,,.

CONTROL SYSTEM DESIGN USING EXTENSIONS. OF THE PARAMETER PIANE CONCEPT

John B, Moore

,/
>., L ,

Submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the Degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY University of Ssmta Clara Santa Clara, California 1967

CONTROL SYSTEM DESIGN USING EXTENSIONS OF THE PARAMETER PL~ CONCEPT ~

By John B. Moore

. .

This work is accepted . as fulfilling the dissertation requirement for the Degree / DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY from the University of Santa Clara . {

d /

First Reader

A&A
~

#jQ7%Ju-Second Reader WAeA9 c Chairman, Department of Electrical Engineering

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The author expresses his appreciation to Dr. D. D. ~i,ljakfor his guidance and encouragement in both the development of the thesis and its presentation. The author expresses his thanks to Dr. R. C. Dorf and Dr. G. J. Tinalerfor the privilege of working with them on the problem studied

for the NASA Contract. Particular thanks also to Dr. Dorf for administrating the whole of the Ph.D. Program. The research reported herein was supported by the National Aeronautics and Space Administration under Contract No. NAs2-2609* i. i 8

\
,:

. . . .
..
!

.,,

ii

.-

ABSTRACT

-This thesis presents extensions of the parameter plane concept which have application in the design of linear, nonlinear, sampled-data and time delay systems. In linear system design, a systematic approach

is presented for the selection of the structure and parameters of a

multi-parameter system. With modifications some of the methods may be applied in the design of sampled-data and time delay systems. In nonlinear

system design, parameter plane methods for the investigation of stability, , frequency response, and transient response are presented. These methods ,. are therefore applicable in the design of certain classes of nonlinear systems. ,~

lkoparticular results are presented because of their contribution to the parameter plane theory. The first is a straightforward, convergent, rapid method for the solution of polynomial equations. The second is the design of an inertially stabilized attitude control system for a space vehicle using the various concepts developed for linear system design. The significance of the various methods is that they belong to the . category of those advances in control system design fostered by the general availability of the digitalcomputer and yet complementing rather than discarding existing methods.

iii..

. ,.4,;

INDEX

Chapter 1. lel Scope

INTRODUCTION ..,... ...,....

. . . . . . . . . . . . . a.. ;., ...,

1 1

. . . . 6 . .. . . . . . .

l~2Parameter 1,3

plane method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
G

Specific contributions of the thesis . . . . ALGEBRAIC EQUATION THEORY . . . . . . . . . . . Yk

b .
G G G

. . . 0 0
G

o c 2
G G

Chapter II. 2.1 2.2 2.3 Scope

. .
6 .

3 ~.

The functions \and The polynomial the ~ and Yk f(s)

. . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . .

in terms of ~-_- ,,~-, ee, ,., ,, l.,.

3 -.

functions .,,

2.4 Thezerosof

f(s) . , , . , , , , , , , , , . , , . , . ,0 ******* . .
G G G

5 , 6 .10. *12

2.5 Parameter plane equations 2.6 lheparameterplane 2.6.1 2.6.2 2.7 2.8 Algorithm Theorems . . 9

****** *
G G G

** *
G

. . . . . . ..

. . . ... . .

* *12

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .15 . . . .
G G

Thecomplexplane

* * .

G *
G

G 21
G

Root sensitivities to parameter variations 2.8.1 2.8.2 For small parameter variations Fourlarge parameter variations LINEAR SYSTEMDESZGN
,

@
G

* *
G

23

.
G

.
G

~ * . s

*
G

o 24
o 25

* *

Chapber III. 3,1 3,2 Scope

*~*,*~~~******
G G

~t*27
G G

b . 0

b *

* *

**

s;6

* * * G 27
c
G

Paramter plane method ~ # o 0 0 I c 8 c 8 ~ o 0 0 c

G G

o
G

27

3.3 Design ., approach . 3.4 Constraint equations 3.4.1

**
G G

* *

* 0
G G

* * G 28
G G

G 29

Constraints on characteristic equation root locations * 29

G

3.4.2 Error constant constraint equations 3.4.3 Root sensitivity constraint

31

3,5 Design using constraint equations 3,6 Constraint inequalities * * ~ * 3.6.1 3.6.2 Complex plane Parameter plane * *
G G G G

****a*

***96**

35 35 42
G

*
G

* ***4***
G G

******* *a****~ *
G

9***** *
G

3.6.3 Approximate analytical methods b iv

* Q *

48

3.7 A control system design 3.8 1

. . . , . .,. . . * .

50

The design of an attitude,control system . c . foraspacevehicle 3.8.1 3.8.2

3.8.3

....cc..s~.

60

Introduction

. . . . . . . . . . . ., 60
e

Problem Specifications . . . . . . . Problem solution Conclusions

61

. . . . . , . . . . .

62 69 69 70
72 72

3.8*4 3.9

. . . . . . . i . . . , . . .
G G

Selection of a system structure . .

3.10 Conclusions Chapter IV.

NONLINEAR SYSTEM DESICN

G

4,1 Scope
4.2 Stability 4.2.1

beebeb

. .

G *

72
72 73i .
G G G G

/
/.

Introduction

. . . . .

4.2.2 The Popov Theorem . . . 4.2.3 Describing function method

,

80 84

4.3

Frequency response

4,4 Transient response 4,5 Conclusions . .

cha~ter V. Appendix A. Appefhiix B,
G

90 99
100 . ,. . . . t . i .,*o**** 101 . 103

CONCLUSIONS REFERENCES SAMPLED DATA SYSTEMS TIME DELAY SYSTEMS**

G

106

,,

.,

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS Fi~ure 2,1 2.2 2,.3 2.4 3*1 3,2 3.3 3.4 3.5 3.6 3.7 3.8
,

Page Shading .
* *
G G

**6

# * * 8 * 8
9
G

13 17 20 22 33 37 39 ho 41 43
,,., /,
/

Real Root Contours Parameter Complex Plane Block Diagram Flow Graph .
G

be

# #
e

9*

**

e*

Complex Plane. Complex Plane Block Diagram Complex Plane

9.

8 # 8
n

,* .
G

Parameter Plane Complex Plane . Block Diagram . Parameter Plane Parsmeter Plane Complex Plane ~ Parameter Plane

46 51 52
54 55

3.9 3.10 3.11 3.;2 3.13 3.14 3,15 3.16 4.1 4.2 4.3

56

d
G

58
59 63 66 74 78 79 ~

Transient Response . l2p1anel

***
*
G

Parameter Plane . . . 0 . 0 Block Diagram . . # c

G G

Parameter Plane .. . . . . Parameter Plane . . . . . .

. .-

G 



 

. ,.

Fimre

4,4 4.5 4,6 4.7

4.8 J+.9 4.10

Parameter Plane . 0 * 0 . * 8 Frequency-Phase Response . Amplitude Diagram . . . . Parameter Plane . . . . . Parameter Plane . . . . . c(A) and un(A) Curves .
G

86 87 88 89, 96
97

Approximate Transient Oscillations ;

,

.
)

,/

,.

*
h

., . .
.

vii .,

-_

..

. .---

-- -. .

_..__

.-.

Chapter I. 1.1

INTRODUCTION

&QG
The problem considered in this thesis is control system design aided both

by digital computer calculations and the experience and intuition of the designer. In particular, for linear system design, the multipartuneter problem is considered and of interest is the development of methods for the efficient calculation and presentation of information to provide~a basis for the selection of a system structure and its parameters. For nonlinear system

design the emphasis is on that class of system for which the describing fimction method applies. Approximate methods whereby either or both the linear and nonlinear parameters may be selected to give the required performance characteristic are considered. The extent to which the developments of the linear and nonlinear theory can be applied to the design of time delay and ssmpled data systems is SJ.SOinvestigated. , 1.2 Parsmeter Plane Method The parameter plane concept was first formulatedby ~iljak in 1964.1-3 In these papers, the historical background and mathematical development of the concept were given and areas of its applicability outlined. Since then, t

,, 4-15 16 . and books are being written by ~ilJak further papers have been written

17 and also by Thaler ~ Also, in the period since

/-

1964, the ideas end

developments of this thesis were investigated. Much of the thesis consists of a presentation &,ndillustration of the various extensions and developments of the parameter plane conc,ept,some of it consists of the reinterpretation of earlier work in the light ,.
,., ;. .

of these developments.
.9

-1-

.,

,,

. ... .

. ..

-. -..

. .

,. --w,.

, ..

103
1.

Specific Contributions of the Thesis The proofs of section 2,1 !.\ ., . f(s) section 2.4,

2.

The theory and the algorithm for calculating the zeros of

3, Parts of the proofs of section 2.6.2. 4. 5, The complex plane concept and proofs of section 2.7.

The method of presentation of the results of section 2.8.1.4 i/ 6. Large parameter sensitivity formulationsof section 2.8,2, 7, The application of the results of chapter 2 to the linear multiparameter problem of chapter 3. 8. The presentation of the Popov Theorem on the parameter plane, see section 4,2.2. 9, The application of the parameter plane concept to the second frequency response method of section 4.3.
10.

me

algorlthn for c@culating the approximate transient response of a

noul$near sy~ternof section 4.4 (in particularequations 4-404-44). 11. he application of the above contribution~ to time
\

dai~y&d amtphd

data systems and nonlinear design, ., / ,.

,. .
\

,.
.,,

,,

-2-

_ _ .._

. ,,, . ,.
...

., +.

CHAPTER II
\ ,..

ALGEBRAIC EOUATION THEORY

L

2.1

In this chapter functions are defined and their recurrence

relationships are derived which enable analytical and graphical operations involving algebraic,equations and particular forms of transc~dental / equations to be performed conveniently in the real domain, Using these ,,-

functions, the mathematical basisfor the variotisanalytical and graphical ,, design procedures of following chaptersis developed. In particular, a convergent algorithm for the factorization of analytic functions is given, ., the parameter plane equations are determined, and the plotting and intei! pretation of various contours otiboth the parameter plane and the complex ,, ,,. plane.is discussed.
.,

2.2

Thefunctions Xk(u,w) @

,Yk(u,bO are

, .. .. ,

defined from the equation

. , ,, .. (2:1)

Sk R where u

+ ~y~ ,

is the complex variable

k.
,,

SW(J

+-jbl

(2-2)f ~ and Yk ara developed ,, ,. ,.

Recurrence rela~ionships for the calculation of aa follows sk+l. c

(U+j(o)(lj+q)

%+1 + ~yk+l

=(~-~yk)+j@k

+,W<)

a. \.

-3-

!,\ ,. . . . . .
_d . . .

,-

,..
., .,.

Thus*

< %i-%+uyko ., (2-3) k+l - aY k-w$co

. .

>

where from equation 2-12 X. = 1 and Y. a O . A.r alternate set of recurrence relationships may be developed as f~~lows~ , . k2 s (s - 2(JS+ (U2 +W2)) = o - 2.2+1 + (U2 + L02)sk- 0 .,. ), .. lC+2 k+l k Substituting for s o s t and s using equation 2-1 and equating the ,.,. . ., real and imaginary parts to zero gives ,$, ~, , ,, / %+2 - 2UI$+1+ (Uz+uz)q.o ,, f (2-4) k+2 Where from 2-1, 2uYk+1 + (U2 + u2)Yk - 0 i.e. sk+2

Xo=l,

x160,

yo=Q,

YIEUe

.,.

. .. The partial derivatives of .

$

and

yk

are calculated from partial s a s i.e. i . .

..

differentiations of equation 2-1 with respect to .,

,.

anl$ +j
~Jl
I

Z)%k
aun

k-n = k(k-1)..(k-n+l)s

-k(k-l)o.(k-n+l)(~-n + jyk-n) ,.
,, ,,.

Thus

axk ,.. aun a%k

,+_. = k(k-l)..(k-n+l)XkOn * ,,

(2-5)

-----, = k(k-l),~(k-n+l)YkOn~ aun ~

. .

,,

J+-

., ., . . ,. . .

% 2,3 Consider the polynomial . f(s) - ~ (~+jbk)sk k-o (~+ jbk) + O

,, ,,

(2-6)
.

Where ~

and bk, k=l+n

are real,

The real part U(U9U) and the imaginary and Yk ffunctiona 1

,. .. ,.

part v(u,u)

of f(s) may be expressed in terms of the S$

from a substitution of equation 2-1 into 2-6.

i,e.o

U+jV=~

(~

+jbk)(~+jy~);

.,

(2-7)

k-o .,

,.
I . .

