Simulescu Student Workbook VOL1 PDF

TECHNICAL UNIVERSITY OF CIVIL ENGINEERING
Mechanics of Materials
Student Workbook
-Volume I-

Eng. Ion S. Simulescu, MPh, PhD, PE
Associate Professor

and

Eng. Cristian Ghindea
Assistant Professor

Bucharest 2004
- I -
PREFACE

The present textbook is the first volume from a series of textbooks, titled Mechanics
of Materials Student Workbook, intended to familiarize the students enrolled in the
first semester of their sophomore year at the Technical University of Bucharest,
School of Civil Engineering, with the practical application of the theoretical concepts
developed during the weekly lectures. This textbook has in fact a complementary role
to the more theoretically orientated textbook published under the name of Lectures in
Mechanics of Materials, volume I.

A number of four chapters are covered in the textbook. Briefly, the organization is as
follows: Chapter 1 - Stress-Strain Diagram and Material Properties; Chapter 2 -
Geometrical Characteristics of the Beam Cross-Section; Chapter 3 - Equilibrium of
the Plane Linear Member and Chapter 4 - Axial Deformation. Each chapter starts with
a theoretical section, named Theoretical Background, where the most important
theoretical aspects are succinctly discussed. This section is followed by the Solved
Problems section which contains a number of representative solved problems. Finally,
the last section is the Proposed Problems section where a relatively large number of
problems are proposed to the student for private exercise.

With the intent to increase the student appetite towards using the modern capability of
the numerical computer, the problems contained in the Solved Problems sections are
solved using the MATHCAD software capabilities in parallel to the more classical
method of the manual calculation. The first two chapters have a number of appendices
attached. These appendices contain important engineering data necessary in solving
some of the proposed problems.

It is our pleasure to acknowledge the help that we received during the preparation of
this textbook from our younger colleague Eng. George Vezeanu.

Finally, the authors express their sincere gratitude to Prof. Dr. Eng. Dan Cretu, the
Chairman of the Strength of Material Department, for his encouragements and support
in the realization of this textbook.

Dr. Eng Ion S. Simulescu
Eng. Cristian Ghindea

Bucharest, Romania.
November, 2004.

- II -
TABLE OF CONTENTS

Chapter 1 Stress-Strain Diagrams and Material Properties 1

1.1 Theoretical Background
1.1.1 Tension Static Test
1.1.2 Material Behavior
1.1.3 Linear Elasticity, Hooks Law and Poissons Ratio
1.2 Solved Problems
1.3 Proposed Problems

Appendix 1.1 Modulus of Elasticity and Poissons Ratio
Appendix 1.2 Yield and Ultimate Stress

Chapter 2 Geometrical Characteristics of the Beam
Cross-Section 40

2.2 Solved Problems

Appendix 2.1 Geometrical Characteristics of Plane Areas
Appendix 2.2 Properties of the Romanian Rolled Shaped Sections
Appendix 2.3 Properties of the U.S.A Rolled Shaped Sections

Chapter 3 Equilibrium of the Plane Linear Members 118

3.1.1 Type of Loads, Supports and Reactions
3.1.2 Cross-Sectional Internal Resultants
3.1.3 Types of Statically Determinate Beams
3.1.4 Method 1 - Calculation of the Internal Resultants Using Method of
Sections
3.1.5 Method 2 - Differential Relations between Loads and Cross-
Section Internal Resultants
3.2 Solved Problems

- III -
Chapter 4 Axial Deformation 154

4.1.1 Basic Theory of Axial Deformation
4.1.2 Uniform-Axial Deformation
4.1.3 Nonuniform-Axial Deformation
4.2 Solved Problems

References 201
- 1 -
CHAPTER 1 Stress-Strain Diagrams and
Material Properties

1.1. Theoretical Background

1.1.1 Tension Static Test

- Theoretical Stress-Strain Diagram for Structural Steel

The test is conducted by subjecting a specimen made of structural steel to a
monotonically increasing loading. The specimen is schematically depicted in Figure
1.1.1 During the test a series of pairs (P*,d*) are collected and tabulated.
Consequently, the normal stress
*
o and the corresponding axial strain
*
c are
calculated as:

0
*
*
A
P
= o (1.1)

0
*
0
0
*
*
L
L
L
L L A
=
= c (1.2)
where
4
*
2
0
0
d
A
t
= is the initial area of the specimen and
*
L A is the current
elongation.

Figure 1.1.1

The normal stress
*
o and axial strain
*
c calculated using the formulae (1.1) and (1.2)
are called engineering stress and engineering stain, respectively. If the normal stress
and the normal strain are calculated using the value of the measurements at the
particular moment the normal stress and the corresponding axial strain are called true
stress and true strain, respectively. They are calculated as:

true
true
A
P
*
*
= o (1.3)
- 2 -
) 1 ln( ) 1 ln( ) ln(
*
0 0
*
*
c c + =
A
+ = =
L
L
L
L
true
(1.4)

Figure 1.1.2

The typical tensile stress-strain diagram for structural steel behavior is shown in
Figure 1.1.2. This stress-strain diagram plotted in the co plan is characterized by a
number of defining points:

Point A (c
PL
,o
PL
) - where o
PL
is the proportional limit;
Point B (c
Y
,o
Y
) - where o
Y
is the yielding point;
Point C (c
EY
,o
EY
) - where o
EY
is the end stress of the perfect plastic region;
Point D (c
U
,o
U
) - where o
U
is the ultimate stress;
Point E (c
F
,o
F
) - where o
F
is the fracture stress;
Point E (c
F
,o
F
) - where o
F
is the true fracture stress.

The true stress-strain diagram is plotted with a dashed line above the engineering
stress-strain diagram.

For some materials (i.e. aluminum), which do not have after the proportional limit
point a perfect plasticity region, the yield point is not easily identify and,
consequently, it is determined using a method called the offset method. A straight
line parallel to the initial linear part of the stress-strain diagram and passing through
002 . 0 = c is drawn. The construction is shown in Figure 1.1.3. The point A is located
at the intersection between the stress-strain diagram and the parallel line. The stress
corresponding to point A is called offset yield stress and is used instead of the yield
stress.
- 3 -

Figure 1.1.3

1.1.2 Material Behavior

- Non-Linear Elastic Behavior

Figure 1.1.4

The non-linear elastic behavior is characterized by a one-to-one correspondence
between the stress and the strain. During loading or unloading for a given value of o
always corresponds the same value of c . Mathematically this can be expressed as:

) (c o f = (1.5)

- 4 -
- Non-Linear Elasto-Plastic Behavior

Figure 1.1.5

The elasto-plastic behavior is characterized by a different behavior during loading and
unloading phases. During the unloading phase the material behaves elastically.
Consequently, even when the load is completely removed a residual strain remains.

Figure 1.1.6

An idealized elasto-plastic behavior typical for structural steel is the Prandthls curve
shown in Figure 1.1.6. This curve represents a material with an elastic-perfect plastic
behavior.

- 5 -
- Ductile and Brittle Materials

A material is ductile if can undergo large plastic strain before fracture. In contrast, a
material which fails at small strain in classified as brittle. The difference between the
behavior of a ductile and brittle material is schematically pictured in Figure 1.1.7.

Figure 1.1.7

The ductility of a material in tension is characterized by its elongation and reduction
of the area at the cross-section where the failure occurs. The percentage elongation is
defined as:

100 * _
0
0
L
L L
elongation percentage
failure

= (1.6)

where
0
L and
failure
L are the original and failure gage lengths, respectively.

The percentage reduction in area is obtained as:

100 * _ _
0
0
A
A A
area reduction percentage
failure
= (1.7)

where
0
A and
failure
A are the original and failure areas, respectively.

1.1.3 Linear Elasticity, Hooks Law and Poissons Ratio

A bar is loaded in tension, as shown in Figure 1.1.8.b, the axial elongation is
accompanied by lateral contraction.

- 6 -

Figure 1.1.8

The structural steel axially loaded under the proportionality limit
PL
o behaves
linearly elastic. Mathematically, the relation between the stress and strain is
expressed by the Hooks Law:

c o * E = if
PL
o o s (1.8)

where E is the modulus of elasticity.

The lateral strain
lateral
c is proportional with the longitudinal strain c . The relation is:

c v c * =
lateral
(1.9)

where v is the Poissons ratio.

Consequently, the elastic behavior of a material is characterized by two material
constants: the modulus of elasticity, E, and the Poissons ratio, v .

1.2 Solved Problems

Problem 1.2.1- Strain Measurements

A mechanical extensometer uses the lever principle to magnify the elongation of a test
specimen enough to make the elongation (or contraction) readable. The extensometer
shown in Figure 1.2.1 is held against the test specimen by a spring that forces two
sharp points against the specimen at A and B. The pointer AD pivots about a pin at C,
so that distance between the contact points at A and B is exactly La = 15 cm (the gage
length) of this extensometer when the pointer points to the origin, O, on the scale. In a
particular test, the extensometer arm points "precisely" at point O when the load P is
zero. Later in the test, the 25.5 cm long pointer points a distance d = 0.30 cm below
point O. What is the current extensional strain in the test specimen at this reading?

A. General Observations

The body of the extensometer is considered rigid in comparison to the specimen
subjected to deformation. Consequently, the distance BC remains unaffected by the
deformation of the specimen. This finding implies that during the elongation only the
point A can move from A to A*.

- 7 -

Figure 1.2.1

B. Calculations

The distance AA* represents the current elongation
*
L A . Using the geometrical ratio:

4 . 25 54 . 2
*
d L
=
A

the current elongation
*
L A is obtained:

cm 03 . 0
4 . 25
54 . 2 30 . 0
54 . 2
4 . 25
*
=
= = A
d
L

The strain is calculated as:

002 . 0
24 . 15
03 . 0
0
*
~ =
A
=
L
L
c

Problem 1.2.2- Stress-Strain Diagram

The tension specimen, shown in Figure 1.2.2.a, with an initial diameter d
0
=12 mm and
a gage length L
0
= 50 mm is used to obtain the load-elongation data contained in
Table 1.2.1. Using the test data plot the stress-strain diagram and then calculate the
following: (a) the proportional limit, (b) modulus of elasticity, (c) yield stress at 0.2%
offset, (d) ultimate stress, (e) percent elongation and (g) percentage area.
Figure 1.2.2.a
- 8 -

Table 1.2.2 Load-Elongation Test Data

Force
(kN)
Elongation
(mm)
Force
(kN)
Elongation
(mm)
0.0 0.000 55.603 1.524
23.131 0.127 56.492 1.778
41.813 0.229 57.382 2.032
43.148 0.254 57.827 2.286
44.482 0.330 58.272 2.540
47.151 0.508 58.717 2.794
50.265 0.762 58.717 3.048
52.489 1.016 57.827 3.302
54.268 1.270 56.048 3.505


The initial measurements of the diameter and gage length of the specimen are:

d
0
12 mm :=

L
0
50 mm :=

Consequently the size of the original area is obtained as:

A
0
t d
0
2
4
:=
4
12 *
2
t
A
0
113.097mm
2
=

B. Calculations

B.1 Calculation of the Stress-Strain Diagram

The stress and strain corresponding to each measurement step are calculated using the
collected values contained in Table 1.2.2. There are a number of eighteen (18)
measured steps
read
n . The measured values of the elongation L A

and applied force P
are collected into two separate vectors:

- 9 -
Force Elongation

P
0.000
23.131
41.813
43.148
44.482
47.151
50.265
52.489
54.268
55.603
56.492
57.382
57.827
58.272
58.717
58.717
57.827
56.048
|
\
|
|
|
|
|
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|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
.
10
3
N :=

AL
0.000
0.127
0.229
0.254
0.330
0.508
0.762
1.016
1.270
1.524
1.778
2.032
2.286
2.540
2.794
3.048
3.302
3.505
|
\
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|
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|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
.
mm :=

The stress o and strain c values corresponding to each one of the measured steps are
calculated using the formulae below:

i 1 n
read
.. :=

c
i 1
AL
i 1
L
0
:=

engineering strain

o
i 1
P
i 1
A
0
:=

engineering stress

The obtained values are show in a tabular format below.

- 10 -
Strain Stress

c
0
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
0
2.5410
-3
4.5810
-3
5.0810
-3
6.610
-3
0.01
0.015
0.02
0.025
0.03
0.036
0.041
0.046
0.051
0.056
0.061
0.066
0.07
=

o
0
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
0
2.04510
8
3.69710
8
3.81510
8
3.93310
8
4.16910
8
4.44410
8
4.64110
8
4.79810
8
4.91610
8
4.99510
8
5.07410
8
5.11310
8
5.15210
8
5.19210
8
5.19210
8
5.11310
8
4.95610
8
Pa =

The minimum and maximum values obtained are:

c
min
0 :=

o
min
0 :=
c
max
c
17
:= 07 . 0

o
max
o
15
:= Pa
8
10 * 192 . 5

The graphical representation of the stress-strain diagram is shown in Figure 1.2.2.b. A
qualitative analysis of the stress-strain diagram indicated an elasto-plastic behavior
and consequently, a ductile behavior.
- 11 -
0 0.008 0.016 0.024 0.032 0.04 0.048 0.056 0.064 0.072 0.08
0
6
.
10
7
1.2
.
10
8
1.8
.
10
8
2.4
.
10
8
3
.
10
8
3.6
.
10
8
4.2
.
10
8
4.8
.
10
8
5.4
.
10
8
6
.
10
8
o
min
o
max
o
i
c
min
c
max
c
i

Figure 1.2.2.b

B.2 Calculation of the modulus of elasticity

To obtain the value of the modulus of elasticity, E, representative for the elastic
behavior of the material, the ratio of the stress and strain increased corresponding to
each measured step is calculated:

k 1 n
read
1 .. :=

Ao
k
o
k
o
k 1
:=

stress increased

Ac
k
c
k
c
k 1
:=
strain increased

E
k
Ao
k
Ac
k
:=

the ratio stress-strain

The numerical values of the ratio stress-strain obtained are tabulated below and
plotted in Figure 1.2.2.c. It should be remarked that despite the fact that theoretically
the modulus of elasticity is constant in the elastic range, due to the measurement
errors a small variation is obtained.

- 12 -
E
0
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
0
8.05210
10
8.09710
10
2.36110
10
7.7610
9
6.62910
9
5.4210
9
3.87110
9
3.09610
9
2.32410
9
1.54710
9
1.54910
9
7.74510
8
7.74510
8
7.74510
8
0
-1.54910
9
-3.87410
9
Pa =

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17
2
.
10
10
1.25
.
10
10
5
.
10
9
2.5
.
10
9
1
.
10
10
1.75
.
10
10
2.5
.
10
10
3.25
.
10
10
4
.
10
10
4.75
.
10
10
5.5
.
10
10
6.25
.
10
10
7
.
10
10
7.75
.
10
10
8.5
.
10
10
9.25
.
10
10
1
.
10
11
E
k
k

Figure 1.2.2.c

The elastic range is represented by the almost constant variation and in this case
ends after the third measurement point. The theoretical value of the modulus of
elasticity is obtained by averaging the calculated values of the measurement steps
pertinent to the elastic behavior:

nn 2 :=

- 13 -
E
average
1
nn
k
E
k
=
nn
:=
+
2
10 * 097 . 8 10 * 052 . 8
10 10
E
average
8.075 10
10
Pa =

B.3 Calculation of the 0.2% Offset Stress

The construction is shown in Figure 1.1.3. The line anchored at the offset strain value
and parallel to the linear portion of the stress-strain diagram is constructed below
using two description points: ) 0 , (
offset
c and ) , (
max
max
o
o
c
average
offset
E
+

c
offset
0.002 :=

j 0 1 .. :=

strain stress

c
line
c
offset
o
max
E
average
c
offset
+
|
\
|
|
|
|
.
:=

o
line
0
o
max
|
\
|
|
.
:=

c
line
2 10
3
8.43 10
3
\
|
|
|
.
=

o
line
0
5.192 10
8
\
|
|
.
Pa =

The graphical construction is shown in Figure 1.2.2.d. The value of the stress
offset
o
corresponding to 002 . 0 =
offset
c is obtained by reading the stress scale as:

Pa
offset
8
10 * 9 . 3 = o

This value can be considered as the yielding stress.

- 14 -
0 0.008 0.016 0.024 0.032 0.04 0.048 0.056 0.064 0.072 0.08
0
6
.
10
7
1.2
.
10
8
1.8
.
10
8
2.4
.
10
8
3
.
10
8
3.6
.
10
8
4.2
.
10
8
4.8
.
10
8
5.4
.
10
8
6
.
10
8
o
min
o
max
o
i
o
line
j
c
min
c
max
c
i
c
line
j
,

Figure 1.2.2.d

B.4 Calculation of the Ultimate Stress

Analyzing the stress-strain diagram the value of the ultimate stress is obtained as:

o
U
o
15
:= o
U
5.192 10
8
Pa =

B.5 Calculation of the Percentage Elongation

The percentage elongation is calculated at failure:

elongation_failure AL
17
:=

p
elongation
elongation_failure
L
0
100 := 100 *
50
505 . 3
p
elongation
7.01 = %

B.5 Calculation of the Percentage of Area Reduction

The calculation of the area at failure is based on the assumption that volume remained
constant during the deformation:

- 15 -
L
failure
L
0
elongation_failur + := + 505 . 3 50 L
failure
53.505mm =

A
failure
A
0
L
0
L
failure
:=
505 . 53
50 * 097 . 113
A
failure
105.689mm
2
=

The percentage reduction of the area is calculated as:

p
A
A
failure
A
0
A
0
100 :=
097 . 113
097 . 113 689 . 105
p
A
6.551 = %

Problem 1.2.3

Two tension specimens with initial identical dimensions, diameter d
0
=12 mm and
gage length L
0
= 50 mm, are made of structural materials A and B, respectively. They
are tested in tension until the failure is reached. The test data obtained is shown in
Table 1.2.3. Conduct the following tasks: (a) calculate the percent elongation and the
percent of reduction in the area at failure (b) draw to scale the idealized stress-strain
diagram pertinent to both materials; (c) classify the material as either brittle or ductile
and explain the judgment.

Table 1.2.3 Tensile Test Data

Data Material
A B
1. Gage at failure 73.66 mm 56.39 mm
2. Diameter at failure 6.68 mm 11.96 mm
2. Modulus of Elasticity 6.9x10
10
Pa 7.2x10
10
Pa
3. Yield Stress 3.5x10
7
Pa 5.0x10
8
Pa
4. Ultimate Stress 8.9x10
7
Pa 5.7x10
8
Pa
5. Failure Stress
1.25
5
10 Pa 4.14
5
10 Pa
6. Ultimate Strain 0.85 of ultimate 0.85 of ultimate


The initial measurements of the specimen dimensions (gage length and diameter) are:

d
0
12mm :=

L
0
50mm :=

The initial area of the specimen is:

A
0
t d
0
( )
2
4
:=
( )

4
12
2
t
A
0
113.097mm
2
=

- 16 -
B. Calculations

B.1 Calculation of the percentage elongation

The percentage elongations corresponding to both materials are:

p
ea
L
fa
L
0
L
0
100 :=
100
50
50 66 . 73
p
ea
47.32 =
0
0

material A
p
eb
L
fb
L
0
L
0
100 :=
100
50
50 39 . 56
p
eb
12.78 =
0
0

material B

B.2 Calculation of the percentage reduction of the area

The diameters and areas at failure, corresponding to material A and B,
respectively, are:

d
fa
6.68 mm :=

d
fb
11.96 mm :=

The areas at failure are:

A
fa
t d
fa
2
4
:=
4
68 . 6 *
2
t
A
fa
35.046mm
2
=

A
fb
t d
fb
2
4
:=
4
96 . 11 *
2
t
A
fb
112.345mm
2
=

The percentage of the area reduction is obtained as:

p
area_a
A
fa
A
0
A
0
100 :=
097 . 113
097 . 113 046 . 35
p
area_a
69.012 =
0
0
material
A

p
area_b
A
fb
A
0
A
0
100 :=
097 . 113
097 . 113 345 . 112
p
area_b
0.666 =
0
0

material
B

B.3 Schematic plot of stress-strain relations

The strain corresponding to the yielding point is:

- 17 -
c
ya
o
ya
E
a
:=
10
7
10 * 9 . 6
10 * 5 . 3
c
ya
5.072 10
4
= material A

c
yb
o
yb
E
b
:=
10
8
10 * 2 . 7
10 * 5 . 5
c
yb
6.944 10
3
= material B

The strain at failure is calculated as:

c
fa
L
fa
L
0
L
0
:=
50
50 66 . 73
c
fa
0.473 =

material A
c
fb
L
fb
L
0
L
0
:=
50
50 39 . 56
c
fb
0.128 =

material B

The strain corresponding to the ultimate stress:

c
ua
0.85 c
fa
:= 473 . 0 * 85 . 0

c
ub
0.85 c
fb
:= 128 . 0 * 85 . 0

The representative points of the stress-strain curves are:

material A material B

c
a
0
c
ya
c
ua
c
fa
|
\
|
|
|
|
|
|
.
:=

o
a
0
o
ya
o
ua
o
fa
|
\
|
|
|
|
|
|
.
:=

c
b
0
c
yb
c
ub
c
fb
|
\
|
|
|
|
|
|
.
:=

o
b
0
o
yb
o
ub
o
fb
|
\
|
|
|
|
|
|
.
:=

The plot of the two stress-strain diagrams is shown in Figure 1.2.3.
- 18 -
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5
0
1.2
.
10
8
2.4
.
10
8
3.6
.
10
8
4.8
.
10
8
6
.
10
8
strain
s
t
r
e
s
s
o
a
o
b
c
a
c
b
,

Figure 1.2.3

B.4 Classification of the materials

The percentage of elongation previously calculated for the two materials is:

p
ea
47.32 =
0
0

material A

p
eb
12.78 =
0
0

material B

The ductility ratios, other ductility indicators, are calculated as:

a
c
ua
c
ya
:=
a
792.948 =

material A

b
c
ub
c
yb
:=
b
15.643 =

material B

It can be concluded that both materials show ductile behavior. Obviously the material
A is more ductile than B.

