TWENTIETH CENTURY FUND

75th Anniversary Celebration

COCKTAILS
WELCOME, Richard C. Leone
TRIBUTE TO EDWARD A. FILENE, Brewster C. Denny
DINNER
INTRODUCTION OF SPEAKER, Theodore C. Sorensen
KEYNOTE SPEAKER, Senator Bill Bradley
TWENTIETH C EN T URY FUND. 75 YEARS
THE TRUSTEES
MORRIS B. ABRAM is Chairman of United Nations Watch in Geneva,
where he was Ambassador to the European Offices of the United
Nations. He has served as President of the American Jewish Committee
and of Brandeis University and as Chairman of the United Negro
College Fund. A civil rights activist in his native Georgia, he was the
lead attorney in a fourteen-year successful constitutional struggle that
culminated in the landmark Supreme Court "one man, one vote"
decision in 1963. He joined the Board in 1959 and became a Trustee
Emeritus in 1989.
H. BRANDT AYERS is Editor and Publisher of the Anniston Star, one of a
family group of Alabama newspapers. He contributes frequently to
national and international newspapers. He coauthored A Bicentennial
Portrait of the American People and other books. He was a Senior Fellow
at Columbia University's Freedom Forum and a Nieman Fellow. He
joined the Board in 1985.
PETER A. A. BERLE is President and Chief Executive Officer of the
National Audubon Society. In 1971, he founded the law firm Berle,
Kass & Case. He has served as Commissioner of New York State's
Department of Environmental Conservation and as a Member of the
New York State Assembly. He is the author of Does the Citizen Stand a
Chance? He became a Trustee in 1971 and has served as Chairman.
JOSE A. CAB RANES is a Judge of the United States Court of Appeals
for the Second Circuit. From 1979 to mid-1994, he served as a United
States District Judge for the District of Connecticut, including two
years as Chief Judge of that court. A former Special Counsel to the
Governor of Puerto Rico and a former head of the Office of the
Commonwealth of Puerto Rico in Washington, he is the author of
Citizenship and the American Empire, a legislative history of the United
States citizenship of the people of Puerto Rico. Prior to his appointment
to the federal bench in 1979, he served as the first General Counsel of
Yale University; he has been a Yale Trustee since 1987. He joined the
Board in 1983.
JOSEPH A. CALIFANO, JR. is Chairman and President of the Center on
Addiction and Substance Abuse and Adjunct Professor of Public Health
at Columbia University's Medical School and School of Public Health.
He was Secretary of Health, Education and Welfare during the Carter
administration, and served during the Johnson administration as a
Special Assistant to the President. He is the author of America's Health
Care Revolution: Who Lives? Who Dies
l
Who Pays? and The Triumph and
Traged)1 of Lyndon Johnson. He joined the Board in 1986.
ALEXANDER MORGAN CAPRON is the Henry W. Bruce Professor of Law,
University Professor of Law and Medicine, and Codirector of the Pacific
Center for Health Policy and Ethics at the University of Southern
California. Prior to moving to the University of Southem California, he taught
at Georgetown University, the University of Pennsylvania, and Yale
University, and directed the President's Commission for the Study of Ethical
Problems in Medicine and Biomedical and Behavioral Research. He is coauthor
of CataStrophic Diseases: Who Decides What?, Genetic Counseling: Facts, Values,
and Norms, and the Treatise on Health Care Law. He became a Trustee in 1985.
HODDlNG CARTER III is President of MainStreet TV Productions and a
syndicated newspaper columnist. He served under President Carter as
Assistant Secretary of State for Public Affairs and State Department
Spokesman. Prior to his government service, he was Editor and
Associate Publisher of the Delta Democrat-Times newspaper in Greenville,
Mississippi. He is the author of The South Strikes Back and The Reagan
Years . He served on the Board from 1969 to 1985, rejoining in 1993.
EDWARD E. DAVID, JR. is President of EED, Inc., advisers to industry,
government, and univers',ties on technology, research, and innovation
management. His former positions include President of Exxon Research
and Engineering Company, Executive Vice President of Gould, Inc.,
and Executive Director of Research at Bell Telephone Labs. During the
Nixon administration, he served as Science Adviser to the President
and Director of the White House Office of Science and Technology.
He joined the Board in 1984.
BREWSTER C. DENNY is Professor and Dean Emeritus of the Graduate
School of Public Affairs at the University of Washington, where he
teaches American diplomatic hiStory. A Professor of Public Affairs for
THE TRUSTEES
TWENTIETH C ENT URY FUND. 75 YEARS
more than thirty years, he was formerly with the Department of Defense
and on the staff of the U.S. Senate. In addition, he was the U.S.
Representative to the 23d United Nations General Assembly and a
member of the United States Puerto Rico Commission. He is the author
of works on American foreign policy, science and public policy, and
government organization. He joined the Board in 1975 and is Chairman.
CHARLES V. HAMILTON is the Wallace S. Sayre Professor of Government
at Columbia University. He previously held teaching positions at
numerous universities, including Tuskegee University and Roosevelt
University, and was a Ford Foundation Project Director. He is the author
of Adam Clayton Powell , Jr.: The Political Biography of an American Dilemma
and Black Power (with Kwame Toure). He joined the Board in 1973.
AUGUST HECKSCHER served as Chief Editorial Writer of the New York
Herald Tribune prior to becoming Director of the Fund, 1956 to 1967.
He served as Special Adviser on the Arts to President Kennedy and as
New York City's Parks Commissioner under Mayor John V. Lindsay.
He is the author of numerous books, including Woodrow Wilson, The
Public Happiness, and Open Spaces: The Life of American Cities. He joined
the Board in 1951 and became a Trustee Emeritus in 1984.
MATINA S. HORNER is Executive Vice President of the Teachers Insurance
and Annuity Association-College Retirement Equities Fund (TIAA-
CREF) and President Emerita of Radcliffe College. Prior to joining TIAA-
CREF, she was President of Radcliffe College and an Associate Professor
of Psychology at Harvard University. She is the coauthor and editor of The
Challenge of Change. She joined the Board in 1974.
LEWIS B. KADEN is a Partner of the law firm Davis, Polk & Wardwell
and a Columbia University Adjunct Professor of Law. Prior to his
present positions, he was Counsel to Governor Brendan T. Byrne of
New Jersey; Professor of Law and Director of the Center for Law and
Economic Studies at Columbia; and a legislative aide to Senator Robert
Kennedy. He joined the Board in 1992.
JAMES A. LEACH is a United States Congressman representing the First
District of Iowa. Representative Leach serves on the House Committee
on Foreign Affairs and the House Committee on Banking, Finance
and Urban Affairs. Prior to his election in 1976, he was President of
Flamegas Companies, Inc., and served as a United States Foreign
Service Officer, representing the United States at the United Nations
General Assembly and the Geneva Disarmament Conference. He
joined the Board in 1983.
RICHARD C. LEONE is President of the Twentieth Century Fund. Until
recently, he also served as Chairman of the Port Authority of New
York and New Jersey. During the 1980s, Mr. Leone was President of
the New York Mercantile Exchange and a Managing Director at Dillon
Read & Co. During the 1970s, he was State Treasurer (chief budget
officer) of New Jersey and a member of the faculty of Princeton
University. He became an ex officio Trustee in 1992.
P. MICHAEL PITFIELD is a Member of the Canadian Senate and Vice-
Chairman of Power Corporation. Prior to his selection in 1982, Senator
Pitfield held numerous posts in the Government of Canada culminating
in the positions of Secretary to the Cabinet, Clerk of the Privy Council,
and Head of the Public Service. He subsequently served as Canadian
Representative to the 39th General Assembly of the United Nations
and Chairman of the Special Committee of the Senate on the Canadian
Security Intelligence Service. He has been a Trustee since 1983.
DON K. PRICE is the Weatherhead Professor Emeritus of Public
Management at Harvard University, where he was a Dean and Professor
of Government at the Kennedy School and the Graduate School of
Public Administration. Before joining Harvard's faculty, he was
Associate Director and Vice President of the Ford Foundation. He is
the author of numerous books, including The Scientific Estate and
America's Um.vritten Constitution. He joined the Board in 1964 and, after
having served as Chairman, became a Trustee Emeritus in 1982.
RICHARD RAVITCH is Chairman of the Aquarius Management
Corporation and President and CEO of the Player Relations Committee
of Major League Baseball. In addition, he is Chairman of the Citizens
Budget Commission, the Corporation for Supportive Housing, and the
AFL-CIO Housing Investment Trust. Mr. Ravitch has been Chairman of
the Metropolitan Transportation Authority, HRH Construction, the
Bowery Savings Bank, the New York State Urban Development Corporation,
THE TRUSTEES
~ T W ENTIETH CENTURY FUND . 75 YEARS
and Delegate to the United Nations Conference on Building, Housing,
and Planning. He joined the Board in 1982.
ARTHUR M. SCHLESINGER, JR. is the Schweitzer Professor of Humanities
Emeritus at the City University of New York. During the Kennedy
administration, he served as a Special Assistant to the President. Prior
to his government service, he was a Professor of History at Harvard
University. He is the author of numerous award-winning books,
including The Age of Jackson (1946 Pulitzer Prize in History) and A
Thousand Days: John F. Kennedy in the White House (1966 Pulitzer Prize in
Biography). He joined the Board in 1959 and became a Trustee
Emeritus in 1988.
HARVEY 1. SLOANE, M.D. is Program Director of Health Profession
Training and Development at the National Association of Community
Health Centers (NACHC) and an Adjunct Associate Professor of
Health Care Sciences at The George Washington University. Prior to
joining NACHC, he was President of the Leukemia Society of America
Research Foundation. He served as Mayor of Louisville for two terms
and as County Judge Executive of Jefferson County, Kentucky. He
joined the Board in 1974.
THEODORE C. SORENSEN is a Senior Partner of the law firm Paul, Weiss,
Rifkind, Wharton & Garrison, where his practice focuses on
international business transactions and U.S. regulatory and policy
issues. Prior to joining that firm, he served as Assistant to Senator John
F. Kennedy and Special Counsel to President Kennedy. He is the author
of numerous books, including Kennedy and Watchmen in the Ni;,tlt:
Presidential Accountability after Watergate . He became a Trustee in 1984.
JAMES TOBIN is the Sterling Professor Emeritus of Econor,lics at Yale
University, where he taught economics for nearly f o r t ~ years. During
the Kennedy administration, he was a member 0: the President's
Council of Economic Advisers. His government s(:rvice also included
work during World War II as an Economist br the Office of Price
Administration and the Civilian Supply and War Production Board. A
Nobel Prize-winning economist (1981), he is the author of Policies for
Prosperity and Two Revolutions in Economic PoliC)'. He joined the Board in
1983 and became a Trustee Emeritus in 1988.
DAVID B. TRUMAN is President Emeritus and Professor of Political
Science Emeritus at Mount Holyoke College, where he taught and
served as President for nine years. Before moving to Mount Holyoke, he
was Vice President and Provost of Columbia University and Dean of
Columbia College. At Columbia University, he was a Professor of
Government for nearly twenty years. He is the author of Administrative
Decentralization, The Governmental Process, and The Congressional Party. He
joined the Board in 1968 and became a Trustee Emeritus in 1984.
SHIRLEY WILLIAMS is Public Service Professor of Electoral Politics at
Harvard University's Kennedy School of Government and Director of
Harvard's Project Liberty. She cofounded the British Social Democratic
Party, over which she presided for six years. For nearly twenty years, she
was a Member of Parliament, and for all but one of those years was
either a Minister or an Opposition Spokeswoman, including five years
in the Cabinet. She is a Life Peer (the Baroness Williams of Crosby,
created in 1992) and the author of Politics is for People and A Job to Live.
She became a Trustee in 1976.
WILLIAM JULIUS WILSON is the Lucy Flower University Professor of
Sociology and Public Policy and Director of the Center for the Study
of Urban Inequality at the University of Chicago. He is the author of
numerous books, including the award-winning The Truly Disadvantaged.
He is a MacArthur Prize Fellow, past President of the American
Sociological Association, and has been elected to the National
Academy of Sciences, the American Academy of Arts and Sciences,
and the American Philosophical SOCiety. He joined the Board in 1992.
THE TRUSTEES
CONTENTS
TheTrustees 2
Dedicationto EdwardA. Filene 11
Messagefrom theChairman 16
Message from the President 18
TheFund's First 75 Years 21
Reflectionsby AugustHeckscher 40
HeadquartersStaff 42
FormerTrustees 43
FormerDirectors
44
CurrentProjects 45
ListofPublications 48
NineteenNineteen 62
T WENTIETH CENTURY FUND. 75 YEA RS
Edward A. Filene, 1860-1937
FounderoftheTwentiethCenturyFund
DEDICATION TO
EDWARD A. FILENE
His Enduring Imprint
O
n all questions, Edward A. Filene was uncommonly insistent that
important decisions be well reasoned, well researched, and based
on a granite foundation. For Filene, rejecting tradition and
superstition in favor of probing inquiry was a defining feature of a liberal.
In a 1923 article he wrote for Harper's (aptly titled "The Liberal Business
Man Under Fire"), he evinced a dislike for the use of the word "liberal" as
applied to businesspeople. But, he continued, "I do not know of a better
word for describing the sort of business man who, broadly speaking, is the
opposite of a reactionary, the sort of business man who faces fresh problems
with a fresh mind, who is more interested in creating a better order of
things than in defending the existing order of things, who realizes that a
private business is a public trust, and who has greater reverence for
scientific method than for the traditions and majority opinion of his class."
Born in 1860, Filene reached the height of his wealth and influence
during the Progressive Era. But to people like Filene, aware of the grossly
unequal distribution of wealth, the ever-lurking economic perils faced
by working men and women, the proliferation of trusts in American
industry, and a declining standard of living for the middle class, the era
could hardly have seemed progressive. Filene possessed an acute awareness
of the ills perpetrated by big business. But he did not reject the basic
principles of free enterprise (though his enemies often accused of him of
doing so). For Filene, the solution to his country's problems lay in
reforming industry, in making capitalism work better through "liberal"
reforms. He believed that the expansion of mass production, lower prices,
DEDICATION T O EDWARD A. FllENE III
TWENTIETH CEN- RY FUND. 75 YEARS
higher wages, and an economy based on ever-expanding consumer
purchasing power were the keys to alleviating the plight of the average
person. "The central core of his thinking was his profound belief that
liberalism in the modern world has no necessary connection with altruism
and is definitely antipathetic to sentimentality," wrote Gerald W. Johnson
in his 1948 biography of Filene, Liberal's Progress. "He contended that
the most completely self-centered businessman, if he is really intelligent,
must move into the liberal position, not out of regard for his fellow men
but to protect his own interests."
