Tolkicn (cd.) Te Monsters and the Critics and
Other Essays, .aa. London: Gcorgc Allcn & Unwin.
(.c) Unnished Tales of Nmenor and Middle-Earth. d. Christophcr
Tolkicn. London: Unwin Hyman Limitcd, .c.
(.) Te Letters of J. R. R. Tolkien. d. Humphrcy Carpcntcr and Christo
phcr Tolkicn. London: HarpcrCollins.
and Swann, onald (acca) Te Road Goes Ever On: A Song Cycle. cd.
London: HarpcrCollins, .6.
(acc) Te Lord of the Rings. London: HarpcrCollins, .6.
13
4.2 Periodicals
Vcldcn, 8ill (acc.) Ncgation in Qucnya. Vinyar Tengwar a: a.
4.3 Online Sources
All bold cmphasis in thcsc rclcrcnccs is minc. !t indicatcs thc short titlcs uscd lor
parcnthctical rclcrcncc in this papcr.
Fauskangcr, Hclgc K. Qucnya Course: Lcsson .6 ac Quenya Course. Fcbru
ary acc. http://www.uib.no/pcoplc/hnohl/lcssd.rtl ( ctobcr acc).
Fauskangcr, Hclgc K. Tc Markirya Pocm. Ardalambion.
http://www.uib.no/pcoplc/hnohl/markirya.htm (. Scptcmbcr acc).
Fauskangcr, Hclgc K. Namri. Ardalambion.
http://www.uib.no/pcoplc/hnohl/namaric.htm (. Scptcmbcr acc).
Fauskangcr, Hclgc K. Quenya Tc Ancicnt Tonguc. Ardalambion.
http://www.uib.no/pcoplc/hnohl/qucnya.htm (. Scptcmbcr acc).
Fauskangcr, Hclgc K. Qucttaparma Quenyallo. July acc.
http://www.uib.no/pcoplc/hnohl/qucncng.rtl (. Scptcmbcr acc).
Fauskangcr, Hclgc K. Qucttaparma Quenyanna. July acc.
http://www.uib.no/pcoplc/hnohl/cngqucn.rtl (. Scptcmbcr acc).
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