, u k~o (%% - bkYk) ~ ,, (2-8)

/, !

,(

The partial derivatives of u and v may be expres8ed in terms of the % and Yk functions from differentiations of equations 2-8 and the substitution of equa~ion 2-5.
/ . .,.. .,,

k(k-1),,(k-nrf=l) (~~-m

- bkYk&)

(2-9)

aum

k-m

a .-~
?um k-m

k(k-1)

.,O

(k-m+l)(~Yka

+ bk~~)

The partial derivatives with respect to Rlemann Equations, - Note:

are readily found using the Cauchy ,.

Both f(s) and Sk are.analytic and-thus

-5-,

Consider the function

f(s) = g(s)eTs + h(s)

(2-11)

where g(s) an~ h(s) are polynomials of the form given by equation 2-6. The real and imagina~ parts of f(s) are readily given as

U.e

u (Ug

cos

Tu - Vg sin Tw) + ~.

~ . eT (Vg COS TW+Ug where u< , v

.13 g % Vh

sinTw)

+Vh

are

the real and imaginary parts ofg(s) and h(s).

respectively, The partial derivatives of u and v are given from direct differentiations of equation 2-11$ i.e., ~mu eTu[(7?&ug+4cos aum

.s6

amu . aum

Tw-

!- d (TmJ vg+~) aim /.

,, . . ,

amu
sinTw]

+ am% aum

(2-13) -.fc m amv = eTu[(Tm& Vg + ) ~am affm _~W cos Tw + .(T%?ug arnu + a)sin aum

amvh Tw] + aam /

2.4

The zeros of f(s)u This section considers a straightforward convergent method for the

rapid solution of polynomial equations. The method is presented as being a more reasonable alternative than presently available methods(Some fo~s , of transcendental equations may also be solved using the approach.)

.... .. ..... . ...,__

In many problems involving the solution of algebraic equations, there is sufficient a priori knowledge of the algebraic equation roots to enable the application of the readily applied, rapidly converging synthetic division methods, The limitation of Newton-Raphsons method, Lints method, Bairstows method and other synthetic division methods is that convergence is dependent on the initial conditions. fl

For problems in which the a priori information concerning the location of the roots is Inadequatet the Lehmer-Schur method. Graeffets root squaring method, Bernouillits method, or the methods of Lance may be used and convergency is guaranteed, However, for efficiency these methods are usually used to calculate only the approximate root locations so that one of the more rapid synthetic division methods may then be applied. The need for a . . straightforwardmethod which always converges and which has a rapid convergence in the region of the root is indicated, sented.
.

Such a method is now pre-

For an entire function

J t

f(s) - U(u,w) +jv(u,w) .

(2-14)

in the.neighborhood of a zero of f(s), the higher order terms in a,serifs expansion for u and v are negligible and therefore the following approxima,.

tions are valid :

,., -.-. . . . .. _ _ .
,,
. .. . . . ..

,.,

.-.. . l,,
./
,&. ..__

..

j
. . .. . .

...

,_ I ,,1 --

------+--,,

.. - +

.. ,,

,.

_=.;,

--

1 -- ..: ----

.__. _...- ,-.--i

,.

-7,, ,,

,i

,.

,,. .

-u = ~AU+~AU . -v = $$AIJ+~Au where Au and Au are the distances in the a and u

(2-15)

directions from a point Applying the A yields ?1I

4,..

in the neighborhood of the zero of f(s) to the zero of f(s). Cauchy-Riemann equationsand solving equations 2-15 for

Au and

and
(2-16) h T-% A~s_ ($$2+ The values of u, v, ~ au (+)2 ,~ are readily calculated using equations 2-4, 2-8, Successive application of equations 2-16 in the :

and 2-9 (see also 2-10),

fegion of a zero of f(s) gives rapid convergence to the zero location for any required accuracy. If the approximate zero locations are not known, then it is importari,t . that any zero finding procedurebe guaranteed to ckverge. The procedure ~ just presented is now developed so that convergence Is,,guaranteed. ., ! From equation2-16$ the direction of each iteration is givenas
,,

Au= Au

au -xav X-vx

av vTiTr au

(2-17)
-... -. . I / . ..-_l ..

i.e.

(2-18)

4-

where .Fwu2+v2 (2-19)

Equation 2,13 indicates that the direction of each iteration ie in fact the direction of the steepest descent of the function F, seen that thefunction F has the following properties: It 1s readily

(i)
(ii)

F is non-negative. The derivatives aF/aa and aF/h exist.

j,

(2-20)

(iii) The zeros of F are located at the zeros of f(s). (iv) These zeros are the only minima of F .

(The fourth property is proved readily if it is realized that F is In fact the square of the modulus of f(s) and that the maximum modulus theorem is applicable.~ / In the procedure for finding the zeros of f(s), if the magnitude of the increment calculated using equations 2.16 is such that F is increased, a reduced increment can be found from maybe one or two trials such thatF will be reduced. Thus, incorporating this facility into the algorithmfor finding the zeros of f(s), means that convergence is guaranteed. The algorithm ia as follows:. 1. 2. Frequency scale to have some roots in the region of the origon; Choose initial approximations other than on the real axis, i.e., 30 and 2=19; Compute the new approximations from equations 2-16, i.e., , (Use 2-12 and 2.13 if equations of the formof 2-11 areto be solved,)
.,

u. , MO

;
s

,. &
au

Compute U$V9*

and F using equations 2-40 2-80 2-9, 2-10 ..

4.

=UO+AU,

UJ1-WO+AW.: ,. i . .

-98
..- ... .

,, .,
,$

,..,.

5.

Take U1 as U. , and U1 as U. and repeat steps 3, 4, and 5

including the following step 6 until convergence occurs, ,. 6. If the value of F calculated is greater than the value

for the preceding iteration9 reduce the increments Au and Au used previously until the value of F is smaller than for the preceding iteration. The increment may be reduced by afactor of say one quarter for eac$ ~tr%al.
J.

2,5

Parameter Plane Equations Consider the algebraic equation

.,

,.,
!,,,

,,

t (~ + jbk)sk = O / k-o (~+jbk) +0

,.

where ~

andbk

are real functions of r parameters ql t q2 .. qr

i.e.,

bk - bk(qlgqz ,
G

C@
,

2-21 to be wi~tten as Using equations 2-6$ 2-7$ and 2-8 enables equationfi ,, two equations each having real coefficients

,(2-23)
\ ., .,.

...

,- ---

-1o-

..7-V?+, .,,

../

b . .

.,

For the parameter space having as coordinates [q1,q2 .. qr], considering a specified plane, (ego the qJ1q2 plane) referred to as a parameter plane;
..,.

equations 2.23 may be written as the ~arameter plane equations.

k=o

(+q1,q2) fi + bk(q1,q2)yk)

= O

(a)
f,(2-24)

(+q1,q2) Yk + bk(q1,q2)q) = o

(b)

k=o and for any particular s, these may be solved for thecoordinate values of the specified plane e*8*s ql and q2 .
,. .. -,.

Consider the case when

,... + .,., ,..... . .-.

%,1

+ %,2ql + %,3q2 ..

+ \,4qlq2 (2-25)
.. .., ,.
, -,

bk.

k,l + ko2ql + kJ3q2 + k94qlq2

1 .. .

where.~,j

and kBj

k = O + n and j = 1 ? 4 are constants.

. .

Equations 2-24 may be rewritten as .,:

k

,! ..: (a) (2-26)

4

c1 + Dfll+ Ef12+ Ffllq2 -0 C2 + D#ll + E#12 + F2qlq2 = O

where ,. Cl=f k-o ,,

(b)

%,1%

I@ylc)
k#yk)

C2 k-o &Jyk+Bk,l%).
2

(Ak#k-

! @k,2yk+Bk,2%) k-o
. ..

-11-

. .. --- .-

-.
,.I

.E1-~
k=o n 1 k~o

%,3%

- k,3yk)

$. 2 $.

%,3yk + k,3%) (2-27) %,4yk + k,4%) .

n %,4%c - k,4yk) F s 2 k~o

he alues f c1 C2 1 2 1 2*

and F2 are readily calculated 4 and o ~ and thus equations

using equations 2-4 and 2-2 for a specified u 2-26 may be readily solved for ql and q2 .

In order to illustrate the application of the above basic equations ,. * consider the algebraic equation 2 83 + q.s +qos+l=o
-L -L

(2-28)

For the above equation to have complex roots at s = -0.5 + j 0.866 , both / have the value 2.0 . ql and q2 must ~k For the case when a real s is specified, i.e., s= a , then %cYk = O and just equation 2-26a is available. This then,gives a line ,., the q1q2 parameter plane. 2.6 2.6.1 The Parameter Plane The repeatedapplication of equations 2-22 enables arcs of For equatiou 2-28 and a = -loqL-q2 o

. .

contours in the complex s-plane to be mapped into theq1q2 parameter plane, For example, for the equation 2-28, Fig. 2,1 gives the qlq2 parameter plane for the a = -1 contour of the s-plane. (corresponding to Shading the parameter plane contours

complex root contours) according to the sign of the

,

Jacobian of equations 2-26(see also,Fig. 2.1) i.e.. ., J (~) q~qz _ (D2C1-D1C2)q1 + (E2C1QE1C2)q2 + (D1E2-D2E1) ,..

.$ ,

(2-29) I ,

-12,.. ..

us
i #

r+ 8 x.
/
I-4

m
,

F.
I

k . .

.,

,,

-13 .. ._

.- - - ---- --

enables the regions in the parameter plane to be interpreted in terms of the number of roots within the corresponding regions of the complex plane,
@

For the case when a complex plane contour intersects the real axisD the shading of the parameter plane contour corresponding to the real root is shaded according to the shading of the complex root contour at the intersection. For the interpretation to be complete,.a priori information is /: required concerning the location of the roots for one point in!-theparameter plane. Fig. 2.1,also illustrates the shading concept and the interpretation of regions in:terms of the number of roots within the corresponding s-plane contour. Further discussion of shading is given later in this section. If contours covering the entire complex plane are mapped into the ,

parameter planeD the roots of the characteristic equation at any point in the:.parameter plane will be given in evidence using interpolation. me plotting of parameter plane contours for the case considered in the previous section (i.e., equations 2-24 + 2-29) may be carried otitaccording to the , follo~ing algorithm: /., ,. Algorithm
1.

\ ~.

Read the algebraic equation coefficients ~,j 4 given from equation 2-25.

, Bk,j , k=

O +n

-1.+ 2,

Read in the required s-plane contour and the numberof points to be

plotted on the contour. 3. Calculate the &- and Y,-functions for k= O + n for the first point
K &

of interest on the contour (i.e., u DtO.) using equation 2-40 0 % 4. Calculate the values of C19 C2* Plt D29 Elo E29 Flc F2 2-274 If U. = 00 go to step 8.
,,
I

as fn equations

5.

Solve the parameter plane equations 2-2b for

ql

and

q2$

and

calculate the Jacobian using equation 1-29. 6. 7. u o Print ao, &Jo,ql, q2, J and plot on the q1q2 plane. lwl and set

Calculate the next point on the s-plane contour, ie.o o - l repeat steps and

1$

3, 4$ 5, 6, 7 for all the points of < i! are ;pecified

interest on the contour and the calculations are thus completed. 8. For this step and for each q1~q2 (0 = 0, and a range of values of Om ql

is calculated using equation 2-26a and the s = u o q1q2 parameter plane.

.,.

contour is plotted in the 2.6.2

Parameter plane plots may be interpreted more readily if some of

their characteristics and properties are understood. These will now be discussed for the case when bk = 09 k=o+n .

The equation to the envelope of the real root boundary curves in the parameter plane will be given from the elimination of u from the two equations

=0 (2-30) , =0

I
,..

However, equations 2-30 are the conditions for a double root at , in the parameter plane at q1q2

s = u to exist

. The envelope curve thus gives the Iimit:ng ratio C C = 1

contour of the constant relative stability contours as the d=ping approaches unity. contour. The G h@ng That is, the envelope cume corresponds to the

= 1

contour may be calculated directly using equations 2-30 , . ,.

1,

the double root locat$ons u , as its paraiWter,

,-15j .

The following conclusion is drawn: corresponding to a real axis root

the contourin aparameterplane shares a common tangent with the

(s = al)

contour correspondin~ to the case when double roots are specified along the
real axis (i.e.,

the c = 1

contour).