The son of Jewish immigrants from Prussia and Bavaria, Filene was
twenty when his father's failing health forced cance lation of his planned
matriculation at Harvard so he could take control of the family business.
With the help of his brother, lincoln, Edward consolidated the four tiny
women's specialty shops William Filene had opened-two in Lynn,
Massachusetts; one in Salem; and one in Bath, Maine-into a tiny shop
in Boston. Within a decade, that shop had relocated to the heart of Boston's
shopping district and grown into a five-story behemoth, not counting the
famous basement where retailing history would later be made.
Edward Filene's retailing innovations were legion. In the early 1890s,
Filene's became the first department store to stock machine-made dresses.
In an era when such mass-produced merchandise had a reputation for
low quality, Filene took the risk only after insisting that his suppliers
upgrade quality. Filene's was the first to institute charge-plate purchases,
employee lounges, and, of course, the first to offer an "Automatic Bargain
Basement," where merchandise would be marked down at preset intervals.
But it was in the area of employee relations that Filene really put his
liberal theories to work. He instituted the Filene Co-operative Association,
an association of store employees with near absolute power to set rules
for the company. Though management retained the right to veto decisions
by the Association, employees could overrule their bosses by a two-thirds
vote, and did so on several occasions. Once, when conducting some
visitors on a tour of the store, Filene jokingly threatened to fire a rude
saleswoman on the spot. "You can't!" she responded. And she was right.
Filene also worked ardently to put shares of his company into the
hands of his employees. It was his wish to pass control of the firm to the
workers, and he was distressed when, after many years, his employees
showed little interest in assuming ownership. Worse, Filene's liberal
management policies eventually undid him. In 1911, he and lincoln had
transferred minority stakes in the firm to a handful of senior executives.
By 1928, several of them had grown alarmed by Edward Filene's relentless
experimentation in the management of the firm. The friction culminated
in a vicious confrontation over a proposed merger with Federated
Department Stores, which Edward opposed. Lincoln eventually voted
with the minority holders. The result: for the first time, Edward Filene's
shares were in the minority. Though given the title of president for life,
an office, and a substantial salary, he was barred from involvement in
the management of the company.
Filene was heartbroken at his exile from the store's inner circle. A
lifelong bachelor, he had directed most of his emotional energy to his
business and civic pursuits. But by the time of his banishment from the
company's senior management, he was already deeply involved in another
project that he would later call "the most important work of my life." In
his early adulthood, Filene became involved in civic affairs, which would
eventually lead him to help start such groups as the United States
Chamber of Commerce, the International Chamber of Commerce, and
the International Management Institute. As early as 1915, he was a
guiding force behind the Public Franchise League set up to fight efforts of
a private streetcar company to acquire a monopoly in Boston, where
Filene lived for most of his life. Early in the century, he formed The Co-
operative League with the idea of promoting credit unions throughout the
United States. In 1919, he incorporated the group as a not-for-profit
foundation through which he could funnel contributions to a variety of
causes that appealed to him.
The idea behind the Twentieth Century Fund (as the League was
renamed in 1922) was to enlist the greatest minds he could find to
disburse his funds in a way that could change the world. And though
Filene's contributions represented the bulk of the Fund's income for most
of his life, his colleagues at the Fund only rarely found reason to doubt his
promise of independence. "I wish my own position to be understood as a
co-equal with the other Trustees, without reference to my financial
support," Filene wrote in a letter to the Trustees on February 6, 1926.
"For it is clear, I think, that the Foundation, to broadly achieve its
purposes . .. must represent the combined intelligence and wisdom of its
directors, pledged to disinterested effort in furthering progressive measures
for the public good, as they understand it."
Still, Filene was insistent on one thing: that the Fund direct its efforts
toward solutions and action. "In the formation of a program ... it is my
earnest hope that we shall avoid the pitfalls of purely academic research,"
D l DIL/\T10N T O EDWARD A. fllENE I3l
TWENTIETH CENTURY FUND. 75 YEARS
he told the Board at a 1930 meeting. "There is plenty of money to be had
in this country for research merely for the sake of research, but far too
little of it for intelligent and effective application. Of course, I am not
opposed to scientific investigations, but I am convinced that the
Twentieth Century Fund should only support those which are definitely
directed to constructive action."
It was perhaps fitting that one of Filene's last public statements was
an impassioned plea for the reelection of Franklin Roosevelt. Filene, who
had championed old-age pensions and unemployment insurance long
before Roosevelt's ascendance, was one of the few wealthy men of his
time who truly backed the full realization of the New Deal. "We business
men wanted recovery and we got it," he said in a radio address on the eve
of the 1936 election. "But we lost something, which I have always
thought we should lose. We lost control of America. We are doing much
better in a business way than we did four years ago; but if the New Deal
is completed, and all Americans are guaranteed the right to work and
buy abundantly, we business men cannot be their bosses any longer." Less
than a year later, Filene died of pneumonia at the American Hospital in
Paris, at the age of seventy-seven.
41 East 70th Street, New York City
Twentieth Century Fund Headquarters since 1958
TWENTIETH CENTURY FUND. 75 YEARS
MESSAGE FROM
THE CHAIRMAN
I
n his penetrating analysis of American democracy, Alexis de
Tocqueville identified what he found to be the most notable feature
of the American system: that Americans "are forever forming
associations ... to proclaim a truth or propagate some feeling." Almost
exactly seventy-five years later, Edward Filene started the Twentieth
Century Fund to promote his belief that American business had to
make a commitment to the liberal tradition. Filene was warning
conservative businessmen that if they were to successfully oppose the
ideas of their more liberal associates there would be "left no method of
progress except revolution." The association he formed was one that
would pursue practical research on the major issues of our democracy
and our economy, not ivory tower academic studies, but only those
"definitely directed to constructive action." One hundred and fifty
years after de Tocqueville and seventy-five after the establishment of
the Fund, we celebrate the association Mr. Filene founded to "proclaim
a truth or propagate some feeling."
And what an association! People come together to identify the
most important issues for the health of polity and economy. They
debate. They question. They challenge. They find people to research,
think, write, and even prescribe about these issues. When we meet,
minds and, yes, egos too, clash and challenge and search and ask. From
this comes projects, books, papers, task forces. The written word is
respected. Academics who only know how to write for each other need
not apply, although we have a tradition of excellent editorial translation
of obscure jargon into English. And the subject is always policy-that is,
what should the polity do about an unsolved problem like poverty or an
emerging one such as the threat that electronic democracy poses to our
Republic. Adolf A. Berle called it "leaning against the dawn."
It's been a good run. Our product is of high quality. More
important, at times it meets Filene's test of producing constructive
action. A few examples. Over the life of the Fund we have contributed
substantially to the enlightened regulation of financial markets. What
else could an association with Adolf Berle, Jim Rowe, Ben Cohen,
David Lilienthal, and Jim Tobin have done? Our work on international
debt and freer trade has been trailblazing. We have pushed the political
world closer to regulation of campaign financing, substantially
influenced the move toward regular presidential debates in a sensible
format, contributed some of the best ideas to health care and welfare
reform, and pioneered in stimulating national recognition of the crisis
of policy for our public schools. In foreign policy, our work on the
United Nations and the post-cold war security system for Europe would
have pleased Mr. Filene, an ardent Wilsonian. Our foreign policy work
is now influencing thought on the current post-cold war watershed of
history-a watershed in international relations of the magnitude that
faced the Twentieth Century Fund when World War I ended and the
Fund began its work.
What next? How can tne Fund further its founder's goal to effect
constructive action in the greater public interest and toward social
progress? What can we do to ensure that our Republic can recruit a
new generation of public servants of the quality of the men and women
who graced this Board for so much of its life? What problems should the
best minds be focused on? And where will we find those minds?
As we move on to the end of the century, we must work on those
ever present health of the polity issues. We must attend to the search
for economic justice after an era when national policy was aimed at
making the rich richer and the poor poorer, hardly a new concern for
the Fund. For the third time in this century, we must focus on finding
a system to keep the peace in a very different world from the one before
it; for starters, our great World War II ally Russia urgently needs help
of Marshall Plan scale and sensitivity. But perhaps the most difficult
challenge we face is that the twenty-first century is the century of
Malthus-the world's very physical environment is in grave peril.
It's exciting work. As Peter Berle has said of the role of Trustees,
where else do you have the chance to spend money to identify and move
toward understanding and solving the most important problems that face
self-government and democratic institutions? The opportunity to continue
the search for constructive action on the vital issues of the future
comprises the daunting challenge Mr. Filene has laid before those of us
who are so fortunate as to be Trustees of his Twentieth Century Fund.
BREWSTER C. DENNY, CHAIRMAN
MESSAG E FROM THE CHAIRMAN 171
TWENTIETH ENTURY FUND. 75 YEARS
MESSAGE FROM
THE PRESIDENT
T
he Twentieth Century Fund was conceived to help bridge the
gap between the world of ideas and the world of affairs. Today,
many of the questions that animated the Fund's first leaders
remain central to the nation's agenda: What is the proper role of
government in an overwhelmingly private-sector economy? How can
we create fairness and opportunity for all our citizens? What can be
done to ensure that voters have access to all the information they need
to make informed choices about the governance of our democracy?
What should be the international mission of the United States?
The Fund was born in an era of public disappointment with
politics, government, and economic change. Then, as now, there was
good reason to doubt the premise that rational discourse and the
application of expertise to public questions could serve as the
foundation for successful politics. The Fund's founders held beliefs
about American democracy and capitalism that were at once optimistic
and skeptical: they trusted in our ability to prosper and govern
ourselves, but also believed that both political leaders and corporate
chieftains needed watchdogs to check and question their decisions.
They accepted the fact that average Americans were being rational
when they displayed a healthy measure of cynicism in assessing the
claims of politicians and advertisers. But they also understood that
good citizenship requires a belief in values that offer hope-the values
of community, investment in the future, and fundamental optimism
about our ability to shape the future.
Today, negative campaigns and media coverage, economic
anxiety, and cultural upheaval are but the most obvious symptoms of
the discontent that has flooded the wide gulf between most Americans
and their putative leaders. The great uncertainties created by the end of
the cold war likewise challenge our understanding of American security
and foreign policy interests. The seeming intractability of problems of
poverty and urban decay mock our optimistic vision of the American
Dream. And the deep divisions that often break out among our diverse
population require jarring readjustment of the common rules of the
game-rules that make both democracy and capitalism workable.
For good or ill, modern government must live with a political
culture that emphasizes the sensational, communicates in sound bites,
and is experienced in "real time." Leaders struggle to re-create trust
among a citizenry convinced of the venality of the experienced and of
the virtues of amateurs, awash in flickering images of sex, violence,
and corruption, and entranced with the notion of a talk show version
of direct democracy. Perhaps it is not surprising that many Americans
feel that things are out of control. They yearn for a renewed sense of
confidence that we are headed in the right direction and that we have
the right leadership to take us there. Yet they seem angered by any
argument that contends that the complexity of their problems requires
solutions involving both patience and sacrifice.
In a time of emotionally and ideologically charged politics, the
Fund persists in believing that well-thought-out ideas can directly
influence the development of national policy. Our authors, task force
participants, Trustees, and staff, in a real sense, continue to keep that
premise alive every time they employ study and analysis to deter-
mine the virtues of alternative policies. We believe that one important
part of the answer to our current gloom is to reassert the power of
progressive ideas-to insist on our ability to shape our own destiny, to
balance the vagaries of the market and capriciousness of politics with
a conviction that we can learn enough, know enough, and control
enough to get our nation back on track.
Edward Filene's generosity endowed this institution for the express
purpose of prodUCing work of direct relevance to public policy. Our
Trustees keep that mission at the center of our agenda. Of course, we
know that to some our approach seems almost quaint, for we still
believe in the preeminent value of the written word and of the
application of intelligence to public questions.
RICHARD C. LEONE, PRESIDENT
M E5Si \GE FROM THE PRESIDENT 19l
TWENTI ETH CENTURY FUND. 75 YEARS
Gunnar Myrdal, left, author of the Twentieth Century Fund book
Asian Drama, and Adolf A. Berle, Jr., Fund Trustee 1934-1971, and
chairman of the Board of Trustees 1951-1971, standing in front of a
commemorative panel in the Fund's New York office. The panel
honors Edward A. Filene, founder of the Fund. (Phoro taken in 1960.)
THE FUND'S
FIRST 75 YEARS
I
f Edward Filene had a fundamental philosophy, it was reflected in his
insistence on the importance of asking questions, "One of his most
conspicuous characteristics," Filene's biographer, Gerald W, Johnson,
observed, "was his strong belief, , , that nine tenths of the troubles that
afflict society stem from the refusal of men to bring all the facts into the
light where they can be examined for exactly what they are." It was only
natural, then, that in the earliest years of this century, when Filene began
casting about for ways to put his wealth to work for the public good, he
chose a method that would place supreme importance on bold investi-
gation, on action based on knowledge.
Filene's solution was to bring together a group to serve as a kind of
advisory committee for disposition of his philanthropy. But it was not to
be just any kind of philanthropy. Filene was interested in ideas. True, he
had his prejudices, his obsessions, his pet causes. But he wanted a group
of bright minds to guide him, to dissuade him, to help him bring "the
facts into the light." His solution to the problem of how to do good with
his wealth was the Twentieth Century Fund.
