Biology 11 Reviewer 2nd Long Exam Roots Germination o Epigeal cotyledons and shoot apex emerge while hypocotyl

yl elongates o Hypogeal cotyledons remain within testa and hypocotyl elongates only slightly or not at all Types of root system o Taproot system o Fibrous root system o Adventitious roots (cassava, sweet potato)

pericycle origin of phloem and xylem xylem differentiation in primary roots o from periphery inwards (centripetal) o exarch protoxylem first before metaxylem

Casparian strips o in endodermis o impermeable to small molecules to prevent diffusion of ions from the apoplast within the vascular column Lateral root primordial o continue to develop and grow out through the cortex and ruptures through the epidermis o becomes a fully developed root by the time it emerges

As cells enlarge, they begin to show 1. differences in wall thickening 2. cell shape, cell contents 3. differences in activity and function Rates of pattern formation o rapidly-growing seedlings (corn or pea) fully matured primary tissues 10-15 mm behind the tip. o slow-growing roots mature tissues may be found within a few mm of the apex

Secondary growth o occurs when cells in the residual procambium and later parts of the pericycle begin to make periclinal divisions.

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Only the pericyle cells opposite the xylem points start to make periclinal divisions. inner layer: vascular cambium. outer layer: pericycle.

Formation of vascular cambium o Layers (from outermost): Cortex secondary phloem vascular cambium secondary xylem Formation of periderm o periderm replaces the epidermis. o develops from the activity of the phellogen or cork cambium NOTE: cork cambium originates from the division of the pericyle

Stems Leaves can drop off, leaving a scar but there will still be a bud or shoot into which it has developed As shoot apex grows, older leaf primordia are left behind. New primordia are continuously borne above existing ones

Primary tissues in the stem o Origin: protoderm, procambium and ground meristem Epidermis; ordinary epidermal cells, guard cells, idioblasts, trichomes Cortex: parenchyma, collenchyma may be continuous or separated strips). In others may contain sclereids, secretory cells, laticifers. Endodermis: conspicuous in stems of lower vascular plants` Primary vascular system

o Specialized stems o Rhizomes horizontally growing o Bulbs vertically-growing underground roots with fleshy leaves and short stem o Stolons horizontally growing with plantlets along nodes o Tubers enlarged tips of rhizomes o Runners in grasses; horizontal when these branches touch the soil they produce adventitious roots. o Taro (gabi) corm vertically growing enlarged stem Primary growth o Apical meristem -> Primary meristem Protoderm -> epidermis Procambium -> stele, vascular cambium Ground -> cortex

In gymnosperms and dicotyledons it is a continuous or split cylinder. If split, each strand is called vascular bundle. Collateral bundle: phloem is external to xylem Bicollateral bundle: phloem on the inner side of xylem. Vascular cambium - a cylinder of meristematic cells that forms secondary vascular tissue. o The accumulation of this tissue increases the diameter of a woody plant. o Secondary xylem - forms to the interior o Secondary phloem forms to the exterior of the VC

NOTE: trees do not need a heartwood to survive In temperate countries: o Activity of the cambium is commonly periodic. The xylem produced during one

growth period constitutes a growth layer (growth or annual rings). Parts of the periderm o Phellogen cork cambium, a lateral meristem arise from epidermis, cortex or phloem o phellem in compact rows with no intercellular spaces Primary wall with cellulose, sometimes with lignin or suberin Suberin layer is impermeable to water and gases and can resist action of acids. Are dead cells o Phelloderm living cells with non-suberized walls may store starch, in others contain chloroplasts and photosynthetic Sclereids may be present.

first cork cambium may form as epidermal cells o Inner cells cork cambium o Outer cells cork Lenticel- protrude above surrounding periderm because of bigger size and loose arrangement of the cells

Leaves Primary growth of shoots o As shoot apex grows, older leaf primordia are left behind. o New primordia are continuously borne above existing ones. o In angiosperms specially, as young primordium develops from SAM, preparations are under way for emergence of the next primordium Types of leaves o Palmately compound leaf o Pinnately compound leaf (rachis, leaflets) o Simple leaf - blade consists of only one piece o Parallel monocotyledon leaf (blade, auricle, sheath) Gymnosperm (pine leaf) o Epidermis- heavily cuticularized & with thick walls o Hypodermis (beneath epidermis) fiberlike cells with thick walls. o Lobed mesophyll cells o Resin ducts o Sunken stomata o Transfusion tissue Dicots o Netted venation o palisade layer occurs adaxially (upper), spongy layer occurs abaxially (underside)

NOTE: Isobilateral leaf- A leaf in which the palisade parenchyma occurs adaxially and abaxially beneath the epidermis of the leaf Monocot o o

Bundle sheath or border parenchyma Bulliform cells thin-walled, highly vacuolated water-containing cells Rapid expansion of leaf: expansion tissues Changes in turgor in opening/closing of leaves: motor cells Modified leaves o Spines o Storage leaves o Reproductive leaves o Bracts Bougainvillea colored bracts (get their color from betalains) Flowers o Pigments present are called betalains o Betalains and anthocyanins are water-soluble pigments found in the vacuoles of plant cells

o Betalains contain nitrogen o Anthocyanins no nitrogen Tendrils (cadena de amor, grape, pisum) o is a specialized stem, leaf or petiole with a threadlike shape that is used by climbing plants for support and attachment, generally by twining around whatever it touches. o Can photosynthesize o Can be formed from modified shoots, modified leaves Nepenthes o An epiascidiate leaf o If meristematic activity continues the lamina can become funnel-shaped forming a container FROM EXERCISE 7: o Phyllotaxy system of leaf arrangement on the stem Alternate or spiral one leaf per node Opposite two leaves per node Whorled three or more leaves per node o Blade/Lamina thin, flattened, green structure o Petiole holds the blade upright Petiolules stalk of each leaflet o Stipules outgrowths in pairs found at the base of some dicot leaves Stipulate and exstipulate Stipels outgrowths in pairs at the base of the petiolule Venation o Netted veins branch profusely and form a network over the blade (dicot except plantain) o Parallel veins do not form a network (monocot except gabi and ube) Internal structure of leaves o Epidermis outermost layer, with cuticle, with stomata and guard cells, more stomata on lower epidermis than upper epidermis o Mesophyll photosynthetic parenchymatous region between upper and lower epidermis o Palisade layer elongated and closely arranged (perpendicular to upper epidermis) o Spongy layer loosely arranged and irregularly-shaped (for gas exchange) o Vascular tissues form vascular bundles in leaves Border parenchyma thin-walled cells Bundle sheath thick-walled cells o Bulliform cells large thin-walled cells in monocot for rolling in of leaves

Border parenchyma (thin-walled cells in dicots) Bundle sheath (thick-walled cells) Transpiration o Evaporation of water from from aerial parts of the plant Stomatal transpiration Cuticular transpiration Lenticular transpiration o Factors Light intensity* Wind velocity * Temperature Humidity Soil Water Supply Guttation o Secretion of water to the surface of leaves through specialized pores called HYDATHODES

Pine needle After boiling, only sclerenchyma and vascular tissues remain (petiole, leaf veins, and midrib) Leaf o Epidermis Cuticle Stomata and guard cells Bulliform cells in monocots o Mesophyll Palisade layer Spongy layer Vascular tissues