The point

of tangency 1

M(ql~q2)

occur6

on the c = 1

contour when its parameter u

= u

Of particular interest is

the case when the algebraic equation coefficients are linear funct~ns of the , two parameters ql and q2 . For this case the real axis root contours are t straight lines on the q1q2 parameter plane and are tangential to the c contour has been plotted. = 1

contour and these may be drawn once the C = 1

.

Consider for example the algebraic equation

. . .

0.04

aa4 + (0.04 +0.36a)s3 + (0.36 +2a)s2

,.

+ (2 + 2a + 0,48)8
/

+(2+26)

(2-31)

As noted previously the c = 1 parameter plane equations as (say) is in fact the p<otted in Fig. 2.2. C = 1

cu~e

is the limiting curve given from the . Plotting the cume for y = 0.0001

y + O

cutwe ,tosufficient accuracy and this is

The real root contours are formed by dra~ing tangents ~: .,

and this is also illustrated in Fig; 2.2.

The shading of parameter plane arcs or contours will now be given further consideration. In the mapping of a complex plane arc into the parameter plane, if one side of the complex plane arc is shaded, then it is required to shade the corresponding parameter plane arc such that if another complex plane arc Is considered arbitrarily close to the previous arc on its shaded side, then the
,. ,

corresponding parameter plane arc will be to the shaded side of the previous

-16-

..

.-

. .. .._ t

-v.._ .

\
c

-4

-5
I

\ \
.,

\
\ \

/ / \ , \ \

I l

/ ._

-2

-7 / -6 ~ -5 ), ,1, i 0.2 I ; -4 \ , \
I

-lo 0.1

I
J.

\
\
I

0.3

N \

q;

;,,

Fig. 2.2 - Real Root Contours -17-

.. - -

.e..~=-~----. . --.-.

parameter plane arc.

(If a direction is arbitrarilyassigned to the complex,

plane arc, then there will be a corresponding direction arrow on the parameter plane arc.) The shading rule is now stated: If the Jacobian J( v ) qlt~ (given by

equation 2-29) is positive (negative) then the shading on the parameter plane and complex plane will correspond (will not correspond]. example.) ,. To prove the above statement, consider that complex plane contour and that the normal to it. Since u and v N T is the direction ofthe (See F$g.2.1 for an ,

direction is to the right of this and

are harmonic functions, the Cauchy-Reimann N and, T directions, i.e,, .

equations may be written with respect to the au = av m m ~=av aT

-m. and ~ asmapped into the ql~

(2-32) plane.

Consider now the vectors ~

Then, .

E%

(2-33)

It is seen that the shading of the parameter plane contour is given from
,.

the orientation of of the Jacobian

fi

with respect to

and this is given from the sign

=

J( T ) (see equation 2-33) (i.e., if q~sq in the paramet%r pldhe, then (-(~ \
. .

is-to the

right (left) of ~

is in the

+(q

X ~

direction

x@

,4tiec$i@n), the sign

,, *

/ ,, .,

.-18 ..
.

h ,.

of

J( T ) ql#q2

is

positive (negative) and the shading of the parameter plane and

complex plane contour will correspond (will not correspond). It remains to ., be shown that the sign of see equation 2-29. J( *T ) ql~qz is the same as the sign of J( *V ), ql*q2

(2-34)
Applying the Cauchy-Reimann equations 2-32 gives
J (H) *

(*)2

(*)2 ,.

i.e., sign J(H)

sign J(w) s
in

= positive :1

~~

(2-35)

. .

Substituting this result

the relationship

J( T ) qlbqz yields

J(~) s

J( v ) qldlz

(2=36) /

sign J( *T ) _ ql #q2 and th&

sign

J( v ) ql~qz

(2-37)

the shading rule is established. J( v ) qlsqz changes sign along a parameter plane arc, /

For the case when

using one of the parameter plane equations, a line may be plotted on the qlq2

plan: -responding

to

the value of

for which

J( v ) =:J.QH.s.: qloqz J( v.) ql tqz

In this case the line is shaded to be consistent with the arc for which changes Sign. For example. for the algebraic equation

@J

4+ (q4(ktq3h@33+ 26+ (%yq)s 5 + (1 + c13q:@J s

G

(Cll + +2)S

2+ (2c14q2)s + qz-o
q4 o 0.5, tie parameter plane contour I

(2-38)

for the case when

q3 - 0.05 and

corresponding to the complex plane contour u - + 2a

is given in Fig. ~,.3@

-19-

.... ,-.

/ ;
d

(p-zal,
1 /

/,

i ,,

6000

,
:\

./
I /

/
/,

xi--

(U-2U /

/ if

4000

2000

>

,/

..

u-o U-O

50

100

q~

1
Fig. 2.3 - Parameter Plane -20.,

. . ..- .

.Z

-.-

.,..

The Jacobian J( v ) qloqz -19 ~ j 32.9

changes sign at the values

1.05 ~ j 1.82

and

and the shaded contours corresponding to these values are Note: The case of the real.root contour of Fig. 2.1 and its shading rule is included above,

included on Fig. 2.3. also exists when

J( *V ) = O ql~qz

The various parameter plane properties are further illustrated In the 1 design examples of following sections. 2.7 Complex plane For algebraic equations having two adjustable parameters,root loci having a specified branch may be plotted on the complex plane. .. For points . on the specified branch, the parameter plane equations 2.24 are solved for the two parameters q~ and q2, the coefficients ~ and bk of ,,

the algebraic equation 2-21 are calculated, the factor corresponding to the specified s is divided our of f(s) using synthetic division and

thezeros of the reduced polynomial are found using the algorithm of section 2.4 and plotted on the complex plane. equation 2-38 for the case when q3 = 0.5 and For example, for the q4 = 2.0 . the root loci

are plotted having a specified branch

,

w=~2u

(see Fig. 2.4)

The shading of the complex plane root loci is now given consideration. In the plotting of root loci having a specified branch on the complex plane, if one side of the specified branch is shaded, it is required to shade the corresponding branches of the root loci such
that if another

complex plane contour is considered arbitrarily close to the previous specified branch on its shaded side$ then the corresponding remaining branches of the root loci will be to the shadedside of the previous non-specified branches. fk .> -21

,,

.- .-. ..

.. -. .

I_

.(

-lo

-8

-6

-4

1 -2

J<o$ J>() $

/, f ;/
.2 ..

J>O

\
,/

,4

,6
,,

8,

Fig. 2.4 - Complex Plane -22-

ofthetwo Jacobians The shading rule is now stated: If the prc)duct J( v ) ql*q2 ==u 1 and J( *V ) ql*q2 o-a2

!\

is positive (negative), then the shading on the two branches for which
1

= al + jul

and

S2 = cr2+ jo2

are corresponding points willcorrespond the theory of the parameter .

(will not correspond .

(As on Fig. 2.4)

To prove the above statement the resultsof plane shading is used.

For each branch of the complex plane root loci there

. is a Jacobian which gives the shading to,the corresponding contour in the

q~s~zPa-e-r

If the specified branch of the complex plane root I loci is arbitrarily shaded, then the sign of the Jacobian J( v ) l~q2 a w al Plane

., ,.

fixes the shading on the corresponding parameter plane contours.

.

Then,

according to the sign of the Jacobian J( v ) U=a qlDq2

the shading on 2

the second branch of the root loci is determined, and so the shading rule is established ,froma dual application of the parameter plane shading rule. It is to be noted that a Jacobian can not be determined when this case the shading rule does not appl~ 2.8 . Root Sensitivities to Parameter Variations The evaluation of root sensitivities to parameter variations ts possible using graphical parameter plane or complex plane methods, t however the following analytical results may be useful, u = O and for

,1

-23,.

2.8.1 Algebraic equation root sensitivities to small changes in a parameter q have been defined as

(2-39) These may be calculated as follows: Consider the algebraic equatj.on 1

f(S) = u(U,u,q) + jv(u,w,q) =0 where u and v

(2-40)

are given from equation 2-80 the q.

and

~k

being

functions of the parameter

Differentiation equation 2-A0 with respect to

gives ,./ (2-41)

& aa

&+& aq

au

*+ aq &+&, aq

&l aq -0

&,&+& aa
*

aq

a~

aq

Applying the Cauchy-Reimann equations (see equations 2.10) and solving

where from equations 2-9 n

. .,..

-1
& au =

(2-43)
.

k=o

; k-o

k(yyk-l

+ bk~-l)

..

-24-

. .

and from equations 2-8

.,

(2-44)

1
..

Thus, using equations 2-4,

2-10,

2-43,

2-42,

and 2-39, the values of the

rootsensitivities may be conveniently calculated. The calculations of higher order sensitivity terms can be calculated from further differentiations of equation 2-41 if required. Consider now that sensitivity is defined for large parameter ., / variations as
2.8.2 .

.,

The following four equations are now valid for a complex root
. .

s = u +ju

n ~ (~$$u,w) k=O ~ (aky&o~) k=O , ! (~q(u k=O

t

- bkYk(u,@) + bk$$u,u))

-1O = o

M ., .

(2-46)

,W) - b~Yk(u,ul)) = O

(2-47)

(~yk(u,w) + I+$(u,(d))
,.

= i
> 9

k=O

where

and

bk

are given from equations 2-21 and

-25-

t ,, .,

,
,,

+-

+q1+Ml,q2+M2,

OC

qr+fwr)

(2-48)

., . .

and

u - U(I + so

r Aqi 1 ) ,i=l %

1 .

.(2-49) : (0 r Aq. U(1 + Sw 1 ~) i=l qi

For the case when

o,ti,Ut,Wt, qg and Aqi

(i = 1 + r)

are specified,

,,

equations 2-46 and 2-47 are then four equations relating the system parameters, These results also include the case when the small parameter sensitivity case. sensitivity is specified, Aqijqi equations. .
3 , ,.

r = 1,

and

Aqi + O,

i.e.,

Thus, when a small parameter

Is made arbitrarily small in the above

.,, .

, :,

,,.

. .

-26-

..

.-.

. . .. _- __________

-.

{;,. .<

Chapter III.

LINEAR SYSTEM DESIGN

3.1

Scope The problem to be coneidared is the efficient calculation and

presentation of information to provide a basis for the selection of a system structure and its parameters, Of particular interest is the development of readily applied general digital computer progr~s which the designer may
.,

use in a systematic procedure to achieve an acceptable system design.

3.2

Parameter Plane Method The ~iljak parameter plane methodol&l@s relative stability information

for linear systems as a function of two system parameters~ Wing

a digital

computer, this information is readily calculated even for high Order-multi= loop systems. Other performance characteristics such as the system error constant, bandwidth, and dominant root sensitivity may also be plotted on the parameter plane, thus enabling the designer to select values for the . two system adjustable parameters which give a design compromise. By mapping 1 a grid of contours covering the complex plane into the parameter plane and using interpolation, the transfer function pole-zero locations may be determined at any point in the parameter plane. Havihg this information is useful as the well established correlations between pole-zero patterns, frequency characteristics and time domain performance may be used. However, it is seen that the /

calculations in question and their interpolation for high order systems are inefficient and the possibility of improving the design with further parameter changes or structural changes is not indicated.

. .. . .,

3.3

.Desi~nApproach In this chapter, the parameter plane concept is extended to facilitate

10 In selecting the adjustable parameters an efficient multi-parameter design.

of a system, constraints determined from the characteristic equation root ,. specifications, error constant specifications, and dominant root parameter sensitivity specifications are incorporated into the design analytically, while relative stability and dominancy constraints are considered using . ,either approximate analytical methods or graphical methods on the parameter . ,. and complex planes. The approximate analytical methods enable both the system struccure and its parameters to be selected to satisfy relative stability and domifl&nlGY specifications. These may be adequate for the design of low oxder systems and may be useful as preliminary investigations for the application of the various graphical methods in the design of higher order systems. Gy6E$rndesign procedure may include the folk?wing 6teps* 1. l%eselection of a system structure based on the availability

of components, the designers experience,the state,variable feedback concept. the distribution of adjustable parameters in the characteristic equation.
2.

Tnesetting of specifications and-some of the parameters such that

che simultaneous solution of the constraint equations (such as the parameter plane equations and the error constant equation) gives parameters CO meet the specifications. 3. The calculation of the system pole-zero configurations and any other the remaining adjustable

performance information such as bandwidth, transient response, steady-state error, sensitivity, etc. #

-28-

40

The plotting of the results of steps two and three and their

repeated application for either different.specified parameters or specifications based on the previous results until a satisfactory design is achieved. The various analytical and graphical design tools to be used in a system design are now presented and their application illustrated using design examples. Further discussions of the approach to a system design are then used to conclude this chapter.