Early on, Edward and his brother, Lincoln, had established the
Co-operative League for the purpose of promoting the credit union
movement. In 1912, on a visit to India, Filene had been fascinated by
credit unions set up in villages to help free people from usurious rates
and staggering debt that lasted for generations. At home, he turned his
attention to a domestic version of the problem: a shortage of credit that
enabled some lenders to charge rates of up to 480 percent. While some
may have wondered why a wealthy businessman would care about the
credit problems of working-class Americans, for Filene, the answer was
obvious. Small loans and installment credit at reasonable rates through
T HE FUND' S FIRST 75 YEARS 2ll
T WEN-lI!l T H 'ENTURY FUND . 75 YEARS
credit unions could increase the purchasing power of the population, which,
in turn, could stimulate production and increase employment and
prosperity. As a retailer, Filene could not help but be attracted to anything
that would enable people to buy more things. As a philanthropist, he liked
the idea of improving living conditions by improving business conditions.
In 1919, Edward and Lincoln Filene incorporated the nonprofit Co-
operative League in Massachusetts, with Edward Filene as president. To
help chart their course, the brothers recruited a select group of prominent
friends and associates to serve on their Board. Among them were Newton
D. Baker, a family friend who had served as Woodrow Wilson's secretary
of war, John H. Fahey, a newspaper publisher, and Harry S. Dennison,
president of the Dennison Manufacturing Company. Soon thereafter,
Filene would add Bruce Bliven, the associate editor of the New York Globe
(who would later become editorial director of the New Republic), James
G. McDonald, head of the Foreign Policy Association, and Roscoe
Pound, dean of the Harvard Law School. Though Edward Filene and his
associates were still uncertain as to the exact course their new foundation
should take, the League's certificate of incorporation declared its purpose
to be "promoting the investigation and study of and providing instruction
as to economic and industrial questions and aiding in improving the
relations between employers and employees" and "promoting the
investigation and study of any and all matters relating to civic democracy
and industrial democracy."
In its early years, the League primarily confined its activities to
disbursing funds to organizations that shared its lofty goals. The League
gave generously to the Credit Union National Extension Bureau, the
League of Women Voters-with an eye toward educating the newly
enfranchised female electorate-helped fund a study of academic
freedom, and provided a three-year grant to the Committee on Goodwill
between Jews and Christians, which was engaged in a campaign to
counter anti-Semitism. By 1922, Filene felt a need for a more clearly
stated mandate. He circulated a confidential "Tentative Concrete
Program" among a dozen or so prominent civic leaders and businessmen,
outlining his vision for the group, which he proposed to rename the
Twentieth Century Fund.
"A basic principle of the Fund," the document began, "should be
that it would not itself become responsible for carrying forward any
movement, but that it would assist individuals and activities that it
approved." More specifically, Filene proposed fostering and assisting an
organization of liberal groups for mutual support, helping to build and
maintain an organization of the "city clubs" then springing up around
the country in the cause of municipal reform, and continued assistance to
the credit union movement. And, as if foreshadowing the Fund's later
interest in journalism and politics, Filene proposed assisting daily
newspapers to make themselves "more serviceable." The rapid urbani-
zation of the United States after the Civil War, as Richard Hofstadter
pointed out in the Age of Refonn, brought an explosion in the number of
daily newspapers in the United States, from 574 in 1870 to 2,600 in
1909. While the large circulation of these publications afforded them
more independence from political or financial pressures than had been
enjoyed previously, there remained a tendency to "create news" or slant
coverage to advance the interests of publishers and advertisers. While
allowing for the commercial demands of running a publishing business,
Filene insisted that "it is certain that a large and insistent public demand
exists for news uncolored by the prejudices or the interests of owners,
advertisers or readers. The practical working out of democracy is difficult
even when voters have the facts." In typical Filene fashion, he proposed
"a study of the situation and possibly a giving of cooperation or assistance
to schools of journalism and to such organizations as are working to get
true and clear statements of fact before the people."
The reactions to Filene's letter consisted mostly of vague expressions
of support. Some commented that the proposal was too idealistic to
succeed. Woodrow Wilson's secretary politely declined comment on her
boss's behalf. But one response stands out for its air of true conviction. In
a handwritten note dated] une 8, 1922, one Esther T. Ogden wrote: "May
I respectfully suggest that a Twentieth Century Fund administered solely
by men (even though they be supermen) starts as an anachronism."
(Forty-seven years later, Patricia RobertS Harris would become the Fund's
first woman Trustee.)
Filene went forth with his plan to change the name of his foundation.
In March 1922, he transferred 4,000 shares of William Filene's Sons Co.
stock to the Twentieth Century Fund. Six years later, he hired journalist
Evans Clark, a former instructor in Princeton University's Government
Department and assistant to the Sunday editor of the New York Times, as
the Fund's full-time executive director. The founder continued to make
contributions in excess of $100,000 per year, accounting for virtually all
of the Fund's income. And he repeatedly stressed his desire that the Fund's
work lead to solutions and bold experimentation.
THE FUND' S FIRST 75 YEARS "23l
TWENTIETH CENTURY FUND. 75 YEARS
"There is nothing I want to avoid so much as to discourage you
people from making experiments," Filene told the Board on March 31,
1928. "I don't want you to have fixed ideas for you must keep looking
forward. 'No Mistakes and No Successes' is what I call the fault of the
Coolidge- Victorian Age. I think you people should have in mind ...
that if you vote money and it is lost, that it is not a mistake."
Under Clark's leadership, the Fund gradually began to shift more of
its resources toward its own activities, rather than those of outside groups
(by 1934,62 percent of the Fund's budget was spent on staff activities,
compared with about one-third of its budget the previous two years).
One of his first acts was to conduct a survey of the spending patterns of
foundations in the United States. When he delivered his report to the
Trustees in 1929, they were surprised to learn that spending on economic
research accounted for less than 3 percent of the pie. That finding-
along with the catastrophic events of Black Monday-led to the decision
of the Trustees in 1930 to concentrate the Fund's work in economics.
I
f the early years of the Fund were marked by a sense of groping for
direction, the events of October 1929 instilled the Fund and its Trustees
with a sense of urgency that would fuel their efforts for the next decade.
The stock market crash-and the ensuing depression that would
eventually lead to the unemployment of more than one-fourth of the
workforce-unleashed unprecedented national soul-searching into the
fundamental principles of the American economic system. By 1932,
industrial production had been cut by half, and at least a million
Americans wandered the country, looking for work and sleeping in hobo's
quarters. Hoovervilles sprang up in city lots and on the outskirts of towns.
In the coalfields of Appalachia, evicted mining families slept in unheated
tents. In the cities, Americans who could no longer afford gas and
electricity cooked over wood stoves in alleyways. In 1931, accord ing to
historian William E. Leuchtenberg, a group of West Africans sent New
York $3.77 for famine relief. Yet many businessmen continued to
maintain that laissez-faire policies, not government intervention, were
the solution to the country's economic problems. In 1930, the president
of the National Association of Manufacturers blamed American workers
for failing "to practice the habits of thrift and conservation" and for
gambling away their savings. As Leuchtenberg observed, "One of the
most popular themes of business literature of the period was that the
wealthy businessman had suffered more than the worker."
,
Edward A. Filene, and the Fund he created, could not have seen
things more differently. To the Twentieth Century Fund, which now held
as its purpose the investigation of flaws in the economic system, and the
positing of solutions to them, the 1930s represented a great opportunity
to put its mandate to work.
No events better illustrate the Fund's impact on public policy during
the New Deal than those of the first months of the Roosevelt
administration. In the summer of 1933, it became clear that the 73d
Congress would soon act on the question of government regulation of
securities markets. On August 19, the Fund's executive committee
authorized the preparation of a detailed outline and budget for a study on
the securities markets, in the hopes of fulfilling the Fund's mandate to
"report on the facts essential for sound and effective legislation." Before
the report could be completed, though, legislative action was initiated in
Congress. Rather than risk publishing after the fact, the Fund shifted
gears and began work on a summary of the findings and recommendations
of the report. On February 8, 1934, the day before Franklin Roosevelt sent
a message to Congress proposing federal regulation of the Stock
Exchange, a digest of the Twentieth Century Fund recommendations
was placed in President Roosevelt's hands.
In addition to recommending the federal licensing and regulation of
all securities exchanges and the over-the-counter markets, the report
called for the development of accounting and reporting standards for
corporations, limits on margin buying and short-selling, and greater
disclosure designed to restrict manipulation by insiders. Such moves-as
well as other recommendations to combat conflicts of interest in the
reporting of business news, higher qualifications for "customers men,"
and licensing of investment counsels-were controversial to say the least.
Richard Whitney, the president of the New York Stock Exchange,
rebuked would-be regulators with an emphatic declaration:
"You gentlemen are making a great mistake. The Exchange
is a perfect institution."
Members of the Roosevelt administration who received
advance copies of the book version of the securities market
study, Stock Market Concrol, didn't share Whitney's view.
Among them was Thomas G. Corcoran, one of the young
geniuses of the New Deal working on regulatory legislation.
Testifying before the Senate on the Fletcher-Rayburn bill,
which would eventually evolve into the Securities Exchange
THE FUND'S FIRST 75 YEARS ----z5l
TWENTIETH CENTURY FUND. 75 YEARS
Act of 1934, Corcoran acknowledged that some provisions of the bill
came from the Twentieth Century Fund report. Later, the bill was
amended to bring it into line with the Fund's recommendations, and the
head of the Fund's study, Alfred Bernheim, gave testimony urging further
revisions, most of which were made. In early March, Evans Clark testified
before the House Committee on Interstate Commerce and endorsed the
House version of the bill, which closely followed the Fund's recom-
mendations. In May, the bill passed both houses, and it was signed by
the president on June 6.
As the depression dragged on, the Fund continued to
prepare reports on major issues of the day. In mid-1934, a
WORLD TRADE special committee on labor was set up and charged with
ANa Y.,ou! preparing a report with legislative recommendations. The
following February a list of proposals was sent to President
Roosevelt, and its release to the public unleashed a flood of
news reports. Meanwhile, Senator Robert F. Wagner of New
York had introduced a measure on labor relations. His bill,
which would establish the National Labor Relations Board
and authorize it to oversee union elections and regulate
unfair labor practices, met with the qualified approval of the Fund's
Labor Committee. It went to work drafting amendments and a separate
bill that, taken with Wagner's proposal, represented in legislative form
the committee's recommendations. Later, the head of the committee,
William H . Davis, the former national compliance director of the
National Recovery Administration, was called to testify before the
Senate Committee on Education and Labor.
But the Fund didn't only concern itself with issues arising
in Washington. In 1934, Dr. Francis Townsend of California
proposed an old-age pension plan under which the govern-
ment would pay $200 a month to every citizen over sixty, as
long as the recipient would agree to stop working and spend
all the funds within a month. Townsend's plan, and the
organization he formed to promote it, developed a huge
following, even though most experts thought it patently
unworkable. Among the criticisms was that the plan would
cost $24 billion, while the national income was only $40 billion. Late
in December 1935, the Fund's executive committee voted to authorize
a study of the Townsend plan. Margaret Grant Schneider of the Social
Science Research Council was recruited to conduct the analysis. In
.....
TO"'N.END
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May 1936, the Fund printed 20,000 copies of a damning
twelve-page pamphletentitledWill the Townsend Plan Work?
and a ninety-three-page booklet, The Townsend Crusade, the
following month.
While the Townsend plan eventually died, the Fund's
interest in old-age pensions had a life of its own. Schneider
was dispatched to Europe to investigate pension provisions
there. In 1937, the Fund published More Security for Old Age,
containing a summary of the American and European
experienceswithold-age benefits. TheSocialSecurityActof
1935 had excluded anyone for whom it was difficult to keep
records and collect taxes, including farm workers, the self-
employed, and domestic servants. Employees of governments and
religious, educational,and philanthropicorganizationswerealsoleftout.
Alltold, nearlyhalfofAmericanworkers were notcoveredby theactof
1935. Moreover, many critics considered its funding mechanism
regressive: retirementfunds were partiallyfinanced by taxes onworkers'
wages. TheTwentieth Century Fund report called for an expansion of
the Social Security system to cover all adults, and funding ofbenefits
from general taxes.
WhiletheFund was concerningitselfwithmattersontheNewDeal's
legislative agenda, it was also pursuing an interest that it would revisit
periodically throughout its history: access to quality health care. It is
both ironic anddistressing thattothisday thecountry is stillstruggling
with this daunting issue. But the Trustees ofthe 1930s would certainly
have beengratified toknowthatafledgling institutiontheychampioned-
then called a "medical guild" and now popularly known as a health
maintenance organization-would sixty years onward remain a central
elementofthe mostpromising ideas for reforming thesystem.
In 1927, Edward Filene had been active in the formation ofThe
Committee on the Costs of Medical Care, an independent group
composed ofrepresentatives ofthe medical profession, economists, and
members ofthe public. From the outset, the Fund had been a major
contributorto thecommittee,and theFund's 1930AnnualReportnoted
with alarm thatannual medicalexpenditures in the UnitedStates had
reached$3 billion,orabout$24for everyman, woman,and child. "The
Fund is committed to a practical testofa specific plan to lowercostsof
medicalcaretothe publicthrough'MedicalGuilds,'"theAnnualReport
explained. "TheMedical Guild as proposed would consistofa group of
THE FUND'S FIRST 75 YEARS 271
TWENTIETH CF.'lTURY FUND . 75 YEARS
doctors ... who would own and operate in common their plant and
equipment, offering a well-rounded and unified service to the public for
,----;>77.".--........,-------, a fi xed annual fee to be calculated on the basis of an actuarial
study of the amount of treatment. Costs should be materially
reduced due to economies of joint ownership of plant and
operating equipment. Sickness rates would presumably be
lessened through periodic medical examinations."
In 1930, the Fund appropriated money to finance an
investigation into the possibility of starting a medical guild in
New York City. Three years later, the Fund published How to
Budget Health, a summary of the results from its own study into
the matter. Also in 1933, the Fund established a continuing
program in medical economics designed to be a clearinghouse for
information on medical guilds and an adviser in their organization. By
1936, with twelve guilds in operation and twenty-six more planned, the
Fund transferred its medical activities to an independent agency called
the Health Economics Association.
T
he advent of World War 11 placed massive demands
on the country's material and human resources. The
Fund, too, faced strains. Many of its Board members
served in the Roosevelt administration during this period.