- 19 -
Problem1.2.4- Mechanical Properties of Materials

A tensile specimen of a certain alloy has an initial diameter of 13 mm and a gage
length of 200 mm. Under a load P = 20 kN, the specimen reaches its proportional
limit and is elongated by 3 mm. At this load the diameter is reduced by 0.064 mm.
Calculate the following material properties: (a) the proportional limit, (b) o
PL
the
modulus of elasticity, E, and (c) the Poisson's ratio, v.

Figure 1.2.4



L
0
200mm =

d
0
13mm =

The original area of the specimen is:

A
0
t d
0
2
4
:=
4
13 *
2
t
A
0
132.732mm
2
=

At the application of the axial load

kN P 20 =
the proportional limit, defined by the
stress
PL
o
and the strain
PL
c
, is attained.

B. Calculations

B.1 Calculation of proportional limit corresponding stress and strain

The strain
PL
c is calculated using the measured elongation L A as:

c
PL
AL
L
0
:=
mm
mm
200
3
c
PL
0.015 =

The stress
PL
o

is obtained as:

o
PL
P
A
0
:=
mm
N
732 . 132
20000
o
PL
1.507 10
8
Pa =
- 20 -

B.2 The modulus of elasticity

The modulus of elasticity is calculated:

E
o
PL
c
PL
:=
015 . 0
10 * 507 . 1
8
Pa
E 1.005 10
10
Pa =

B.3 The Poissons Ratio

The Poissons Ratio represents the ratio between the transversal strain
transv PL_
c and
the longitudinal strain
PL
c . Consequently, the transversal strain
transv PL_
c is obtained
employing the reduction of the diameter d A :

c
PL_trans
Ad
d
0
:=
mm
mm
13
064 . 0
c
PL_trans
4.923 10
3
=

The Poissons Ratio is calculated:

u
c
PL_trans
c
PL
:=

015 . 0
10 * 923 . 4
3
u 0.328 =

Problem1.2.5

A wire of length L
0
= 2.50 m and diameter d
0
= 1.6 mm is stretched by tensile forces P
= 1250 N. The wire is made of a copper alloy having a stress-strain relationship that
may be described mathematically by the following equation:

c
c
o
* 300 1
* 10 * 24 . 1
5
+
= 03 . 0 0 s s c where c is nondimensional and o has MPa
units.

Conduct the following tasks: (a) construct a stress-strain diagram for the material, (b)
determine the elongation of the wire due to the forces P, (c) if the forces are removed,
what is the permanent strain of the bar considering an average elastic modulus
E
average
=7.086x10
10
Pa and (d) if the forces are applied again, what is the proportional
limit?



L
0
2.50 m :=

d
0
1.6 mm :=

The original area of the specimen is:
- 21 -
A
0
t d
0
2
4
:=
4
6 . 1 *
2
t
A
0
4.021mm
2
=

The strain is limited to the value:

c
limit
0.03 :=

B. Calculations

B.1 Plot the stress-strain diagram

A number of thirteen (13) points are considered nn 13 := and consequently, the step
increased of the strain is calculated as Ac
c
limit
nn 1 ( )
:=
12
03 . 0

The points representing the strain and stress diagram are obtained:

i 0 nn 1 .. :=

c
i
Ac i :=

o
i
124000 c
i
1 300 c
i
+
10
6
Pa :=

The stress-strain diagram values are first tabulated and then plotted in Figure 1.2.5.

c
0
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
0
2.510
-3
510
-3
7.510
-3
0.01
0.013
0.015
0.018
0.02
0.023
0.025
0.028
0.03
=

o
0
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
0
1.77110
8
2.4810
8
2.86210
8
3.110
8
3.26310
8
3.38210
8
3.47210
8
3.54310
8
3.610
8
3.64710
8
3.68610
8
3.7210
8
Pa =
- 22 -
0 0.003 0.006 0.009 0.012 0.015 0.018 0.021 0.024 0.027 0.03
0
4
.
10
7
8
.
10
7
1.2
.
10
8
1.6
.
10
8
2
.
10
8
2.4
.
10
8
2.8
.
10
8
3.2
.
10
8
3.6
.
10
8
4
.
10
8
3.72 10
8
0
o
i
o
linear
i
0.03 0 c
i
c
linear
i
,

Figure 1.2.5

B.2 Calculation of the stress and strain corresponding to load P=1250 N

The stress is obtained as:

o
P
P
A
0
:=
021 . 4
1250
o
P
3.108 10
8
Pa =

The corresponding strain is calculated using the expression:

c
P
o
P
1.24 10
11
Pa 3 10
2
o
P

:=
8 2 11
8
10 * 108 . 3 * 10 * 3 10 * 24 . 1
10 * 108 . 3
c
P
0.01 =

B.3 Calculation of the remnant strain after unloading

The remnant strain is obtained by constructing the unloading line which is anchored at
point ) , (
P P
o c and has a slop of Pa E
average
10
10 * 086 . 7 = .

The remnant strain is obtained as:
c
rem
c
P
o
P
E
average
:=
10
8
10 * 086 . 7
10 * 108 . 3
01 . 0 c
rem
5.724 10
3
=

- 23 -
The unloading line is constructed using two points described as:

c
linear
c
rem
c
P
|
\
|
|
|
.
:=

o
linear
0
o
P
|
\
|
|
.
:=

B.4 The loading proportional limit

The loading follows the same linear behavior described by the unloading and the new
proportional limit is ) , (
P P
o c , the point where the unloading begun.

o
P
P
A
0
:= o
P
3.108 10
8
Pa =


Problem 1.3.1

A "pencil" laser extensometer, like the mechanical lever extensometer in Prob.1.2.1,
measures elongation, from which extensional strain can be computed, by multiplying
the elongation. In Figure 1.3.1 the laser extensometer is being used to measure strain
in a reinforced concrete column. The target is set up across the room from the test
specimen so that the distance from the fulcrum, C, of the laser to the reference point O
on the target is d
OC
= 5m. Also, the target is set so that the laser beam points directly
at point O on the target when the extensometer points are exactly Lo = 150 mm apart
on the specimen, and the cross section at B does not move vertically. At a particular
value of (compressive) load P, the laser points upward by an angle that is indicated on
the target to be | = 0.0030 rad. Determine the extensional strain in the concrete
column at this load value.
Figure 1.3.1

Problem 1.3.2

A tensile test is conducted on a flat-bar steel specimen having the dimensions shown
in Figure 1.3.2. Using the experimental load-elongation data, shown in Table 1.3.2,
collected during the test conduct the following tasks: (a) plot a curve of engineering
stress, o , versus engineering strain, c ; (b) determine the modulus of elasticity of
- 24 -
this material; (c) use the 0.2%-offset method to determine the yield strength,
YS
o , of
this material.

Table 1.3.2 Tension Test Data

Force
(kN)
Elongation
(mm)
Force
(kN)
Elongation
(mm)
0.000 0.000 26.467 0.127
5.338 0.020 27.801 0.152
10.676 0.041 28.913 0.191
16.014 0.061 29.581 0.254
21.351 0.081 30.470 0.317
25.355 0.102 30.693 0.381
Figure 1.3.2

Problem 1.3.3

A standard ASTM tension specimen, shown in Figure 1.3.3, with an original diameter
d
0
=13 mm and a gage length L
0
= 50 mm is used to obtain the load-elongation data
contained in Table 1.3.3. Conduct the following tasks: (a) plot a curve of engineering
stress,o , versus engineering strain, c ; (b) determine the modulus of elasticity of
this material; (c) use the 0.2%-offset method to determine the yield strength,
YS
o , of
this material.

Table 1.3.3 Tension Test Data

Force
(kN)
Elongation
(mm)
Force
(kN)
Elongation
(mm)
0.000 0.000 42.258 0.305
8.452 0.051 44.482 0.368
16.903 0.102 46.262 0.457
25.355 0.152 47.374 0.610
33.806 0.203 48.930 0.762
40.034 0.254 49.153 0.914

- 25 -

Figure 1.3.3

Problem 1.3.4

The tension specimen, shown in Figure 1.3.3, with an initial diameter d
0
=13 mm and a
gage length L
0
= 50 mm is used to obtain the load-elongation given in Table 1.3.4
Conduct the following tasks: (a) plot a curve of engineering stress, o , versus
engineering strain, c , (b) determine the modulus of elasticity of this material, (c) use
the 0.2%-offset method to determine the yield strength,
YS
o , of this material.

Table 1.3.4 Test Data

Force (kN) Elongation (mm) P(kN) L (mm)
0.0 0.000 27.5 1.68
9.3 0.050 28.4 2.0
14.9 0.200 28.6 2.33
17.7 0.325 28.9 2.68
22.4 0.675 28.4 3.00
25.2 1.000 27.50 3.33
26.6 1.330 26.10 3.68

Problem 1.3.5

A specimen of a methacrylate plastic shown in Figure 1.3.5 is tested in tension at
room temperature, producing the stress-strain data listed in the accompanying Table
1.3.5. Plot the stress-strain curve and determine the proportional limit, modulus of
elasticity, the yield stress at 0.2% offset and establish if the material is brittle or
ductile.

Figure 1.3.5

- 26 -


Stress (MPa) Strain Stress (MPa) Strain
0.0 0.000 44.0 0.0184
8.0 0.0032 48.2 0.0209
17.5 0.0073 53.9 0.0260
25.6 0.0111 58.1 0.0331
31.1 0.0129 62.0 0.0429
39.8 0.0163 62.1 fracture

Problem 1.3.6

The data shown in the accompanying Table 1.3.6 were obtained from a tensile test of
high-strength steel. The test specimen had a diameter of 13 mm and a gage length of
50 mm as shown in Figure 1.3.6. At fracture, the elongation between the gage marks
was 3.0 mm and the minimum diameter was 10.7 mm. Plot the conventional stress-
strain curve for the steel. Determine the following: (a) the proportional limit, (b)
modulus of elasticity, (c) yield stress at 0.1% offset, (d) ultimate stress, (e) percent
elongation, and (f) percent reduction in area.

Figure 1.3.6


Force (kN) Elongation (mm) Force (kN) Elongation
(mm)
0.000 0.00000 61.385 0.16000
4.448 0.00508 62.275 0.22900
8.896 0.01500 64.054 0.25900
26.689 0.04800 67.613 0.33000
44.482 0.08400 74.730 0.58400
53.379 0.09900 81.847 0.85300
57.382 0.10900 88.964 1.28800
59.606 0.11900 99.640 2.81400
60.496 0.13700 100.530 fracture

- 27 -

Problem 1.3.7

A tensile test is performed on an aluminum specimen that is 13 mm in diameter using
a gage length of 50 mm, as shown in Fig. 1.3.7. When the load is increased by an
amount P = 8 kN, the distance between gage marks increases by an amount AL =
0.0430 mm. Calculate: (a) the value of the modulus of elasticity, E, for this specimen,
(b) If the proportional limit stress for this specimen is o
PL
= 280 MPa, what is the
distance between gage marks at this value of stress?

Figure 1.3.7

Problem 1.3.8

A short brass cylinder ( mm 15 d
0
= , L
0
= 25.5mm) is compressed between two
perfectly smooth, rigid plates by an axial force P = 22.73 kN. (a) If the measured
shortening of the cylinder, due to this force is 0.02667 mm, what is the brass
specimen modulus of elasticity E? (b) If the increase in diameter due to the load P is
0.00533 mm, what is the value of Poisson's ratio v?

Figure 1.3.8

Problem 1.3.9

A tensile force of 500 kN is applied to a uniform segment of a titanium-alloy bar. The
cross section is a 50 mm x 50 mm square, and the length of the segment being tested
is 200 mm. Using titanium-alloy data from Appendix 1, determine: (a) the change in
the cross-sectional dimension of the bar, and (b) the change in volume of the 200 mm
segment being tested.

- 28 -

Problem 1.3.10

A cylindrical rod with an initial diameter of 8 mm is made of 6061-T6 aluminum
alloy. When a tensile force P is applied to the rod, its diameter decreases by 0.0101
mm. Using the appropriate aluminum-alloy data from Appendix 1, determine (a) the
magnitude of the load P, and (b) the elongation over a 200 mm length of the rod.

Problem 1.3.11

Under a compressive load of P = 110 kN, the length of the concrete cylinder in Figure
1.3.11 is reduced from 305 mm to 304.924 mm, and the diameter is increased from
150 mm to 150.008 mm. Determine the value of the modulus of elasticity, E, and the
value of Poisson's ratio, v. Assume linearly elastic deformation.

Figure 1.3.11

Problem 1.3.12

The cylindrical rod in Figure 1.3.12 is made of annealed (soft) copper with modulus
of elasticity E =
8
10 1718 . 1
2
kN/m and Poisson's ratio v = 0.33, and it has an initial
diameter, d
0
, of 51 mm. For compressive loads less than a "critical load" P
cr
, a ring
with inside diameter d = 51.005 mm is free to slide along the cylindrical rod. What is
the value of the critical load P
cr
?

Figure 1.3.12

Problem 1.3.13

A steel pipe column of length L
0
= 3.65 m, outer diameter d
0
= 102 mm, and wall
thickness t
0
= 13 mm is subjected to an axial compressive load P = 570 kN as shown
- 29 -
in Figure 1.3.13. If the steel has a modulus of elasticity E = 100 GPa and Poisson's
ratio v = 0.30, determine: (a) the change, AL, in the length of the column, and (b) the
change, At in the wall thickness.

Figure 1.3.13

Problem 1.3.14

A rectangular aluminum bar (w
0
= 25 mm; t
0
, = 13 mm) is subjected to a tensile load
P by pins at A and B (Figure 1.3.14). Strain gages measure the following strains in the
longitudinal, x, and transversal, y, directions: c
x
= 566 , and c
y
= -187 . (a) What is
the value of Poisson's ratio for this specimen? (b) If the load P that produces these
values of c
x
and c
y
P = 27.5 kN, what is the modulus of elasticity, E, for this
specimen? (c) What is the change in volume, AV, of a segment of bar that is initially
50 mm long?

Figure 1.3.14

Problem 1.3.15

Three different materials, designated A, B, and C, are tested in tension using test
specimens having diameters of 12 mm and gage lengths of 50 mm. At failure, the
distances between the gage marks are found to be 54.5, 63.2, and 69.4 mm,
respectively. Also, at the failure cross sections the diameters are found to be 11.46,
9.48, and 6.06 mm, respectively. Determine the percent elongation and percent
- 30 -
reduction in area of each specimen, and then, using your own judgment, classify each
material as brittle or ductile.

Figure 1.3.15

Problem 1.3.16

A bar made of structural steel having the stress-strain diagram shown in Figure 1.3.16
has a length of 1.525 m. The yield stress of the steel is 280 MPa and the slope of the
initial linear part of the stress-strain curve, modulus of elasticity, is 210 GPa. The bar
is loaded axially until it elongates 5.334 mm, and then the load is removed. How does
the final length of the bar compare with its original length?

Figure 1.3.16

Problem 1.3.17

A bar of length 0.8 m is made of a structural steel having the stress-strain diagram
shown in the Figure 1.3.17. The yield stress of the steel is 250 MPa and the slope of
the initial linear part of the stress-strain curve (modulus of elasticity) is 200 GPa. The
bar is loaded axially until it elongates 2.5 mm, and then the load is removed. How
does the final length of the bar compare with its original length?

- 31 -
Figure 1.3.17

Problem 1.3.18

An aluminum bar has length L = 40.5 cm and diameter d = 18 mm. The stress-strain
curve for the aluminum alloy is shown in Figure 1.3.18. The initial straight-line part
of the curve has a slope, the modulus of elasticity, of
2 8
kN/m 10 0.6893 . The bar is
loaded by a tensile force P = 57 kN and then unloaded. (a) What is the permanent set
of the bar? (b) If the bar is reloaded, what is the proportional limit?

Figure 1.3.18

Problem 1.3.19

A circular bar of magnesium alloy is 750 mm long. The stress-strain diagram for the
material is shown in the Figure 1.3.19. The bar is loaded in tension to an elongation of
4.5 mm, and then the load is removed. (a) What is the permanent set of the bar? (b) If
the bar is reloaded, what is the proportional limit?

- 32 -

Figure 1.3.19

Problem 1.3.20

A round bar of length L = 2.5 m and diameter d = 10 mm is stretched by tensile a
force P = 60 kN. The bar is made of an aluminum alloy for which the stress-strain
relationship may be described mathematically by the following equation:

] *
10 * 338 . 5
3
1 [ *
70000
9
22
o
o
c + =

where o has units of megapascals (MPa) and c is nondimensional.

Conduct the following calculations: (a) construct a stress-strain diagram for the
material, (b) determine the elongation of the bar due to the force P, (c) if the forces
are removed, what is the permanent strain of the bar and (d) if the forces are applied
again, what is the proportional limit?

Problem 1.3.21

A high-strength steel bar used in a large crane has diameter d = 57 mm as shown in
Figure 1.3.21 is compressed by axial forces. The steel has modulus of elasticity E
=
2 8
kN/m 10 1.999 and Poisson's ratio v = 0.30. Because of clearance requirements,
the diameter of the bar is limited to 57.025 mm. What is the largest compressive load
P
max
that is permitted?
Figure 1.3.21

- 33 -
Problem 1.3.22

The round bar, shown in Figure 1.3.22 has the initial diameter of 12 mm diameter and
is made of aluminum alloy 6061-T6. When the bar is stretched by axial force P, its
diameter decreases by 0.012 mm. Find the magnitude of the load P. (Obtain the
material properties from Appendix 1).

Figure 1.3.22

Problem 1.3.23

A nylon bar having diameter d
1
= 70 mm is placed inside a steel tube having inner
diameter d
2
, =70.25 mm as shown in Figure 1.3.23. The nylon cylinder is then
compressed by an axial force P. At what value of the force P will the space between
the nylon bar and the steel tube be closed, assuming that the nylon has the modulus of
elasticity E =
2 6
kN/m 10 3.102 and the Poissons ratio v = 0.4?

Figure 1.3.23

Problem 1.3.24

A prismatic bar of circular cross section is loaded by a tensile force P as shown in
Figure 1.3.24. The bar has an initial length L
0
= 3.0 m and diameter d
0
= 30 mm. The
bar is made of aluminum alloy 2014-T6 with modulus of elasticity E = 73 GPa and
Poisson's ratio v = 0.333. (a) If the bar elongates by 7.0 mm, what is the decrease in
diameter d
0
? (b)What is the magnitude of the load P?
- 34 -

Figure 1.3.24

Problem 1.3.25

A bar of monel metal with an initial length L
0
= 0.38 m and a diameter mm 8 d
0
= is
loaded axially by a tensile force P = 12 kN. Using the data in Appendix 1.1, determine
the increase in length of the bar and the percent decrease in its cross-sectional area.

Problem 1.3.26

A high-strength steel wire with an initial diameter of d
0
= 3 mm stretches 37.1 mm
when a 15-meter length of it is stretched by a force of 3.5 kN. (a) What is the modulus
of elasticity, E, of the steel? (b) If the diameter of the wire decreases by 0.0022 mm,
what is Poisson's ratio?