3,4

Constraint Equations The simultaneous solution of independent constraint equations derived

from the specifications may facilitate the selection of a systemls parameters ) in a multi-parameter design. The number of such equations that are available ., and which can be conveniently solved givesthe number of adjustable
J

parameters that can be considered. Usually only two-three-four or maybe ,i five parameters can be considered in this way. In order to apply a :1 straightforward general computer program the equations must be linear or contain only one product term. For the more nonlinear case, even if the
,.

equation solution was convenient the interpretation of the results would be difficult. Various constraint equations will now be considered.

304.1

Constraints on Characteristic Equation Root Locations

For a system having a characteristic equation

f(s) -

JOvko,

~+o

(3-1)

where

is the complex variable

,.,

s or

=U+j(d

,.

(3-2)

-29-

is che natural frequency of the root and ~ (ion is the damping ratio.) For a specified root location, i.e.,a specified s equations may be written from equations 2-23, ie., $, tWO constraint

k=o

~Yk

=o
are @VeIi from the.recurrence relationship.
--

(3-3)

where

and k

asin

equations 2-4

%+2

2CJ\+l

-t

(.2+

J)%

()

(3-4) k+2 where 2uyk+l .: + (U2 + #)yk = ()

Xov,
or

l=u

%=%y=@ .,
\

(3-5)
,, . .,

k+2 where

+ 2UJ%

HJzy k+l n k

tio

,,

-30

.,

.- . . . . . ... ... .._

.. .

3.4.2

Error Constant Constraint Equations

Constraint equations relating the system parameters for the case when an error constant is specified are readily derived from their definitions, ie.,

K P xv

lim S+.o

G(s)

lim S+o lim S+o

G(s) (3-6)

Ka

G(s)

where

K and K are the position -, velocity -, and acceleration error a P v constants respectively, and G(s) is the dpen loop system transfer function. { I

3.4.3

Root Sensitivity Constraint Equations .

If the sensitivity of a characteristic equation complex rootis specified as well as the equations 2-47 and 2-48.

root itself, four constraint equations result as in There are repeated here.

Jo%+,) =
=

()

(3-7)
. . ;:

n
..

where

-31-

and

a u(l+-sa
i,=l i

~-=)

r Aq.

r Aq. u=u(l+so~~) i-l qi NOTE: u,

(A),

u,

(d,q and i.

Aqi may be derived from the specifications and

thus four equations are available relating the system parameters.

3.5

DesiRn Usin~ Constraint Equations Consider the system of Fig. 3.1

(s + Q . G1=K l(s +0.2) 2S(S2

2 +0.8s + 1)
/

(3-8)

-1 -ls

G-2S=

K-2S2

The system characteristic equation is

S4 +.(1 + q1)s3 + (1.6 + 0.2q1 + q2)s2 + (0.2 + 0.2q2 +q3)s

+ q4 = O

(3-9)

where ql = K2K-2;

q2 = K2K-L,

q3 = K1K2

and

q4 ~.K1K2cL

The error coastant Kv qh K= v For the case

Can be expressed as . i . .

0.2(1 +q2) q3 E q~ = 20,

(3-lo)

the txroparameter plane equations 3.3 may be ql and and q2 for any specified complex pair of are specified,C=0.69, un=2. ql m 40 ,

solved for the two parameters roots. For example, when L qz = 12

- 005

o = 2,25 n

and the remaining roots are calculated as

. .

-32-

n m A w

,.
*T

.,

I
1+

b
W2

-1

J\

,.

-33, ,.

,,,

From equation 3-10, Kv

I

is calculated as

Kv = 7.7

/ three equations

By

~pecifvinz KV9

~~ ~~ell~~ a pair of complex roots

exist relating the adjustable parameters;i.e., equations 3-3and 3-10, and these may be solved for three parameters. For example, for the case when ~3 = q4, Kv 0 10, then equations 3-9 may be rewritten as

S4 -t (1 i-ql)s3 + (1.16 .

0.2ql + q2)s2 + (2.2+ 2.2q2)s + (2q2 + 2)-0 (3-11)

For

< = 0.5, Un = 2.5, ql and q2 are calculated as

ql = 9.5, q2 - 34 The

from che solution of the parameter plane equations corresponding to 3-11. remaining roots are calculated as calculated from equation 3-10 as 1 = -1.5, . a2 = -2.1 and q3 is

q3 = q4 =70.

From equation 3-9 it is seen that by specifying four roots, four parameter plane equations may be written. (twofor each complex pair and one

for each real root specified.) These four eauations may then be solved for
f ,.

the four parameters

(A)

qls qzs qcjand q4

For -wles

specifying

~ = O*3J

= 1.25~ al = -1.7, a2 - -7.4,

the parameters are

ql = 9, q2 = 18.5,

qs = 20, q4 = 20. Bv snecifyin~ not only one Dair of complex roots but also their sensitivity to parameter variations, four eauations may be written and solved for foi3rpa.ramecers. (see equations ,3-7) For example, when a pair of complex roots 1 are specified as Wn and c of

c = 0.3, On E 1.25$

then two If further,

parameter plane equations may be writtenrelating the parameters. G 0 0.5, Un = 2.25 when q3 is 3.6

times its previous value, then two . M2

further parameter plane equations relating the system parameters for point nay be written. . f;, .,

-34-

-.

., -...-.. ..

..

Solving . the four parameter plane equations gives:

LQA
b.)

= 1.25

u = 2.25 n /
1

= -1.7 (7 1 a2 = -7.4

= -1.5

,,

~z,= -2.1 Kv . 10 :ql = 9.5 qz = 34.5

Kv = 5.3 q1=9 ~z = 18.5 qs = 20 qb = 20 3,6 Constraint ..-. +.. . . Inequalities ... -.. . . . . . 9 The inttoductioa of eoii$ttaint

qs =72
qb =72

more freedon in adapting the system to the application. Requirements on a system traasient response usually inaybe transla~ed into constraints on the system transfer function pole-zero locations. These may be considered either graphically or using approximate&nalytical relationships on both the complex ad the parameter planes. Of particular interest are the relative stability,

clontnacy and root sensitivity properties. 3.6.1 Comolex plane

As mentioned in the previous chapter, for an algebraic equation having two variable parameters, root loci may be plotted for which one branch is Gpecified. In multi-parameter design problems, the ,specifiedbranch of
,.

\.

-35-

intexest is usually a damping ratio

(0

or settling time

(1/0) concour . Any loci in the

plotted for the acceptable range of naturai frequency Un

far left plane need not be plotted as the effects on the system transient xesponse of far left plane roots may be neglected. Further, for algebraic

equations having real coefficients complex roots occur as conjugate pairs aad therefore just the upper left quadrant usually need be considered. An example is given in the previous chapter, i;e., equations 2-38 and Fig. 2.4. Repeating such a loci for-different specified branches or different specified parameters and the plotting of the loci of the system zeros on the same plot gives a highly efficient means of presenting information. Example.
i.
I

For the Gystem given by the flow graph Fig. 3.2 the transfer function
4

of &he motor and compensator is K(q4s+l) = G = lGcl = 2GC2 qsqhs+l The characteristic equation is given from
2

(3-12)

A=l+(a

11 + aza)c + (allazz : alzazl)c

-! , .,

-o
t

(3-13)

Letting

ql -

all

+Ka22

and

q2 = all

a22 - =12

a21

(3-14)

gives equation 2.38, repeated below, i.e.

(q3@ 2s6 + 2q3q4s5 + (1 +q3&)s

+ (ql + qbqz)s2+

4 +

qi+-q3h1b3

(3-15)

(2q4q2)s+q2

=0

-36-

----.. . .

,.

s;,
!.

..
1 . . .

l+ C4

-37. .

_ .
1

________

...

-----

.-

Fig. 3.3 gives the set of root loci in the region of the ori.gonfor various SD?Clfled branches, I.e., for q3 = 0.05 and q4 = 0.5 .
. .

L = 0.3, 0.5, 0.7

for the case when

The zeros of the system transfer function are given from equation 3-16, i.e.,

cl(s)

ql (s+--+ (s3+J-s2+ ~cJq4 %Jq4

5JT=

%3

s+

ql, ksq~

(3-16)

Tinezeros locus is plotted as a dotted line in.Fig. 3.3. Fig. 3.4 gives the effects of varying a third parameter case when the relative stability is specifiedas c = 0.5 qs for the
G

and

q4 = 200

It is seen from this example that the complex plane is convenient for the consideration of relative stability and dominancy and other aspects of pole \ ,zero configurations. The sensitivity of the system-transfer function poles and zeros to la~ge parameter variations will now be considered. . Examplec Consider the system of Fig. 3.5 for which the characteristic equation is: Kv S5 + (60 + PC)S4 + (1200 + 60pc)s3 + (8000 + 1200pc + 8000pc z )s2 W c(3-17) 2C -t (8000pc + 8000pc Kv -&)s c where Kv + 8000pcKv = O

is the velocity constant and varies from 2.5 to 5 and Setting Kv = 5, pc = 2, 2. ql = l/uc and

pc

varies

from 1 to 2.

q2 = 2<c/uc

the parameter plane equations corresponding to the above equation may be solved for ql and q2 for any specified pair ofmmplex and p= roots, The

variations of the roots as the parameters K v

vary over their range

-38-

ju

1 D ~. 9

.J 4- ~ % 5 ., i // v } I [ \ .-J ~ \(LL)n=lo .- ( -2 ! -1

[
0

30 1 - .=
-6

7 __e.. 30 - !.-. .. - 28 _z -5 -4 -3

Fig.3.3 - Complex Plane

.

-39. ,
,

,.,,,

,....
,,

,. -..

:. .

A C=o.5 i? $0, 7 \, \! / 410

I
1

I
4#.

//
/ ,/ ,/1

SPECIFIED LOCUS j . .8 \ 6

.8/F 8 7 /

/
2
-I -.=-. . . J.-..__

q3=o.1
ZERO LOCUS -

/
2
i

--. .. . (

~ DOMINANT ~ POLE , 4, ._!____ [.. .______ - l___J // <.\,@cI > \

1

2: q3=o.1 i / 2/

-10

-8

-6

-4

-2
. .

Oiu

Fig, 3.4 - Complex Plane

-40-

. . U2

.W

c)

L-----.

-!_
I

m. m
,
w-l $4,

J)

7r

-1+1-

..,, .

..

of vzriatioa can be calculated using the convergent method for solving polynomial equations. The results of the calculations gives useful design information. Results calculated for just the . will be considered. E.g., c = 0.6 contour

A.

<1=0.6

u =1.5 1 (Al =2.5; 1 (Al = 3.5 1

= 0.188,

= 26.6 U 2 (A) = 18.3 2 = 15.2 ~ 2

B.

Cl = 0.6

C2 = 0.575, N ; C2 = 0.965

c.

c1 = 0.6

The result A requires complex zeros in the compensating network,at . -0.95~j 1.45, has excellent sensitivity characteristics (see Fig. 3.6) but poor dominancy characteristics. l%e result B has improved dorninancyj not as good sensitivity characteristics and still requires complex compensatirigzeros, i.e., --2.5~j result C has good dominancy 2.5 . line

characteristics, requires only a single real axis zero compensation but its sensitivity characteristics are not so good. , along the q = 0.6 contour, only a single zero compensation is required For increased values of Un

but the sensitivity and dominancy characteristics deteriorate. Fig. 3.6 illustrates the use of sensitivity root loci on the complex plane end includes the loci of the complex zeros of the compensator.;.

3.6.2 Parameter Plane The mathematical concept of a parameter space having coordinates qlaqz
G

** qn

may be applied to a system having parameters

~~vqz

** qn

Each point in the space will correspond to a system whose properties may be
.,.

calculated. The regions of the space having acceptable system characteristics will be of interest in any design. The,design problemuay be simply to

-42-

._._.

p==2 , KV=5
.

D*--- ~%REGION OF POLE \ -... , ~ I , ., \ ~~?, \ c \. X5 \ I I I \,,\ ~pEclFIED ii \-~ ! POLE LOCUS , 1, \ .\\c=O.6 L \, I \ \ \\ i \ i \ \ \q ~n~ \, \ \ \ \\ \ \
\,

$:,

K =, v
J

!.

.,

c,/----

_~!

\.