For example, Adolf A. Berle, Jr., was assistant secretary of
state; Francis Biddle was U.S. attorney general; John
Fahey (who became the Fund's director after Filene's
death in 1937) was the commissioner of the Federal
Home Loan Bank Board Administration; Dennison, in
addition to serving as a director of the Federal Reserve Bank of Boston, was
assistant director of the wartime Central Bureau of Planning and Statistics;
,------------, Oswald Knauth was assistant director of the Statistical Division
Postwar Plans
oj ,
United Nations
By 1.cwL. '- '-"1'1
U.S.S. R.
of the War Production Board; Charles Taft was director of
Wartime Economic Affairs; and W. W. Waymack was a member
of the United States War Labor Board and consultant to the War
Food Administration. Despite the demands on the Trustees, Berle
later maintained that the Fund remained "moderately lively."
Almost immediately after the outbreak of hostilities, the
Fund began planning for the economic problems of peace.
At the time, many observers in the United States expected
a colossal economic crisis at the end of the war, as the country
struggled (0 absorb millions of soldiers returning from the battlefields of
Europe and Asia. In 1943, the Fund published several books that
addressed the issues, including Wartime Facts and Postwar Problems;
Postwar Plans ofthe United Nations; and Postwar Planning in the United
States. Most of the Fund's works called for government action to stimulate
postwar demand, although they also endorsed the premise that the
economic demands of rebuilding Europe and providing housing at home,
as well as satisfying pent-up demand for consumer goods stretching back
to the depression, would easily absorb the returning soldiers.
r---- - - ---,
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AM ERI CAIS
NEEDS &
RESOURCES
But by far the most influential book published by the Fund in
the 1940s came after the war. In 1947, the Fund published
America's Needs and Resources by J. Frederic Dewhurst to
thundering praise. An encyclopedic, 812-page tome, the book
summarized economic material concerning three generations,
and set forth an exhaustive forecast of the country's needs,
industrial production, and income over the next two decades.
The book quickly became a basic economic reference. A
popular summary, U,S,A.: Measure ofaNation, was published
soon after, and on September 8, the American Broadcasting
Company broadcast a documentary based on the book.
A
s the optimism inspired by peace gave way to the tensions of the
cold war, the Fund found itself increasingly turning (0 international
concerns. Shortly after the cessation of hostilities, a Communist uprising
erupted in Greece. President Harry Truman announced his doctrine,
designed to use political and military support as a weapon against
Communist expansion. And the Fund turned its attention (0 the
problems of international development.
Many of the works published in the years immediately following the
war hewed closely to the country's foreign policy concerns, Frank Smothers,
William Hardy McNeil, and Elizabeth D. McNeil were dispatched to lay
'1111,
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out the issues facing Greece, Their book, Report on the Greeks,
was published in 1948. The following year brought Turkey: An
Economic Appraisal, by Max Weston Thornburg, Graham Spry,
and George Soule. And in 1952, the Fund published Costa Rica:
A Study in Economic Development by Stacy May, Just Faaland,
Albert R. Koch, Howard L. Parson, and Clarence Sevin.
"Economic expansion in underdeveloped areas is, of course, one
of the basic problems on which the long-range political stability
THE Fl .'),>:u's FIRST 75 YEARS 29l
~ TWENTIETH C ENTURY FUND . 75 YEARS
of the world now depends," the Fund's 1952 Annual Report declared. "The
study of Costa Rica was conceived by the Fund as a case history of the
problems of industrialization in one nation, which might aid not only that
nation but others-particularly in Latin America-with similar problems."
The authors of the Costa Rican study advocated an increase in farm
production as a means of rapidly increasing national income and freeing
workers for light industry and assembly activities. To make sure their
~ - - - - - - - , message was heard where it mattered most, the Fund prepared
excerpts of the study in Spanish, which were serialized by Costa
Rican newspapers.
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Meanwhile, the demands of rearming for the cold war were
bringing problems on the home front. In keeping with its goal
of applying rigorous research to pressing current issues, the
Fund launched a series of studies and programs designed to
address these concerns. In 1949, it began to look into the
problems of economic stabilization and full employment. But
with the outbreak of hostilities in Korea, plans were changed,
"Maintaining stability remains the central issue," the Fund's 1950
Annual Report explained, "but its relation to defense and mobilization
rather than to full employment is now the chief focus ." In 1951, the
Fund published two books in its "economic stabilization series." The
first, Defense without Inflation by Albert G. Hart, expressed optimism
about the country's ability to maintain a strong economy while
provid ing for defense, but asserted the need for higher taxes and
restrictions on credit to head off inflation. Its companion volume,
Financing Defense: Federal Tax and Expenditure Policies by Professor Hart
and E. Cary Brown, analyzed in detail how much the United States
would need to spend on defense, and proposed specific tax measures to
produce the needed revenue.
The 1950s also brought a major change in the leadership
of the Fund. In 1951, Adolf A. Berle, Jr., became chairman of
the Board, a position he would hold for twenty years. In 1953,
Evans Clark stepped down as director. He was replaced by
J. Frederic Dewhurst, the Fund's economist since 1933. Dewhurst,
a man not fond of administrative detail, would hold the post
for only three years, eventually stepping down to oversee
work on Europe's Needs and Resources. His replacement was
August Heckscher, chief editorial writer of the New York
Herald Tribune.
During Berle's tenure, an extraordinary array of talent joined the
Board. Those luminaries included J. Robert Oppenheimer, David E.
lilienthal, Wallace K. Harrison, John Kenneth Galbraith, and current
Trustees emeriti Arthur M. Schlesinger, Jr., and Morris B. Abram.
I
na special meeting of the Board of Trustees on December 2, 1960,
Chairman Berle expressed a heartfelt concern. The American experi-
ment, he said, was becoming beleaguered by critics. Throughout the
world, the United States was seen as a dying system. Part of the problem,
he allowed, was Communist propaganda. But much of it was a failure on
the part of the United States to affirm its vitality. How, he asked, could
one find the central element that drove the country, and that could make
it keep on going? Could the United States find a way to describe the
theory and achievements behind "the beating, hard core life in America"?
The members of the Board agreed that an investigation into
American society along the broadest lines was called for.
Though initially conceived as a single project, the quest to define
the heart of America would expand to dominate most of the projects
undertaken by the Fund in the 1960s. This higher vision was expressed in
a new kind of Twentieth Century Fund project: the expansive, philo-
sophical inquiry into the grand nature of things.
Jean Gottman's Megalopolis: The Urbanized Northeastern Seaboard of
the United States was one of them. Published in 1961, the work examined
a phenomenon visible to the entire world and gave it a new
name. The 53,000 square-mile urban line running from just
north of Boston to south of Washington, containing one-fifth
of the population of the United States, was gaining the
characteristics of a single city, he reported, with the attending
concentration of population, industrial and commercial
facilities, wealth, and cultural activities. The question, he
pOsited, was how was this Megalopolis growing and developing,
dealing with its problems, affecting the lives of its inhabitants?
And how could its lessons be applied to other, similar cities
developing elsewhere, in the vast urban and suburban sprawl around Los
Angeles and along the shore of Lake Michigan near Chicago?
He concluded that the growth of Megalopolis was not the menace
many of its critics maintained. While acknowledging its encroachment on
beautiful rural landscapes, and its pollution, noise, and congestion, he
asserted that the inhabitants of Megalopolis were in fact privileged. "In
THE FUND'S FIRST 75 YEARS 311
TWl o:-JTJETH CENTURY FUND. 75 YEARS
Megalopolis, the population is on average healthier, the consumption of
goods higher, and the opportunity for advancement greater than in any
other region of comparable extent," he insisted. He also described a new
demographic trend. The 1960 census would show for the first time a
majority of "white-collar" workers among those in nonagricultural
employment. "By 1960," he explained, "the major hubs already specialized
in what might be called the quaternary forms of economic activity: the
managerial and artistic functions, government, education, research, and
the brokerage of all kinds of goods, services, and securities."
If Gottman found a new way of describing the urbanization of
America, Sebastian de Grazia sought a better way for Americans to spend
their time. His philosophical inquiry into the nature of leisure, codirected
with August Heckscher, resulted in Of Time, Work, and Leisure, published
in 1962. De Grazia debunked the notion that modern conveniences and
productivity improvements had resulted in more time away from work.
Though standard statistics maintained that the workweek had declined
to 39 hours, from 70 hours in 1850, he asserted that modern demands had
absorbed much of the extra time. Adding second jobs, 8 1/2 hours of
commuting per week, 5 hours for maintenance work around
the house, and 3 for chores resulted in a net gain of just 3 hours
of free time.
More important, though, was what people did with their free
time, he maintained. Leisure in its true meaning, he held, was
not time away from the job, "but a state of being, a condition
of man, which few desire and fewer achieve." Of the "leisure
class," he wrote: "In one century they may be scientists, in
another theologians, in some other bards, whatever the
category may be that grants them the freedom to let their minds play. They
invent the stories, they create the cosmos, they discover what truth is given
man to discover, and give him the best portion of his truth and error."
In the same decade that the Fund published sweeping inquiries into
the pursuits of the human soul, it was also embarking on an increasingly
ambitious and wide-ranging agenda. At anyone time, the Fund could
be earnestly at work on endeavors ranging from sizing up continents to
working to liberate American citizens from racial discrimination. The
year 1960 brought a two-volume survey, Tropical Africa, by George T.
Kimble, the former director of the National Geographic Society. A vast,
1, 100-page accounting of the economy, society, and politics of the
continent, the study urged Americans to adopt a more enlightened view
of Africa. Americans, he argued, found it hard to believe that Africa's six
hundred groups, or peoples, were not like "us." But, he asked, "Isn't it time
to concede the possibility of our thoughts not always being their thoughts,
or our desires their desires?" In dealing with Africa, Kimble warned,
Americans should be respectful of the fact that many Africans were
skeptical of Western political institutions, and not eager to imitate them.
Gunnar Myrdal's Asian Drama appeared in 1968. Subtitled An Inquiry
into the Poverty of Nations, Myrdal's mammoth work examined the
political, soCial, and economic conditions of South Asia. Most
important, it sought to explain the underlying causes of the
poverty that gripped the region. This masterwork, which may
be the Fund's most widely read publication, remains in print
and is still popular in South Asia.
In the domestic realm, the 1960s brought the Fund's first
major studies in both racial justice and political campaigns.
Michael Sovern's Legal Restraints on Racial Discrimination in
Employment, published in 1966, provided a comprehensive
guide to equal-opportunity laws, criticized antidiscrimination
commissions as lacking power, and called for more aggressive
enforcement. The Fund also took note of the staggering increase in the
cost of political campaigns and established a commission headed by former
Federal Communications Commission chairman Newton N. Minow to
study the problem. It eventually recommended the establishment of
"Voters' Time," free television time made available to major-party
presidential and vice presidential candidates, purchased by the federal
government at reduced cost.
One of the most widely read Fund books during the period was
Performing Arcs- The Economic Dilemma by William ]. Baumol and
William G. Bowen, which argued that substantial government financing
would be needed for the performing arts to flourish. Many of the themes
developed in the Baumol and Bowen work remain the most effective
justifications for maintaining public support for the arts.
Though the 1960s was a time of tremendous vitality for the
Twentieth Century Fund, one issue seems, in retrospect, to have been
oddly underrepresented in its program: the Vietnam War. Save for one
study, Americans in Southeast Asia: The Roots of Commitment by Russell H.
Fifield, the unpopular war seemed to inspire much less attention from
the Fund than its prominence in political discourse at the time would
seem to have called for. Still, the Trustees did not entirely ignore the
THE FUNO' S FI RST 75 YEARS 331
TWENTIETH CENTURY FUND. 75 YEARS
war at home. In an August 1968 meetingofthe Board, Berle observed
thatnever before in the history ofthe Fund had America's institutions
been so much under question. He noted the high average age ofthe
Trustees, and asked that members recommend younger candidates for
membershiptohim.Theminutesofthemeetingstatesimply: "Mr. Berle
pointed to thedesirabilityofmakingcontactwith the young inorderto
understand the sources oftheir discontent and help pull the country
togetherrather thanapart."AndsoseveralofthecurrentTrustees were
added to the Board during the next dozen years: Hodding Carter Ill,
Charles V. Hamilton, Matina S. Horner, Harvey I. Sloane, Shirley
Williams, and BrewsterC. Denny.
Itwas also in the 1970sthattheTrusteestookanewapproachtoFund
studiesthatwasaclearreflectionoftheforcesatworkin thecountry. At
the suggestion ofthe Fund's new director, Murray]' Rossant (who had
succeeded Heckscherin 1967), theywouldfocus onstudiesofeconomic,
social, political, and cultural institutions. For thenext two decades, the
news media, politicalcampaigns,corporations,andthefinancial markets
would comeunderintenseTwentiethCenturyFund scrutiny.
TypicaloftheFund's approachduringthoseyears were thenumerous
studies, taskforces, andreportsonthepoliticalprocess. In1973, twoyears
afterJames Rowe became chairman ofthe Board, the Fund published
Presidential Television by NewtonN. Minow, John Bartlow Martin, and
Lee M. Mitchell. The authors asserted that presidential access to
television threatened to subvert the checks and balances system, and
urged thattimebeprovidedfor Congress, thejudiciary,andthepolitical
opposition. Two years later, Political Money: A Strategy for Campaign
Financing inAmerica, by David W. AdamanyandGeorgeE.Agree, argued
thatan excessivedependenceon private money in politics undermined
___- ---' thedemocraticsystem.Theyadvocated a voucherprogram in .........

which candidates would receive grants based in part on their
POLITIO\L I levelofpublicsupport.

OneofthemostimportantFundprojectsduring this period
was the Task Force on the Municipal Bond Market, which
... released a report in 1976titled Building a Broader Market. The
recommendationofthetaskforce thatmutualfund investorsbe

allowed to benefitfrom thetaxexemptiononmunicipalbond
interesteventuallybecamelaw, greadyexpandingthesizeofthe
market and increasing the capital available for municipal
I.. investments.