Problem 1.3.27

A hollow bronze cylinder, shown in Figure 1.3.27, is compressed by a force P. The
cylinder has inner diameter d
1
= 47 mm, outer diameter d
2
= 55 mm, and modulus of
elasticity 110320 E = Mpa. When the force P increases from zero to 35 kN, the outer
diameter of the cylinder increases by 0.0432 mm. Determine: (a) the increase in the
inner diameter, (b) wall thickness and (c) the Poisson's ratio for the bronze.
Figure 1.3.27
- 35 -
Problem 1.3.28

A plate of length L, width b, and thickness t is subjected to a uniform tensile stress o
applied at its ends as shown in Figure 1.3.28. The material has a modulus of elasticity
E and Poisson's ratio v. Before the stress is applied, the slope of the diagonal line OA
is b/L. What is: (a) the slope when the stress o is acting; (b) the increase in area of the
front face of the plate; (c) the decrease in cross-sectional area?
Figure 1.3.28

Problem 1.3.29

An axially loaded member having before loading a squared cross-section area of 3cm
x 3cm and a length of 180 cm becomes 0.001 cm wider and 0.07 cm shorter after
loading. Determine the Poissons ratio.

Problem 1.3.30

At the proportional limit, the 205 mm gage length of a 12.5 mm diameter alloy bar
has elongated 0.3 mm and the diameter has been reduced by 0.0064 mm. The total
axial load carried was 22 KN. Determine the following properties of this material: (a)
the modulus of elasticity; (b) the Poisson's ratio and (c) the proportional limit.

Problem 1.3.31

A 455 kN axial load is slowly applied to a 2.50 m long rectangular bar. The bar cross-
section is 2.5 cm wide and 10.5 cm deep. When loaded, the 10.5 cm side of the cross-
section measures 10.445 cm and the length has increased by 0.2286 cm. Determine
Poisson's ratio and Young's modulus for the material.

Problem 1.3.32

In a 0.65 cm diameter steel tie rod 3.2 m long, there is an axial tensile stress of 1.38
N/m
2
. Poisson's ratio for this steel is 0.25. How much has the rod elongated, and how
much has its diameter been altered?

Problem 1.3.33

A 70 mm by 150 mm rectangular alloy bar elongates 0.003 cm. The member has an
original length of 1.55 m and is loaded with an axial load of 44.5 kN. Considering that
- 36 -
the proportional limit of the material is 2.4*10
5
kN/m
2
, calculate the following: (a) the
axial stress in the bar, (b) the modulus of elasticity of this material, (c) if Poisson's
ratio for the material is 0.25 what will be the total change in each lateral dimension?

Problem 1.3.34

A steel rod characterized by a 38 mm diameter solid circular cross-section and a
length of 6 m elongates 12 mm under an axial load of 235 kN. The rod diameter
decreased 0.025 mm during the loading. Determine the following properties of the
material: (a) the Poisson's ratio, (b) the modulus of elasticity and (c) the modulus of
rigidity.

Problem 1.3.35

A steel and an aluminum bar are coupled together end to end and loaded axially at
the extreme ends. Both bars are 50 mm in diameter; the steel bar is 1.55 m long, and
the aluminum bar is 1.25 m long. When the load is applied, it is found that the steel
bar elongates 0.102 mm in a gage length of 205 mm. Poisson's ratio for this steel is
1/4, and the modulus of elasticity of the aluminum is 69 GPa. Determine: (a) the load,
(b) the total change in length measured between the bar ends and (c) the change in the
diameter of the bar.

- 40 -
CHAPTER 2 Geometrical Characteristics
of the Beam Cross-Section

2.1. Theoretical Background

The geometrical characteristics of the beam cross-section are as follows:

- Area (Figure 2.1.1)

}
=
A
dA A (2.1)

Figure 2.1.1

- First Moments or Static Moments (Figure 2.1.1)

}
=
A
y
dA z S (2.2)

}
=
A
z
dA y S (2.3)

- Position of the Centroid located at point ) , (
C C
z y C (Figure 2.1.2)

A
dA y
A
S
y
A z
C
}

= = (2.4)

A
dA z
A
S
z
A
y
C
}

= = (2.5)

Figure 2.1.2

- Second Moments or Moments of Inertia (Figure 2.1.3)
- 41 -

dA z I
A
y
=
}
2
(2.6)

dA y I
A
z
=
}
2
(2.7)

Figure 2.1.3

- Polar Moment of Inertia (Figure 2.1.3)

y z
A A
po
I I
dA z y dA I
+ =
= + = =
} }

) (
2 2 2
(2.8)

- Product of Inertia (Figure 2.1.3)

}
=
A
yz
dA z y I (2.9)

- Parallel-Axis Theorems for Moment of Inertia (Figure 2.1.4)

C
y C y
I A z I + =
2
(2.10)

C
z C z
I A y I + =
2
(2.11)

C
I A I
C
+ =
2
(2.12)

Figure 2.1.4

- Moment of Inertia about Inclined Axes (see Figure 2.1.5)

) 2 sin( ) 2 cos(
2 2
'
u u
+
+
=
yz
z y z y
y
I
I I I I
I
(2.13)

) 2 sin( ) 2 cos(
2 2
'
u u +
+
=
yz
z y z y
z
I
I I I I
I
(2.14)

Figure 2.1.5

- 42 -
) * 2 cos( ) 2 sin(
2
' '
u u +
=
yz
z y
z y
I
I I
I
(2.15)

- Principal Moments of Inertia

2
2
max 1
4
) (
2
yz
z y z y
p
I
I I I I
I I +
+
+
= =

(2.16)

2
2
min 2
4
) (
2
yz
z y z y
p
I
I I I I
I I +
+
= =

(2.17)

Note: For the calculation of the principal moments of inertia related to centroidal
axes the moments of inertia
yz z y
I I I , ,
contained in equations (2.16), (2.17)
should be replaced by
C C C
yz z y
I I I , , , respectively.

- Principal Directions of Inertia

The value of the angle u corresponding to the principal directions is obtained using
the equation:

z y
yz
I I
I
=
2
) 2 tan(
0
u
(2.18)

The two solutions of equation (2.18), angles
01
u
and
02
u
, are related as:

2
01 02
t
u u + =
(2.19)

The angle,
01
u
or
02
u
, corresponding to the maximum moment of inertia
max 1
I I
p
=
, is
the angle which verifies the relation (2.20):

0
tan
0
<
yz
I
u
(2.20)

- Maximum Product Moment of Inertia

The maximum value of the product of inertia is obtained for an angle of rotation
4
t
u = measured in the counter-clockwise direction from the position of the principal
axes and has the following expression:
- 43 -
2
2
2 1
max
4
) (
2
' '
yz
z y p p
z y
I
I I I I
I +
=

(2.21)

The corresponding moments of inertia are:

2 2
2 1
' '
z y p p
z y
I I I I
I I
+
=
+
= =
(2.22)

- Mohrs Circle Representation of the Moments of Inertia (Figure 2.1.6)

Figure 2.1.6

Practically the Mohrs circle is constructed using the following steps:

(a) The coordinates system q O is drawn as shown in Figure 2.1.6. The
horizontal axis O represents the moments of inertia, while the vertical axis
q O represents the product of inertia (note that the positive axis q is drawn
upwards). The drawing should be done roughly to scale. The representation
considers that the following conditions are met:
z y
I I > , 0 >
y
I , 0 >
z
I and
0 >
yz
I ;

(b) Using the calculated values of the moments of inertia
y
I and
z
I and the product
of inertia
yz
I two points noted as Y and Z are placed on the drawing. The line
YZ intersects the horizontal axis in point C which represents the center of the
Mohrs circle;

(c) The distance CY is the radius of the circle. Using the radius CY and the
position of the center C the Mohrs circle is constructed. The intersection points,
1
P and
2
P , between the circle and the horizontal axis represent the maximum and
the minimum moments of inertia;

- 44 -
(d) The absolute value of the ) 2 tan(
0
u can be calculated from the graph;

(e) The angle of the principal direction 1 is the angle measured in the counter-
clockwise direction between lines CY and CP1. To obtain the position of the
two principal directions corresponding to the cross-section system Oyz an
additional point Z, the reflection of the point Z in reference to axis , has to
be constructed. The lines ZP1 and ZP2 represent the principal direction 1
(associated with the maximum moment of inertia) and 2 (associated with the
minimum moment of inertia), respectively. The two directions can then be
transcribed on the cross-section sketch.

- Discussion regarding the correlation between the calculated principal directions
and the Mohrs circle representation

Four cases can be identified. They are as follows:

(a) if
z y
I I > and 0 >
yz
I then:

0 ) 2 tan(
0
< u

180 2 90
0
s s u is located in the second quadrant

90 45
01
s s u is located in first quadrant and 0 ) tan(
01
> u

180 135
02
s su is located in second quadrant and 0 ) tan(
02
< u

conclusion: the angle
02
u verifies the relation (2.20) and represents the angle of the
principal direction. The graphical representation of the principal
directions in both planes, Oyz and q O , is shown in Figure 2.1.7.
(a) (b)
P
P
I
I
I
Dir 1
I , ( )
I ( ,I ) Y
Z'
Dir 2
q
,
q
u
=

0
u 2
0
C
+
z
-
z
180
+
y
90
45
315
125
135
0
-
y
270
Dir 1
Dir 2
) I Z( I ,-
I -
I

Figure 2.1.7

(b) if
z y
I I > and 0 <
yz
I then:

0 ) 2 tan(
0
> u

90 2 0
0
s s u is located in the first quadrant
- 45 -

45 0
01
s su is located in first quadrant and 0 ) tan(
01
> u

135 90
02
02
< u

01
Z' I ,
I
P
Dir 1
,
( Y ,I I )
(a) (b)
270 z
-
315
125
-
180
y
135
90
z
+
45
+
0
y
Dir 1
Dir 2
q
q
P
Dir 2
-I
0
I
I Z - , (I
I
)
C 2u
) I (

Figure 2.1.8

(c) if
z y
I I < and 0 >
yz
I then:

0 ) 2 tan(
0
> u

90 2 0
0

45 0
01
s su is located in first quadrant and 0 ) tan(
01
> u

135 90
02
02
< u

02
Dir 2
Dir 1
q
0
I -
P
I
Dir 2
2u C
I
) , ( Z I -I
,
I
( Y , I I
P
)
Dir 1
q
Z'(I I , )
(a) (b)
270 z
-
315
125
-
180
y
135
90
z
+
45
+
0
y

Figure 2.1.9
- 46 -

(d) if
z y
I I < and 0 <
yz
I then:

0 ) 2 tan(
0
< u

180 2 90
0

90 45
01
s s u is located in first quadrant and 0 ) tan(
01
> u

180 135
02
s su is located in second quadrant than 0 ) tan(
02
< u

01
Dir 2
Dir 1
Dir 1
q
(
q
Dir 2
0
-I
P
I
Y
u
=

0
I
, I I )
C
Z I (
u 2
I
I - ,
I
)
P
Z' I ( ,
,
)
(a) (b)
270 z
-
315
125
-
180
y
135
90
z
+
45
+
0
y

Figure 2.1.10

- Radii of Gyration

The radii of gyration relative to the original coordinate system yz 0 are calculated as:

A
I
r
y
y
= (2.23)

A
I
r
z
z
= (2.24)

For the case of the principal moments of inertia, the corresponding radii of gyration
are:

A
I
r
p
p
1
1
= (2.25)

A
I
r
p
p
2
2
= (2.26)
- 47 -
dx
dy
) (
1
x f y=
2
) = y f (x
y
x
a b
0

- Mathematical Observations Concerning the Evaluation of the Surface Integrals

The equations (2.1) through (2.9) require, for the practical cases, the evaluation of the
surface integral. These equations can be replaced by the following general equation:

dA z y f I
A
=
}
) , ( (2.27)

If the function ) , ( z y f is continuous on the rectangular domain D in plane Oyz ,
based on Fubinis theorem the surface integral is expressed as a double integral:

}}
=
D
dz dy z y f I * * ) , ( (2.28)

The domain D, as shown in Figure 2.1.11, is bounded above and below by the
curves ) (
1
x f y = and ) (
2
x f y = , respectively, and by a x = to the left and b x = to
the right.

In practice, the double integral is
calculated using the method of iterated
integrals as:

} }
=
b
a
x f
x f
dx dy y x f I
) (
) (
2
1
* ) * ) , ( ( (2.29)

Figure 2.1.11

In general the domain D is not of rectangular shape and the double integral (2.28) is
easier to be evaluated using the natural coordinate system Ouv of the curves
describing the boundary. Considering the transformation:

) , ( v u x | = (2.30)

) , ( v u z = (2.31)

the double integral can be expressed as:

}}
=
T
dv du
v u D
z y D
v u v u f I * *
) , (
) , (
* )) , ( ), , ( ( | (2.31)

where
) , (
) , (
v u D
z y D
is the Jacobian of the transformation.

- 48 -
u
z
v
y
v
z
u
y
v
z
u
z
v
y
u
y
v u D
z y D
c
c
c
c
c
c
c
c
=
c
c
c
c
c
c
c
c
= * *
) , (
) , (
(2.32)

and T is the domain mapped from D by the transformations (2.30) and (2.31).

The same method of iterated integrals is used to evaluate the double integral (2.31).
The advantage of using the variables pertinent to the natural coordinate system is that
the integral separates into two independent integral with constant limits, facilitating
the integration process.

2.2. Solved Problems

2.2.1 Cross-Sections with Analytical Described Boundary

The geometrical characteristics of the cross-section are obtained by direct integration
of the equations (2.1) through (2.26).

Problem 2.2.1.1 Rectangular cross-section (Figure 2.2.1)
z'
y'
0
C
y
z
h
=

1
0

m
h
2
h
2
b
2
b
2
b= 4 m
y
dy
z
dz
dA=dy dz
.

Figure 2.2.1 Rectangular Cross-Section


A.1 The coordinate system used is the centroidal coordinate system Cyz .

A.2 The rectangle is characterized by a double symmetry against the axes of the
centroidal coordinate systemCyz . Consequently, the axes of the centroidal
coordinate system identify with the principal directions. This conclusion is
verified.

- 49 -
A.3 For numerical application of the formulae the following global dimensions
describing the rectangular shape are used:

m b 4 =

m h 10 =

B. Calculations

B.1 Step 1 - calculation of the cross-sectional area

A b h , ( )
b
2
b
2
z
h
2
h
2
y 1
(
(
(
]
d
(
(
(
]
d b h

A b h , ( ) substitute b 4 m , h 10 m , 40 m
2

B.2 Step 2 - calculation of the cross-sectional static moments

Note: The static moments are calculated in reference to the centroidal coordinate
system.

S
zc
b h , ( )
h
2
h
2
z
b
2
b
2
y y
(
(
(
]
d
(
(
(
]
d 0

S
yc
b h , ( )
b
2
b
2
y
h
2
h
2
z z
(
(
(
]
d
(
(
(
]
d 0

B.3 Step 3 - calculation of the cross-sectional moments of inertia

I
yc
b h , ( )
b
2
b
2
y
h
2
h
2
z z
2
(
(
(
]
d
(
(
(
]
d
1
12
b h
3

I
yc
b h , ( ) substitute b 4 m , h 10 m ,
1000
3
m
4
float 4 , 333.3 m
4

I
zc
b h , ( )
b
2
b
2
y
h
2
h
2
z y
2
(
(
(
]
d
(
(
(
]
d
1
12
b
3
h

I
zc
160
3
m
4
float 4 , 53.33 m
4

I
yzc
b h , ( )
b
2
b
2
y
h
2
h
2
z y z
(
(
(
]
d
(
(
(
]
d 0

- 50 -
B.4 Step 4 - calculation of the cross-sectional radii of gyration

r
y
b h , ( )
I
yc
b h , ( )
A b h , ( )
1
6
3 h
2
( )
1
2
|
\
|
.

simplify
assume b 0 > , h 0 > ,
1
6
3 h

r
y
5
3
3 m float 4 , 2.887 m

r
z
b h , ( )
I
zc
b h , ( )
A b h , ( )
1
6
3 b
2
( )
1
2
|
\
|
.

simplify
assume b 0 > , h 0 > ,
1
6
3 b

r
z
2
3
3 m float 4 , 1.155 m

Note: For a rectangular cross-section the product of inertia calculated about the
centroidal coordinate system is zero 0 =
yzc
I and consequently, the centroidal
coordinate system axes coincide with the principal axes of inertia.

If the moments of inertia about axes of a cartesian coordinate system Oyz parallel
with the centroidal coordinate system axes and passing through the lower corner of
the rectangle are required, the parallel-axis theorem for moments of inertia must be
employed in the calculation:

I
y
b h , ( ) I
yc
b h , ( ) A b h , ( )
h
2
|
\
|
|
.
2
+
1
3
b h
3
:=

I
y
4000
3
m
4
float 4 , 1333. m
4

I
z
b h , ( ) I
zc
b h , ( ) A b h , ( )
b
2
|
\
|
|
.
2
+
1
3
b
3
h :=

I
z
640
3
m
4
float 4 , 213.3 m
4

I
yz
b h , ( ) I
yzc
b h , ( ) A b h , ( )
h
2
b
2
+
1
4
b
2
h
2
:=

I
yz
b h , ( ) substitute b 4 m , h 10 m , 400 m
4

Problem 2.2.1.2 Tubular Cross-Section (Figure 2.2.2)


A.1 The coordinate system used is the centroidal coordinate systemCyz .

A.2 The circle is characterized by a double symmetry against the axes of the
verified.

- 51 -
A.3 For numerical application:

m R
a
2 = m R
b
5 =
C
y
z
dA=
d
d
d d
R

=

2

m
R

=

5

m
b
a
y
z

Figure 2.2.2 Tubular Cross-Section

B. Calculations

The parametric representation of a circle is:

y u ,
( )
cos u
( )

z u ,
( )
sin u
( )

The Jacobian of the transformation is calculated as:

D u ,
( )

y u ,
( )
d
d
z u ,
( )
d
d
u
y u ,
( )
d
d
u
z u ,
( )
d
d
|
\
|
|
|
|
|
.
simplifytrig ,


A u ,
( )
R
a
R
b
0
2 t
u D u ,
( )
(
(
]
d
(
(
]
d collect t , R
b
2
R
a
2
( ) t

A u ,
( )
substitute R
a
2 m , R
b
5 m ,
float 4 ,
65.98 m
2

B.2 Step 2 - calculation of the cross-sectional moments of inertia.

I
yc
u ,
( )
R
a
R
b
0
2 t
u z u ,
( )
2
D u ,
( )
(
(
]
d
(
(
]
d
collect t ,
simplify
1
4
R
b
4
R
a
4
( ) t

- 52 -
I
yc
u ,
( )
substitute R
a
2 m , R
b
5 m ,
float 4 ,
478.5 m
4

I
zc
u ,
( )
R
a
R
b
0
2 t
u y u ,
( )
2
D u ,
( )
(
(
]
d
(
(
]
d
collect t ,
simplify
1
4
R
b
4
R
a
4
( ) t

I
zc
u ,
( )
substitute R
a
2 m , R
b
5 m ,
float 4 ,
478.5 m
4

I
yzc
u ,
( )
R
a
R
b
0
2 t
u y u ,
( )
z u ,
( )
D u ,
( )
(
(
]
d
(
(
]
d
collect t ,
simplify
0

I
c
u ,
( )
R
a
R
b
0
2 t
u
2
D u ,
( )
(
(
]
d
(
(
]
d
collect t ,
simplify
1
2
R
b
4
R
a
4
( ) t
I
c
u ,
( )
substitute R
a
2 m , R
b
5 m ,
float 4 ,
956.7 m
4


r
yc
u ,
( )
I
yc
u ,
( )
A u ,
( )
simplify
assume R
a
0 > , R
b
0 > ,
1
2
R
a
2
R
b
2
+ ( )
1
2
|
\
|
.

r
yc
u ,
( )
substitute R
a
2 m , R
b
5 m ,
assume m 0 > ,
simplify
float 4 ,
2.693 m

r
zc
u ,
( )
I
zc
u ,
( )
A u ,
( )
simplify
assume R
a
0 > , R
b
0 > ,
1
2
R
a
2
R
b
2
+ ( )
1
2
|
\
|
.

r
zc
u ,
( )
substitute R
a
2 m R
b
5 m , ( ) ,
simplify
assume m 0 > ,
float 4 ,
2.693 m
Note: For a circular cross-section the product of inertia calculated about the
yzc
coordinate system axes coincide with the principal axes of inertia. This
conclusion is misleading. In fact, one can easily observe that the
0
0
) 2 tan(
0
= u and consequently, the principal directions are undetermined. It
is concluded that any pair of orthogonal diameters can identify themselves
with the principal directions.
- 53 -
The geometrical characteristics of the solid circular cross-section, where 0 =
a
R ,
are calculated in a similar manner by following the steps described above. The only
difference is the changing of the limits corresponding to variable appearing in the
double integrals or by directly replacing them in above calculated expressions.
Consequently, the following geometrical characteristics are obtained:

A u ,
( )
substitute R
a
0 m , R
b
5 m ,
float 4 ,
78.55 m
2

I
c
u ,
( )
substitute R
a
0 m , R
b
5 m ,
float 4 ,
981.9 m
4

I
yc
u ,
( )
substitute R
a
0 m , R
b
5 m ,
float 4 ,
491.1 m
4

I
zc
u ,
( )
substitute R
a
0 m , R
b
5 m ,
float 4 ,
491.1 m
4

r
yc
u ,
( )
substitute R
a
0 m , R
b
5 m ,
simplify
assume m 0 > ,
float 4 ,
2.500 m

r
zc
u ,
( )
substitute R
a
0 m , R
b
5 m ,
assume m 0 > ,
simplify
float 4 ,
2.500 m

Problem 2.2.1.3 Elliptical Cross-Section (Figure 2.2.3)

a = 5 m a = 5 m
b

=

1
0

m
b

=

1
0

m
C
z
y

Figure 2.2.3
- 54 -

A.1 The coordinate system used is the centroidal coordinate systemCyz .
A.2 The ellipse is characterized by a double symmetry against the axes of the
verified.