_COMPLEX \ \ \ LOCUS .~i; y ZERO

,, \ \ \,, , j\
L-

;3

c - v-d

v,

\
~ti 1.5 ,/ . A, + b..A
\

J) \

1.0

\\ \

.. .

----

. .

-3

...-. -h

.. .

.-

-i

;0 i

Fig. 3.6 - Complex Plane -43

determine a,point in che space which corresponds to a system having reasonable performance characteristics. On the other hand, it may be required to optimize a particular characteristic subject to restrictions on other ?ropercies. Tiledesi~n procedures are much simplified if a section of the u parametez space is considered i.e.. a parameter plane. Xegions in the parameter plane satisfying relative stability ,

requirements are determined from the ~apping of the particular complex plane contours of interest onto che parameter plane. damping ratio Usually either constant (-l/u) are of interest.

(C) or constant settling time contours

Other system characteristics such as sensitivity, dominancy, steadv state . error, characteristic equation root residues, transfer function zeros, system bandwidth transient response characteristics, stochastic properties may be plotted as contours on the parameter plane also and thus a two parameter design may be schieved in the parameter plane. Tinedesign compromise may be the optimization

of characteristics sublect to specification on acceptable limits of other characteristics. The parameter plane may just provide a basis for specifying either parameters or characteristics which would enable further design operations to be performed. hst@ad of specifying all but two of the system parameters and con-

sidering a design as above, some ,of the system characteristics may be specified, aad a parameter plane plotted such that at points plotted in the plane, the system characteristics are achieved and the other parameters are given. This

is accomplished by considering the repeated simultaneous solution of constraint equations. In practice, usually only the constraint equations and error equations are used and three Darancterss relative stability and the specified error conscant are given in evidence for the points plotted in the parameter

-44-

?,

Consider the naxinisation of a system error constant sublect to

5 stzbility constraints.
the system of Fig. 3.1 and equations 3-8s 3-99 3-10$ for the case when qCJ= qb = 20, a qiq2 parameter plane is plotted having error

constant contouzs plotted on it given from equations 3-10 (see Fig. 3.7). This enables the error constant CObe maximised subjectto <=< 0. where < 0 is specified, e.g., points Ml and M2 the constraints correspond to the

cases when

<0 = 0.5 and 0.3

respectively. Thus a problem which is difficult

co solve analytically has been solved quite conveniently using graphical means. The aiialycical formulation is now given for Consider the error constant Ke Par~meters q~ and qz
G

comparison.

expressed as a function of two system

Ke - Ke(ql,q2).

(3-18)

The solutions of the simultaneous equations

aKe q= o and

~Ke =0 aq2

,,

(3-19)

which satisfy the conditions.

a2K . e a q;

< 0,

a2Ke aq12q2

a2Ke . aq~

a2Ke <0 aq~

(3-20)

are the maxima values of

on the

qlq2

plane.

If the maxima value given

from equations 3-19 and 3-20 does not satisfy the relative stability constraint c ~co, then the maximum K e occurs when G=c o and this may be calculated

-45-

I
., /
.$ ,.\

I j. \ q

\ 1+
11
Lr .,. . ? .. , 1 :J ;., {,

i1

\l
., , ,, .; /

-A ., J, \l I i -,/ ,m

. ,: (\ :,

m
I

I 1.

I c.
I

E
I

I
I

I
I

1;

-46-

from the equations

and the condition

a 2;<

(--J%
nc=c o

<0
m2 and ~ n

(3-22)

wl The partial derivatives ~

n

may be calculated using the

w-t=

plane equations.

However, although the calculations are

straightforward, they involve the determination of the roots of a high ~ degree algebraic equation in also that the constraint <~< Un o and an investigation of each root. may not be sufficient to ensure an Note

acceptable trar.sienzresponse. Yet, to include further constraints analytically would be difficult. Using the parameter plane, it is seen that the more coaplex problem of adjusting the system parameter to give the best comprorn.ise between .sZeady-scace and transieat response may be attempted by examining the error constant and relative stzbility contours simultaneously. For example9 an iaproved transient response at a reduced error constant would be given by the point 3 on Fig. 3.7. is specified~ the characteristic equation and q2 by eliminating the third parameter specified as Kv = 10 s then for

If the error constant Ke msy be expressed in terms of q4

ql

from equations 3-9 and 3-10. q4 = 2(1 + q2) and

For Kv

qcJ= q4,

S4 + (1 -iql)ss

+ (1,16 +0.2q1+

q2)s2,+ (2,2 + 2.2q2)s + (2q2 + 2) = O (3-23)

-47-

From the parameter plane plot of equation 3-23 selected to give a good transient response and for the trial points and the system designed.

ql q3

and

q2

nay be

may then be calculated

Examples whereby other system characteristicsmay be considered using plane although usually more difficult follow the same approach the paraiieter as chat given in the above example.

3.6.3 P.pproxiinate Analytical F!ethods Tineselection of a system structure and its parameters may be based on the application of the following approximate method. For high order

systems they may be used as preliminary investigations for a more detailed multi-parameter analysis. ;Fbr the characteristic equa~ion 3-1, two equations derived from them will be considered.

(3-24)

apk-m

= o

(3-35)

k=m C the roots of equation 3-25 are all much For the case wi,enthe magnitudes o. larger than themagnitudes of the roots of equation 3-24, the dominant roots of equation 3-1 are then given approximately by the roots of equation 3-24, and the region of the remaining roots is given approximately by the region of the roots of equation 3-25. The possibilities of a system design is now apparent. The system

adjustable parameters are chosen in such a way that the roots of equation 3-24 will be acceptable dominant roots of the system, and the roots

!. ..

of equacioa 3-25 will be sufficiently to che left in the coinplexplane.

If

this convenient subdivision of the characteristic equation is not possible may be modified in order using the original system structure, the structure that the adjustable parameters may be located in the coefficients in such a way that the dominancy and relative stability characteristics can be achieved. There is much that could be said regarding the application and accuracy and limitations of the approachs but the method is presented because it has proved helpful as in the following example. (See also sections 3.7 and 3.8)

EXiNiID le For the system of Fig. 3.19 the plant and compensation networks are given in equation 3-8 and the characteristic equation is givan as equation 3-9. In che design it is required to have one pair of complex dominant roots. Tnerefore the two equations corresponding to equations 3-24 and 3-25 are considered
ie.,

3+

=0

(3=26)

2 s +

(l.o +ql)s+

(1.16 +o.2qli-q2)

(3-27)

choosing for dominant roots double real roots at

u- = 1,
AA

< = 0.5

and for the remaining roots

s = -10~

the following approximate relationships given

from equations 3-26 and 3-27 will be used.

l.O

ql q2

20

1.16 + uql

= 100 (3-28)

qb = 100
0.2 +- o.2q2 + q3 = 100

-49-

-.

...+ ...-._ .. ... ... . ... , ,.-.

.

._r_~.

-,_,

Solving these for Che various parameters gives

2K-2 = 19

2K-1 = 9504 11<2= 808

1 = 124

Substituting these values into equation 3-9 and solving gives the actual root locations for these parameters and these may then be compared with the initially specified locations, ie.,

Characteristic Equation Roots Calculated direccly froin equation 3-9 s = -12.69 Calculated using the approximations of equations 3-26 and 3-27 . . . >. -lo s= <;,. .! s = --10
s=

s, = - 6.35
s=

-0.4 :J 1*Q4

- 0.5i-j

0.865

To further illustrate the accuracy of the approximations, the case when ~3 = 80.2 aiid T = 1
is considered. A root locus is plotted in Fig. 3.8 having

the values of

ql$ q2

and the dominancy factor

are calculated.

Using these values the corresponding roots of equation 3-26an-d3-27are plotted .. as dotted loci. It is seen that as the dominancy factor increases the accuracy of the approximations improve, ie., the root loci of equations 3.26 and 3.27 approaches the loci of equation 3.9. 3.7 A Control System Design For the multi-loop system of Fig. 3-9, it is required to investigate the effects of the variations of the parameters ql> q29 qs on the

systea relative stzbility. The problem is discussed to further illustrate the relative iaeri:s of the parameter plane and the complex plane graphical

-50-

. ........ ...... . .. ~----

-,; .. ,., ~..,.. ...

E--

*..

2: .

) .. At -3

,> -2

t -1
G

0 0

Fig.3.8 - Complex Plane -51,.,--,

i .,., \ {

I
(? t
:,, ,. t

I .,

I l-m .

i: c. #, -.

-52, . ---

. .. . .

.. ...

.. .

......,.-

-..

...

*.

.,

*...,,.,

<,*..

>

d~siga toals~ and to furchtirillustrate the approximate analytical approach. The systen chsracteriscic equation is as follows:

{19.2q,)s5 + (19.2
J

i-

74.5q=)s4 + (74.5 + 75.7q. + 1440q,)s3

.2

-J.

+ (75.7 +23.6q9 -i460 = o

+792q,

+1228qOqJs2+ -,--.4

(23.6

+461q3+36q1+

1228q2)s
(3-29)

Parameter plane con:ours for equazion 3-29 for the case a confusing ?attern if plotted on che one diagram. set of non-intersecting contours which cover is sees Chat if s point is taken within the

~3 = 1.25 form

Fig. 3.10 gives one It

the entire parameter plane. c = 0.4

contour and the remaining

roots determiaed$ that the relativzstability of the system is given in evidance for all vzl.uesof ~~ a-d q2 . In facts the problem of

~.a>:imizinz the sv~.tenrelaztvz s~abilit~ by adjusting two parameters is solved using Fig. 3.10 (Note that the enclosed < = 0.4 region has in fact a maximum relative stability of ~ ~ 0.4,) However$ in order co give in evidence \ all the roots locations throughout the parameter plane, other contours must be plotted. Fig. 3.11 givas aaocher set of non-intersecting contours which cover The number of such planes necessary
to

the entire parameter plane.

give all

the roots without a confusing diagram is approximately half the number given by the order of the equatioa. HoweverB to separate the contours conveniently would be difficult for a di~ital computer having automatic plotting. Repeating

the investigations for ocher vzlues of fixsd parameters (e.g., q3) for a system design may iacrease the difficulty of interpreting the results. On the other hand ~ the one complex plane diagram (see Fig. 3.12 for example of this section) =ay clearly preseat all the information regarding relative stability and

-53-

.,.

i.(
. ..

i qz
Oot

0.4

0.2 . .

Q<
0
1

0.2
.!

0.4

0.6

1 0,8

1 1,0

Fig.3.10 - Parameter Plane

-5L
.. . .-.

ieG

f
~z 0.8

0.6

0.4

0.2

n
Y
.

6 .

,~i.

/4.5

6.5

0.2

0.4

0.6

0.8

Fig.3.11 - ParameCer Plane -55-

.,

. . . .... . . ... ..... ..

-. .,... . . . .-----

1.5

q3-G.5

I1 ,
-5 -4 -3 -2 -1
G $ P

0 0

Fig.3.12 - Complex Plane -56-

dominancy characteristics and cnee2fects on :hesc of a tnirdparameter. in Fig.3.122

the < = 0.3

o-ranch is specified, and at each point along ~~ and q2 are calculated and the

this branch the cwo parameters

rcmzining roots are determined. The two loci are thus calculated for two different specitied values of q3
G

The values of on a q1q2

q~

and

q2

along

che loci are best presented as in Fig. 3.13

parameter plane. contour of

The transient response for various points along the C. = 0.3 Figs. 3.12 and 3.13
for the case

qz = 1.25

is gives in order to assist in It is seen that a compromise

selecting a final design (see Fig. 3.14).

3ztween rise time and overshoot can be achieved--eg., response number 4 corresponding to the csse when the dominant complex roots are at c= 0.3. Ic is concluded that Figs. 3.i2 and 3.13 together give the designer the information required to selecc values of ql, q2~ and q3 with a greater Un = 4,

efficiency than the direct parameter plane approach of Fig. 3.1O and Fig. 3.11. Consider now the application of the approximate analytical relationships 3-24 and 3-25. The equations corresponding to these are considered for the

(75.7

-I- 23.6q3

792ql + 1228q2q3) S2 +

(23.6 + 461q3+36ql+1228qz (74.5+75.7q3+1440q1)

(74.5 + 75.7q3 +1440ql) 460 (74.5 + 75.7q3+1440q.A

+ and 2+ s

(19.2 + 74.5q3) 19.2q3 s+

(74.5 + 75.7q3 -t1440ql) 19.2q3 = 04

f;., ,.

