LECTURE 1

CELLS AND ORGANELLES

BIOSCI 101: Cellular and Molecular Biology

Cell Biology
Cell Biology as a science began with the development of microscopy
1665 - Robert Hooke published Micrographica 1674 - Anton van Leeuwenhoek improved the art of polishing lenses 1838 - Schleiden and Schwann proposed the Cell Doctrine 1858 - Rudolph Virchow established the notion that every cell derives from a pre-existing cell 1864 - Pasteur disproved p the theory y of spontaneous p generation

By the beginning of the 20th century it was firmly established that all living things are composed of one or more units called cells
BIOSCI 101: Cellular and Molecular Biology

The diversity of cell size

Units 1 1 1 1 1 of measurement used in microscopy: cm = 10-2 m mm = 10-3 m m = 10-6 m so 1mm = 103 m nm = 10-9 m = 10-10 m so 1 nm = 10

- range in cell size and shape is enormous - this represents evolutionary adaptation to different environments or to different specialised functions within a multicellular organism
BIOSCI 101: Cellular and Molecular Biology

The diversity of cell size

Campbell 6.2
BIOSCI 101: Cellular and Molecular Biology

Microscopy
resolving power is a measure of the capacity to distinguish g objects j from one another ( (a function of the wavelength of energy being used to illuminate the specimen) magnification is enlargement of an image

BIOSCI 101: Cellular and Molecular Biology

Microscopy (contd)
i) Light microscopy - the limit of resolution for the light microscope is ~ 0.25 m (~500x better than the naked eye) - useful for the observation of whole cells and larger subcellular structures (nucleus, chromosomes) - subcellular structures can now be studied using techniques such as confocal microscopy

BIOSCI 101: Cellular and Molecular Biology

Light microscope

Campbell Appendix D

BIOSCI 101: Cellular and Molecular Biology

Brightfield (unstained specimen)

Brightfield (stained specimen)

Confocal

Fluorescence
BIOSCI 101: Cellular and Molecular Biology

Campbell 6.3

Microscopy (contd)
ii)Transmission electron microscopy - utilises a beam of electrons - a form of radiation with a shorter wavelength - resolution is at the level of 0.1 - 0.5 nm so 1000x better than the light microscope and 500,000x better than the naked eye - useful f l for f images i of f small ll subcellular b ll l structures, proteins and nucleic acids

BIOSCI 101: Cellular and Molecular Biology

Electron microscope

Campbell Appendix D

BIOSCI 101: Cellular and Molecular Biology

Microscopy (contd)
iii) Scanning electron microscopy - a beam of electrons is passed across the specimen and an image is composed from the electrons which are deflected back from the surface of the specimen - resolving l i power is i only l about b t 10 nm but b t this thi technique provides excellent 3D representations of cells and their structures

BIOSCI 101: Cellular and Molecular Biology

Transmission vs scanning electron microscopy

Longitudinal section Cross section of cilium of cilium Cilia

2 m
Transmission electron microscopy (TEM) Scanning electron microscopy (SEM)

2 m

Campbell 6.3

BIOSCI 101: Cellular and Molecular Biology

Prokaryotic cells (Bacteria and Archaea)

contain DNA but not in an organised nucleus little or no internal structure - no organelles large number of ribosomes cell wall composed of peptidoglycan tid l flagella if motile, also may have pili for attachment to surfaces or to other bacteria
BIOSCI 101: Cellular and Molecular Biology

A prokaryotic cell

Campbell 6.5

BIOSCI 101: Cellular and Molecular Biology

Many prokaryotes are motile

Flagellum

Filament Hook Motor

Cell wall

Plasma membrane

Rod

Peptidoglycan layer
BIOSCI 101: Cellular and Molecular Biology

(Campbell 27.6)

Eukaryotic cells (Protists, Fungae, Plants and Animals)

have a nucleus which contains most of the cell cells s DNA enclosed by a double layer of membrane differences between plant and animal cells:PLANT CELLS cellulose cell wall vacuoles chloroplasts ANIMAL CELLS no cell wall unusual or small no chloroplasts
BIOSCI 101: Cellular and Molecular Biology

Overview of an animal cell

Campbell 6.8

BIOSCI 101: Cellular and Molecular Biology

Overview of a plant cell

Campbell 6.8

BIOSCI 101: Cellular and Molecular Biology

Cell Organelles
i) The nucleus - bounded by nuclear envelope which consists of two membranes. - membranes fuse together periodically to form pores through which material can pass into and out of the nucleus. - contains t i DNA ( (nuclear l contents t t termed t d nucleoplasm)