A.3 For numerical application:

m a 5 = m b 10 =

B. Calculations

The parametric representation of an ellipse is:

y u ,
( )
a cos u
( )
assume a 0 > , a cos u
( )

z u ,
( )
b sin u
( )
assume b 0 > , b sin u
( )

The Jacobian of the transformation is calculated as:

D u ,
( )

y u ,
( )
d
d
z u ,
( )
d
d
u
y u ,
( )
d
d
u
z u ,
( )
d
d
|
\
|
|
|
|
|
.
simplifytrig , a b


A u ,
( )
0
1
0
2 t
u D u ,
( )
(
(
]
d
(
(
]
d collect t , t a b

A u ,
( )
substitute a 5 m , b 10 m ,
float 4 ,
157.1 m
2

B.2 Step 2 - calculation of the cross-sectional moments of inertia.

I
y
u ,
( )
0
1
0
2 t
u z u ,
( )
2
D u ,
( )
(
(
]
d
(
(
]
d
collect t ,
simplify
1
4
t b
3
a

I
y
u ,
( )
float 4 ,
3928. m
4

I
z
u ,
( )
0
1
0
2 t
u y u ,
( )
2
D u ,
( )
(
(
]
d
(
(
]
d
collect t ,
simplify
1
4
t a
3
b

- 55 -
I
z
u ,
( )
float 4 ,
981.9 m
4

I
yz
u ,
( )
0
1
0
2 t
u y u ,
( )
z u ,
( )
D u ,
( )
(
(
]
d
(
(
]
d
collect t ,
simplify
0

I
u ,
( )
0
1
0
2 t
u y u ,
( )
2
z u ,
( )
2
+
( )
D u ,
( )
(
(
]
d
(
(
]
d
collect t ,
simplify
1
4
t a b a
2
b
2
+
( )

I
u ,
( )
float 4 ,
4911. m
4


r
y
u ,
( )
I
y
u ,
( )
A u ,
( )
simplify
assume a 0 > , b 0 > ,
1
2
b

r
y
u ,
( )
float 2 ,
assume m 0 > ,
5. m

r
z
u ,
( )
I
z
u ,
( )
A u ,
( )
simplify
assume a 0 > , b 0 > ,
1
2
a

r
z
u ,
( )
float 2 ,
assume m 0 > ,
2.5 m

Note: For an elliptical cross-section the product of inertia calculated about the
yz
coordinate system axes coincide with the principal axes of inertia.
a = 5 m
b

=

1
0

m
C y
z
z
y
0
y
z

Figure 2.2.4

- 56 -
The geometrical characteristics of a quarter elliptical cross-sections, shown in
Figure 2.2.4, are calculated in a similar manner with these corresponding to a solid
elliptical cross-section. The only notable difference is the limits corresponding to
variable u appearing in the double integrals.

The following geometrical characteristics are obtained:
A
q
u ,
( )
0
1
0
t
2
u D u ,
( )
(
(
]
d
(
(
]
d collect t ,
1
4
t a b

A
q
u ,
( )
float 4 ,
39.28 m
2

S
z_q
u ,
( )
0
1
0
t
2
u y u ,
( )
D u ,
( )
(
(
]
d
(
(
]
d
collect t ,
simplify
1
3
a
2
b

S
z_q
u ,
( )
float 4 ,
83.33 m
3

S
y_q
u ,
( )
0
1
0
t
2
u z u ,
( )
D u ,
( )
(
(
]
d
(
(
]
d
collect t ,
simplify
1
3
b
2
a

S
y_q
u ,
( )
float 4 ,
166.7 m
3

y
c_q
u ,
( )
S
z_q
u ,
( )
A
q
u ,
( )
4
3
a
t

y
c_q
u ,
( )
float 4 ,
2.122 m

z
c_q
u ,
( )
S
y_q
u ,
( )
A
q
u ,
( )
4
3
b
t

z
c_q
u ,
( )
float 4 ,
4.243 m

I
y_q
u ,
( )
0
1
0
t
2
u z u ,
( )
2
D u ,
( )
(
(
]
d
(
(
]
d
collect t ,
simplify
1
16
t b
3
a

I
y_q
u ,
( )
float 4 ,
981.9 m
4

I
z_q
u ,
( )
0
1
0
t
2
u y u ,
( )
2
D u ,
( )
(
(
]
d
(
(
]
d
collect t ,
simplify
1
16
t a
3
b

- 57 -
I
z_q
u ,
( )
float 4 ,
245.5 m
4

I
yc_q
u ,
( )
I
y_q
u ,
( )
A
q
u ,
( )
z
c_q
u ,
( )
2
simplify
1
144
a b
3
9 t
2
64
( )
t

I
yc_q
u ,
( )
float 4 ,
274.6 m
4

I
zc_q
u ,
( )
I
z_q
u ,
( )
A
q
u ,
( )
y
c_q
u ,
( )
2
simplify
1
144
a
3
b
9 t
2
64
( )
t

I
zc_q
u ,
( )
float 4 ,
68.66 m
4

r
yc_q
u ,
( )
I
yc_q
u ,
( )
A u ,
( )
simplify
assume a 0 > , b 0 > ,
1
12 t
( )
9 t
2
64
( )
1
2
|
\
|
.
b
r
yc_q
u ,
( )
float 2 ,
assume m 0 > ,
1.3 m

r
zc_q
u ,
( )
I
zc_q
u ,
( )
A u ,
( )
simplify
assume a 0 > , b 0 > ,
1
12 t
( )
9 t
2
64
( )
1
2
|
\
|
.
a

r
zc_q
u ,
( )
float 2 ,
assume m 0 > ,
.61 m

2.2.2. Composite Cross-Sections

Problem 2.2.2.1 L Shaped Cross-Section (Figure 2.2.5.a)


A1. The "L" shaped area, shown in Figure 2.2.5.a, is subdivided into two
rectangular areas called SHAPE1 and SHAPE2 (Figure 2.2.5.b). The
geometrical characteristics of the two rectangular areas are calculated using
the formulae previously obtained. The decomposition of the original area into
those two particular rectangular areas and the usage of the coordinate system
pictured are arbitrary and any other alternative can be employed.

n
shapes
2 :=

number of rectangular areas considered

A2. The Cartesian orthogonal coordinate system 0y
0
z
0

is used as the original
reference coordinate system.

- 58 -
z
y
z
y
z
y

Figure 2.2.5

A.3. For numerical application:

a 200 mm :=

b 100 mm :=

t
v
20 mm :=

t
h
20 mm :=

B. Calculations

B.1 Step 1 - collecting data pertinent to individual rectangular areas:

- Data pertinent to area SHAPE1

Note: The local coordinate system 0
1
y
1
z
1
is used.

a
z
1
a t
h
:=

20 200 a
z
1
180mm =

a
y
1
t
v
:= a
y
1
20mm =

dimensions
z
0
1
a
z
1
2
t
h
+ := + 20
2
180
z
0
1
110mm =

centroid O
1

y
0
1
a
y
1
2
:=
2
20
y
0
1
10mm =
A
1
a
z
1
a
y
1
:= = 20 * 180 A
1
3.6 10
3
mm
2
=

area
I
y
1
a
z
1
( )
3
a
y
1
12
:=

12
20 * 180
3

I
y
1
9.72 10
6
mm
4
=

moments of inertia

I
z
1
a
z
1
a
y
1
( )
3
12
:=
12
20 * 180
3
I
z
1
1.2 10
5
mm
4
=

I
yz
1
0 mm
4
:= product of inertia

- 59 -

2
y
2
z
2
is used.

a
z
2
t
h
:= a
z
2
20mm =

a
y
2
b := a
y
2
100mm =

dimensions
z
0
2
a
z
2
2
:=
2
20
z
0
2
10mm =

y
0
2
a
y
2
2
:=
2
100
y
0
2
50mm = centroid O
2

A
2
a
z
2
a
y
2
:= 100 * 20

A
2
2 10
3
mm
2
=

area
I
y
2
a
z
2
( )
3
a
y
2
12
:=
12
100 * 20
3

I
y
2
6.667 10
4
mm
4
=

moments of inertia

I
z
2
a
z
2
a
y
2
( )
3
12
:=
12
100 * 20
3

I
z
2
1.667 10
6
mm
4
=

I
yz
2
0 mm
4
:=

product of inertia

B.2 Step 2 - calculation of the cross-section area

A
total
1
n
shapes
n
A
n
=
:=

+ 2000 3600

A
total
5.6 10
3
mm
2
=

total area

B.3 Step 3 - calculation of the cross-section centroid C

Note: The global coordinate system 0y
0
z
0
is used.

S
z
1
n
shapes
n
A
n
y
0
n
( )
=
:=

+ ) 50 * 2000 ( ) 10 * 3600 (

S
z
1.36 10
5
mm
3
=

S
y
1
n
shapes
n
A
n
z
0
n
( )
=
:=

+ ) 10 * 2000 ( ) 110 * 3600 (

S
y
4.16 10
5
mm
3
=

y
c
S
z
A
total
:=

3
5
10 * 6 . 5
10 * 36 . 1

y
c
24.286mm =

position of the centroid C

z
c
S
y
A
total
:=

3
5
10 * 6 . 5
10 * 44 . 3

z
c
74.286mm =

B.4 Step 4 - calculation of the cross-section moments of inertia, polar moment and
product of inertia

- 60 -
Note: The centroidal coordinate system Cy
c
z
c
is used.

I
yc
1
n
shapes
n
I
y
n
A
n
z
0
n
z
c
( )
2
+
=
:=
+ +
+ +
] ) 286 . 4 7 (10 * 10 * 2 10 * [6.667
] ) 286 . 4 7 (110 * 10 * 3.6 10 * 9.72 [
2 3 4
2 3 6

I
yc
2.264 10
7
mm
4
=
I
zc
1
n
shapes
n
I
z
n
A
n
y
0
n
y
c
( )
2
+
=
:=
+ +
+ +
] ) 286 . 4 2 (50 * 10 * 2 104 * [1.667
] ) 286 . 4 2 (10 * 10 * 3.6 10 * 2 . 1 [
2 3
2 3 5

I
zc
3.844 10
6
mm
4
=
I
polar
I
yc
I
zc
+ := +
6 7
10 * 844 . 3 10 * 264 . 2

I
polar
2.649 10
7
mm
4
=

I
yzc
1
n
shapes
n
I
yz
n
A
n
y
0
n
y
c
( )
z
0
n
z
c
( )
+
=
:=
+ )] 286 . 4 7 (10 * ) 286 . 4 2 (50 * 10 * [2 )] 286 . 4 7 (110 * ) 286 . 4 2 (10 * 10 * 3.6 [
3 3

I
yzc
5.143 10
6
mm
4
=

B.5 Step 5 - calculation of Principal Moments and Principal Directions of Inertia

c
z
c
is used.

I
p1
I
yc
I
zc
+
2
I
yc
I
zc
2
|
\
|
|
.
2
I
yzc
2
+ + :=
+
+
+
2 6
2 6 7 6 7
) 10 * 142 . 5 (
4
) 10 * 844 . 3 10 * 264 . 2 (
2
10 * 844 . 3 10 * 264 . 2

I
max
I
p1
:=

I
max
2.396 10
7
mm
4
=

I
p2
I
yc
I
zc
+
2
I
yc
I
zc
2
|
\
|
|
.
2
I
yzc
2
+ :=

+
2 6
2 6 7 6 7
) 10 * 142 . 5 (
4
) 10 * 844 . 3 10 * 264 . 2 (
2
10 * 844 . 3 10 * 264 . 2

I
min
I
p2
:=

I
min
2.529 10
6
mm
4
=
u
0_1
1
2
atan
2 I
yzc
I
yc
I
zc
\
|
|
.
:=

]
10 * 844 . 3 10 * 264 . 2
) 10 * 142 . 5 ( * 2
[ tan
2
1
6 7
6
1

u
0_1
14.342deg = 0 255 . 0 ) 342 . 14 tan( > =

- 61 -
u
0_2
u
0_1
t
2
+ := + 90 342 . 14 u
0_2
104.342deg =

0 911 . 3 ) 342 . 104 tan( < =

angle corresponding to maximum principal
moment of inertia

u
01
14.342deg =

angle corresponding to minimum principal
moment of inertia
u
02
104.342deg =

z
y
y
z
y
z
Dir 1
Dir 2
u
u

Figure 2.2.6

B.6 Step 6 - calculation of the cross-section radii of gyration

Note: Two sets of radii of gyrations are calculated: first set is related to the
centroidal moments of inertia, while the second involves the principal
moments of inertia.

r
yc
I
yc
A
total
:=
3
7
10 * 6 . 5
10 * 264 . 2
r
yc
63.589mm =

radii of gyration

r
zc
I
zc
A
total
:=
3
6
10 * 6 . 5
10 * 844 . 3
r
zc
26.199mm =

r
p1
I
p1
A
total
:=
3
7
10 * 6 . 5
10 * 396 . 2
r
p1
65.409mm =

u
01
u
0_1
tan u
0_1
( )
I
yzc
0 < if
u
0_2
tan u
0_2
( )
I
yzc
0 < if
:=
u
02
u
0_1
u
01
u
0_2
if
u
0_2
u
01
u
0_1
if
:=
- 62 -
r
p2
I
p2
A
total
:=
3
6
10 * 6 . 5
10 * 529 . 2
r
p2
21.251mm =

B.7 Step 7 - construction of the Mohr's circle (Figure 2.2.7)

point Y ( I
yc
2.264 10
7
mm
4
= , I
yzc
5.143 10
6
mm
4
= )
point Z ( I
zc
3.844 10
6
mm
4
= , I
yzc
5.143 10
6
mm
4
= )
point Z ( I
zc
3.844 10
6
mm
4
= , I
yzc
5.143 10
6
mm
4
= )

P P
I
I
I
Dir 1
I ,- ( Z )
I ( , I ) Y
Z'
Dir 2
q
q
u = 0
u 2 0
C

Figure 2.2.7

B.8 Step 8 - variation of the centroidal moments of inertia (Figure 2.2.8)
We consider that the axes rotates with an angle u
i
between 0 to t:
i 0 24 .. := u
i
t
24
i ( ) :=
I
yr
i
I
yc
I
zc
+
2
I
yc
I
zc
2
cos 2 u
i
( ) + I
yzc
sin 2 u
i
( ) :=

I
zr
i
I
yc
I
zc
+
2
I
yc
I
zc
2
cos 2 u
i
( ) I
yzc
sin 2 u
i
( ) + :=

I
yzr
i
I
yc
I
zc
2
sin 2 u
i
( ) I
yzc
cos 2 u
i
( ) + :=

- 63 -
0 30 60 90 120 150 180
2
.
10
7
7.5
.
10
6
5
.
10
6
1.75
.
10
7
3
.
10
7
0
I
yr
i
I
zr
i
I
yzr
i
180
180
t
u
|
\
|
|
.
i

Figure 2.2.8

Problem 2.2.2.2 C Shaped Cross-Section (Figure 2.2.9.a)

y
z
y
z
y
z
y
z

Figure 2.2.9


A1. The "C" shaped area, shown in Figure 2.2.9.a, is subdivided into three
rectangular areas called SHAPE1, SHAPE2 and SHAPE3 (Figure 2.2.9.b).
The geometrical characteristics of the rectangular area are expressed using the
previously obtained formulae.

n
shapes
3 :=

number of rectangular areas considered

- 64 -
A2. The cartesian orthogonal coordinate system 0y
0
z
0

A3. For numerical application:

a 200 mm :=

b
1
80 mm :=

b
2
100 mm :=

t
v
10 mm :=

t
h1
10 mm :=

t
h2
20 mm :=

B. Calculations



1
y
1
z
1
is used.

a
z
1
t
h1
:= a
z
1
10mm =

a
y
1
b
1
t
v
:=

a
y
1
70mm =

dimensions
z
0
1
a
t
h1
2
:=

2
10
200 z
0
1
195mm =

centroid 0
1

y
0
1
a
y
1
2
t
v
+ := + 10
2
70
y
0
1
45mm =

A
1
a
z
1
a
y
1
:= 70 * 10 A
1
700mm
2
=

area
I
y
1
a
z
1
( )
3
a
y
1
12
:=
12
70 * 10
3
I
y
1
5.833 10
3
mm
4
=

moments of inertia
I
z
1
a
z
1
a
y
1
( )
3
12
:=
12
70 * 10
3
I
z
1
2.858 10
5
mm
4
=

I
yz
1
0 mm
4
:=

product of inertia


2
y
2
z
2
is used.

a
z
2
a := a
z
2
200mm =

a
y
2
t
v
:= a
y
2
10mm =

dimensions
z
0
2
a
z
2
2
:=
2
200

z
0
2
100mm =

y
0
2
a
y
2
2
:=
2
10
y
0
2
5mm =

centroid O
2

A
2
a
z
2
a
y
2
:= 10 * 200 A
2
2 10
3
mm
2
=

area
- 65 -
I
y
2
a
z
2
( )
3
a
y
2
12
:=
12
10 * 200
3
I
y
2
6.667 10
6
mm
4
=

moments of inertia

I
z
2
a
z
2
a
y
2
( )
3
12
:=
12
10 * 200
3
I
z
2
1.667 10
4
mm
4
=

I
yz
2
0 mm
4
:=

product of inertia


Note: The local coordinate system O
3
y
3
z
3
is used.

a
z
3
t
h2
:= a
z
3
20mm =

a
y
3
b
2
t
v
:=

a
y
3
90mm =

dimensions
z
0
3
a
z
3
2
:=
2
20
z
0
3
10mm =

y
0
3
a
y
3
2
t
v
+ := + 10
2
90
y
0
3
55mm =
centroid O
3
A
3
a
z
3
a
y
3
:= 90 * 20 A
3
1.8 10
3
mm
2
=

area
I
y
3
a
z
3
( )
3
a
y
3
12
:=
12
90 * 20
3
I
y
3
6 10
4
mm
4
=

moments of inertia

I
z
3
a
z
3
a
y
3
( )
3
12
:=
12
90 * 20
3
I
z
3
1.215 10
6
mm
4
=

I
yz
3
0 mm
4
:=

product of inertia


A
total
1
n
shapes
n
A
n
=
:= + +
3 3
10 * 8 . 1 10 * 2 700 A
total
4.5 10
3
mm
2
= total area


Note: the general coordinate system 0y
0
z
0
is used.
S
z
1
n
shapes
n
A
n
y
0
n
( )
=
:= + + ) 55 * 10 * 8 . 1 ( ) 5 * 10 * 2 ( ) 45 * 700 (
3 3

S
z
1.405 10
5
mm
3
=

- 66 -
S
y
1
n
shapes
n
A
n
z
0
n
( )
=
:= + + ) 10 * 10 * 8 . 1 ( ) 100 * 10 * 2 ( ) 195 * 700 (
3 3

S
y
3.545 10
5
mm
3
=

y
c
S
z
A
total
:=
3
5
10 * 5 . 4
10 * 405 . 1
y
c
31.222mm =

centroid C

z
c
S
y
A
total
:=
3
5
10 * 5 . 4
10 * 545 . 3
z
c
78.778mm =

product of inertia

c
z
c
is used.