Fred Hirsch's Social Limits to Growth (1976), which analyzed the
social costs that arise as capitalist societies become wealthier, was another
influential work. Hirsch argued that a shift away from reliance on Adam
Smith's invisible hand is needed when pursuit of self-interest ceases to
contribute to the social good. Instead, Hirsch wrote, "pursuit of the social
good contributes to the satisfaction of self-interest."
In 1979, the Fund cosponsored the first of two task forces on
Presidential Debates, and, on the heels of the 1980 campaign, in which
there was only one debate between the major-party candidates, the Fund
helped establish the bipartisan Commission on Presidential Debates,
which played a lead role in the debates in the 1988 and 1992 campaigns.
During the period from 1977 to 1982, Trustee emeritus Don K. Price,
dean of the John Fitzgerald Kennedy School of Government at Harvard
University, served as chairman of the Board. His successor was Peter A.
A. Berle, the president of the National Audubon Society and the son of
Adolf A. Berle. During Berle's four-year tenure, ten Trustees who remain
on the Board today were added: (in chronological order) Richard Ravitch,
James Tobin, James A. Leach, Jose A. Cabranes, P. Michael Pitfield,
Theodore C. Sorensen, Edward E. David, Jr. , Alexander M. Capron, H.
Brandt Ayers, and Joseph A. Califano, Jr.
The Fund's work during the 1980s spanned a broad assortment of
issues. For example, the Fund called new attention to the issue of corporate
governance. Corporate Control, Corporate Power (1981) by Edward S.
Herman traced the shift in control of corporations from owners to
managers. Then in 1986 Who Owns the Corporation? Management vs.
Shareholders, by Edward J. Epstein, pointed out how shareholders had
often been losers in the corporate takeover game.
The Fund also revisited one of its earliest concerns: medical care. In
1980, Unloving Care: The Nursing Home Tragedy , by Bruce C. Vladeck,
chronicled fifty years of government mismanagement and private
profiteering, and called for a complete restructuring of the country's
nursing home system and increased emphasis on home-based service for
the relatively independent elderly. In the middle of the decade, a task
force was set up to look at the communication of scientific risk, resulting
in the publication of its report, Science in the Streets, which included one
of the early examinations of media coverage of AIDS. A few years later,
Bradford H. Gray investigated accountability in the health-care system in
the light of the growing role of corporate providers like hospital chains in
The Profit Motive and Patient Care (1991).
THE FUND'S FIRST 75 YEARS 35l
TWEN IETH CENTURY FUND. 75 YEARS
AC4LLTo
CIVIC
SERVICE
CHARLES C.1I10SKOS
In 1986, the current chairman, Brewster C. Denny, professor
and dean emeritus of the Graduate School of Public Affairs,
University of Washington, began his tenure, which is ending at
this November's meeting. Under Denny's supervision, Lewis B.
Kaden and William Julius Wilson were added to the Board and
Hodding Carter III rejoined after having served previously from
1968 to 1985. During these years, the Fund probed a number of
critical policy issues. In 1988, for example, the Fund brought
out an influential work, A Call to Civic Service by Charles
Moskos, which wou ld later serve as the basis for President Bill
Clinton's public service initiative. It also published David P.
Calleo's Beyond American Hegemony: The Future of the Western Alliance
(1987) and Robert Haveman's Scarting Even: An Equal Opportunity Program
to Combat the Nation's New Poverty (1988), two of the most influential
Fund books of the decade.
Beginning in 1989, with the Soviet Union on the verge of collapse,
Richard C. Leone, the Fund's current president, initiated a series of books
intended to explore the new foundations for American foreign policy.
Among the earliest of the projects were Jeffrey Garten's A Cold Peace:
America, Japan, Germany, and the Struggle for Supremacy, James
Chace's The Consequences of the Peace: The New Internationalism
and American Foreign Policy, Richard H. Ullman's Securing
Europe, and Elizabeth Pond's After the Wall: American Policy
Toward Germany. This ongoing series will include recently
commissioned books by Michael Mandelbaum and Walter
Russell Mead. The Fund is supplementing tnose efforts with a
series of projects analyzing the role of the United Nations,
including the edited volume U.S. Policy and the Future of the
United Nations (1994).
The Fund also refocused during the 1990s on media
coverage of government and politics. continuing a mission that Edward
Filene originally envisioned for the foundation. The Perspectives on
the News series and the Fund Task Force on Television and the
Campaign of 1992, which resulted in a report titled I-800-PRESIDENT,
prodded media elites to pay greater attention to informing the public
and less to the sausage making of campaigns and politiCS. The report of
the Fund Task Force on Public Television, Quality Time?, offered strong
recommendations for reforming and revitalizing noncommercial
broadcasting.
I
The success of the Task Force on Television and the Campaign of 1992
fostered the Fund's sponsorship of a similar series of meetings among leading
media representatives and critics that will scrutinize the media coverage of
the next presidential campaign. Concurrently, a new task force on
presidential debates will revisit the issue of how to improve the quality of
those events. The institutionalization of presidential debates no longer
appears to be a pressing issue, in no small measure owing to the Fund's past
efforts.
In 1995, the Fund's scope will be broad, ranging from task forces on
the presidential appointments process and worker retraining to the "New
Federalist Papers," a project designed to respond to the current assault on
representative government. Fund books due to be published next year
include John Gerard Ruggie's "Return to World Order: The United States
and the Future of Multilateralism," Jacques S. Gansler's "Defense
Conversion: Transforming the Arsenal of Democracy," and Charles C.
Moskos and John Sibley Butler's "Race Relations in the Army: Lessons for
American Society."
Over the next few years, the Fund will focus on developing ideas
for reforming the political process, facilitating the debate about the
quality of journalism and media, and analyzing the crucial contribution
of public institutions to national life. In addition, several projects-
books by Leonard Silk and Robert Kuttner among them-are designed
to enrich current thinking about economic issues, moving beyond one-
dimensional, almost religious, faith in markets to consider other
components of growth and prosperity. In other words, the Fund's plans
for the future are solidly grounded in a progressive tradition that would
be quite familiar to its founders.
In considering the long road the Fund has traveled since its inception
as a vehicle for disbursing the wealth of a single man, it is hard to avoid
considering what the founder, were he alive today, would think
about his creation. The answer is a complicated one. No doubt
the Fund was, has been, and will continue to be the source of
some of the most important public policy ideas of its time. But
would Filene, examining three-quarters of a century of work, be
tempted to reach for a rubber stamp and pound a question onto
a summary of the Fund's existence: "How Has This Justified
My Effort?" One suspects he would be somewhat pleased but
frustrated by the impossibility of calculating a concrete return
on his investment.
Tr-II : F UND' S FIRST 75 YEARS
TWENTIETH CENTURY FUND. 75 YEARS
Nearly a quarter-century after Filene's death, one of his contem-
poraries, Adolf A. Berle, was asked, quite simply, "Was the Fund worth
it?" He responded:
I don't think you can ever make a direct causative audit. You
would like to say that we sat doum at such-and-such a time and we
thought of this, and we thought of a study, and now there is legislation
or a commission set up. It doesn't happen that way in my experience.
This is like shooting seeds into the air. Intellectual work is always
that. You can never see the chain of causation. You can only say that
at least you have helped create a matrix of ideas and structure out of
which things do happen.
What I suppose we have got Out of it is a relatively small group of
men, a few thousand, in positions of opinion-making and decision-
making, who are familiar with situations in which their opinions count,
instead of having those questions burst on us to be settled only by the
politician's hunch or some temporary cry for assistance.
For Edward Filene, a man who hated above all an ill-considered decision,
that just might have been enough.
TWENTIETH CENTURY FUND. 75 YEARS
REFLECTIONS BY
AUGUST HECKSCHER
The Twentieth Century Fund-
Yesterday and Tomorrow
I
have known the Twentieth Century Fund, as Trustee, director, and
Fund author, for some forty years-more than half of its existence.
It has always seemed to me a unique institution. It does not carry its
founder's name (though he was a striking and original figure); it com-
bines an exceptionally broad mandate with Trustees as varied in their
gifts and services as are ever found in close association. The Fund's
capital was not large, yet now and then it managed, among its regular
programs of public clarification and enlightenment, to publish a study
so independent, so inclusive, and so far-seeing as to make its name
shine like a beacon.
The Fund has been in many ways a model of what a small
foundation should be. Its projects were defined amid protracted and
often highly philosophical discussions among men of strong con-
victions. Its project directors were chosen not merely on the grounds of
acknowledged expertise, but because they seemed to have unfulfilled
capacities and a fresh way of looking at things. They were assured close
personal contact with a research and editorial staff knowledgeable in
their fields and sympathetic to their problems.
Such was the ideal. It was not always attained, but over the years,
it often enough animated the Fund's studies and researches to suggest
that small means and large results can go hand in hand. In judging the
]. Frederic Dewhurst, left, director of the Fund 1953-1956, Trustee
1960-1967, and author of the Twentieth Century Fund book America's
Needs and Resources, with August Heckscher, director of the Fund
1956-1967 and current Trustee emeritus. (Photo taken in 1955.)
result of its work, the question to ask, I suggest, is not merely whether
the Fund produced important books, but whether it produced important
books that would have remained unwritten without the Fund's inter-
vention. I think that quite often that test was met.
There has been something else about the Fund that from the start
set it apart from similar institutions. From Edward A. Filene came an
emphasis on prediction. That eccentric Boston merchant believed in
looking forward; he wanted the Fund to light up at least the decade
ahead. Often the best way of predicting is to know thoroughly where
one is, and many of the Fund's studies have been efforts to plumb the
depths of existing conditions. But at their best they have indeed been
marked by a prophetic tinge.
The world has changed greatly over the past seventy-five years-
in nothing more than in the vast supplies of knowledge that have
become available to us. We live in what is called the Information
Age. Vast institutions, huge government bureaus, labor to get at the
last statistic on every conceivable subject. Can a small place like the
Twentieth Century Fund survive, and perform a useful role, in a world
where in so many big places the lights of research burn ceaselessly?
The answer, I think, will be in the affirmative, at least among those
who look for solutions at many levels-who see the necessity for
enormous agglomerations of facts, and also the need for rare insight, the
sudden perception. There is room for the kind of dissent a small
research organization may express, along with the kind of faith it may
embody. Odd or neglected subjects of research, or subjects that are
controversial and unpopular, must always have their place in a society
that is alive and changing.
Every so often the question is raised at Board meetings: Should the
Fund continue? Would it not be a good idea to invest all our capital in
some big proj ect-founding a journal, financing a radio station or a
housing project? But perhaps it may be suggested-at least on an
occasion when we are taking note of the Fund's history-that what
has been very well done over a long time merits being done a little
longer. The twenty-first century will surely profit from having in its
midst small groups of wise men and women, standing somewhat apart,
who seek to reveal the path immediately ahead and to influence policy
in sane directions.
Ignorance may continue to rule the world, but a little light can go
a long way.
REFLECTIONS BY AUGUST HECKSCHER ---:tIl
TWENTIETH CENTURY FUND . 75 YEARS
HEADQUARTERS STAFF
RICHARD C. LEONE, PRESIDENT
Greg Anrig, Jr., Vice President Programs
Beverly Goldberg, Vice President, Director of Publications
Jon Shure,vice President Programs and Dissemination
Carol Starmack,vice President Administration and Operations
Loretta J. Ahlrich
Lisa Boyne
Wendy Eaton
Steven Greenfield
Michael McGovern
Darlene Means
Jason Renker
Nancy Jane Romano
William Stancik
Rashida Valvassori
Christian Whitaker
Tomasin Whitaker
David White
Sarah Wright
Kathleen Young
CONSULTANTS
William Grinker
Michelle Miller
Melvin Mister
Bernard Wasow
FELLOWS
Ellen Chesler
Judith Miller
RESIDENT SCHOLAR
David Callahan
FORMER TRUSTEES
Edward A. Filene
Newton D. Baker
HenryS. Dennison
Bruce Bliven
James G. McDonald
Max Lowenthal
Roscoe Pound
Owen D. Young
Henry Bruere
AdolfA. Berle,Jr.
Oswald W. Knauth
Morris E. Leeds
Francis Biddle
Robert H. Jackson
RobertS. Lynd
CharlesP. Taft
HarrisonTweed
PercyS. Brown
JohnH. Fahey
William A. White
William 1. Myers
W. W. Waymack
ChesterBowles
Robert M. LaFollette,Jr.
BenjaminV. Cohen
H. ChristianSonne
Paul H. Douglas
1919-1937
1919-1936
1919-1952
1922-1957
1922-1963
1924-1933
1924-1938
1929-1934
1932-1934
1934-1971
1935-1957
1935-1950
1937-1968
1937-1941
1937-1962
1937-1962
1937-1946
1938-1947
1938-1950
1938-1941
1941-1947
1942-1960
1947-1950
1947-1950
1948-1982
1948-1971
1950-1953
Paul G. Hoffman 1950-1953
David E. Lilienthal 1950-1981
RobertJ. Oppenheimer 1950-1967
HermanW. Steinkraus 1950-1971
Erwin D. Canham 1951-1982
Wallace K. Harrison 1951-1958
EdmundOrgill 1951-1960
James Rowe 1951-1982
EvansClark 1953-1970
ArthurF. Burns 1958-1981
J. Frederic Dewhurst 1960-1967
]. KennethGalbraith 1960-1973
James P. Mitchell 1960-1964
Georges- Henri Martin 1963-1992
Lawrence K. Miller 1963-1991
Jonathan B. Bingham 1964-1984
Luis Munoz- Marfn 1965-1970
PatriciaRoberts Harris 1969-1985
Robert M. Coles, M.D. 1971-1974
Michael Harrington 1971-1973
Vernon E. Jordan,Jr. 1971-1973
John Paul Austin 1974-1978
William D. Ruckelshaus 1974-1983
Jerry Wurf 1976-1981
Daniel]. Evans 1983-1985
AlbertShanker 1985-1990
Madeleine May Kunin 1991-1993
FO RMER TRUST EE." ---:0]
TWENTIETH CENTURY FuND. 75 YEARS
FORMER DIRECTORS
EvansClark 1928-1953
J. Frederic Dewhurst 1953-1956
AugustHeckscher 1956-1967
JohnE. Booth(acting) 1967
M. J. Rossant 1967-1988
Marcia Bystryn (acting) 1988-1989
Note: In 1991 theFundchanged thetitleofDirectortoPresident.