-57-

__-

..

- ..

--

-- .

i.O

G.s

0.6 2

0.4

0.2
\

5.5 . 0.8 1.0

\ 0 0.2 G.4 0.6

Fig.3,13 - ?arame:zr Plane

..
. ~.. _.

-58-

. . . ..-. . . ..

m w.
d

0
F-)

! ,. ,.

.,

<

2SXOLSRI

KELSAS

-59-

... . .

.-....-.+

.-J

-,.,.

s.,.=,

,,

.+-2 ...

. . . . . .

I; is Sees that the parameters ql the zoocsof Lk far ql = 0.29

ziid q2

can 3e ~e~ected to

~djus~

secoad equation aiAdthea q3 = i.25~ and q2 = 0.2~

q.2 for the first. For exanple, the approximate roots given using

Ehe above equations are

Si -D2 3,4 5

b) = 6.10 2 u = 0.90 n a =4.4

L = 0.39 c= 0.35

It is s~en that a sufficient sqarzcion of the roots is achieved

(&lq

of

.512 -J

is approxina:ely stx times greater than that Of

s3,4) $

ad

the o~tained roat valczs aze expscted to be close to the exact root

locations gives iron equation 3-29. These -resultsillustrate the fact tha~ even a complex system may be desigr.ed using the simple approximate analytical mzt>.ods. (Third order Nitrovic chazcs nay be used to simplify the solution of ~nirdo:der equztions. Even so~ the LAG: iavolved may be considerable ZS

many trial structures and calculations may be necessary.)

The system considered is representative ofcertain inertially stabilized a~tit~de con:rol systeinsfor I?ASAspace vehicles. Its design is presented

in order to iadicste how such systems may be designed using the various analytical &ad gza?hical methods of the preceding sections. The essential problem is,to selecc appropriate compensating network parameters such ~hat for a range of variaLioas of :hc zagles betwsen the vehicle axes and the refereiiced~rection gives from the szzso-rsBthe syst~m stzbility is acceptable.
IOZ any particular

compensating netwoi-!c coasidered$ the effects of

Vzria:iorls of the angles be:wzea &he vzhicle axes ZZG the Xeference direction

togacllz: with the cor,plex?lsae methods of the preceding sections are used to selsc: scxw of the system parameters.
.

The proolenspecifications ar,dthe problem solution are now presented. lielationshi?s br2Cweeri the systex parancters and various equation parameters zzz usa< :oSe:>.cr with c>e availa51e analytical and gza?hical procedures in orde: :a selecz eigh: system parameters.

3.8.2 ?~oblem S~ec<f$cz:ions. Tne syste% flow graph is given in Fig. 3.2 where the transfer function of tkz motor ~nd conpensazor is given in equation 3-12. parazzecers ~- a..~ 1-J are related to the anglzs 01 and Tinecoupling between the two

02

v~IiicLeaxes and the reference direction as follows

[A]= [B][0]
where ,

(3-30)

-61-

a-i d
r
I

sin 81

CGS

a ? 1
(3-30)

[0] = -sin 0 2 [ ~ne r~~ge of variations of 81a2 ILzae (sez Fig. 3-25). 61 and =Os 92]

82

is given by the shaded region of the

Once the compensator network parameters are selected (ie., q3 and q4),

:eg:QTAs g?,dioz each smaller region to select a [B] matrix (ie.~ the

b. ~ elements) lJ

Suclit;ia the sys:einstability will be acceptable as 01 and 02 vary within

~k

si?tdk~ ~e~iorA.

The larger che suoregionsjthe less complex is the ,.

SySiET,$ bu: also the ~ore difficult is Che,selection of appropriate [B] matrices.

3.8.3 FroblemSolUc;On The system chazacteris:ic cq~stion is given in eq~ations 3-13, 3-14, and cl(s) are given in equation 3T15$ and che zeros of ctieSystein traasfer function ~ 3-16., Considering first the seiection of the compensator parameters q3 and q4 ,

tha approximate me~hods and graphical methods of section 3.6.3 and 3,6.1 are used. T>,ess nechods avoid theaacessity co snalyze single loop systems and apply the
results to a nulti-loop proolem.

su$ficienrly

do~iii~L~~&~

~h~y

aze given approximately from the equation determined

fzoa the Ias: three cctifficizricsof equation 2-15.

(q1+&2)s2

(%4q2)s

i-q2=o

(3-31)

-62-

the dominaat roots u = 1, n from equation

(3-32) T.-Ezz~ion of L>,erzna.iningroots of equatioa 6 is given approximately by the

i-egio~ 02 the ZOOtS Of

4 s-i-

23 s ~3%

~ ( (@2

ql 2 ) s 3 (3-33)

. . . far trw case when cnedoazaan:

. . are SUffiCL2rLZAy ., .GGn-ii-,znc. .00.S

(Squation 3-33 is Substituting

dcte-rc,in.ed fron cnefirs; f~vz coe:?icients of cquacior.3-15.) equation 3-32 into aquztioz,3-33 givas

(3-34)

-6L

zhui c3.cE22as szdl

as is 2hysiczliy reasonable

(for exainple q = 0.05) 3

4 s + 80s3 +- (MOO + 2oq1)s2 + (840qL)s

(3-35)

that
~

ql
.&

should be reasoaabiy large and as

~a~.<eof

q~ = 20 is chosen so :haithe roots lie as far to :he kft

possikle. A dminazcy
A.-A.

fzctoz of abo~t ten is indicstcd and thus it is concluded

.

L1ldk

. zi-~e neznodhas zc,?zevad nean~ag~u1 results, The roots of equations

2-31 znd 3-35 ax

q~

conparsd to the roots of equation 3-15 :or

q~ = 20, ~2 = 26.66,

= 0.05 and q4 = 0.5.

-0.35

~j

1.16

-0.50
G

~j

0.87 1.98

-2.77 -9.76 -27.5 -39.3

-5 74 ~j

-34.26 -+j 1.50

rnme ZJ>pxoxima:ior.s used have tha.sproved to be useful@ s: lsast for :he

-65-

. . . .. . .,...-,- .-

--

--

.-

3.26 -

-66-

whea the spccifted brancnesazz Tk straight lines in Fig. 3.3 (Xote:

lir,es~Ye the remaining 10Ci.

included as Lheir effecc on the

plane is L>.e10CW
~,c-

of cnezezos of the discurbaace transfer fuaction 3-16

G
G;

vazizs (see dzshcd line). Fron a consideration of both Fig, 3.16 and
conclusions my

m A*6. 3.39 the fO;lGWhg

be dzawri. For any

ql

and

q2

chosen

wi:hi.a the enclosed region of Fig, 3;,_16~Ehe- sys~em relative stability is L~O~5,
~-A ~

.-1.

...LcorL-2si0T.din~ transient responsz is acceptabk.

c,

diliibi:s ~yrimm~~y .s0that

a.. =

J..

222Q

221

I= .2:2

sad such chat a known point

L1.

;<a, = qi/2 .1

(3-37)

equa~ioa 3-36 gives

-67-

WI-*C re

JK=J
I

(3-38)

-1
m

..-Ae K[13] ma~rix wili be realizable foz she condition

(3-39)

matrix) and also in the qiq2 plme sxch that. q; > 4q2 (ie.? a [Q] matrix) enables a K[B] matrix

20 Decaicda:ci. Consider riGwthaC a K[3] natzix has been calculated the variations of

Wi~h ths

qlq2 plane, using eqxatioas 3-30 sad 3-14, le., ,.

(3-40)

The sys~eixcic applicaciGP.of equations 3-38

zd

3-40

snablsd the problem

-68-

-25 1 K[B] 1 = !2 I [0

-.

the seleccion of a system s~ructure.

3.10 Conclusions This chapter has preseaced .m approach to the d~sign of muiti-parameter
..

syster~ usi?.ganalyyt~cala?.ti ~ra~.h;-caltechniques and approximate methods. Tha i~.~i-oduction of coasczair.t eq-ua:ionsto beco?.side-mdin con-

s~owa Lo be of liaizecl -usefulr,ess exczpz when the coas:raint equation is . Zne Zzror constant
t?qU2t~3~i.

2s prziiaiz~;y i;-.ves;iga~ioris for the z??licstion of eic?.ercheanalytical

co~-s~de-.,-< ....ons of ~z~phic;i. procedures based oa straighiiorward

cor.~u:er talcubcio~.s gavz zha following concius~ons. Parameter plane P1OSS aza USZZ.UL whea rela:ive szahility is specified and whsn Che effects of parame~:ex or. syscen charac~eristics czz to be ir.ves~igated. On the

-(u

-.

.. .. ...... ... . .. . ,.

.,4

. . .. . . . . .

..

..

......

.-

-71-

ChapterIV.

T1-lis

c?,z~<zr considers the zmzljrsisofcertain classes of r.onlinear

sys:eras

ark r,etneck for tk.eir design.

The aetnods are of r.ecess:ty a;Jproxi-

r.ate~arxiserve to provide qualitative rather thaa qu~?titztive results. The er,phasisis on the application of the paraneter planeconcept developed in tk.epreceding seczions to that class of r.ohlinearsystems for which ham,onic linearization and describing function techniques are applicable. I-iowsver, the C12SS 0: system having but onesingle valued nonliriearityis dso discussed. Other classes of systems, n~neiy, time delay systexs and (Note: The preceding

samyled data systems are discussed in the appendices.

chapter on.iiaear desigr.may also
De considered as an

ap~roximate approach

in the system whsn ope.rs.zing

frequeficy respo?.seand transient response.

b

In recsnt yzars attention has >een focused on Liapunov theory for the consideration of stability of nonlinear systems. h example of a highly

nonlinear second order system with a known Liapunov function is the computer ~rocess for calculating the zeros
of polynornids (see

section 2.4). WTnerever

such ~iz~~?ov f-mctions are available ~ useful stability information. can be determined. Howeveri usually the direct application of Liapunov theory is

suitaale LiapW.ov I%~ctions* -72. .. .- .. ..----.

than a rigezous theoretical fo.urxktion.

is sz:isfiada where

W(ju)

is ir.e frequency characteristic of the linear

the processes in Cner.onlir,ear system (see Fig. 4.1), which

are

caused by outside influmces

of the in<:iz1 cozditioa :ypz$ wi:i be zbsolu(telys;zble and the sysceinwill

-[3-

..

. .

i2

r: . ,i

.2.
M %-i

l-l .

s-(

--i

_?l+-

.. . . .. . ..- .,.

.,,.....

Zad

. ig will row ba considered gain izaquezcy plo~s. A ~,ozegeaerai cG~.dicioa lhatis> in conditim 4-2$ CJG nay be a functiGn

i 02 a q~ ~ psramzter ?laas.

CGnsidez the iaeqaaliry (4-3)

Let

w(s)

n k r ~ ~,is :i=o .
n r ~ k
D ks

(4-4)

k=o
L. + j v, =2 +jv2

,,

ihe

XIL ad

S, func:ioas may be calculated from a Ac

md

using che

rscurranca relscionships 2-4.

-75-

.-.. . ...---.,

,-

(4-5)

In the One$ ~odi~ion 4-5 (ie. 4-3) is s.ztisfied~ia the other

it

is

not.

It is seen ~hac if SGCh lines are .drzwn for each frequency w ,the envelope canTa will outline Gay r2gion for which corxJiCLon4-5 or 4-3 arc sztisfied. The eavelo?a may be calculated usiag equatian 4-6(a) aad izs dzrivztive, ie. Cqua:ioil4-6(b).

(a)
,

(4-6)

@2++B2+c2=o

(b)

:., ,,

Ci = (iliu2 +vlv2)

(4-7)

B2 = (2C2U; + 2V2V2)

v7mre :he

equations

-76-

T.2cenvelo2e is plotted by coxidering equatior.s b-6 ES q, l/k For each.specified u equzt:ons 2-4, 4-4, 4-8, 4-7

the envelo~e. For frequencies for whitnt~.e Jacobian ofeque.tioasQ-6 is zero ~ some or all of the line given by equation L-6(G) nay Depart of t?.zrequired er.veiope. Exampie 1. For the case vhn ?/(s) is .~iven>y
Lo

w(s) =

S(S+l)(S2+0.8S<-16}
the e:ivebpe

curve is plotted On the q~ l/k

G = o
contour.

>aramter ?lane of Fig. 4.2

fol-the

it is seen that tiiesystem will be stable when

given in

l/k=l.5& , ie., k= 0.6j (tiis is in accord with the example

reference M).