I
yc
1
n
shapes
n
I
y
n
A
n
z
0
n
z
c
( )
2
+
=
:=
+ +
+ + +
+ +
] ) 778 . 8 7 (10 * 10 * 8 . 1 10 * [6
] ) 778 . 8 7 (100 * 10 * 2 10 * [6.667
] ) 778 . 8 7 (195 * 00 7 10 * 833 . 5 [
2 3 4
2 3 6
2 3

I
yc
2.56 10
7
mm
4
=
I
zc
1
n
shapes
n
I
z
n
A
n
y
0
n
y
c
( )
2
+
=
:=
+ +
+ + +
+ +
] ) 222 . 31 (55 * 10 * 8 . 1 10 * [1.215
] ) 222 . 31 (5 * 10 * 2 10 * [1.667
] ) 222 . 31 (45 * 00 7 10 * 858 . 2 [
2 3 6
2 3 4
2 5

I
zc
4.043 10
6
mm
4
=
I
polar
I
yc
I
zc
+ := +
6 7
10 * 043 . 4 10 * 56 . 2 I
polar
2.965 10
7
mm
4
=

I
yzc
1
n
shapes
n
I
yz
n
A
n
y
0
n
y
c
( )
z
0
n
z
c
( )
+
=
:=
+
+ +
)] 778 . 8 7 (10 * ) 222 . 31 (55 * 10 * 8 . 1 [
)] 778 . 8 7 (100 * ) 222 . 31 (5 * 10 * [2 )] 778 . 8 7 (195 * ) 222 . 31 (45 * 00 7 [
3
3

I
yzc
2.936 10
6
mm
4
=

B.5. Step 5 - calculation of the cross-section principal moments of inertia

c
z
c
is used.
- 67 -
I
p1
I
yc
I
zc
+
2
I
yc
I
zc
2
|
\
|
|
.
2
I
yzc
2
+ + :=
+
+
+
2 6
2 6 7 6 7
) 10 * 936 . 2 (
4
) 10 * 043 . 4 10 * 56 . 2 (
2
10 * 043 . 4 10 * 56 . 2

I
max
I
p1
:=

I
max
2.6 10
7
mm
4
=

I
p2
I
yc
I
zc
+
2
I
yc
I
zc
2
|
\
|
|
.
2
I
yzc
2
+ :=

+
2 6
2 6 7 6 7
) 10 * 936 . 2 (
4
) 10 * 043 . 4 10 * 56 . 2 (
2
10 * 043 . 4 10 * 56 . 2

I
min
I
p2
:=

I
min
3.651 10
6
mm
4
=
u
0_1
1
2
atan
2 I
yzc
I
yc
I
zc
\
|
|
.
:=

]
10 * 043 . 4 10 * 56 . 2
) 10 * 936 . 2 ( * 2
[ tan
2
1
6 7
6
1

u
0_1
7.617deg =

0 1337 . 0 ) 617 . 7 tan( > =

u
0_2
u
0_1
t
2
+ := + 90 617 . 7 u
0_2
97.617deg =

0 478 . 7 ) 617 . 97 tan( < =

moment of inertia

u
01
7.617deg =

moment of inertia
u
02
97.617deg =


Note: Two sets of radii of gyrations are calculated. The first set is related to the
centroidal moments of inertia, while the second set involves the principal
moments of inertia.

r
yc
I
yc
A
total
:=
3
7
10 * 5 . 4
10 * 56 . 2
r
yc
75.43mm =

radii of gyration

r
zc
I
zc
A
total
:=
3
6
10 * 5 . 4
10 * 043 . 4
r
zc
29.975mm =

u
01
u
0_1
tan u
0_1
( )
I
yzc
0 < if
u
0_2
tan u
0_2
( )
I
yzc
0 < if
:=
u
02
u
0_1
u
01
u
0_2
if
u
0_2
u
01
u
0_1
if
:=
- 68 -
r
p1
I
p1
A
total
:=
3
7
10 * 5 . 4
10 * 6 . 2
r
p1
76.006mm =

r
p2
I
p2
A
total
:=
3
6
10 * 5 . 4
10 * 651 . 3
r
p2
28.483mm =

z
y
y
z
z
y
u
u
Dir 1
Dir 2

Figure 2.2.10

point Y ( I
yc
2.56 10
7
mm
4
= , I
yzc
2.936 10
6
mm
4
= )
point Z ( I
zc
4.043 10
6
mm
4
= , I
yzc
2.936 10
6
mm
4
= )
point Z ( I
zc
4.043 10
6
mm
4
= , I
yzc
2.936 10
6
mm
4
= )
q
q
( Y , I I
I
=
0
u
)

- , I I ) Z(
Z'
P
P
2u
0
Dir 1
Dir 2
I C

Figure 2.2.11

- 69 -

i
between 0 to t:

i 0 24 .. :=

u
i
t
24
i ( ) :=
I
yr
i
I
yc
I
zc
+
2
I
yc
I
zc
2
cos 2 u
i
( ) + I
yzc
sin 2 u
i
( ) :=
I
zr
i
I
yc
I
zc
+
2
I
yc
I
zc
2
cos 2 u
i
( ) I
yzc
sin 2 u
i
( ) + :=
I
yzr
i
I
yc
I
zc
2
sin 2 u
i
( ) I
yzc
cos 2 u
i
( ) + :=
0 30 60 90 120 150 180
2
.
10
7
7.5
.
10
6
5
.
10
6
1.75
.
10
7
3
.
10
7
0
I
yr
i
I
zr
i
I
yzr
i
0 180
180
t
u
|
\
|
|
.
i

Figure 2.2.12

Problem 2.2.2.3 Z-Shaped Cross-Section (Figure 2.2.13.a)


A1. The "Z" shaped area, shown in Figure 2.2.13.a, is subdivided into three
rectangular areas called SHAPE1, SHAPE2 and SHAPE3 (Figure 2.2.13.b).
The geometrical characteristics of the rectangular are calculated using the
previously obtained formulae.

n
shapes
3 :=

number of rectangular areas

A2. The Cartesian orthogonal coordinate system 0y
0
z
0


- 70 -
y
z
y
z
y
z
y
z

Figure 2.2.13

A3. For numerical application:
a 400 mm :=

b
1
100 mm :=

b
2
150 mm :=

t
v
10 mm :=

t
h1
20 mm :=

t
h2
30 mm :=

B. Calculations



1
y
1
z
1
is used.

a
z
1
t
h1
:= a
z
1
20mm =

a
y
1
b
1
:= a
y
1
100mm =

dimensions
z
0
1
a
t
h1
2
:=

2
20
400 z
0
1
390mm = centroid O
1

y
0
1
a
y
1
2
t
v
\
|
|
.
:= |
.
|
\
|
10
2
100
y
0
1
40 mm =

A
1
a
z
1
a
y
1
:= 100 * 20 A
1
2 10
3
mm
2
=

area
I
y
1
a
z
1
( )
3
a
y
1
12
:=
12
100 * 20
3
I
y
1
6.667 10
4
mm
4
=

I
z
1
a
z
1
a
y
1
( )
3
12
:=
12
100 * 20
3
I
z
1
1.667 10
6
mm
4
=

moments of inertia
I
yz
1
0 mm
4
:=

product of inertia
- 71 -

2
y
2
z
2
is used.

a
z
2
a t
h1
t
h2
:= 30 20 400 a
z
2
350mm =

dimensions

a
y
2
t
v
:= a
y
2
10mm =
z
0
2
a
z
2
2
t
h2
+ := + 30
2
350
z
0
2
205mm =

y
0
2
a
y
2
2
:=
2
10
y
0
2
5mm =

centroid O
2

A
2
a
z
2
a
y
2
:= 10 * 350 A
2
3.5 10
3
mm
2
=

area
I
y
2
a
z
2
( )
3
a
y
2
12
:=
12
10 * 350
3
I
y
2
3.573 10
7
mm
4
=

moments of inertia

I
z
2
a
z
2
a
y
2
( )
3
12
:=
12
10 * 350
3
I
z
2
2.917 10
4
mm
4
=
I
yz
2
0 mm
4
:=

product of inertia


Note: The local coordinate system O
3
y
3
z
3
is used.

a
z
3
t
h2
:= a
z
3
30mm =

a
y
3
b
2
:= a
y
3
150mm =

dimensions
z
0
3
a
z
3
2
:=
2
30
z
0
3
15mm =

y
0
3
a
y
3
2
:=
2
150

y
0
3
75mm =

centroid O
3

A
3
a
z
3
a
y
3
:= 150 * 30 A
3
4.5 10
3
mm
2
=

area
I
y
3
a
z
3
( )
3
a
y
3
12
:=
12
150 * 30
3
I
y
3
3.375 10
5
mm
4
=

I
z
3
a
z
3
a
y
3
( )
3
12
:=
12
150 * 30
3
I
z
3
8.437 10
6
mm
4
=

moments of inertia
I
yz
3
0 mm
4
:=

product of inertia

A
total
1
n
shapes
n
A
n
=
:= + +
3 3 3
10 * 5 . 4 10 * 5 . 3 10 * 2 A
total
1 10
4
mm
2
=
- 72 -


Note: The local general coordinate system 0y
0
z
0
is used.

S
z
1
n
shapes
n
A
n
y
0
n
( )
=
:= + + ) 75 * 10 * 5 . 4 ( ) 5 * 10 * 5 . 3 ( )) 40 ( * 10 * 2 (
3 3 3

S
z
2.75 10
5
mm
3
=

S
y
1
n
shapes
n
A
n
z
0
n
( )
=
:= + + ) 15 * 10 * 5 . 4 ( ) 205 * 10 * 5 . 3 ( ) 390 * 10 * 2 (
3 3 3

S
y
1.565 10
6
mm
3
=

y
c
S
z
A
total
:=
4
5
10
10 * 75 . 2
y
c
27.5mm =

centroid C

z
c
S
y
A
total
:=
4
6
10
10 * 565 . 1
z
c
156.5mm =

product of inertia

c
z
c
is used.

I
yc
1
n
shapes
n
I
y
n
A
n
z
0
n
z
c
( )
2
+
=
:=
+ +
+ + +
+ +
] ) 5 . 156 (15 * 10 * 5 . 4 10 * [3.375
] ) 5 . 156 (205 * 10 * 5 . 3 10 * [3.573
] ) 5 . 156 (390 * 10 * 2 10 * 667 . 6 [
2 3 5
2 3 7
2 3 4

I
yc
2.435 10
8
mm
4
=
I
zc
1
n
shapes
n
I
z
n
A
n
y
0
n
y
c
( )
2
+
=
:=
+ +
+ + +
+ +
] ) 5 . 27 (75 * 10 * 5 . 4 10 * [8.437
] ) 5 . 27 (5 * 10 * 5 . 3 10 * [2.917
] ) 5 . 27 (-40 * 10 * 2 10 * 667 . 1 [
2 3 6
2 3 4
2 3 6

I
zc
3.117 10
7
mm
4
=
I
polar
I
yc
I
zc
+ := +
7 8
10 * 117 . 3 10 * 435 . 2 I
polar
2.747 10
8
mm
4
=

I
yzc
1
n
shapes
n
I
yz
n
A
n
y
0
n
y
c
( )
z
0
n
z
c
( )
+
=
:=
+
+ +
)] 5 . 156 (15 * ) 5 . 27 (75 * 10 * 5 . 4 [
)] 5 . 156 (205 * ) 5 . 27 (5 * 10 * 5 . [3 )] 5 . 156 (390 * ) 5 . 27 (-40 * 10 * 2 [
3
3 3

- 73 -

I
yzc
6.559 10
7
mm
4
=

B.5 Step 5 - calculation of the cross-section principal moments of inertia

c
z
c
located is used.

I
p1
I
yc
I
zc
+
2
I
yc
I
zc
2
|
\
|
|
.
2
I
yzc
2
+ + :=

+
+
+
2 7
2 7 8 7 8
) 10 * 559 . 6 (
4
) 10 * 117 . 3 10 * 435 . 2 (
2
10 * 117 . 3 10 * 435 . 2
I
max
I
p1
:=

I
max
2.621 10
8
mm
4
=
I
p2
I
yc
I
zc
+
2
I
yc
I
zc
2
|
\
|
|
.
2
I
yzc
2
+ :=
+
2 7
2 7 8 7 8
) 10 * 559 . 6 (
4
) 10 * 117 . 3 10 * 435 . 2 (
2
10 * 117 . 3 10 * 435 . 2

I
min
I
p2
:=

I
min
1.255 10
7
mm
4
=
u
0_1
1
2
atan
2 I
yzc
I
yc
I
zc
\
|
|
.
:=

]
10 * 117 . 3 10 * 435 . 2
) 10 * 559 . 6 ( * 2
[ tan
2
1
7 8
7
1

u
0_1
15.853deg =

0 283 . 0 ) 853 . 15 tan( > =

u
0_2
u
0_1
t
2
+ := + 90 853 . 15 u
0_2
105.853deg =

0 521 . 3 ) 853 . 105 tan( < =

moment of inertia

u
01
15.853 deg =

moment of inertia
u
02
105.853deg =


Note: Two sets of radii of gyrations are calculated. The first set is related to the
centroidal moments of inertia, while the second set involves the principal moments of
inertia.
r
yc
I
yc
A
total
:=
4
8
10
10 * 435 . 2
r
yc
156.048mm =

u
01
u
0_1
tan u
0_1
( )
I
yzc
0 < if
u
0_2
tan u
0_2
( )
I
yzc
0 < if
:=
u
02
u
0_1
u
01
u
0_2
if
u
0_2
u
01
u
0_1
if
:=
- 74 -
r
zc
I
zc
A
total
:=
4
7
10
10 * 117 . 3
r
zc
55.831mm =

r
p1
I
p1
A
total
:=
4
8
10
10 * 621 . 2
r
p1
161.906mm =

r
p2
I
p2
A
total
:=
4
7
10
10 * 255 . 1
r
p2
35.42mm =

y
u
y
z
y
z
z
Dir 2
Dir 1
u

Figure 2.2.14

B.7 Step 7.- construction of the Mohr's circle (Figure 2.2.15)
point Y ( I
yc
2.435 10
8
mm
4
= , I
yzc
6.559 10
7
mm
4
= )
point Z ( I
zc
3.117 10
7
mm
4
= , I
yzc
6.559 10
7
mm
4
= )
point Z ( I
zc
3.117 10
7
mm
4
= , I
yzc
6.559 10
7
mm
4
= )

0
q
q
Z'
(
I
Z - I , I
C
)
2u
Y I ( I ,
=
0
u
)
I
P

P
Dir 1
Dir 2
P

Figure 2.2.15

- 75 -

i
between 0 to t:
i 0 24 .. :=

u
i
t
24
i ( ) :=

I
yr
i
I
yc
I
zc
+
2
I
yc
I
zc
2
cos 2 u
i
( ) + I
yzc
sin 2 u
i
( ) :=
I
zr
i
I
yc
I
zc
+
2
I
yc
I
zc
2
cos 2 u
i
( ) I
yzc
sin 2 u
i
( ) + :=
I
yzr
i
I
yc
I
zc
2
sin 2 u
i
( ) I
yzc
cos 2 u
i
( ) + :=
0 30 60 90 120 150 180
2
.
10
8
7.5
.
10
7
5
.
10
7
1.75
.
10
8
3
.
10
8
0
I
yr
i
I
zr
i
I
yzr
i
180
180
t
u
|
\
|
|
.
i

Figure 2.2.16

Problem 2.2.2.4 Composite cross-section using plane areas (Figure 2.2.17.a)


A1. The cross-sectional area, shown in Figure 2.2.17.a, is subdivided into one
rectangular areas called SHAPE1, from which it will be deducted the following areas:
one triangular area called SHAPE2 and two circular areas called SHAPE3 and
SHAPE4 (Figure 2.2.17.b). The geometrical characteristics of these areas can be
easily expressed using the formulae from Appendix 2.1.

n
shapes
4 :=

0
z
0

- 76 -
y
z
z
y
y
z
y
z
y
z

Figure 2.2.17

A.3. The following dimensions are used in the calculation:

a 400 mm :=

b 300 mm :=

c 130 mm :=

f 170 mm :=
d
1
20 mm :=

d
y1
80 mm :=

d
z1
80 mm :=
d
2
20 mm :=

d
y2
80 mm :=

d
z2
80 mm :=

B. Calculations

B.1 Step 1 - collecting data pertinent to each one of the individual rectangular areas

- Data pertinent to rectangular area SHAPE1

Note: the local coordinate system 0
1
y
1
z
1
located at the centroid 0
1
of the area is used

a
z
1
b := mm 300
z
a
1
=

a
y
1
a := mm 00 4 a
1
y
=

global dimensions
z
0
1
a
z
1
2
:=
2
300

z
0
1
150mm =

centroid 0
1

y
0
1
a
y
1
2
:=
2
400

y
0
1
200mm =

A
1
a
z
1
a
y
1
:=

400 * 300 A
1
1.2 10
5
mm
2
=

area
I
y
1
a
z
1
( )
3
a
y
1
12
:=
12
400 * 300
3
I
y
1
9 10
8
mm
4
=

moments of inertia

I
z
1
a
z
1
a
y
1
( )
3
12
:=
12
400 * 300
3
I
z
1
1.6 10
9
mm
4
=

- 77 -
I
yz
1
0 mm
4
:=

product of inertia

- Data pertinent to triangular area SHAPE2

Note: - the local coordinate system 0
2
y
2
z
2
is located at the centroid 0
2
of the area;

a
z
2
b f := 170 300 a
z
2
130mm =

a
y
2
a c := 130 400 a
y
2
270mm =

dimensions
z
0
2
b
a
z
2
3
:=

3
130
300 z
0
2
256.667mm =

y
0
2
a
a
y
2
3
:=

3
270
400 y
0
2
310mm =

centroid O
2

A
2
1
2
a
z
2
a
y
2
:= 270 * 130 *
2
1
A
2
1.755 10
4
mm
2
=

area
I
y
2
a
z
2
( )
3
a
y
2
36
:=
36
270 * 130
3
I
y
2
1.648 10
7
mm
4
=

moments of inertia
I
z
2
a
z
2
a
y
2
( )
3
36
:=
36
270 * 130
3
I
z
2
7.108 10
7
mm
4
=

I
yz
2
a
z
2
( )
2
a
y
2
( )
2
72
:=
72
270 * 130
2 2
I
yz
2
1.711 10
7
mm
4
=

product of inertia

- Data pertinent to circular area SHAPE3

3
y
3
z
3
3
of the area is used

r
1
d
1
2
:= mm 0 1 r
2
20
1
=

dimension
z
0
3
d
z1
:= z
0
3
80mm =

centroid O
3

y
0
3
d
y1
:=

y
0
3
80mm =

A
3
t r
1
2
:=
2
10 * A
3
314.159mm
2
=

area
I
y
3
t r
1
4
4
:=
4
10 *
4
I
y
3
7.854 10
3
mm
4
=

moments of inertia

I
y
3
t r
1
4
4
:=
4
10 *
4
I
z
3
7.854 10
3
mm
4
=

- 78 -
I
yz
3
0 mm
4
:=

product of inertia

- Data pertinent to circular area SHAPE4

4
y
4
z
4
4
of the area is used

r
2
d
2
2
:= mm 0 1
2
r
2
20
=

dimension
z
0
4
d
z2
:= z
0
4
80mm =

centroid O
4

y
0
4
a d
y2
:=

80 400 y
0
4
320mm =

A
4
t r
2
2
:=
2
10 * A
4
314.159mm
2
=

area
I
y
4
t r
2
4
4
:=
4
10 *
4
I
y
4
7.854 10
3
mm
4
= moments of inertia

I
z
4
t r
2
4
4
:=
4
10 *
4
I
z
4
7.854 10
3
mm
4
=

I
yz
4
0 mm
4
:=

product of inertia

A
total
A
1
2
n
shapes
n
A
n
=
:= ( ) + + 159 . 314 159 . 314 10 * 755 . 1 10 * 2 . 1
4 5

A
total
1.018 10
5
mm
2
= total area


Note: the local general coordinate system 0y
0
z
0
located at point 0

of the cross-section
is used

S
z
A
1
y
0
1
( )
2
n
shapes
n
A
n
y
0
n
( )
=
:=
( ) + + 320 * 159 . 314 80 * 159 . 314 310 * 10 * 755 . 1 200 * 10 * 2 . 1
4 5

S
z
1.843 10
7
mm
3
=

S
y
A
1
z
0
1
( )
2
n
shapes
n
A
n
z
0
n
( )
=
:=

( ) + + 80 * 159 . 314 80 * 159 . 314 667 . 256 * 10 * 755 . 1 150 * 10 * 2 . 1
4 5