BIOSCI 101: Cellular and Molecular Biology

The nucleus and its envelope

Campbell 6.9

BIOSCI 101: Cellular and Molecular Biology

10

Cell Organelles (contd)

i) The nucleus (contd) - Chromatin - DNA / histone protein complex when it is amorphous and not condensed into visible fibres (non-dividing interphase cells) - Chromosomes - condensed chromatin fibres visible during cell division - Nucleolus - dense body usually only visible within nucleus between cell divisions and concerned with the synthesis of ribosomal RNA
BIOSCI 101: Cellular and Molecular Biology

Cell Organelles (contd)

ii) Endoplasmic reticulum and ribosomes - interconnecting network of membranes in the cytoplasm continuous with the outer membrane of the nuclear envelope - Rough ER - flattened sheets of ER membrane studded with ribosomes making proteins destined for secretion (non-secretory proteins are synthesised on ribosomes that are free in the cytoplasm) - Smooth ER - generally more tubular, lacks attached ribosomes, major function in synthesis and transport of lipids, Ca2+ storage, detoxification of drugs and poisons
BIOSCI 101: Cellular and Molecular Biology

11

Ribosomes and the endoplasmic reticulum

Campbell 6.11
BIOSCI 101: Cellular and Molecular Biology

Cell Organelles (contd)

iii) The Golgi apparatus - flattened stack of membranous saccules - involved in modifying, sorting and packaging macromolecules for secretion from the cell or for delivery to other organelles via membrane vesicles iv) Lysosomes - intracellular vesicles which contain hydrolytic enzymes safely packaged away from the rest of the cell. - concerned with the breakdown of materials brought into the cell and recycling of damaged organelles
BIOSCI 101: Cellular and Molecular Biology

12

The Golgi apparatus

Campbell 6.12

BIOSCI 101: Cellular and Molecular Biology

Lysosomes

Campbell 6.13

BIOSCI 101: Cellular and Molecular Biology

13

Relationships among organelles of the endomembrane system

Campbell 6.15

BIOSCI 101: Cellular and Molecular Biology

Cell Organelles
vi) Mitochondria - power plant of eukaryotic cells where energy g oxygen yg with food is obtained from combining molecules to make ATP - large cylindrical shaped bodies about 1 um in diameter. - bounded by a double membrane, inner part of which is thrown into folds (cristae) which are the working surfaces for mitochondrial reactions reactions.

BIOSCI 101: Cellular and Molecular Biology

14

Cell Organelles
vi) Mitochondria (contd) - associated with the membranes are the many enzymes of the respiratory chain involved in the generation of ATP via glycolysis and the Krebs cycle. - also contain their own ribosomes and DNA thus they are capable of synthesising some of their own components (coding system differs in some respects in mitochondrial DNA). DNA)

BIOSCI 101: Cellular and Molecular Biology

The mitochondrion

Campbell 6.17

BIOSCI 101: Cellular and Molecular Biology

15

Cell Organelles (contd)

vii) Plastids - leucoplasts (storage), chromoplasts (pigments) or chloroplasts (photosynthesis), found only in plants and algae - chloroplasts are bounded by an outer and an inner membrane and also have a third internal membrane system known as the thylakoids that contains the photosynthetic apparatus. - chloroplasts also contain DNA and ribosomes.

BIOSCI 101: Cellular and Molecular Biology

The chloroplast

Campbell 6.18

BIOSCI 101: Cellular and Molecular Biology

16

Cell Organelles (contd)

viii) The cytoskeleton - interconnecting protein structures within the cytoplasm - maintains the shape of the cell and provides a basis for its movements - three different types of cytoskeletal filaments: microtubules, microfilaments and intermediate filaments

BIOSCI 101: Cellular and Molecular Biology

Cytoskeletal filaments

Campbell Table 6.1

BIOSCI 101: Cellular and Molecular Biology

17

Cytoskeletal filaments

Campbell Table 6.1

BIOSCI 101: Cellular and Molecular Biology

Motor molecules and the cytoskeleton

Campbell 6.21

BIOSCI 101: Cellular and Molecular Biology

18

Cell Organelles (contd)

ix) Cilia and flagellae - permanent structures used for locomotion - many short ones = cilia, fewer long ones = flagellae - 9 pairs of microtubules surrounding two central tubules, all enclosed by an extension of the plasma l membrane b - movement thought to be caused by each outer pair of microtubules moving with respect to its nearest neighbour
BIOSCI 101: Cellular and Molecular Biology

Cilia and flagellae

Campbell 6.24

BIOSCI 101: Cellular and Molecular Biology

19

Extension reading:
http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v465/n7297/pdf/4 65422a.pdf

Life after the synthetic cell

BIOSCI 101: Cellular and Molecular Biology

20