CURRENT PROJECTS
u.s. FORElGN POLlCY AND GLOBAL ECONOMlCS
Rethinking Europe's Future, David P. Calleo
America's Grand Strategy after the Cold War, Robert J. Art
America's Foreign Policy after the Cold War, Henry Nau
A New Foundation for U.S. PoliC)' , Michael Mandelbaum
Conventional Weapons Proliferation, William J. Durch
Controlling the Instruments of Chaos ; Arms Control in an Era of Disorder,
Michael Moodie
Defense Conversion, Jacques Gansler
The American Diplomatic Method, Monteagle Stearns
American Interest in a New World Order, Joseph S. Nye, Jr.
American Foreign Policy in the 1990s, Walter Mead
U.S. Policy toward Latin America, Henry Raymont
U.S. Foreign Policy and Ethnic Conflicts, David Callahan
Nationalism and the Democratization of Eastern Europe, Steven L. Burg
International Aspects of the War in Yugoslavia, Richard Ullman
Radical Islam and the Western Response, Emmanuel Sivan
Russia, Paper Series
Health and Environmental Degradation in Russia, Murray Feshbach
Reforming Russia's Health-Care System, David Powell
Converting Russia's Defense Industry, Kevin O'Prey
Russia's Labor Problems, Linda Cook
Task Force on Intelligence Policy
Immigrants in a World Economy, Saskia Sassen
The New International Economic Order, Sylvia Ostry
The Future of Capitalism, Leonard Silk
The Virtues and Limits of Markets, Robert Kuttner
Building Democracy in Latin America, Anita Isaacs
Brazil's "Second Chance," Lincoln Gordon
CURRENT PROJECTS
TWENTIETH CEN1 URY FUND. 75 YEARS
Papers on Inter-American Trade Issues and Working Group
African Hunger, Carl K. Eicher
Aid and Development in Sub-Saharan Africa, Carol J. Lancaster
The Origins and Effectiveness of u.s. Human Rights Policies,
Kathryn Sikkink
The United Nations and the Paralysis of Westem Diplomacy,
Rosemary Righter
Return to World Order: The United States and the Future of
Multilateralism, John Gerard Ruggie
ECONOMICS, FINANCE, AND GOVERNMENT REGULATION
The Fiscal Crisis and American Federalism, Paul E. Peterson
Leadership, Administration, and Culture in a Federal Bureaucracy,
John J. Dilulio, Jr.
Budgeting Entitlements: Caps and Costs in the Food Stamp Program,
Ronald King
Prospects of a Wealth Tax in the United States, Edward Wolff
AmeTican Energy Policy, Pietro Nivola and Robert W. Crandall
Task Force on Worker Retraining
Public Policy toward Pensions, John B. Shoven
Assessing Public School Achievement, Richard Rothstein
Achieving Quality and Equity in Higher Education, W. Lee Hansen and
Jacob o. Stampen
Public Authorities, Jameson W. Doig
Solid-Waste-Management Policy, Marian R. Chertow and Reid]. Lifset
The Economics of Privatization, Elliott Sclar
Regional Privatization, Paper Series
Privatization of New York City Social Services, Jack Krauskopf
Privatization of New York City's Hospital System, Charles Brecher
Privatization of Public Schools in the New York Metropolitan Area,
Robert Berne, Carol Ascher, and Norm Fruchter
URBAN AFFAIRS AND SOCIAL POLICY
The Future of Cities , Julia Vitullo-Martin
Equal Opportunity in Jobs and Business, Edited Volume
The Organization of Welfare: Dilemmas and Solutions, Joel Handler and
Yeheskel Hasenfeld
Old and Young in American Social Policy, Theda Skocpol
Race Relations in the Arm)': Lessons for American Society,
Charles C. Moskos and John S. Butler
Hope and Despair: The Economic Destiny of African Americans,
Thomas Boston
Race, Poverty, and Politics, Gordon A. Macinnes
Drugs and Poven)', William Grinker and Ann Sommers
Urban Poverty, Sam Roberts
Beyond Shelter: Public PoliC)' Strategies for America's Homeless,
Diane Baillargeon
Public PoliC)' and the Urban Poor, Kenneth T. Jackson
Incentive Zoning, Jerold S. Kayden
The New American Health-Care System, Donald W. Light
Aging 2000, Barbara Casey Ruffino and Marsha Fretwell
Changing Attitudes toward Access to Health Care, David J. Rothman
MEDIA, POLITlCS, AND THE LAW
Benjamin V. Cohen and the Spirit of the New Deal, William Lasser
Religion in a Pluralistic Democracy, Ronald F. Thiemann
Legislative Ethics, Alan Rosenthal
Task Force on Presidential Appointments
Science and the Courts, Sheila Sen Jasanoff
Complex Institutional Litigation, Charles M. Haar and Susan Haar
The Transition to a Global Information Economy, William Drake, editor
Concentration of Media Ownership , Paper Series
Task Force on Presidential Debates
Perspectives on the News, Paper Series
Electronic Democrac)', Lawrence K. Grossman
CURRENT PROJECTS 471
TWENTIETH CENTURY FUND . 75 YEARS
LIST OF PUBLICATIONS
1930
Financing the Consumer, Evans Clark
1931
American Foundations and Their Fi eids,
Twentieth Century Fund Research
Study
1932
Boycotts and Peace, Evans Clark, editor
1933
How to Budget Health, Evans Clark
The Internal Debts of the United States,
Evans Clark, editor
1934
Stock Market Control, Evans Clark,
Alfred L. Bernheim, J. Frederi c
Dewhurst, and Margaret Grant
Schneider, editors
1935
LabOT and the Government, Alfred L.
Bernhei m and Dorothy Van Doren,
editors
The Security Markets, Alfred L.
Bernheim and Margaret Grant
Schneider, editors
1936
The Townsend Crusade, Report of the
Twentieth Century Fund Old-Age
Security Committee
1937
Big Business, Alfred L. Bernheim and M.
J. Fields, editors
Facing the Tax Problem, Carl Shoup,
editor
How Profitable Is Big Business' Alfred L.
Bernheim and Estelle Shrifte, editors
More Securit)' fOT Old Age, Margaret
Grant Schneider
The National Debt and Government
Credit , Paul W. Stewart and Rufus S.
Tuckert, assisted by Carolyn Stetson
Studies in CUTTent Tax Problems , Carl
Shoup
1938
Debts and Recovery , 1929-1937, Albert
G. Hart
Next Steps FOTward: Taxation, Big
Business, Government Debt, Old-Age
Sec urity, Twenti eth Century Fund
Research Study
1939
A MemOTandum on the Problem of Big
Business , Twentieth Century Fund
Research Study
Does Distribution Cost Too Much! Paul
W. Stewart and J. Frederic Dewhurst,
ass isted by Lou ise Fie ld
1940
Housing for Defense, Miles L. Colean
1941
Labor and National Defense, Lloyd G.
Reynolds
Bw;iness Procedures: A Report of the Joint
Committee of the Twentieth Century Fund
and the Good Will Fund and Medical
Administration Services, Perry R. Taylor
Organization and Administration of Group
Medical Practice: A Report of the Joint
Committee of the Twentieth Century Fund
and the Good Will Fund and Medical
Administration Service s, Dean A. C lar k,
M.D., and Katherine G. Clark
1942
Postwar Planning in the United States: An
Organization Directory, George B.
Galloway
The Road We Are Traveling: 19 14-1 942,
Stuart Chase
How Collective Bargaining Works,
Research Staff, under the direction of
Harry Milli s
Goals for America: A Budget of Our
Needs and Resources , Stuan Chase
How w Organize Group Health Plans: A
Report of the Joint Committee of the
Twentieth Century Fund and the Good
Will Fund and Medical Administration
Services, Mart in W. Brown, Katherine
G. Clark, and Perry R. Taylor
1943
Wartime Facts and Postwar Problems,
Evans Clark, editor
Postwar Plans of the United Nations ,
Lewis L. Lorwin
Where's the Mone)' Coming From?
Problems of Postwar Finance, Stuart
Chase
1944
The Power Indw;try and the Public
Interest, Edward Eyre Hunt, editor
American How;ing, Miles L. Colean
1945
Democracy Under Pressure: Special
Interests vs. the Public Welfare, Stuart
C hase
Financing American Prosperity, Paul T.
Homan and Fritz Machlup, editors
Tomorrow 's Trade , Stuart C hase
Trends in Collective Bargainmg, S. T.
Williamson and Herbert Harris
1946
For This We Fought, Stuart Chase
Cartels in Action: Case Studies in
International Business Diplomacy, George
W. Stocking and Myron W. Watkins
1947
America's Needs and Resources, J.
Frederic Dewhurst and associates
Rebuilding the World Economy, Norman
S. Buchanan and Frederic A. Lutz
1948
Electric Power and Government Polic)"
Arthur R. Burns and Walter E. Caine
Can els or Competi tion ? The Economics of
International Controls b), Bw;iness and
Government , George W. Stocking and
Myron W. Watkins
Report on the Greeks, Frank Smothers,
William Hardy McNeill, and Elizabeth
Darbishire McNeill
liST OF PUBLICATIONS
TWENTIETH CENTURY FUND. 75 YEARS
1949
Partners in Production: A Basis for Labor-
Management Understanding, Labor
Committee of the Twentieth Century
Fund, assisted by Osgood Nichols
Labor and Management Look at Collective
Bargaining, W. S. Woytinsky and
associates
Turkey: An Economic Appraisal, Max
Weston Thornburg, Graham Spry, and
George Soule
U.S.A.: Measure of a Nation-A
Graphic Presentation of America's Needs
and Resources , Thomas Carskadon and
Rudolf Modley
Brazil: An Expanding Economy, George
Wythe, Royce A. Wight , and Harold
Midkiff
The Information Film: A Report of the
Public Library 1TUjuiry, Gloria Waldron,
assisted by Cecile Starr
1950
America's Capital Requirements: Estimates
for 1946-1960, Robert W. Hartley with
Eleanor Wolkind, assisted by Maynard
Hufschmidt and Sidney Jaffe
1951
Monopoly and Free Enterprise, George W.
Stocking and Myron W. Watkins
Defense Without Inflation, Albert G.
Hart
Financing Defense, Albert G. Hart and
E. Cary Brown, assisted by H.E
Rasmussen
ShoTt Selling on the New York Stock
Exchange, Fred Macaulay with David
Durand
1952
British Planning and Nati onalization, Ben
W. Lewis
Costa Rica: A Study in Economic
Development , Stacy May, Just Faaland,
Albert R. Koch, Howard L. Parsons, and
Clarence Senior
1953
The Federal Debt, Charles Cortez
Abbott
Farm Policies of the United States,
1750-1950 , Murray R. Benedict
Employment and Wages in the United
States, W. S. Woytinsky and associates
Defense and the Dollar, Albert G. Hart
Economic Controls and Defense, Donald
H. Wallace, with a chapter on "Basic
Problems and Policies" by John Maurice
C lark
Renewing Our Cities, Miles L. Colean
\X!orld Population and Production, W. S.
Woytinsky and E. S. Woytinsky
1954
Foreign Exchange in the Postwar World,
Raymond E Mikesell
Men, Wages, and Employment in the
Modem U.S. Economy, George Soule
1955
Approaches to Economic Development,
Norman S. Buchanan and Howard S.
Ellis
American Imports , Don D. Humphrey
Can We Solve the Farm Problem? An
Analysis of Federal Aid to Agriculture,
Murray R. Benedict
World Commerce and Governments, W.
S. Woytinsky and E. S. Woytinsky
1956
Economic Needs of Older People, John J.
Corson and John W. McConnell
The Agricultural Commodity Programs,
Murray R. Benedict and Oscar C. Stine
1957
Revolution a ['Ouest, Jean Fourastie and
Andre Laleuf
U.S.A. in New Dimensions: The Measure
and Promise of America's Resources,
Thomas R. Carskadon and George
Soule
Greece: American Aid in Action,
1947-1956, William Hardy McNeill
1958
Antitrust Policies, Simon N. Whitney
Arms and the State, Walter Mill is, with
Harvey C. Mansfield and Harold Stein
The Shape of Tomorrow, George Soule
1959
Honduras: A Problem in Economic
Development, Vincent Checchi and
associates
The Econom)', Liberty and the State,
Calvin B. Hoover
Pension Funds and Economic Power, Paul
P. Harbrecht, S.J.
1960
Europe's Coal and Steel Communit)" Louis
Lister
Tropical Africa, George H. T. Kimble
Food , Land, and Manpower in Western
Europe, P. Lamartine Yates
1961
Strategy and Arms Control, Thomas
Schelling and Morton H. Halperin
Arms Reduction, David H. Frisch, editor
Latin American Issues, Albert O.
Hirschman, editor
Europe's Needs and Resources, J. Frederic
Dewhurst , John O. Coppock, and P.
Lamartine Yates
1962
Megalopolis, Jean Gottman
Retailing in Europe , James B. Jeffreys and
Derek Knee
Yugoslavia and the New Communism,
George W. Hoffman and Fred Warner
Neal
Of Time , Work, and Leisure, Sebastian
de Grazia
Economic Development in Burma,
1951-1960, LouisJ. Walinsky
Shaping the World Economy, Jan
Tinbergen
1963
American Civil-Military Decisions,
Harold Stein, editor
To the Yalu and Back, Martin
Lichterman
The American Decision w Rearm
German)', Laurence W. Martin
Super Carriers and B-36 Bombers, Paul Y.
Hammond
Bases in Spain, Theodore J. Lowi
liST OF PUBLIC ATIONS ---s1l
TWENTIETH CENTURY FUND. 75 YEARS
Civilian Nuclear Power, Philip
Mullenbach
Journeys Toward Progress, Albert O.
Hirschman
Farms and Farmers in an Urban Age,
Edward Higbee
Norch Adarreic Policy - The Agricultural
Gap, John O. Coppock
1964
De Gaulle and the French Army, Edgar S.
Furn iss, Jr.