- 79 -

S
y
1.345 10
7
mm
3
=

static moments
y
c
S
z
A
total
:=
5
7
10 * 018 . 1
10 * 843 . 1
y
c
181.04mm = centroid C

z
c
S
y
A
total
:=
5
7
10 * 018 . 1
10 * 345 . 1
z
c
132.047mm =

B.4 Step 4 - calculation of the cross-section moments of inertia

Note: - the local coordinate system Cy
c
z
c
located at the centroid C

of the area is used;

moments of inertia

I
yc
I
y
1
A
1
z
0
1
z
c
( )
2
+
2
n
shapes
n
I
y
n
= 2
n
shapes
n
A
n
z
0
n
z
c
( )
2
=
+
(
(
(
:=
( ) |
( ) ( ) ( )
(
(
+ + +
+ + +
(
+
2
047 . 132 80 * 159 . 314
2
047 . 132 80 * 159 . 314
2
047 . 132 667 . 256 *
4
10 * 755 . 1
3
10 * 854 . 7
3
10 * 854 . 7
7
10 * 648 . 1
2
047 . 132 150 *
5
10 * 2 . 1
8
10 * 9

I
yc
6.479 10
8
mm
4
=
I
zc
I
z
1
A
1
y
0
1
y
c
( )
2
+
2
n
shapes
n
I
z
n
= 2
n
shapes
n
A
n
y
0
n
y
c
( )
2
=
+
(
(
(
:=

( ) |
( ) ( ) ( )
(
(
+ + +
+ + +
(
+
2
04 . 181 320 * 159 . 314
2
04 . 181 80 * 159 . 314
2
04 . 181 310 *
4
10 * 755 . 1
3
10 * 854 . 7
3
10 * 854 . 7
7
10 * 108 . 7
2
04 . 181 200 *
5
10 * 2 . 1
9
10 * 6 . 1

I
zc
1.271 10
9
mm
4
=

I
polar
I
yc
I
zc
+ := +
9 8
10 * 271 . 1 10 * 479 . 6 I
polar
1.919 10
9
mm
4
=

polar moment of inertia

product of inertia
I
yzc
I
yz
1
A
1
y
0
1
y
c
( )
z
0
1
z
c
( )
+
2
n
shapes
n
I
yz
n
= 2
n
shapes
n
A
n
y
0
n
y
c
( )
z
0
n
z
c
( )
=
+
(
(
(
:=

( ) ( ) | |
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( )| +
+ + +

+ + +
047 . 132 80 * 04 . 181 320 * 159 . 314
047 . 132 80 * 04 . 181 80 * 159 . 314 047 . 132 667 . 256 * 04 . 181 310 * 10 * 755 . 1
0 0
7
10 * 171 . 1 047 . 132 150 * 04 . 181 200 *
5
10 * 2 . 1 0
4

I
yzc
2.235 10
8
mm
4
=

- 80 -
u
01
u
0_1
tan u
0_1
( )
I
yzc
0 < if
u
0_2
tan u
0_2
( )
I
yzc
0 < if
:=
u
02
u
0_1
u
01
u
0_2
if
u
0_2
u
01
u
0_1
if
:=

c
z
c


I
p1
I
yc
I
zc
+
2
I
yc
I
zc
2
|
\
|
|
.
2
I
yzc
2
+ + :=

( )
( )
2
8
2
9 8 9 8
10 * 235 . 2
4
10 * 271 . 1 10 * 479 . 6
2
10 * 271 . 1 10 * 479 . 6
+
+
+

I
max
I
p1
:=

I
max
1.343 10
9
mm
4
=

I
p2
I
yc
I
zc
+
2
I
yc
I
zc
2
|
\
|
|
.
2
I
yzc
2
+ :=

( )
( )
2
8
2
9 8 9 8
10 * 235 . 2
4
10 * 271 . 1 10 * 479 . 6
2
10 * 271 . 1 10 * 479 . 6
+

I
min
I
p2
:=

I
min
5.761 10
8
mm
4
=

u
0_1
1
2
atan
2 I
yzc
I
yc
I
zc
\
|
|
.
:=
( )

(

9 8
8
1
10 * 271 . 1 10 * 479 . 6
10 * 235 . 2 * 2
tan
2
1

u
0_1
17.828 deg = 0 32 . 0 ) 828 . 17 tan( < =

u
0_2
u
0_1
t
2
+ := + 90 8 . 19 u
0_2
72.172deg =

0 11 . 3 ) 172 . 72 tan( > =

angle corresponding to maximum
principal moment of inertia
u
01
72.172deg =

angle corresponding to minimum

u
02
17.828 deg =

- 81 -
y
z
z
y
u
y
z
Dir 1
Dir 2
u

Figure 2.2.18


Note: - two sets of radii of gyrations are calculated. The first set is related to the
inertia.

r
yc
I
yc
A
total
:=
5
8
10 * 018 . 1
10 * 479 . 6

r
yc
79.771mm =

radii of gyration
r
zc
I
zc
A
total
:=
5
9
10 * 018 . 1
10 * 271 . 1

r
zc
111.721mm =

r
p1
I
p1
A
total
:=
5
9
10 * 018 . 1
10 * 343 . 1
r
p1
114.837mm =
r
p2
I
p2
A
total
:=
5
8
10 * 018 . 1
10 * 761 . 5
r
p2
75.217mm =

point X ( I
yc
6.479 10
8
mm
4
= , I
yzc
2.235 10
8
mm
4
= )
point Y ( I
zc
1.271 10
9
mm
4
= , I
yzc
2.235 10
8
mm
4
= )
point Z ( I
zc
1.271 10
9
mm
4
= , I
yzc
2.235 10
8
mm
4
= )

- 82 -
Dir 2
q
C
0
Z'
P
I
Z ) ( - , I I
2u
Y I , (I
P
I
q
)
=

0
u
Dir 1

Figure 2.2.19


i
between 0 to t:
i 0 24 .. :=

u
i
t
24
i ( ) :=
I
yr
i
I
yc
I
zc
+
2
I
yc
I
zc
2
cos 2 u
i
( ) + I
yzc
sin 2 u
i
( ) :=
I
zr
i
I
yc
I
zc
+
2
I
yc
I
zc
2
cos 2 u
i
( ) I
yzc
sin 2 u
i
( ) + :=
I
yzr
i
I
yc
I
zc
2
sin 2 u
i
( ) I
yzc
cos 2 u
i
( ) + :=
0 30 60 90 120 150 180
5
.
10
8
5
.
10
8
1
.
10
9
1.5
.
10
9
0
I
yr
i
I
zr
i
I
yzr
i
180
180
t
u
|
\
|
|
.
i

Figure 2.2.20

- 83 -
Problem 2.2.2.5 Cross-section made from plates and rolled shapes (Figure 2.2.21.a)
25 130 x Pl
36 I
y
z
h
b
y
z
z
y

Figure 2.2.21


A1. The cross-section, shown in Figure 2.2.21.a, is composed from two structural
shapes, an I36 and a plate 130mmx25mm, called SHAPE1 and SHAPE2 (Figure
2.2.21.b). The geometrical characteristics of the I36 are obtained from Appendix 2.2,
Table 2.2.1, while those pertinent to the plate, which is a rectangular shape, are
calculated.

A.2. The vertical axis of the cross-section is a symmetry axis and consequently, the
axes of the centroidal coordinate system identify with the principal directions.

0
z
0

B. Calculations


- Data pertinent to I36 (area SHAPE1)

1
y
1
z
1
1

of the area is used
h
1
360 mm :=

depth
b
1
143 mm :=

flange width

z
0
1
0mm = y
0
1
0mm =

centroid 0
1

A
1
97.1 cm
2
:=

area
I
y
1
19610 cm
4
:=

I
z
1
818 cm
4
:=

moments of inertia
- 84 -
I
yz
1
0 mm
4
:=

product moment of inertia

- Data pertinent to plate 130mm x 25mm (area SHAPE2)

Note: - the local coordinate system 0
2
y
2
z
2
is located at the centroid 0
2
of the area;

a
z
2
25mm =

a
y
2
130mm =

global dimensions
z
0
2
h
1
2
a
z
2
2
+ := +
2
25
2
360
z
0
2
192.5mm =

centroid 0
2

y
0
2
0 :=

A
2
a
z
2
a
y
2
:=

130 * 25

A
2
3.25 10
3
mm
2
=

area

I
y
2
a
z
2
( )
3
a
y
2
12
:=
12
130 * 25
3
I
y
2
1.693 10
5
mm
4
= moments of inertia

I
z
2
a
z
2
a
y
2
( )
3
12
:=
12
130 * 25
3
I
z
2
4.577 10
6
mm
4
=

I
yz
2
0 mm
4
:=



A
total
1
n
shapes
n
A
n
=
:= +
3 2
10 * 25 . 3 10 * 1 . 97 A
total
1.296 10
4
mm
2
=

total area


0
z
0
located at point o

is used

S
z
1
n
shapes
n
A
n
y
0
n
( )
=
:= + 0 * 10 * 25 . 3 0 * 10 * 1 . 97
3 2
S
z
0mm
3
=

S
y
1
n
shapes
n
A
n
z
0
n
( )
=
:= + 5 . 192 * 10 * 25 . 3 0 * 10 * 1 . 97
3 2
S
y
6.256 10
5
mm
3
=

static moments
- 85 -
y
c
S
z
A
total
:=
4
10 * 296 . 1
0
y
c
0mm =

position of the centroid

z
c
S
y
A
total
:=
4
5
10 * 296 . 1
10 * 256 . 6

z
c
48.274mm =


c
z
c


moments of inertia
I
yc
1
n
shapes
n
I
y
n
= 1
n
shapes
n
A
n
z
0
n
z
c
( )
2

=
+ :=

( ) ( ) + + +
2 3 2 2 5 4
274 . 48 5 . 192 * 10 * 25 . 3 274 . 48 0 * 10 * 1 . 97 10 * 693 . 1 10 * 19610
I
yc
2.865 10
8
mm
4
=
I
zc
1
n
shapes
n
I
z
n
= 1
n
shapes
n
A
n
y
0
n
y
c
( )
2

=
+ :=

+ + + 0 * 10 * 25 . 3 0 * 10 * 1 . 97 10 * 577 . 4 10 * 818
3 2 6 4
I
zc
1.276 10
7
mm
4
=

I
polar
I
yc
I
zc
+ := +
7 8
10 * 276 . 1 10 * 865 . 2 I
polar
2.993 10
8
mm
4
=

polar moment of inertia

I
yzc
1
n
shapes
n
I
yz
n
= 1
n
shapes
n
A
n
y
0
n
y
c
( )
z
0
n
z
c
( )
=
+ :=

I
yzc
0mm
4
=

product of inertia


Note: - the product of inertia I
yzc
0mm
4
= and consequently, the principal axes are
the centroidal axes.


r
yc
I
yc
A
total
:=
4
8
10 * 296 . 1
10 * 865 . 2
r
yc
148.683mm = radii of gyration

- 86 -
r
zc
I
zc
A
total
:=
4
7
10 * 296 . 1
10 * 276 . 1
r
zc
31.374mm =

Dir 1
Dir 2
y
z
y
z
z

Figure 2.2.22

0 30 60 90 120 150 180
2
.
10
8
7.5
.
10
7
5
.
10
7
1.75
.
10
8
3
.
10
8
0
I
yr
i
I
zr
i
I
yzr
i
180
180
t
u
|
\
|
|
.
i

Figure 2.2.23

i
between 0 to t:
i 0 24 .. :=

u
i
t
24
i ( ) :=
I
yr
i
I
yc
I
zc
+
2
I
yc
I
zc
2
cos 2 u
i
( ) + I
yzc
sin 2 u
i
( ) :=
- 87 -
I
zr
i
I
yc
I
zc
+
2
I
yc
I
zc
2
cos 2 u
i
( ) I
yzc
sin 2 u
i
( ) + :=
I
yzr
i
I
yc
I
zc
2
sin 2 u
i
( ) I
yzc
cos 2 u
i
( ) + :=

U 20
U 30
y
z
h
b
h
b
y
z
z
y

Figure 2.2.24


A1. The cross-section, shown in Figure 2.2.24.a, is composed from two structural
shapes, a U30 and a U20, called SHAPE1 and SHAPE2 (Figure 2.2.24.b). The
geometrical characteristics of both U shapes are obtained from Appendix 2.2, Table
2.2.2

0
z
0

is used as the original reference
coordinate system.

n
shapes
2 :=

number of areas considered in the calculation

B. Calculations

B.1 Step 1 - collecting data pertinent to each one of the individual areas

- Data pertinent to U30 (area SHAPE1)

1
y
1
z
1
1
of the area

h
1
300 mm :=

total depth
b
1
100 mm :=

flange width
e
y1
2.70 cm :=

local eccentricity of the centroid O
1
- 88 -
A
1
58.8 cm
2
:=

area

I
y
1
8030 cm
4
:=

I
z
1
495 cm
4
:=

moments of inertia
I
yz
1
0 mm
4
:=

product of inertia
z
0
1
0 mm :=

y
0
1
0 mm :=

centroid O
1


2
y
2
z
2
2
of the area

h
2
200 mm :=

total depth
b
2
75 mm :=

flange width
e
z
2
2.01 cm :=

local eccentricity of the centroid O
2
A
2
32.2 cm
2
:=

area

I
y
2
148 cm
4
:=

I
z
2
1910 cm
4
:=

moments of inertia
I
yz
2
0 mm
4
:=

product of inertia
z
0
2
h
1
2
e
z
2
\
|
|
.
:= |
.
|
\
|
1 . 20
2
300
z
0
2
129.9 mm = centroid O
2

y
0
2
e
y1
h
2
2
+ := +
2
200
0 . 27 y
0
2
127mm =

A
total
1
n
shapes
n
A
n
=
:= +
2 2
10 * 2 . 32 10 * 8 . 58 A
total
9.1 10
3
mm
2
=

total area


0
z
0
located at point 0

is used

S
z
1
n
shapes
n
A
n
y
0
n
( )
=
:= + 127 * 10 * 2 . 32 0 * 10 * 8 . 58
2 2
S
z
4.089 10
5
mm
3
=

S
y
1
n
shapes
n
A
n
z
0
n
( )
=
:= ( ) + 9 . 129 * 10 * 2 . 32 0 * 10 * 8 . 58
2 2

S
y
4.183 10
5
mm
3
=

- 89 -
y
c
S
z
A
total
:=
3
5
10 * 1 . 9
10 * 089 . 4
y
c
44.938mm =
centroid C

z
c
S
y
A
total
:=
3
5
10 * 1 . 9
10 * 183 . 4
z
c
45.965 mm =


c
z
c

I
yc
1
n
shapes
n
I
y
n
= 1
n
shapes
n
A
n
z
0
n
z
c
( )
2
=
+ :=

( ) ( ) + + + + + 965 . 45 9 . 129 * 10 * 2 . 32 965 . 45 0 * 10 * 8 . 58 10 * 148 10 * 8030
2 2 4 4

I
yc
1.169 10
8
mm
4
=

I
zc
1
n
shapes
n
I
z
n
= 1
n
shapes
n
A
n
y
0
n
y
c
( )
2
=
+ :=
( ) ( ) + + + 938 . 44 127 * 10 * 2 . 32 938 . 44 0 * 10 * 8 . 58 10 * 1910 10 * 495
2 2 4 4

I
zc
5.761 10
7
mm
4
=
I
polar
I
yc
I
zc
+ := +
7 8
10 * 761 . 5 10 * 169 . 1 I
polar
1.745 10
8
mm
4
=

I
yzc
1
n
shapes
n
I
yz
n
= 1
n
shapes
n
A
n
y
0
n
y
c
( )
z
0
n
z
c
( )
=
+ :=
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) + + + 965 . 45 9 . 129 * 938 . 44 127 * 10 * 2 . 32 965 . 45 0 * 938 . 44 0 * 10 * 8 . 58
2 2

I
yzc
3.432 10
7
mm
4
=


Note: - the local coordinate system cy
c
z
c


I
p1
I
yc
I
zc
+
2
I
yc
I
zc
2
|
\
|
|
.
2
I
yzc
2
+ + :=

( ) +
|
|
.
|
\
|
+
+
2
7
2
7 8 7 8
10 * 432 . 3
2
10 * 761 . 5 10 * 169 . 1
2
10 * 761 . 5 10 * 169 . 1

I
max
I
p1
:=

I
max
1.326 10
8
mm
4
=
- 90 -
u
01
u
0_1
tan u
0_1
( )
I
yzc
0 < if
u
0_2
tan u
0_2
( )
I
yzc
0 < if
:=
u
02
u
0_1
u
01
u
0_2
if
u
0_2
u
01
u
0_1
if
:=
I
p2
I
yc
I
zc
+
2
I
yc
I
zc
2
|
\
|
|
.
2
I
yzc
2
+ :=
( ) +
|
|
.
|
\
|
2
7
2
7 8 7 8
10 * 432 . 3
2
10 * 761 . 5 10 * 169 . 1
2
10 * 761 . 5 10 * 169 . 1

I
min
I
p2
:=

I
min
4.19 10
7
mm
4
=
u
0_1
1
2
atan
2 I
yzc
I
yc
I
zc
\
|
|
.
:=
( )

|
|
.
|
\
|

7 8
7
1
10 * 761 . 5 10 * 169 . 1
10 * 432 . 3 * 2
tan
2
1

u
0_1
24.594 deg = 0 46 . 0 ) 954 . 24 tan( > =

u
0_2
u
0_1
t
2
+ := + 90 594 . 24 u
0_2
114.594 deg =

0 18 . 2 ) 594 . 114 tan( < =

u
01
24.594deg =

u
02
114.594deg =

z
y
y
z
z
y
D
ir
1
Dir 2
u
u

Figure 2.2.25


inertia.

- 91 -
r
yc
I
yc
A
total
:=
3
8
10 * 1 . 9
10 * 169 . 1

r
yc
113.335mm =

radii of gyration
r
zc
I
zc
A
total
:=
3
7
10 * 1 . 9
10 * 761 . 5

r
zc
79.565mm =

r
p1
I
p1
A
total
:=
3
8
10 * 1 . 9
10 * 326 . 1

r
p1
120.712mm =

radii of gyration
r
p2
I
p2
A
total
:=
3
7
10 * 1 . 9
10 * 19 . 4

r
p2
67.854mm =

point Y ( I
yc
1.169 10
8
mm
4
= , I
yzc
3.432 10
7
mm
4
= )
point Z ( I
zc
5.761 10
7
mm
4
= , I
yzc
3.432 10
7
mm
4
= )
point Z ( I
zc
5.761 10
7
mm
4
= , I
yzc
3.432 10
7
mm
4
= )

Dir 2
q
u 2
-
P
Z'
0
I
( Z I , I )
C
q
Y I (
I
P
u
I , )
=

0
Dir 1

Figure 2.2.26

i
between 0 to t:
i 0 24 .. :=

u
i
t
24
i ( ) :=
I
yr
i
I
yc
I
zc
+
2
I
yc
I
zc
2
cos 2 u
i
( ) + I
yzc
sin 2 u
i
( ) :=
I
zr
i
I
yc
I
zc
+
2
I
yc
I
zc
2
cos 2 u
i
( ) I
yzc
sin 2 u
i
( ) + :=
- 92 -
I
yzr
i
I
yc
I
zc
2
sin 2 u
i
( ) I
yzc
cos 2 u
i
( ) + :=
0 30 60 90 120 150 180
5
.
10
7
5
.
10
7
1
.
10
8
1.5
.
10
8
0
I
yr
i
I
zr
i
I
yzr
i
180
180
t
u
|
\
|
|
.
i

Figure 2.2.27

U 30
L x80x10 80
150 x 20 Pl
y
z
y
z
y
z
y
z
h
b

Figure 2.2.28


A1. The cross-section, shown in Figure 2.2.28.a, is composed from three structural
shapes, an U30 a, a plate 150mm x 25mm and an L80x80x10, called SHAPE1,
SHAPE2 and SHAPE3, respectively (Figure 2.2.28.b). The geometrical
characteristics of both U and L shapes are obtained from Appendix 2.2, Table 2.2.2
and Table 2.2.3, while the geometrical characteristics of the plate are calculated as for
a rectangular area.