Exan@e 2.

For the case when

o.83(s-I-o.4) (s-:-1OO) .. 1!(s)= -~oj3-~2103 . .

k (0.05 s;;;; -.01s2 + S+l) contour.

COMPENSATOR

the eavzlo~e curve is plotted on Fig. 4.3 for the

G =,-0.6

((he envzlo?e fol-theUnto.mpz.nsat.ed pls3< is Civea for cox?arison.) The :~~.~:s L/k = 0.0C18 (compensated) and L/k = 0.0087 (uncompensated)

-77-

_ .

. /

..-

..

. --

-.--- . . ..

c
,

1.6

j/-

,,

3.9 R>O)

i.4

1.2

1.0

0:8

A d

1,

3;

/
/

I
I

,,

t
/ / / U=2 /

1
/ ,/ / :1 0

0.4

\ R<()

0.2

: ~q

i
I I I I I I

>
~

0.2

0.4

0.6

0.8

1.0

\.y \ ~,, ... \

-N t+

o
!i

b,
,3 ,-

/ \\,

\
\/ \

L\
\

0
,-

-0 ,,,% . II 3 ,,

_,r-l
. N

,,/

-s
d

0
L.-

Cc ,: ~

a .

-d

0 :,

T
1+ .
H z

G\

. .?

.0 In

r+

,-

, ./0 \om

_z . 0
\,

\ \
..-

G
..: .
0

.... . . .. . -.
L _________

~... . m!
o o 0

. .

k..

____

o
l-;.~

4*2*3

wh2ze

s Z ci/d: ~

c(s)

ar.ci

B(s)

are polynorlialsin

witnthe

?loynomid

B(s)

F(XZSX) represents Che nonlinearity. ,, azd the ftir.ctian

(4-11)

(4-12)

The.r.cnlir. ezr.funcgioa.1, (XaSX).ray.now.bs linearized X2 --J 7(:<, SX) = (x, - : li2)x-:A

as

*
Sx

(4-13)

-60-

whsre

f= f(t)

is a forcing si~nal, which may ?)eeither a reference is assumed to be constant or a slow

input or a perturbing siqnal, smd it varying flmction of time.

AS a first approximation, the steady state solution

of equation 4-19 is assume~ to be x=x where x
o o

x = x(t)

+ A sin tit

(4-2o)

is either a slow varying function oftime or is constant and is the periodic component of x . For this case

*
x

= A sin ut

N2

F(x,sx) = To + NIXfi+~sx*
o

(a)

where
G

= ~. 2T

r2= o

F(xO + A sin $ , Au cos +)d~

(b)

(b-21)

l=nA~

f2= O

F(xO + A sin o , Au cos $)sin @ d$

(d)

(d
and $=@t . #

..

Substituting equation b-21(a) and ~-20 into 4-19 gives

\
c(s)
?J

(x + x*) + B(s) (F + ~!lX*+ $

SX*) =H(s)

(b-22)

As XO, A, and u

are slow va~ing,

equation 4-22 may be rewritten as

two simultaneous equations corresponding to the slow varying signal xo the periodic signal
C(s) X +~(s)
C(S)

end

X* , ie

FO =H(s)
N

f SX*) = o

(a) (4-23) (b)

X* + B(s) (NIX* ++

V(x)

,.

(4-25)

x=x

A Si?. u.)t .

(4-27)

:=A

sirl

(Qzt - G)
*

(4-2i3)

(4-29)
A

(4-30)

k,; 6 2(s) - H(s) -f- (Cos e - y+-~-

N2 s) i- C(S) .(N1+T f S) = O (4-31)

fix Nl

and

N2

equs:ions. A

The contours

as a parameter.

K=~

and a maxinuxnou:p~t 02 2.

and whers

-&.)(s) = --/ .. s~si-C05)(s+2) (Si-iC)

lo(s+~}

E -.,- .n2 czsa 4.OL

2.

= 1,.4)

LQZ

ql

= ~

~2

= xl(h)

2(A1

= 0

fix

Af

and solv.s

equacioi. 4-31 2s

qlq2

pazar,ezer plane equatiOi-.S. The contours of interest

-85-

, .,

.. .. ..
! . . ..-... -

-R, . . . ..:-..,.. + . .. . . . ,,.,a~.- ..

~1 <,
;1 1+ o

N II*

<m . .
I ( !+4

o. f+

\\
r

\<
I

~..-.---

.. . \
,,

10

\ .,
.
I

/
i\,

u
I

I
1
t

\
\,
1

1 ( \ ,,
I i,

,.
:,1

>
\

m
;\

i ,
I
N ..

L \
1

1
1

o
\:

I
:\

l-l

.<

r-i

- \

.. . .<

\z! : \
A

\\ -----.... --- -
. . _..._ ../.
--- _..

,.

L/

! ,.,

-90

-180

_2i_L
I
I

I I

0.6

0.8

1,4

6 8 4 FREQUENCY df

-270 10

Fig. 4.5

Frequency - phase Res?onse

-87-

.._.. ._.I

/
I
I ,
1

8+

2; I
I

( 6

Fig. 4.6 - Amplitude Diagram

,.. . .. .. . .. .

n
o
CJ

c 0 0 l-i

::.

A
0 IN 1-l

Cl

o N

) I

I -;

o t+
I

t
%

/,,

km
\

I -:

co

///
//

I
.~u

1+

that jump resoiianc~ phenonena may be conveniently

parameter plane concept. Ei&her a parameter plane and the effects of varying s~ccified rLo~.~iaeari~y

This sectioa considers the transient oscillations in nonlinear syszzii,s on the basis of the harmonic linearization and describing function 1 techaiqua. l-lelKzylov-3ogoliulov a?p-roach previously mentioned linearized the
noal:nea~ systea witn tha assumption tnat in Che neighborhood of steady-state

oscillaciaass :he transieac process is close to that of an equivalent

linear

sys~~a wi~ha slow-varying damping factor and ,

frequency.

Popov has extended

Lhe Lx:.;lysis Suchthat it may be applied CO the transient oscillations due

COc

~~y.,e mplicude pe?turbac~ons.