Economic Growth in the West, Angus
Maddison
The New Europe and Its Economic
Future , Arnold B. Barach
U.S.A. and Its Economic Future, Arnold
B. Barach
The Challenge of Megalopoli s, Wolf Von
Eckhardt, based on the original study of
Jean Gottman
1965
Pensions and Employee Mobility in the
Public Services, Harold Rubin
A Staciscical Handbook of the North
Atlantic Area, Bernard Mueller
Reapporcionment: The Law and Policies of
Equal Representation, Robert B. McKay
Power and Human Destiny , Herbert
Rosinski and Richard P. Stebbins,
editors
Distribution in a High -Level Economy,
Reavis Cox, in association with
Charles S. Goodman and Thomas C.
Fichandler
Canada , George W. Wilson, SCOtt
Gordon, Stanislaw Judek, and Albert
Breton
1966
Poverty Amid Affluence, Oscar Ornati
Legal Restraints on Racial Discrimination
in Employment, Michael!. Sovern
Performing Arts-The Economic
Dilemma, William]. Baumol and
William G. Bowen
Diplomacy in the West, Pierre Hassner
and John Newhouse
Tropical Africa Today, George H. T.
Kimble and Ronald Steel
1967
Crime and Publicity, Alfred Friendly and
Ronald L. Goldfarb
The Advancing South: Manpower
Prospects and Problems, James G.
Maddox, with E. E. Liebhafsky, Vivian
W. Henderson, and Herbert M. Hamlin
Israel and the Developing Countries,
Leopold Laufer
Collision in Brussels: The Crisis of 30 June
1965, John Newhouse
1968
Asian Drama, Gunnar Myrdal
Di/)Loma: Internacional Schools and
University Entrance, Martin Mayer
The Human Potencial, Papers given at a
series of meetings held at the Twentieth
Century Fund
1969
Leaning Against the Dawn: The Twentieth
Century Fund, 1919-1969, Adolf A.
Berle
Economic Growth in Japan and the USSR,
Angus Maddison
The Politics of Arms Control, Leonard
Beaton
Communicating by Satellite, First Report
of the Twentieth Century Fund Task
Force on Internati onal Satellite
Communication
Communicating by Satellite, Gordon L.
Wei!
Trade Policy in the 70's, Gordon L. Wei!
Voters' Time, Report of the Twentieth
Century Fund Commission on
Campaign Costs in the Electronic Era
1970
The Future of Satellite Communications,
Second Report of the Twentieth
Century Fund Task Force on
International Satellite Communication
Bricks, Mortar, and the Pe;fonning Arts,
Report of the Twentieth Century Fund
Task Force on Performing Arts Centers
Pickets at City Hall, Report of the
Twentieth Century Fund Task Force on
Labor Disputes in Public Employment
Electing Congress: The Financial
Dilemma, Report of the Twentieth
Century Task Force on Financing
Congressional Campaigns
A Question of Priorities: New Strategies
for Our Urbanized World, Edward
Higbee
The President's Commissions, Frank
Popper
Patterns of Political Participation in Italy,
Giorgio Galli and Alfonso Prandi
Mutual Funds and Other Institutional
Investors, Irwin Friend, Marshall Blume,
and Jean Crockett
The Alliance That Lost Its Wa)': A Critical
Report on the Alliam:e for Progress, Jerome
Levinson and Juan de Onis
1971
Planning for a Planet: An International
Discussion on the Structure of Satellite
Communications, Report of an
International Conference sponsored by
the Twentieth Century Fund and the
Carnegie Endowment for International
Peace
CDCs: New Hope for the Inner City,
Report of the Twentieth Century Fund
Task Force on Community
Development Corporations
The Job Crisis for Black Youth , Report of
the Twentieth Century Fund Task Force
on Employment Problems of Black
Youth
A Strategy for Caribbean Economic
Integration, Roland l. Perusse
The International Law of
Communications, Edward McWhinney,
editor
Shape of Community: Realization of
Human Potential, Serge Chermayeff and
Alexander T zonis
New Towns, Repon: of the Twentieth
Century Fund Task Force on Governance
of New Towns
Haiti: The Politics of Squalo-r, Robert l.
Rotberg, with Christopher K. Clague
The MiUtar)' Establishment, Adam
Yarmolinsky
From Peasant to Farmer, Raanan Weitz
1972
Asian Drama (abridged), Seth S. King
Youth in Politics, Sidney Hyman
The Paper Revolutionaries, Laurence
Leamer
What You Don't Know Can Hurt You,
Lester Markel
liST O F PuBLI CATlONS ----s3l
TWENTIETH CENTURY fuND . 75 YEARS
Parties: The Real Opportunity for Effective
Citizen Politics, John S. Saloma and Fred
H. Sontag
Constitutional Change, Clement E. Vase
The Big Foundations, Waldemar A.
Nielsen
Press Freedoms Under Pressure, Report of
the Twentieth Century Fund Task Force
on the Government and the Press
Global Communications in the Space Age,
Report of an International Conference
sponsored by the Twentieth Century
Fund and the John and Mary R. Markle
Foundation
Classified Files : The Yellowing Pages,
Carol M. Barker and Matthew H. Fox
1973
A Free and Responsive Press, Report of
the Twentieth Century Fund Task Force
for a National News Council
. .. A Nice Place to Live, Report of the
Twentieth Century Fund Task Force on
Prospects and Pri orities of New York
City
Americans in Southeast Asia, Russell H.
Fifield
The Urban Community and its Unioni zed
Bureaucracies, Sterling Spero and John
M. Capozzola
The Leaning IvOT)' Tower, Warren
Bennis, with Patricia Ward Biederman
Effects on Pe10rmance of a Cross-Media
Monopoly, Guido Stempel
The World of Fanzines, Frederic Wertham,
M.D.
Presidential Television, Newton N.
Minow, John Bartlow Martin, and Lee
M. Mitchell
1974
The Patient as Consumer: Health Care
Financing in the United States, John
Krizay and Andrew Wilson
Planning and Budgeting in Poor Countries,
Naomi Caiden and Aaron Wildavsky
Families of Eden: Communes and the New
Anarchism, Judson Jerome
The Rating Game, Report of the
Twentieth Century Fund Task Force on
Municipal Bond Credit Ratings
Openly Arrived At, Report of the
Twentieth Century Fund Task Force on
Broadcasting and the Legislature
Easy Mone y, Report of the Twentieth
Century Fund and the Fund for the City
of New York Task Force on Legalized
Gambling
Those Who SeTved, Report of the
Twentieth Century Fund Task Force on
Policies Toward Veterans
Energ)', S. David Freeman
1975
jails, Ronald Goldfarb
The New Yorkers, Andrew Hacker
Strategies for Change in the South,
Thomas H . Naylor and James Clotfelter
Political Money: A Strategy for Campaign
Financing in America, David W.
Adamany and George E. Agree
American Trade Policy, Gordon L. Weil
Conflicts of Interest: Corporate Pension
Fund Asset Management , John Brooks
Conflicts of Interest: Commercial Bank
Trust Departments, Edward S. Herman
Conflicts of!nteres t: Broker-Dealer Firms,
Martin Mayer
Exploitation From 9 to 5, Report of the
Twentieth Century Fund Task Force on
Women and Employment
Funds for the Future, Report of the
Twentieth Century Fund Task Force on
College and Universiry Endowment Policy
Paying for Energy, Report of the
Twentieth Century Fund Task Force on
the International Oil Crisis
1976
Rights in Conflict, Report of the Twentieth
Century Fund Task Force on Just ice,
Publicity, and the First Amendment
Fair and Certain Punishment, Report of
the Twentierh Century Fund Task Force
on Criminal Sentencing
Law Enforcement, Report of the
Twentieth Century Fund Task Force on
the Law Enforcement Assistance
Administration
Building a Broader Market, Report of the
Twentieth Century Fund Task Force On
the Municipal Bond Market
The New Presidential Elite, Jeane
Kirkpatrick
Conflicts of Interest: State and Local
Pension Fund Asset Management , Lou is
M. Kohlmeier
Conflicts of Interest: Investment Banking,
Nicholas Wolfson
The New Economics of Growth: A
Strategy for India and the Developing
World, John Mellor
Public Employee Pension Funds, Robert
Tilove
The Changing American Voter, Norman
H. Nie, Sidney Verba, and John R.
Petrocik
Social Limits to Growth, Fred Hirsch
1977
Providing for Energ)', Report of the
Twentieth Century Fund Task Force on
U.S. Energy Policy
Conflicts of Interest: Union Pension Fund
Asset Management, Richard Blodgett
Conflicts of Interest: Nonprofit
Institutions, Chris Welles
The Raised Curtain, Report of the
Twentieth Century Fund Task Force on
Soviet-American Scholarly and
Cultural Exchanges
Jury Selection Procedures, Jon M. Van Dyke
Top Secret: National Security and the
Right to Know, Morton H. Halperin and
Daniel N. Hoffman
Open Spaces: The Life of American Cities,
August Heckscher, with Phyllis
Robinson
Counsel for the Poor, Robert Hermann,
Eric Single, and John Boston
1978
The "Dollar Drain" and American Forces
in Germany, Gregory F. Treverton
Housing the Poor, Alexander Polikoff
Confronting Youth Crime, Report of the
Twentieth Century Fund Task Force on
Sentencing Policy Toward Young
Offenders
The Public's Business The Politics and
Practices of Government Corporations,
Annmarie Hauck Walsh
The Subsidized Muse: Public Support for
the Arts in the United States, Dick Netzer
State Policies and Federal Programs, Peter
Passell and Leonard Ross
U.S. Policy in the Caribbean, John
Bartlow Martin
LIST OF PUBLlCATIONS 551
TWENTIETH CENTURY FUND. 75 YEARS
Research and the Health of Americans,
Stephen P. Strickland
Winner Take All, Report of the
Twentieth Century Fund Task Force on
the Reform of the Presidential Election
Process
The Changing Role of the Individual
Investor, Marshall E. Blume and Irwin
Friend
Island China, Ralph N. Clough
A Free and Balanced Flow, Report of the
Twentieth Century Fund Task Force on
the International Flow of News
1979
The Art Museum, Karl E. Meyer
With the Narion Watching, Report of the
Twentieth Century Fund Task Force on
Televised Presidential Debates
New York-World City, Report of the
Twentieth Century Fund Task Force on
the Future of New York City
1980
Unloving Care: The NLlrsing Home
Tragedy, Bruce C. Vladeck
Abuse on Wall Street: Conflicts of Interest
in the Securiries Market, Roy A.
Schotland, editor
Quest for World Monetary Order, Mdton
Gilbert
Mulrinarionals in Larin America, Paul E.
Sigmund
Domestic Intelligence: Monitoring Dissent
in America, Richard E. Morgan
1981
Up Against Apartheid, Richard Pollack
The Polirics of Land-Use Reform, Frank J.
Popper
Corporate Control, Corporate Power,
Edward S. Herman
The Internarional Labor Organization,
Walter Galenson
Autos, Transits, and Cities, John R.
Meyer and Jose Gomez-Ibanez
The Role of Economic Advisors in
Developing Countries, Lauchlin Currie
1982
Reforming the Reforms: A Critical
Analysis of the Presidenrial Selecrion
Process , James W. Ceaser
Going By the Book: The Problem of
Regulatory Unreasonableness, Eugene
Bardach and Robert A. Kagan
Congressional Spending, Dennis S.
Ippolito
Controlling the Bomb, Lewis A. Dunn
Economic Development, Ian M. D. little
A Pole Apart: The Emerging Issue of
Antarc rica, Philip W. Quigg
Only Judgment: The Limits of Litigarion in
Social Change, Aryeh Neier
1983
Court Reform on Trial, Malcolm M.
Feeley
The Public Library in the 1980s,
Lawrence J. Whi te
Deficits and Detente, Report of an
International Conference on the
Balance of Trade in Comecon Countries
Making the Grade, Report of the
Twentieth Century Fund Task Force on
Federal Elementary and Secondary
Education Policy
Patrons Despite Themselves: Taxpayers
and Arts Policy, Alan L. Feld, Michael
O'Hare, and J. Mark Davidson Schuster
Cit), Mone y, Terry Nichols Clark and
Lorna Crowley Ferguson
The Atlantic Cit)' Gamble, George
Sternlieb and James w. Hughes
1984
What Price PACs! Report of the
Twentieth Century Fund Task Force on
Politi ca l Action Commi ttees
Beycnui Debate, Joel L. Swerdlow
The Democratic Muse: Visual Arcs and the
Public Interest, Edward C. Banfield
Excellence and Equity: The National
Endo-wment for the Humanities , Stephen
Miller
Science in the Screw, Report of the
Twentieth Century Fund Task Force on
the Communication of Scientifi c Risk
Next Steps for Summitry, Report of the
Internati onal Conference on Economic
Summitry
The Science Business, Report of the
Twentieth Century Fund Task Force on
the Commerci ali zation of Scientific
Research
Pensions: The Hidden Costs of Public
Safety, Robert M. Fogelson
Puerto Rico : A Colonial Experiment ,
Raymond Carr
The Debt of Nations, M. S. Mendelsohn
Affordable Housing, Kenneth T. Rosen
1985
The Cos ts of Default, Anatole Kaletsky
The American Ethos: Public Attitudes
Toward Capitalism and DemocraC)',
Herbert McCloskey and John Zaller
Spiked: The Short Life and Death of the
Nati onal News Council, Patrick Brogan
Quiet Broker! A Way Out of the Irish
Conflict , William V. Shannon
Battle Lines, Report of the Twenti eth
Century Fund Task Force on the
Military and the Media
Living Cities, Report of the Twent ieth
Century Fund Task Force on Urban
Preservation Policy
A World of Secre ts The Uses and
Limiwtions of Intelligence , Walter
Laqueur
1986
The African Burden, Rupert Pennant-
Rea
The International News Services ,
Jonathan Fenby
A Matter of Choice: A Critique of
Comparable Worth b)' a Skeptical
Feminist, Jennifer Roback
The Costa Rican Laboratory , Sol W.
Sanders
New Roads to Development, Raanan
Weitz
T he Brazilian Quandry, Marcilio
Marques Moreira
Treating Malpractice, Report of the
Twent iet h Century Fund Task Force on
Medical Malpractice Insurance
Too Man)' Promises: The Uncertain
Future of Social Security, Michael J.