0
z
0

is used as the original reference
coordinate system.
n
shapes
3 :=

number of rectangular areas considered in the calculation
- 93 -

B. Calculations


1
y
1
z
1
1
of the area
h
1
300 mm :=

total depth
b
1
100 mm :=

flange width
e
z1
2.70 cm :=

local eccentricity of the centroid 0
1

A
1
58.8 cm
2
:=

area
I
y
1
495 cm
4
:=

I
z
1
8030 cm
4
:=

moments of inertia
I
yz
1
0 mm
4
:=

z
0
1
0 mm :=

y
0
1
0 mm :=

centroid 0
1

- Data pertinent to plate 150mm x 20mm (area SHAPE2)
2
y
2
z
2
2
of the area
a
z
2
150 mm :=
a
y
2
20 mm :=

dimensions
A
2
a
z
2
a
y
2
:=

20 * 150

A
2
3 10
3
mm
2
=

area
I
y
2
a
z
2
( )
3
a
y
2
12
:=
12
20 * 150
3

I
y
2
5.625 10
6
mm
4
=

moments of inertia

I
z
2
a
z
2
a
y
2
( )
3
12
:=
12
20 * 150
3
I
z
2
1 10
5
mm
4
=

I
yz
2
0 mm
4
:=

product of inertia
z
0
2
a
z
2
2
e
z1
:=

0 . 27
2
150
z
0
2
48mm =

centroid 0
2

y
0
2
h
1
2
a
y
2
2
+ := +
2
20
2
300
y
0
2
160mm =

- Data pertinent to L80x80x10 (area SHAPE3)
3
y
3
z
3
3
of the area
a
z
3
80 mm :=
a
y
3
80 mm :=

flange dimensions
- 94 -
e
z3
2.34 cm := local eccentricity of the centroid 0
3

e
y3
2.34 cm :=

A
3
15.10 cm
2
:= A
3
1.51 10
3
mm
2
=

area
I
y
3
87.5 cm
4
:= I
y
3
8.75 10
5
mm
4
=

moments of inertia

I
z
3
87.5 cm
4
:= I
z
3
8.75 10
5
mm
4
=

The product of inertia for the rotated position of the shape is calculated using
additional data from Appendix 2.2, Table 2.2.3:
I
u
3
139 cm
4
:=

I
v
3
36.3 cm
4
:=

I
uv
3
0 cm
4
:=

u 45 deg :=
(as shown in Figure 2.2.29)

Figure 2.2.29
I
yz
3
I
u
3
I
v
3
2
sin 2 u
( )
I
uv
3
cos 2 u
( )
+ := +
0 ) 45 * 2 sin( *
2
3 . 36 139

I
yz
3
5.135 10
5
mm
4
=

NOTE: The product of inertia was calculated using the formula (2.13) in which we
consider u=45
z
0
3
e
z1
e
z3
+
( )
:= ( ) + 4 . 23 0 . 27 z
0
3
50.4 mm = centroid O
3

y
0
3
h
1
2
e
y3
\
|
|
.
:=
|
.
|
\
|
4 . 23
2
300
y
0
3
126.6 mm =

A
total
1
n
shapes
n
A
n
=
:= + +
3 3 3
10 * 51 . 1 10 * 3 10 * 88 . 5 A
total
1.039 10
4
mm
2
=

total area


0
z
0
located at point o

is used
S
z
1
n
shapes
n
A
n
y
0
n
( )
=
:= + + ) 6 . 126 ( * 10 * 51 . 1 160 * 10 * 3 0 * 10 * 88 . 5
3 3 3

S
z
2.888 10
5
mm
3
=
S
y
1
n
shapes
n
A
n
z
0
n
( )
=
:= + + ) 4 . 50 ( * 10 * 51 . 1 48 * 10 * 3 0 * 10 * 88 . 5
3 3 3

y
y
v
u
u=+45
- 95 -
S
y
6.79 10
4
mm
3
=
y
c
S
z
A
total
:=

4
5
10 * 039 . 1
10 * 888 . 2
y
c
27.799mm =

centroid C

z
c
S
y
A
total
:=
4
4
10 * 039 . 1
10 * 79 . 6
z
c
6.535mm =

Note: - the local coordinate system cy
c
z
c

I
yc
1
n
shapes
n
I
y
n
= 1
n
shapes
n
A
n
z
0
n
z
c
( )
2

=
+ :=

( ) ( ) |
( ) | +
+ + + + +
2 3
2 3 2 2 4 6 4
535 . 6 4 . 50 * 10 * 51 . 1
535 . 6 48 * 10 * 3 535 . 6 0 * 10 * 8 . 58 10 * 5 . 87 10 * 625 . 5 10 * 495
I
yc
2.175 10
7
mm
4
=
I
zc
1
n
shapes
n
I
z
n
= 1
n
shapes
n
A
n
y
0
n
y
c
( )
2

=
+ :=

( ) ( ) |
( ) | +
+ + + + +
2 3
2 3 2 2 4 5 4
8 . 27 6 . 126 * 10 * 51 . 1
8 . 27 160 * 10 * 3 8 . 27 0 * 10 * 8 . 58 10 * 5 . 87 10 * 1 10 * 8030
I
zc
1.742 10
8
mm
4
=
I
polar
I
yc
I
zc
+ := +
8 7
10 * 742 . 1 10 * 175 . 2 I
polar
1.96 10
8
mm
4
=

I
yzc
1
n
shapes
n
I
yz
n
= 1
n
shapes
n
A
n
y
0
n
y
c
( )
z
0
n
z
c
( )
=
+ :=

( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) |
( ) ( )| +
+ + + + +
535 . 6 4 . 50 * 8 . 27 6 . 126 * 10 * 51 . 1
8 . 27 48 * 8 . 27 160 * 10 * 3 535 . 6 0 * 8 . 27 0 * 10 * 8 . 58 10 * 135 . 5 0 0
3
3 2 5
I
yzc
2.845 10
7
mm
4
=


c
z
c

I
p1
I
yc
I
zc
+
2
I
yc
I
zc
2
|
\
|
|
.
2
I
yzc
2
+ + :=

( ) +
|
|
.
|
\
|
+
+
2
7
2
8 7 8 7
10 * 845 . 2
2
10 * 742 . 1 10 * 175 . 2
2
10 * 742 . 1 10 * 175 . 2

- 96 -
u
01
u
0_1
tan u
0_1
( )
I
yzc
0 < if
u
0_2
tan u
0_2
( )
I
yzc
0 < if
:=
u
02
u
0_1
u
01
u
0_2
if
u
0_2
u
01
u
0_1
if
:=
I
max
I
p1
:=

I
max
1.658 10
8
mm
4
=
I
p2
I
yc
I
zc
+
2
I
yc
I
zc
2
|
\
|
|
.
2
I
yzc
2
+ :=

( ) +
|
|
.
|
\
|
2
7
2
8 7 8 7
10 * 875 . 2
2
10 * 742 . 1 10 * 175 . 2
2
10 * 742 . 1 10 * 175 . 2

I
min
I
p2
:=

I
min
1.614 10
7
mm
4
=
u
0_1
1
2
atan
2 I
yzc
I
yc
I
zc
\
|
|
.
:=
|
|
.
|
\
|

8 7
7
1
10 * 742 . 1 10 * 175 . 2
10 * 027 . 3 * 2
tan
2
1

u
0_1
11.171deg = 0 19 . 0 ) 171 . 11 tan( > =
u
0_2
u
0_1
t
2
+ := + 90 171 . 11 u
0_2
101.171deg =

0 06 . 5 ) 171 . 101 tan( < =

u
01
101.171 deg =

u
02
11.171deg =
u
u
D
i
r

2
Dir 1
y
z
z
y
z
y

Figure 2.2.30


inertia.
- 97 -
r
yc
I
yc
A
total
:=
4
7
10 * 039 . 1
10 * 175 . 2

r
yc
45.757mm =

radii of gyration

r
zc
I
zc
A
total
:=
4
8
10 * 039 . 1
10 * 742 . 1

r
zc
129.502mm =

r
p1
I
p1
A
total
:=
4
8
10 * 039 . 1
10 * 8 . 1

r
p1
131.636mm =

radii of gyration

r
p2
I
p2
A
total
:=
4
7
10 * 039 . 1
10 * 596 . 1

r
p2
39.198mm =

point Y ( I
yc
2.175 10
7
mm
4
= , I
yzc
2.845 10
7
mm
4
= )
point Z ( I
zc
1.742 10
8
mm
4
= , I
yzc
2.845 10
7
mm
4
= )
point Z ( I
zc
1.742 10
8
mm
4
= , I
yzc
2.845 10
7
mm
4
= )
Dir 2
q
u 2
-
P
Z'
0
I
( Z I , I )
C
q
Y I (
I
P
u
I , )
=

0
Dir 1

Figure 2.2.31

i
between 0 to t:
i 0 24 .. :=

u
i
t
24
i ( ) :=
I
yr
i
I
yc
I
zc
+
2
I
yc
I
zc
2
cos 2 u
i
( ) + I
yzc
sin 2 u
i
( ) :=
- 98 -
I
zr
i
I
yc
I
zc
+
2
I
yc
I
zc
2
cos 2 u
i
( ) I
yzc
sin 2 u
i
( ) + :=
I
yzr
i
I
yc
I
zc
2
sin 2 u
i
( ) I
yzc
cos 2 u
i
( ) + :=
0 30 60 90 120 150 180
1
.
10
8
2.5
.
10
7
5
.
10
7
1.25
.
10
8
2
.
10
8
0
I
yr
i
I
zr
i
I
yzr
i
180
180
t
u
|
\
|
|
.
i

Figure 2.2.32


Calculate the following geometrical characteristics:

(a) area
(b) position of the centroid
(c) centroidal moments and product of inertia
(d) centroidal principal moments and directions
(e) radii of gyration

and draw:

(a) the Mohrs circle
(b) the variation of the centroidal moments of inertia and product of inertia
considering a rotation of the coordinate system with an angle u varying from
0 = u to t u 2 = for all the cross-sections shown in Figures 2.3.1 to 2.3.33

Note: Dimensions are in mm unless noted

- 99 -
4
0

c
m
20 cm b=60 cm
h
=
3
0

c
m
parabola

Figure 2.3.1 Figure 2.3.2
500 mm
2
5
0

m
m
20 mm 20 mm
1
0

m
m
2
4
0

m
m
1
0

c
m
5
0

c
m
1
0

c
m
30 cm
5 cm
20 cm

400
2
8
0
15
1
5
2
5
0
1
5
400
360
105 15
30
120
3
0
3
0
3
0
1
8
0

2
0
2
0
0
200
100
mm
2
0
0
m
m
400
mm
1
0
0
1
1
0
110
1
0
0
m
m

- 100 -

150 mm 150 mm
50 50
5
0

r

=

1
0
c
m
b = 30 cm
semi-circle


100
400 400
2
0
0
200
2
0
0
4
6
0
3
0
3
0
260
30 30


4
0
0
50 100 50
200
90
2
0
0
1
5
0
4
0
0
100
200


a
=
2
0

c
m
2
a
=
2
0

c
m
2 o = 120
2a
a

- 101 -
100 100 100
1
0
0
1
0
0
1
0
0
1
0
0
5
0
5
0
5
0
2
0
0
1
0
0


6 in x1/2 in
W 18 x 71
C 10 x 30
270 x10
U 24
Pl
270 Pl 10 x
Pl


10
1
0
L 80x80x6 2
L 90x90x10
U 18
240 x20 Pl

- 102 -
240
1
2
6
0
0
1
2
12
L 80x80x8
300 x 20
500 x 10
300 x20
200
Pl
Pl
Pl


240 x16
400 x 10
150 x16
U 30
L x50x9 65
Pl
Pl
Pl


U 20 U 20
I 18
I 18
U 22
L x70x8 70
180 x20 Pl

- 103 -

NOTE: For cross-sections shown in Figures 2.3.29 and 2.3.30, net geometrical
characteristics are required. (Hint: subtract the bolts holes)

450 x15
600 x 10
450 x15
L 90 x90 x11
6
0
60
200
M16
60
6
0
6
0
6
0
450 x12
L x90x10 90
L x80x10 80
M20
Pl
Pl
Pl
Pl


- 118 -
CHAPTER 3 Equilibrium of Plane Linear
Members


3.1.1 Type of Loads, Supports and Reactions

- The external forces (loads) applied to plane linear beams are described in the
vertical plane of the beam and are classified as:

a. distributed forces acting on a particular segment or the entire length of the
beam;

b. concentrated forces acting in a particular point of the beam;

c. distributed moments acting on a particular segment or the entire length of
the beam;

d. concentrated moments (couples) acting in a particular point of the beam.

- The movement of a point located on the left axis of the beam resulting from
the application of forces in the Oxy plane is completely determined by three
generalized components: two in-plane translations (displacements) and a rotation. The
two displacements are chosen, for convenience, in the directions ox andoy of the
coordinates system attached to the beam, while the rotation is described by the
angular motion about an axis parallel to the oz axis located at the point of interest
(normal to the plane of the definition plane). The forces and moments resulting from
the constraints induced by the existence of supports, accordingly with the Newtons
First Law, are called reactions.

By constraining the free movement of the material point three types of supports are
created:

a. the roller support prevents the displacement in the direction normal to the
rolling plane and is replaced in the free-body diagram by a corresponding
reaction represented by a concentrated force as shown for case1 of Table
3.1. A similar case is that of a supporting cable illustrated in case 2 of
Table 3.1;

b. the pined (clamped) support impedes both translational displacement in
the beam description plane and is replaced in the free-body diagram by a
reaction, commonly represented by two orthogonal concentrated force
components as depicted in case 3 of Table 3.1;

c. the fixed support completely prevents all translational displacement and
rotation in the beam definition plane and is replaced in the free-body
- 119 -
diagram by a set of reactions commonly represented by two orthogonal
concentrated force components and a concentrated moment as depicted in
case 4 of Table 3.1.

Table 3.1 Plan Supports and Reactions

The drawing of the beam containing the exterior loads and the reaction forces
obtained by replacing the supports with their corresponding reaction forces is called
the free-body diagram of the beam.

If the number of unknown reactions is equal to the number of independent
equilibrium equations the beam is a statically determinate beam. If the number of
unknown reactions is larger than three the beam is called statically indeterminate
beam. Only the statically determinate beams are treated in this chapter.

3.1.2 Cross-Sectional Internal Resultants

In general there are six (6) internal resultants, ) ( x F , ) ( x V
y
, ) ( x V
z
, ) ( x T ,
) ( x M
y
and ) ( x M
z
, are present in the cross-section. They are illustrated in Figure
3.1.a.

(a) (b)

Figure 3.1
(a) Three-dimensional case and (b) Loads in Oxy plane
- 120 -

If the loads are acting in the vertical planeOxy , only three internal resultants, ) ( x F ,
) ( x V
y
and ) ( x M
z
have values different than zero. In order to simplify the notation
the subscript indices are dropped and the internal resultants are noted as: ) ( x F ,
) ( x V and ) ( x M . This is the case illustrated in Figure 3.1.b.

3.1.3 Types of Statically Determinate Beams

In the technical language employed by structural engineers, beams are identified by
the manner in which they are supported. Types of beams studied in the present
chapter are:

a. cantilevered beam, shown in Figure 3.2, has only one end, point C,
constrained against movement in both, horizontal and vertical, directions and
against the rotation around an axis parallel to the oz axis

b. simply supported beam, shown in Figure 3.3, has one end, point A,
constrained only in the vertical direction by a roller support, while the other
end, point B, is constrained in both vertical and horizontal directions by a
pined support or clamped support;;

c. beam with overhang, shown in Figure 3.4, is a simply supported type
beam which has cantilevers located at one or both ends

Figure 3.2 Cantilevered Beam

Figure 3.3 Simply Supported Beam
- 121 -

Figure 3.4 Beam with Overhang

3.1.4 Method 1 - Calculation of the Internal Resultants Using Method of Sections

The calculation is conducted as:

Step 1. The beam is first conceptually freed of constraints and then, the corresponding
reactions, as described in the previous section. At this point, the schematic diagram
containing only the externally applied forces and reaction forces is identified. This
way the free-body diagram is constructed;

Step 2. Using this diagram the equations of equilibrium (3.1) of the entire beam are
written as:

0 =
x
F 0 =
y
F 0 =
O
z
M (3.1)
Note: Only the number of equilibrium equations is fixed at three, but the way to write
these equations is of personal preference.

Step 3. The linear algebraic system is solved and the three unknown reaction forces
are calculated.

Step 4. After the reactions have been calculated, the beam is conceptually sectioned,
as by a cutting-plane coincidental with a cross-section located at distance
C
x from
the origin point. This separation operation is called the method of sections. To
maintain intact the equilibrium of the two separated parts, the corresponding internal
resultants are introduced and two free-body diagrams are obtained. Writing the
equilibrium of one of the two previously obtained free-body diagrams the internal
resultants are obtained.

0 =
x
F 0 =
y
F 0 =
C
z
M (3.2)

Note: the sectioning of the beam is repeated as many times it is necessary to calculate
a meaningful set of values for the internal resultants and define their variation along
the length of the beam.
- 122 -
Step 5. Using the sign convention described below the graphs representing the
internal resultants are plotted.

The sign convention for the cross-section internal resultants, illustrated in Figure 3.5,
is stated as:

1. the positive shear force,V , acts in the negative direction of the oy axis at
the face + x of the cross-section;

2. the positive bending moment, M , makes the face + y of the beam
concave.

Figure 3.5 Sign Convention for Internal Resultants

Note: the variation of the internal resultant plotted in-between the cross-sections
calculated is unknown and for practical reason is considered linear. For this reason,
in order to obtain a variation closed to the real one, the number of cross-sections use
in the calculation has to be judiciously chosen or the variation judged using other
method. This method is not used for practical applications.

3.1.5 Method 2 - Differential Relations between Loads and Cross-Section Internal
Resultants

The free-body diagram concept will be extended to write the equilibrium of the
elementary volume around a point of the beam. The free-body diagram of the
elementary volume is shown in Figure 3.6.

Figure 3.6 Equilibrium of Elementary Beam Volume

- 123 -
The external forces acting on the elementary volume are considered to be uniformly
distributed, their variation being small enough to be neglected over the short length
x A quantity. These are represented by two distributed forces, ) (x p
n
and ) (x p
t
, and a
distributed moment ) (x m , all acting in the positive sense relative to the respective
axes.

The sign convention for the external loads is:

1. the positive tangential distributed and concentrated loads on the beam
longitudinal axis ox act in the positive direction of ox axis;

2. the positive normal distributed and concentrated loads on the beam
longitudinal axis ox act in the positive direction of oy axis;

3. the positive distributed and concentrated bending moments act in the positive
direction of the oz axis according to the right-hand rule.

The differential relations between external loads and cross-sectional internal
resultants are:

) ( x p
dx
dF
t
= (3.3)

) ( x p
dx
dV
n
= (3.4)

) ( ) ( x m x V
dx
dM
= (3.5)

If the differential equations (3.3), (3.4) and (3.5) are integrated and the initial
boundary conditions at 0 = x are enforced, the following expressions are obtained:

}
= dx x p F x F
t
* ) ( ) (
0
(3.6)
}
+ = dx x p V x V
n
* ) ( ) (
0
(3.7)
} }
+ = dx x m dx x V M x M * ) ( * ) ( ) (
0
(3.8)

Note: From equations (3.6) through (3.8) important practical conclusions are
derived:

(a) the loading functions ) (x p
n
, ) (x p
t
and ) (x m must be continuous functions on
finite-intervals for the integration to be possible;

- 124 -
(b) the cross-sections where concentrated forces and moments are acting represent
discontinuity points. Those cases are treated as limiting cases of the
expressions obtained above;

(c) the integrals in equations (3.6) and (3.7) represent the area contained under the
loading curve over the length of the integration interval. The shear force
related integral in equation (3.8) represents the area contained under the shear
force curve over the length of the integration interval;

(d) values representing the boundary conditions of the cross-section internal
resultants at the beginning of the integration interval must be known in order
to evaluate the cross-sectional internal resultants on that interval.

The integrals contained in the equations (3.6) through (3.8) can be evaluated if the
load variation is established. Table 3.2 contains the most simple, but frequently used
variations.

Table 3.2 Variation of the Shear Force and Bending Moment

Case Load Distribution Shear Force
Variation
Bending Moment
Variation
1 No load constant linear
2 Constant linear Parabola 2
nd
Order
3 Linear Parabola 2
nd
Order Parabola 3
rd
Order

The following steps are required to construct de cross-sectional internal resultants
graphs using the differential equations (3.4) trough (3.6):

Step 1, 2 and 3 are identical to these used in the first method.

Step 4. The beam length is divided in continuity intervals following the variation of
the load. The discontinuity points, where the concentrated moments and forces are
located, are also identified.

Step 5. Starting with the first interval from the left end of the beam, one integrates the
differential equations (3.4) through (3.6) to the particular variation of the load
characterizing that particular interval of continuity. This way the internal resultants
and their variation are obtained. The operation is repeated for all established
continuity intervals.