Or. the basis of rather intuitive ideas,

CzeasEed2~zoposed an approach to traiisiei-,t oscillations analysis which :ncludes

~~~G ,:;-,~ZGZCS

of chai-Lge of dam?ing ad

frequency. Also , in his analysis, the

.,.. ----_ k-b..e.

_;_,

~QIiod-ic osciilatiorls OY ec.uilibrium positions

can be considered.

-90-

.,.,-

LLACpa:xi-ic:er plane ri.ec;hod ezables che ~eimralization

of the Popov

zzd

Gzeasrcci

rcsulcs so tha~ nigh-ordernonliacar differential equations

uader certain coalitions,

cm

be analyzed for transient oscillations

~Llisis no~rpres~~L~ed With er,phasison the anplicztion to the design

OX m:liinezr
SySteidS cn

d such that transient oscillation requirements

approach

Z?C sa~isfied. The parameter plane

nay be used firstly,as a guide

ta tncselection of both the linear and nonlinear parameters of the system sGch Ehac azy required performance may be achieved, and secondly, to give &i ap~proximate measure of tneperformance. The use of the parameter plane to give Che approximate transicn~ oscillations of a system will now be considered ~n~ thsa aa example is used to illustrate the use of the parameter plane for design. Foz che differential equation 4-9, when the nonlinearity F(x,sx) daparxlen: on , c(s) +B(S)F(X) = o (4-33) x only, ie.~ is

F(x,sx) = F(x), equation 4-9 may be rewritten as

\ When che nonlinearity is linearized as in equation4-13, ie.,

F(x) = NIX

(4-34)

wh em

Nl=$

~2nF(A sin @)sin $d$ o

(4-35)

then the linearized differential equa~ion c~rresponding to equation 4-15 is

C(s) +B(s)Nl

= O

(4-36)

Using the gzzamecer plane and the describing function technique of section 4,2.3,

this high order equation may be reduced to an equivalent eecond order

I

equation

82X - 2CJ13X + (U2 + lu2)x ~h~re

(4-37)

g(A)

and

Q(A)

are read from the intersections of the describing

function locus and the parameter plane curves as discussed in section 4.2.3. The solution of equation .4-37ia assumed to be of the form

(4-38),
L

where &4aA dt

..,.

.,, .,.

... ..

and
. .

That is, the solution x

is given by

s: J~dt t x = Aoe dt +~o) sin( 1 1 Substituting equation 4-39 into equation 4-37 results in two equations 2 1 + 1 - 2% 2 J+U+U2,=() 1

(4-39)

(4-40)

2W1
<

+ 1 - 2aul

=0

If the

assumption is made that ;

= u ,

9 ;E

(), then conditions 4-40 yield

This means that equation 4-39 would be the same as equation

4-12 and therefore equations 4-37 and 4-39 would then be the same as obtained by applying the Krylov-BoyoliKIlovanalysis to equation 4-36. 4-12). By not neglecting the ~ and ~ terms of equations 4-40, improved results ,, (see equation 4-9+

are obtained. Equations 4-40 may be rewritten

-92-

--

# .

(4-41) 2
h +,+ (II

By neglecting higher order terms equations 4-41 reduce to

G

(old

1 - o - 2(;
2 =;+U l Thus once diagram o = u(A) and 1 2

(4-42)

+ 102)

and

u = u(A)

are calculated from the parameter plane

=1

can be evaluatedusing equation 4-42 and used in .

equations 4-39 to obtain the solution x(t) The solution x(t)

obtained from an equivalent second order equation 4-37

will not approximate the Solution of the high order equation 4-36 unless the roots given by a and u are dominant. x- Xo,

For the case when the initial conditions of equation 4-36 are .

;=()

and higher derivatives are zeros the solution x

given from the second o

order equation 4-37 (ie. equation 4-39) can have as initial conditions x.x and k = O, but the higher derivatives may not be zero.
,,

Differentiating

equation 4-39 gives (4-43)

Letting x = X.

and

~ = O Ao

for

t = O ~.

and substituting into equations 4-39 . . .

and 4-43 gives values for

and

(4-44)

-93-

The transient oscillation algorithm. AIRorithm

x(t)

may now be determined using the following

1,

Read in

u(A), iII(A)tunes x o and

and initial values of

u,
A

and

a.

J.

and

the values of 2. 3.

At (Note-on(A) and <(A) curves may be used ) using equation 4-44, Set t = At, A n n _ 1

Calculate 1$0~and A. Calculate u(An), Calculate ul(An),

; ; =

u(An)

from the input data and

wl(An)

from equations 4-42 where ..

# . . ,,

(w(An) - u(An-l))/At,
(g(An)

- u(An-l))/At

Calculate An+l = An exp(ul(An)At $A+l = On + ul(An)At

,.

= An+l sin($n+l) x n+l 4, 5* 6, Plot Set Xn+l, t=t+At An+l, t n=n+l

and

Repeat steps 3, 4, and 5 until a sufficient portion of the transient oscillations are calculated,

&32?& For the system of Fig. 3.1 where

G1.~

2 =

15k S(S+1)(S+15)

(4-45)

the equation corresponding to equation 4-36 is

64 + 36s3 + 335s2 + (300 + 15kN1)s + 300k

.,

-9h-

. .. .. . . .. . .

..-

The

q1q2

parameter plane diagram is in Fig. 4.8 where

ql = k

and

q2 = kNl

The problem is to select the linear parameter k Nl

and the nonlinear parameter

such that the transient oscillations will have a less than 15% overshoot x from x = O to x - 10, and the rise time and This problem is a

for initial values of

settling time are to be as shortas possible. Note:

auasi oDtimisation problem where a nonlinearity is introduced into the system in order to improve the system response for a restricted set of input conditions. The design philosophy is to have an increasing amount of tachometer feedback as time progresses, The roots of the linearized system are to move initially from a initial G i 0.4 (say) to a C.>1 in the final state. c
The low

is to give a fast response and the high final

is to reduce It iS

overshoot and dampen the response in the seen that the M

region of the final value.

locus~of Fig. 4.8 _.is the describing function of a linear k is k = 525. The value of the

gain with saturation, The value of

tachometer feedback gain is 1.2 , and this saturates when its input value is 1.02 . Fig. 4.9 gives the C(A) intersections of the M and Wn(A) plots determined using the values at the locus and the constant C and Wn curves. The

transient oscillations for various input conditions are given in Fig. 4.10 znd may be compared to the response of the linear system having dominant roots at u
n

= 1.35

and

c = 0.4

or C = 0.7

. It is seen from Fig. 4.8 how

the direction of the design may be influenced by both the system linear and nonlinear parameters. For example if in the above design, the gain k is

reduced, the response becomes more sluggish, if increased, more oscillatory. Fig. 4.10 also shows the actual system response in order to indicate how good the approximations of the algorithm is.(Note: It is left to the reader as an exercise to see how the algorithm may be modified when c > 1)

-95-

..

o 0
1-

I
U2

u
.

6+

o o a

z
-96.

l,

,.

<

3 a d
I

G u d
I

u d

N d

-x

-d

c t-a

..

2
0
1

m . u
I

ii

(N

co 0

UI

UOJ 0

..

-97-

..

..,,

,,.

. >., ., ,.

,,

10

\ 6

\ \ \
\ \ ., -\

\ /,,

*_F . .

~ti

TIME (SECS)

,/

Fig. 4.10 - Approximate Transient Oscillations

-9a-

.-

..
9 .

4.5

.6 i * ., Ithas been shown that the,par~eter plane diagram is a convenient

Conclusions

tool for the consideration of the~stability, frequency response and

transient oscillation in nonlinear systems,

In con-junction with Popov

,, theorem, the describin~ function method and Popovls extension of the . . . 4 ~ryloff-Bogoluilov theqyy and its further generalization, it is seen
.
;1

~hat powerful design meth s are available. ., ,, Further work in nonlinear system design is possible using the preceding . .=
Howevert further generalizations may be tedious

sections as a foundatio~.

and obscure the clarity presently available. :Fbr example, by taking into account fur~ber poZeG a&l zeros %n estimating the transient response of a
,.

system is a difficult problem as}assymetric oscillation theory must be ;, used. Even if this were straightforward, it is doubtful whether the
results would give further aid to a system design than the presently ., . f: resultsO :
.,

available

Extensions of the Popov l@orernresults could be incorporated on the parameter plane and further work is being done in this area. Examples f . comparing the resultsof applying Popov theorem and the describing function
,i

theory have not been included put would be of interest.

..!,

P .-

..

,-

-99-

.--------

. . .....--

.. .

CONCLUSIONS ChapterV. Tne thesis has shown that the application of the mathematical concepts and developments of chapter 11 to the design of both linear and nonlinear , control systems gives specific design methods together with a framework within which to organize a system design. For example, on the one hand,

the concept of the complex plane diagram having specified loci gives clear
and concise information regarding not only the relative stability of a system

as the ~arameters vary, but also dominancy and thus transient response
information. On the other hand, the parameter plane diagram gives not only

parameter sensitivity and relative stability information for a linear system design, but also, in conjunction with the describing function method, (or Popov theorem) may be used as a guide in the analysis and design of those classes of nonlinear systems for which the describing function (or Popov method) are valid. Note also that the results of the approximate analysis may be used to assist in selecting the system structure. The particular result of the straightforward convergent method for the solution of polynomial equations has application not only in the various design methods of this thesis in which
,, it is used, but in many other area6 of engineering

and applied mathematics.

More specific conclusions havebeen presented at the end of the various sections or chapters, and the specific contributions of the author have been listed in chapter 1.

-.

-1oo-

-. .-. . .

-.-._

_.._

REFERENCES

1,

Siljak, D.D., Analysis and synthesis of feedback control systems in the parameter plane, Part I - Linear continuous systems, IEEE Transactions, Part II (Applications and Industry), vol. 83, No. 75, NOV, 1964,pp.

449-458,
2. Siljak, D.D., Analysis and synthesis of feedback control systems in the parameter plane, part II - Sampled-data systems, Ibid, ppo 4cj&466, Siljak, D.I),,Analysis and synthesis of feedback control systems in the parameter plane, Part III - Nonlinear systems, Ibid, pp. 466-473. Siljak, D.D., Centralization of the par&eter plane method, IEEE Transactions on Automatic Control, Vol. AC-11, No. 1, pp. 63-7o, Jan. 1966,
Moore, J. B., Steady-state response in the parameter plane, Teorijska Automatika, No. 2, July-August, 1965.

30

4.

5*

6. Stoic, M.R. and Siljak, D.D., Sensitivity analysis of self-excited nonlinear oscillations, JACC, Paper No. 497,Troy, New York, June 22-25, 1965. 70 Siljak, D.D., Analysis of asymmetrical nonlinear oscillations in the
parameter plane, IEEE Transactions on Automatic Control, M. No. 2, April 1966,pp. 239-2b7. 8. Siljak, AC-11,

D.D. and Burzio, A., Minimization of sensitivity constraints in linear control systems, IEEE Transactions on Automatic Control, Vol. AC-11, No. 33 July, 1966.

9. Hollister, F.H. and Thaler, G. J., Loaded null adjusted symmetrical

parallel-tee network, Proceedings of National Electronics Conference, VO1. 21.,October, ,1965, pp. 753-758.

10, u*

Moore, J. B., Etiensions of the parameter plsneconcept parameter design, to be published,

for a multi-

Moore, J. B,, and Dorf, R. C,, The design of an attitude control system

for a space vehicle, Proc. of NEC Conference, Vol. 22, pp. 715-718,

1966,
12. Moore, J.B. and Siljak, D,D., Parameter plane analysis of forced nonlinear oscillations, submitted to IEEE Transactions on Automatic Control. Moore, J. B., A convergent algorithm for,solving polynomial equations, to be published in J. of ACM.
Eisenberg, L., Stability of linear

13,

14.

systems with transport lag, IEEE International Convention Record, Vol. 14, Part 6, pp. 207=218.

-1o1-

.?..

.....

. .

. . .

. .

. .

. .

. .

. .

15.

~iseaberg, L ., Root-locus method for systems with tr~sport to be published.

lag,

16.

~iljak, D. D., book to be published on the parameter plane theory and application to linear and nonlinear control system design.
Tnaler, G., book to be published on the coefficient plane and parameter plane methods.

17

2.8

E. I., A stability inequ~ity for a class of on Automatic control, Vol. AC-11, NO, 1, Jan. 1966, PP* 54-63*
nonlinear feeaback systems, IEEE Tr~sactions

Dewey, A. G. ~d

Jw,

19.

Naunov, B. N., An investigation of absolute stability of the qfilibrim state in nonlinear automatic control systems by means of logarithmic frequency characteristics, Automation ad Remote Controls yol 269 o* 4P April, 1965, pp. 593-6o1. Grensted, P. E. W., Analysis of the transient response of nonlinear 80, N0.--2,Feb. 1958, PP. 247control systems, Transactions of ASMEi VO1. . . .. . 253. ...-, \ .- -.

20.

-1o2-

APPENDIX

A SAMPLED-DATA SYSTEMS 2

A,l

Scope In principle, the analysis and design approaches of the preceding

chapters can be applied with appropriate modifications to sampled-data control systems. However, the often
appear

fact that the system adjustable parameters

nonlinearly in the parameter plane equations (either in the

limits the convenient application of the various t

s domain or z domain)

available methods.

The solution of more than two or three independent

constraint equations, for example, is rarelypossible because of the nonlinear nature of the equations. Graphical, rather than analytical design approaches are therefore more appropriate for the design of sampled-data
systems.

A,2

DesiCn approach The particular aspect of the sampled-data system design problem

considered in this section is the efficient calculation and presentation of information to provide a basis for the selection of the system adjustable parameters to satisfy constraints on the characteristic equation root locati~ns in either the complex e or z planes. The solution of this part

be anzlyzed. Assessment and comparisons may then be made using the well established correlations between pole-zero configurations and transient
response.

(Any design which appears to be satisfactory may be checked

using transient response calculations.) As in the case of linear systems, when any two system adjustable parameters appear linearly (or at most having only one nonlinear factor)

-103

-.

.,.. . .. ..

. - --. .

in

the z-transform of the characteristic equation, the ~iljak paremeter approach gives in evidence the system relative stability as a function However, the calculation of the parameter plane

?la?e of

the two parameters.

for

diagrams

high order systems such that the characteristic equation root

configuration be given (by interpolation) at each point in the parameter

plane is inefficient. Usually all that is requiredis the root configuration

along one or two of the relative stability contours. If this is the case,
the

calculation of root loci having specified branches and having two

parameters given for each point in the loci, appears to be the more efficient calculation. To plot these loci, a convergent method for factoring polynomials
is

used

in conjunction with the solution of the parameter plane equations. s or z planes. The

The results may be plotted either in the complex design relevant equations are now given.
u

A.3

Parameter Plane Equations for the z-plane For sampled-data systems, z-transform theory is applied and the char-

acteristic equation is expressed as follows

f(z)= where

~ a+o k=o

( A-1)

z = exp(sT) T being the sampling period, z being the complex variable s being the complex variable u + ju and

x + Jy . The complex roots Of c z

f(z) = O

may be expressed in terms of the z-plane damping ratio natural frequency Uz , ie

and the z-plane

(A-2)

-1o4-

.- .... .. ...

-+.-.:.

, ,-..~.

....-

__ __ .

. . ..

...

- --

>

The recurrence relationships 3-4 and 3-5 and the parameter plane \
equations 3-3 (see also equations 2-24 + 2-27) may be applied with the

following substitutions z for

6
(A-3)

exp(uT) cos UT for u exp(aTj sin UT for a

or \ exp(-u-~ T) for u-

(A-4)
-

Cos

Hote: lul~

The only portion of.the a-plane considered is the primary strip T/T
G

The substitutions A-3

and

A-4

are readilyincluded in any digital

computer program and so the actual z-plane parameter plane equation6 will not be rewritten with these substitutions.

A.4

Error Constant Equations The error constant equations may be used as constraint equations to

be solved simultaneously with the parameter plane equations as for linear systems, ie ; ,, ,-

Kp = li~z+l G(z) Kv = limz+~ (1 - z) G(z)/T Ka = limz+l (1 - Z)2 G(z)/T2 where G(z) is the open loop system transfer function.

(A-5)

-105-

Appendix B

TINE-DELAY SYSTEMS ,

14,15

3.1

, Scope

Tiielinear analytical techniques of the preceding chapters may be applied to continuous systems involving time delay elements. However, the calculation of the various results is more difficult, their interpo. lation is less informative, and their application is more limited. Further, the time delay itself appears nonlinearly in the parameter plane equations ., and is therefore inconvenient to consider as one of the ordinates of a parameter plane diagram. The various aspects of the time-delay system

design problem which can be considered using the methods of the previous chapters and appropriate modification will now be briefly discussed. ,. B.2 Parameter Plane Equations for Time-Delay Systems The characteristic equation of the time-delay system is f(s) : g(s) eTs + h(s) = o
where g(s) and h(s) are polynomials of the form given by equation

(B-1)

2-6.

Equating the real and imaginary parts of f(s) to zero gives the parameter plane equations (see also equations 2-11 and 2-12)
u ,

eTu (u~

cos Tu - vi sinTu)

+uh = O (B-2)

v S eT!(v~

cos

Tw+ug

sin

To)

+Vh

= O

where

u -, v..;u~~ Vh ~g

are the real and imaginary parts of,g(s)

and

h(s)

respectively. If the coefficients in the polynomial oftwo parameters 1 and , % q~ u g(s) and h(s) are functions

, equations B-2 may be rewritten as two and q2 . These msy be solved for ql and q2

equations in two unknowns for any specified a

1

and

in a straightforward manner using a digital computer.

-106,.

.,.-. . ..----

As for continuous linear systems t other roots may be found using the method for finding the zeros of analytic functions (see section 2.4. where equations 2-11+13are used). Note, however that there are an

infinite number of solutions to equations of the form of equation B-1. This means that the various solutions have to be found by using
trials as
m-y

first approximations. The number of solutions in a particular . region of the s-plane may be found by plotting a Nyquist diagram for the

perimeter of the region9 and this procedure msy therefore be used to reduce the number of trials necessary. llne stability of the plane plots.
the system

system may be determined from the c :0 u + w

parameter then

If the curves do not spiral,into the ori~in as

is stable.

Note$ for

c > 0

the parameter plane curve,wiU

always spiral towards the origin as

Q)+CQm

The application of the parmeter plane approach together with the describing function method for nonlinearsystems will indicate stability if the describing function M parameter plane. locus is within the stable region of the indicated quite accurately.

However, transient response and frequency response information would probably be misleading as it is impossible to take into account theinfinite number of roots.
[

Limit cycles are

,,
/

. .

-108-

..