Boskin
Stabilizing an Unstable Economy, Hyman
P. Minsky
Soc ial Security, W. Andrew Achenbaum
Judging the World Court, Thomas M.
Franck
Terrorist Spectaculars: Sho uld TV
Coverage Be Curbed ) Michael]. O'Neill
LiST OF PUBLICATIONS 571
158 TWENTIETH CENTURY FUND . 75 YEARS
Saving a Generation, Blanche Bernstein
A Two- Faced Press
l
Tom Goldstein
Who Owns the Corporation? Edward Jay
Epstein
American Trade Polirics, I.M . Destler
1987
The Mexican Time Bomb, Norman A .
Bailey and Richard Cohen
For Great Debates: A New Plan for
Future Presidential TV Debates, Newton
N. Minow and Clifford M. Sloan
Immuni zation Dice, Michael Brody
The Government's Managers, Report of
the Twentieth Century Fund Task Force
on the Senior Executive Service
Closed Borders: The Contemporary Assault
on Freedom of Movement, AIan Dowty
Nonfuel Minerals: Foreign Dependence
and National Security, Raymond F
Mikesell
A Mexican Response, Luis F Rubio and
Franci sco Gil-Diaz
Disabl.ed Policy, Edward D. Berkowitz
The Global Struggle for More: Third
World ConflictS with Rich Narions,
Bernard D. Nossiter
Leaking: Who Does It
l
Who Benefits ?At
What Cost
l
Elie Abel
Beyond American Hegemon)': The Future
of Western A Uiance , David P. Calleo
The Takeover Game, John Bwoks
1988
Communication, Development, and the
Third \Xlorld , Robert L. Stevenson
Science between the Superpowers, Yakov
M. Rabkin
Judicial Roul.et te , Report of the
Twenti eth Century Fund Task Force on
Judicial Selection
The New Unionism , Charles C.
Heckscher
A Heartbeat Awa)', Report of the
Twenti eth Century Fund Task Force on
the Vice Presidency
Undercover: Police Surveillance in
America, Gary T. Marx
Be yond Malice : The Media' s Year of
Reckoning, Richard Clurman
Latin American Debt, Pedro-Pablo
Kuczynski
A Proper Insriturion: Guaranteeing
Televised Presidenrial Debates, John B.
Anderson
Trading With Canada: The Canada-U.S .
Free Trade A"OTeement, Gilbert R.
Winham
A Call to Civic Service, Charles E.
Moskos
Serving America: ProspectS for the
Volunteer Force, Richard Halloran
Asian Polic)', Robert A. Manning
American Albatross: The Foreign Debt
Dil.emma, Robert D. Hormats
Starting Eve n: An Equal Opportunity
Program to Combat the Nation's New
Poverty , Robert Haveman
1989
Recruiring for Uncle Sam: Cirizenship and
Military Manpower Policy , David R.
Segal
Without Shelter, Peter Rossi
Direct Democracy: The Polirics of
Initiarive , Referendum, aM Recall ,
Thomas Cronin
The Peruvian Puzzle, Felipe Ortiz de
Zevall os
Governing the $5 Trillion Economy,
Herbert Stein
The Road ro Economic Recovery, Report
of the Twentieth Century Fund Task
Force on International Debt
Signals from the Hill: Congressional
Oversight and the Challenge of Social
Regulation, Christopher H. Foreman, Jr.
The Defense Procurement Mess, William
Gregory
Defending Canada: Us.-Canadian
Defense Policies, Joel J. Sokolsky
Advertising and the First Amendment,
Michael G. Gartner
Paying for Elections, Larry J. Sabato
Winning the Drug War, Mathea Falco
The New Fat Cats, Ross K. Baker
Crisis at the Front Line : The Effect of
AIDS on Public Hospiwls, Dennis P.
Andrulis
The Good judge, Report of the
Twentieth Century Fund Task Force on
Federal Judicial Responsibility
The Free Trade Debate, Reports of the
Twentieth Century Fund Task Force on
the Future of American Trade Policy
The Non-Profit Economy, Burton A.
Weisbrod
A Marriage o(Convenience: Relations
Between Mexi co and the United Swtes,
Sidney Weintraub
1990
Broken Promise: Why the Federal Election
Commission Failed, Brooks Jackson
The Democratic Revolution in Latin
America , Howard J. Wiarda
The Politics of National Security, Barry M.
Blechman
After the Wall: American Polic), Toward
German)', Elizabeth Pond
Voting Rights, Voting Wrongs: The Legacy
of Baker v. Carr, Bernard N. Grofman
1991
The Age of Behemoths: The Globalization
of Mass Media Firms, Anthony Smith
The Vanishing Nest Egg: Rej7ections on
Saving in America, B. Douglas Bernheim
The Critic, Power, and the Peljonning
Arts, John E. Booth
The Profi t Motive and Patient Care,
Bradford H. Gray
Of Walls and Bridges: The United SWteS
and Eastern Europe , Bennen Kovrig
Securing Europe, Richard H. Ullman
Partners in Prosperity, Report of the
Twentieth Century Fund Task Force on
the Internati onal Coordination of
National Economic Policies
The Future of Banking, James L. Pierce
Ocrobe'r Surprise: America's Hoswges in
Iran and the Election of Ronald Reagan,
Gary Sick
Refonn and Realit),: The Financing of
SWte and Local Campaigns, Herbert E.
Alexander
More Housing , More Fairly, Report of
the Twentieth Century Task Force on
Affordable Housing
1992
In the National Interest: The 1990 Urban
Summit, Ronald Berkman, Joyce F
Brown, Beverly Goldberg, and Tod
Mijanovich, editors
LIST OF PUBLlCATIONS 591
TWENTIETH C NTURY FUND. 75 YEARS
Imminent Peril: Public Health in a
Declining Economy, Kevin A. Cahill,
M.D., editor
Small Wars, Big Defense: Pa)'ing for the
Military After the Cold War, Murray
Weidenbaum
Losing Time: The Industrial PoliC)' Debate,
Otis L. Graham, Jr.
In the Shadow of the Debt: Emerging
Issues in Latin America , A Twentieth
Century Fund Volume
The Consequences of the Peace, James
Chace
Facing the Challenge, Report of the
Twentieth Century Fund Task Force on
School Governance
The Need to Know, Report of the
Twentieth Century Fund Task Force on
Covert Action and American
Democracy
Cardinal Choices: Presidential Science
Advising from the Atomic Bomb to SDI,
Gregg Herken
A Cold Peace : America, Japan, Germany,
and the Struggle for Supremacy, Jeffrey E.
Garten
The Green Cathedral: Sustainable
Development of Amazonia, Juan de Onis
Canada's Unity Crisis, Earl H. Fry
The New News v. The Old News : The
Press and Politics in the I990s, Essays by
Jay Rosen and Paul Taylor
Shady Business: Confroming Corporate
COlTuption, Irwin Ross
Who's Minding the Store
l
Report of the
Twentieth Century Fund Task Force on
Market Speculation and Corporate
Governance
1993
No Pain, No Gain: Taxes, Productivity,
and Economic Growth, Louis A. Ferleger
and Jay R. Mandie
Covering the World: International Television
News Services, Lewis A. Friedland
Integration with Mexico: Options for u.s.
Policy, Robert A. Pastor
Immigrants and the American Cit)"
Thomas Muller
Reinventing the Newspaper, Essays by
Frank Denton and Howard Kurtz
The United StateS and Democracy in
Chile, Paul E. Sigmund
Beyond the Wall: Germany's Road to
Unification, Elizabeth Pond
Deadlock or Decision: The U.S. Senate
and the Rise of National Politics, Fred R.
Harris
Rights At Work: Employment Relations in
the Post-Union Era, Richard C. Edwards
I-BOO -PRESIDENT, Report of the
Twentieth Century Fund Task Force on
Television and the Campaign of 1992
Trading Free: The GATT and U.S . Trade
Policy, Patrick Low
Quality Time
l
Report of the Twentieth
Century Fund Task Force on Public
Television
Turning Promises Into Performance: The
Management Challenge of Implementing
Workfare, Richard P. Nathan
The United Nations in the 19905, Max
Jakobson
At What Price? Libel Law and the
Freedom of the Press, Essays by Martin
London and Barbara Dill
Beyond Medicare: Achieving Long-Term
Care Security, Malvin Schechter
The Future of the Organization of
American States, Viron P. Vaky and
Heraldo Munoz
Beyond Charity: Intemational Cooperation
and the Global Refugee Crisis, Gil
Loescher
Cuba in Transition: Options for u.s.
Policy, Gillian Gunn
Paying for Presidents: Public Financing in
National Elections, Anthony Corrado
America's Water: Federal Roles and
Responsibilities , Peter Rogers
Patterns of Generosity in America: Who's
Holding the Safety Net' Julian Wolpert
The West and Eastem Europe: Economic
Statecraft and Political Change, Thomas
A. Baylis
1994
The Most Useful Gift: Altruism and the
Public Policy of Organ Transplants, Jeffrey
Prottas
Liberty and Sexuality: The Right to Privacy
and the Making of Roe v. Wade, David J.
Garrow
U. S. Policy and the Future of the United
Nations, Roger Coate, editor
The Beat Goes On: President ClintOn's
First Year with the Media, Tom
Rosensteil
Less Than Meets the Eye: Foreign Policy
Making and the Myth of the Assertive
Congress, Barbara Hinckley
Remembering the American Dream:
Hispanic Immigration and National Policy,
Robert Suro
Ending Europe's Wars: The Continuing
Search for Peace and Securit)', Jonathan
Dean
America's Mission: The United States
and the Worldwide Struggle for
Democracy in the Twentieth Century,
Tony Smith
Peacekeeping in Transition: The United
Nations in Cambodia, Janet Heininger
UtOpia Lost: The United Nations and
World Order, Rosemary Righter
LIST OF PUBLICATIONS 6Il
TWENTIETH CENT URY fuN D. 75 YEARS
NINETEEN NINETEEN
WHAT A YEAR
The president ofthe United States, known as aman oforatorical
skill, was unable to drum up supportfor his agenda.
Republicans, emboldenedb)1 recentgains in the House andSenate,
attackedhim atwill.
Immigrantswere increasingl)1 blamedfor manyofsociety's problems,
with popular movements forming to limit their number and their
freedom.
And, in the wake ofunprecedented developments affecting the
national pastime, even baseball became asource ofcynicism and
disillusion.
This was only the tip ofthe iceberg in 1919, a year offear, chaos,
scandal, and violence. Thehope that so many people felt when World
War I ended gave way to bitterness and despair. Indeed, in his USA
Trilogyaboutthedisenchantmentofthetimes,JohnDos Passos titledone
volume,simply, Nineteen Nineteen.
Wilson's DemocraticParty had lost boththeHouseand theSenate
inthemidtermelectionsof1918. FormerpresidentTheodoreRoosevelt,
a bitter foe ofWilson's, proclaimed, "... Mr. Wilson has no authority
whatevertospeakfor theAmericanpeopleatthis time."
AgainstWilson'swishes, thetreatywithGermanynegotiated in 1919
granted theAllies thetraditional"spoilsofwar," and theUnitedStates
succumbed to isolationist sentiment that helped doom the League of
Nations. For manyAmericans, a more troublingdevelopmentthan the
peace treaty was thegrowing prominence ofcommunism in the world.
With workers' rights inadequately recognized, the Communists' stated
goal ofendingexploitationappealed tomanyworkers.
Communism's "threat" was wildly exaggerated, but in the resulting
backlash, legitimate complaints about working conditions and social
issues often were attributed to Communist agitation. There was little
outcrywhenU.S.Steelstrikers in 1919were physicallyattacked. When
race riots in Chicago began with the stoningofa black youngster by
whitebeachgoers,blamefell onradicalsagitatinginblackcommunities.
The country's m<X>Cl at times verged on panic. Bomb scares were common.
Race riots erupted in twenty-six cities. Organizations sprang up dedicated to
deporting foreign-born workers, and the Ku Klux Klan was rekindled, ostensibly
to protect "American values" from immigrants, Jews, Catholics, and blacks.
The image of the wild-eyed foreign radical planting bombs, inciting
workers, and plarming revolution became the scapegoat for America's problems.
Despite President Wilson's reputation as a supporter of the liberties of average
people, some of the worst abuses were carried out in raids organized by Attorney
General A. Mitchell Palmer against suspected radicals. Immigrants were
deported, strikes were broken, and "revolutionaries" were jailed.
It was not the best of times in politics, but there was great optimism
about the economy. America was poised, in fact, to take off on the wild ride
that was known as the roaring twenties. The cost ofliving rose sharply. After
the war, a quart of milk went from 9 cents to 15 cents; a pound of sirloin steak
from 27 cents to 42 cents; fresh eggs to 62 cents a dozen from 34 cents.
Ford sold more than three-quarters of a million cars that year, mostly
its Model T, which cost about $500. There were almost seven million
cars on the road, and one of three was a Model T.
Entertainment and sports boomed too. Charlie Chaplin, D.W.
Griffith, Mary Pickford, and Douglas Fairbanks began a film company
called United Artists. People flocked to see Gloria Swanson in Cecil B.
DeMille's Male & Female , as Americans spent $800 million on movie
admissions in 1919. Jack Dempsey, world heavyweight boxing champion,
knocked down former champion Jess Willard seven times in three minutes
to keep his title. A new music called "jazz" was being discovered, and
musicians with names like Jelly Roll Morton and Mutt Carey popularized
it across the country.
Then there was baseball. In the 1919 World Series, the Chicago
White Sox were favored to beat the Cincinnati Reds, but the Reds won
in five games. It was no surprise to the gamblers who had bribed White
Sox players to throw the Series.
The fixing of the World Series had a profound effect on the
American psyche. For many who already had lost faith in the ideals for
which the war had been fought, the corruption of baseball meant that no
one could be trusted-not politicians, athletes , or even the guy across
the street, who, after all, might be a Communist.
In this environment, Edward A. Filene endowed a foundation
dedicated to progressive ideals. There was much to be done. There is still
much to be done.
NINETEEN NINETEEN 631