Step 6. The calculated values and the knowledge of their variation provide enough
information for the plotting of the internal resultant graphical representation
(diagrams).

- 125 -
3.2 Solved Problems

Problem 3.2.1- Cantilevered Beam

Calculate and draw the shear force and moment diagram for the plane beam loaded as
shown in Figure 3.2.1.a.

Figure 3.2.1.a


A.1. A number of four (4) cross-sections define the variation of the loading, the
continuity intervals, along the entire length of the beam. They are located at the
following positions:

x
1
0 m :=

x
2
1 m :=

x
3
2 m :=

x
4
4 m :=

measured from the fixed end of the cantilever.

A.2 The existence of the reactions at point 1, the fixed end of the cantilever, identifies
that point as a point of discontinuity. Also, in a similar situation, a discontinuity point,
is the point where the concentrated force P is located.

A.3. The external system of forces acting in the vertical plane of the beam, is
composed from a concentrated force P 4000 N := and an uniformly distributed
force q 3000
N
m
:= .

B. Calculations

B.1. Construction of the free-body diagram (Figure 3.2.1.b)

The fixed support placed at the left end of the beam is replaced with two concentrated
reaction forces, one horizontal,
1
F , and one vertical,
1
V , and one concentrated moment,
1
M . The reaction forces and moment are illustrated in Figure 3.2.1.b and together
with the external loading system represent the free-body diagram corresponding to the
cantilevered beam.
- 126 -
1
2 3 4
V
1
F
1
M
P =
= q
1
x = x
2
= x
3
= x
4
=
1

Figure 3.2.1.b

B.2 Calculation of the reaction forces and moments

A number of three reactions are required to be calculated and an equal number of
equations of equilibrium are available. It can be concluded that the system is statically
determinate.

- First equilibrium equation (all forces projected on the horizontal direction -x):

0 =
x
F N F * 0
1
= no axial force

- Second equilibrium equation (all forces projected on the vertical direction -y):

0 =
y
F

V
1
P q x
4
x
3
( )
0 solve V
1
, 10000 N

= 0 2) (4 * 3 4
1
V V
1
10000 N :=

- Third equilibrium equation (all moment in point 1 created by the forces
rotating about the normal out-of-plane axis z ):

0
1
=
z
M

M
1
P x
2
x
1
( )
+ q x
4
x
3
( )
x
3
x
1
x
4
x
3
2
+
|
\
|
|
.
+ 0 solve M
1
, 22000 N m

= |
.
|
\
|
+ + + 0
2
3 4
2 * 2) (4 * 3000 1 * 4000 M
1
M
1
22000 N m :=

- 127 -
- To verify the validity of the reactions calculation the equation of equilibrium
of the moments around point 2 is used:

0
2
=
z
M

0 )] (
2
[ * ) ( * ) *(
2 3
3 4
3 4 1 2 1 1
= +
+ + x x
x x
x x q x x V M

0 0 0 )] 1 2 (
2
2 4
[ * ) 2 4 ( * 3000 ) 0 1 ( * 10000 22000 = = +
+ +

The free-body diagram, shown in Figure 3.2.1.b, is now complete.

B.2. Calculation of the Shear Force and Bending Moment Diagrams

- Discontinuity Point 1 m x x * 0
1
=

The location of the reaction force
1
V
and moment
1
M
at point 1 represent a
discontinuity, a jump, in both shear force and bending moment diagrams.
Consequently, the shear force and the bending moment in the section located in the
right vicinity of section 1 are obtained as:

V
1left
0 N :=

shear force at the left of the point

M
1left
0 N m :=

bending moment at the left of the point

V
1right
V
1left
V
1
+ solve V
1right
, 10000 N

shear force at the right of the point

+ = 10000 0
1right
V V
1right
10000N :=

M
1right
M
1left
M
1
+ solve M
1right
, 22000 N m


= 22000 0
1right
M M
1right
22000 N m :=

- Continuity Interval 1_right to 2_left ] 1 , 0 [ ] , 0 [
1 2
e x x x

The initial values for this continuity interval are:

V
0
V
1right
:= N V * 10000
0
=

M
0
M
1right
:= m N M * * 22000
0
=
- 128 -
The distributed loadings, forces and moments, acting in this interval are:

p
n
x ( ) 0
N
m
:=

zero distributed load

m
d
x ( ) 0
N m
m
:=

zero distributed moments

The variation of the shear force is obtained using the formula (3.7) as:

V x ( ) V
0
0
xm
, p
n
,
( )
(
(
]
d + 10000 N :=

the shear force is constant in this interval

The value of the shear force at the end point of the interval is obtained:

V
2left
V x ( ) substitute x 1 m , 10000.0 N :=

V
2left
10000 N :=

The variation of the bending moment inside of this interval is calculated using the
formula (3.8):

M x ( ) M
0
x V x ( )
(
(
(
]
d + x m
d
x ( )
(
(
(
]
d + 22000 N m 10000. N x + :=
the bending moment has a linear variation.

The value of the bending moment at the right end of this interval is calculated as:

M
2left
M x ( ) substitute x 1 m , 12000. N m :=

M
2left
12000 N m :=

2
=

The location of the concentrated force

P

at the section 2 represents a discontinuity, a
jump, in the shear force diagram. Consequently, the shear force and the bending
moment in the section located in the right vicinity of section 2 are obtained as:

V
2right
V
2left
P V
2right
6000 N

M
2right
M
2left
M
2right
12000 N m

- 129 -
- Continuity Interval 2_right to 3
] 1 , 0 [ ] , 0 [
2 3
e x x x

The initial values for this continuity interval are then calculated as:

V
0
V
2right
:= V
0
6 10
3
N =

M
0
M
2right
:= M
0
1.2 10
4
N m =


p
n
x ( ) 0
N
m
:=

no distributed load

m
d
x ( ) 0
N m
m
:=

no distributed moments


V x ( ) V
0
x p
n
x ( )
(
(
(
]
d + float 2 , 6.0 10
3
N :=

the shear force is constant in this
interval. The value of the shear force at the end point of the interval is obtained:

V
3

V
3
6000 N :=

formula (3.8):

M x ( ) M
0
x V x ( )
(
(
(
]
d + x m
d
x ( )
(
(
(
]
d + 12000 N m 6000. N x + :=
the bending moment has a linear variation.


M
3

M
3
6000 N m :=

- Continuity Interval 3 to 4 ] 2 , 0 [ ] 3 , 0 [
4
e x x x
- 130 -

V
0
V
3
:= V
0
6 10
3
N =

M
0
M
3
:= M
0
6 10
3
N m =


p
n
x ( ) q :=

the

distributed load

q acting in the negative direction

m
d
x ( ) 0
N m
m
:=

no distributed moments


V x ( ) V
0
x p
n
x ( )
(
(
(
]
d + float 2 , 6.0 10
3
N 3.0 10
3
N
m
x :=

the shear force varies linearly on this interval.

The value of the shear force at the end point of the interval is obtained:

V
4
V x ( ) substitute x 2 m , 0 :=

formula (3.8):

M x ( ) M
0
x V x ( )
(
(
(
]
d + x m
d
x ( )
(
(
(
]
d + 6000 N m 6000. N x 1500.
N
m
x
2
+ :=

the bending moment has a parabolic variation.


M
4
M x ( ) substitute x 2 m , 0 :=

- Using the shear force and bending moment values calculated above and
knowing the variations of these functions along the beam length, able us to
draw the correct diagrams. They are illustrated in Figure 3.2.1.c.
- 131 -
q =
= P
M
1
F
1
V
4 3 2
1
1
=
=
=
+

Figure 3.2.1.c

Problem 3.2.2 Simple-supported beam


Figure 3.2.2.a


A.1. A number of four (4) cross-sections define the continuity intervals of the loading
along the entire length of the beam. They are located at the following positions:

- 132 -
x
1
0 m :=

x
2
1 m :=

x
3
2.5 m :=

x
4
3.5 m :=
measured from pinned support of the beam.

A.2 The discontinuity points are those where concentrated forces or reaction forces,
(refers to forces or moments) act. For the simply supported beam studied they are
identified as points 1,2 and 4.

composed from an uniformly distributed forceq
1
24000
N
m
:= , a concentrated force
P 36000 N :=

and a linearly distributed force
m
N
x q ) (
2
.

B. Calculations


The pinned support placed at the left end of the beam is replaced with two
concentrated reaction forces, one horizontal,
1
1
V . The roller
support located at the left end of the beam is replaced by a force perpendicular on the
rolling support, in this case vertical on the beam longitudinal axis. The reaction forces
are illustrated in Figure 3.2.2.b and together with the external loading system
represent the free-body diagram corresponding to the simply supported beam.

1
2 3
4
V
1
F
P =
q
1
1 2 3 4
1
2
q
V
4

Figure 3.2.2.b

B.2 Calculation of the reaction forces

determinate.


=
0
x
F N F * 0
1
= no axial force
- 133 -
- Second equilibrium equation (all moment in point 4 created by the forces

0
4
=
z
M
V
1
x
4
x
1
( )
P x
4
x
2
( )

q
1
x
3
x
2
( )
x
3
x
2
2
x
4
x
3
( )
+
(
(
(
(
+
...
q
1
1
2
x
4
x
3
( )
2
3
x
4
x
3
( )
(
(
+
...
0
solve V
1
,
float 2 ,
4.6 10
4
N

= +
+ +
+
0 )) 5 . 2 5 . 3 ( *
3
2
* ) 5 . 2 5 . 3 ( * 24000 *
2
1
(
)) 5 . 2 5 . 3 (
2
1 5 . 2
( * ) 1 5 . 2 ( * 24000 ( ) 1 5 . 3 ( * 36000 ) 0 5 . 3 ( *
1
V

V
1
4.6 10
4
N =


0
1
=
z
M

V
4
x
4
x
1
( )
P x
2
x
1
( )
+
q
1
x
3
x
2
( )
x
3
x
2
2
x
2
x
1
( )
+
(
(
(
(
+
...
1
2
q
1
x
4
x
3
( )
1
3
x
4
x
3
( )
x
3
x
1
( )
+
(
(
(
(
+
...
0
solve V
4
,
float 2 ,
3.8 10
4
N

= +
+ +
+
0 )) 5 . 2 5 . 3 ( *
3
2
* ) 5 . 2 5 . 3 ( * 24000 *
2
1
(
)) 5 . 2 5 . 3 (
2
1 5 . 2
( * ) 1 5 . 2 ( * 24000 ( ) 1 5 . 3 ( * 36000 ) 0 5 . 3 ( *
1
V

V
4
3.8 10
4
N =

- To verify the validity of the reactions calculation the equilibrium equation of
forces projected on the vertical axis y is used:

0 =
y
F 0 ) ( * *
2
1
) *(
4 3 4 1 2 3 1 1
= + V x x q x x q P V
0 0 0 ) 5 . 2 5 . 3 ( * 24000 *
2
1
) 1 5 . 2 ( * 24000 36000 46000 = =

- 134 -


1
=

The location of the reaction force
1
V
at point 1 represents a discontinuity, a jump,
in the shear force diagram. The shear force and the bending moment in the section
located in the right vicinity of section 1 are obtained as:

V
1left
0 N :=

shear force at the left of the point

M
1left
0 N m :=


V
1right
V
1left
V
1
+ := V
1right
4.6 10
4
N =


M
1right
M
1left
:= M
1right
0N m =

bending moment at the right of the point

- Continuity Interval 1_right to 2_left ] 1 , 0 [ ] , 0 [
1 2
e x x x


V
0
V
1right
:= V
0
4.6 10
4
N =

M
0
M
1right
:= M
0
0N m =

p
n
x ( ) 0
N
m
:=

m
d
x ( ) 0
N m
m
:=


V x ( ) V
0
x p
n
x ( )
(
(
(
]
d + float 2 , 4.6 10
4
N :=

the shear force is constant in this
interval. The value of the shear force at the end point of the interval is obtained:

V
2left
V
2left
46000 N :=
- 135 -
formula (3.8):
M x ( ) M
0
x V x ( )
(
(
(
]
d + x m
d
x ( )
(
(
(
]
d + 46000. N x :=
the bending moment has a linear variation. The value of the bending moment at the
right end of this interval is calculated as:

M
2left
M
2left
46000 N m :=

2
=

The location of the concentrated force P at point 2 represents a discontinuity, a
jump, in the shear force diagram. The shear force and the bending moment in the
section located in the right vicinity of section 1 are obtained as:

V
2right
V
2left
P := V
2right
1 10
4
N =


M
2right
M
2left
:= M
2right
4.6 10
4
N m =

bending moment at the right of the point

- Continuity Interval 2_right to 3 ] 5 . 1 , 0 [ ] , 0 [
2 3
e x x x


V
0
V
2right
:= V
0
1 10
4
N =

M
0
M
2right
:= M
0
4.6 10
4
N m =

p
n
x ( ) q
1
:=

m
d
x ( ) 0
N m
m
:=


V x ( ) V
0
x p
n
x ( )
(
(
(
]
d + float 2 , 1.0 10
4
N 2.4 10
4
N
m
x :=

The shear force is linear in this interval. The value of the shear force at the end point
of the interval is obtained:
- 136 -
V
3
V x ( ) substitute x 1.5 m , 26000.00 N := V
3
26000 N :=

formula (3.8):

M x ( ) M
0
x V x ( )
(
(
(
]
d + x m
d
x ( )
(
(
(
]
d + 46000 N m 10000. N x 12000.
N
m
x
2
+ :=

The bending moment has a parabolic variation. The value of the bending moment at
the right end of this interval is calculated as:

M
3
M x ( ) substitute x 1.5 m , 34000.00 N m := M
3
34000 N m :=

It is observed that the shear force changes it sign on this interval, and consequently,
taking a zero value. The section where the shear force is zero represents a local
maximum for this interval. The position of the section where the bending moment has
a local maximum is calculated as:

V
2right
q
1
x
max
0
solve x
max
,
float 3 ,
.417 m the left side of the equation
represents the expression of the shear force on the interval. The position of the cross-
section is calculated:

x
max
0.417 m :=

The expression of the maximum bending moment is obtained by substituting the value
of
max
x
into the bending moment expression:

M
max
M
2right
q
1
x
max
x
max
2
+ := M
max
4.809 10
4
N m =

- Continuity Interval 3 to 4 ] 1 , 0 [ ] , 0 [
3 4
e x x x


V
0
V
3
:= V
0
2.6 10
4
N =

M
0
M
3
:= M
0
3.4 10
4
N m =

p
n
x ( ) q
1
1
x
l
34
\
|
|
.
:=

where

l
34
x
4
x
3
:=

is the length of the interval
- 137 -
m
d
x ( ) 0
N m
m
:=


V x ( ) V
0
x p
n
x ( )
(
(
(
]
d + float 2 , 2.6 10
4
( )
N 2.4 10
4
N
m
x .50
x
2
m

|
\
|
|
.
:=

The shear force is parabolic in this interval. The value of the shear force at the end
point of the interval is obtained:

V
4left
V x ( ) substitute x 1 m , 38000.000 N := V
4left
38000 N :=

formula (3.8):

M x ( ) M
0
x V x ( )
(
(
(
]
d + float 5 , 34000. N m 26000. N x 24000.
N
m
.50000 x
2
.16667
x
3
m

|
\
|
|
.
:=


M
4left
M x ( ) substitute x 1 m , 8.000 10
-2
N m :=

Note: The moment

left
M
4

should be zero, but because the numerical error induced by
fixing the number of decimals at five (5), a very small value is obtained.

- Discontinuity Point 4

V
4right
V
4left
V
4
+ := V
4right
0N =

M
4right
M
4left
:= M
4right
0 N m :=

knowing the variations of these functions along the beam length, the shear
force and bending moment diagrams are draw as illustrated in Figure 3.2.2.c.
- 138 -
4
V
q
2
1
1
q
= P
F
1
V
4 3
2
1
0
= =
=

Figure 3.2.2.c

Problem 3.2.3 Simple-supported beam with overhang


Figure 3.2.3.a


A.1. A number of six (6) cross-sections define the continuity intervals of the loading
along the entire length of the beam. They are located at the following positions:

x
1
0 m :=

x
2
4 m :=

x
3
6 m :=

x
4
9 m :=

x
5
12 m :=

and

- 139 -
x
6
14 m :=

measured from the left end of the beam.

A.2 The discontinuity points are those where concentrated forces or reaction forces,
(refers to forces or moments) act. For the studied they are identified as points 2, 4, 5
and 6.

composed from an uniformly distributed forceq 3000
N
m
:= , a concentrated force
P 8000 N :=

and a concentrated moment M
ext
24000 N m := .

B. Calculations


The pinned support placed at section 2 is replaced with two concentrated reaction
forces, one horizontal,
2
2
V . The roller support located at section 5
of the beam is replaced by a force perpendicular on the rolling support, in this case
vertical,
5
V , on the beam longitudinal axis. The reaction forces are illustrated in Figure
3.2.3.b and together with the external loading system represent the free-body diagram.

1
2
3 5
V
2
F
P =
q
1 2 3 4
2
V
5
M
ext
5 6
4
6
=

Figure 3.2.3.b

B.2 Calculation of the reaction forces

determinate.

=
0
x
F N F * 0
1
= no axial force

- Second equilibrium equation (all moment in point 5 created by the forces

- 140 -
0
5
=
z
M

q x
2
x
1
( )
x
2
x
1
2
x
5
x
2
( )
+
(
(
V
2
x
5
x
2
( )
q x
3
x
2
( )
x
3
x
2
2
x
5
x
3
( )
+
(
(
+
...
P x
5
x
4
( )
M
ext
+ +
...
0 solve V
2
, 20250 N

0 24000 ) 9 12 ( * 8000
)] 6 12 (
2
4 6
[ * ) 4 6 ( * 3000 ) 4 12 ( * )] 4 12 (
2
0 2
[ * ) 0 2 ( * 3000
2
= +
+
+ +
V
V
2
20250 N :=


0
2
=
z
M
q x
2
x
1
( )
x
2
x
1
( )
2
q x
3
x
2
( )
x
3
x
2
( )
2
+
P x
4
x
2
( )
V
5
x
5
x
2
( )
M
ext
+ +
... 0 solve V
5
, 5750 N

0 24000
) 4 12 ( * ) 4 9 ( * 8000 ]
2
4 6
[ * ) 4 6 ( * 3000 ]
2
0 2
[ * ) 0 2 ( * 3000
5
= +
+
V

V
5
5750 N :=

- To verify the validity of the reactions calculation the equilibrium equation of
forces projected on the vertical axis y is used:

0 =
y
F

0 ) ( *
5 2 1 3
= + + V P V x x q 0 0 5750 8000 20250 ) 0 6 ( * 3000 = + +


- Interval 1-2_left


V
0
0 N :=
- 141 -
M
0
0 N m :=

p
n
x ( ) q :=
m
d
x ( ) 0
N m
m
:=

V x ( ) V
0
x p
n
x ( )
(
(
(
]
d + float 2 , 3.0 10
3
( )
N
m
x :=


V
2left
V x ( ) substitute x 4 m , 12000.0 N := V
2left
12000 N :=

formula (3.8):
M x ( ) M
0
x V x ( )
(
(
(
]
d + x m
d
x ( )
(
(
(
]
d + 1500.
N
m
x
2
:=

M
2left

M
2left
24000 N m :=


V
2right
V
2left
V
2
+ solve V
2right
, 8250 N

V
2right
8250 N :=

M
2right
M
2left
solve M
2right
, 24000 N m

M
2right
24000 N m :=

- Interval 2right-3
V
0
V
2right
:=

M
0
M
2right
:=
p
n
x ( ) q :=

m
d
x ( ) 0
N m
m
:=

V x ( ) V
0
x p
n
x ( )
(
(
(
]
d + float 3 , 8.25 10
3
N 3.00 10
3
N
m
x :=
- 142 -

V
3

V
3
2250 N :=

formula (3.8):
M x ( ) M
0
x V x ( )
(
(
(
]
d + x m
d
x ( )
(
(
(
]
d + 24000 N m 8250. N x 1500.
N
m
x
2
+ :=


M
3

M
3
13500 N m :=

- Interval 3-4left

V
0
V
3
:=

V
0
2.25 10
3
N =
M
0
M
3
:=

M
0
1.35 10
4
N m =
p
n
x ( ) 0
N
m
:=
m
d
x ( ) 0
N m
m
:=

V x ( ) V
0
x p
n
x ( )
(
(
(
]
d + float 3 , 2.25 10
3
N :=
The shear force is constant in this interval. The value of the shear force at the end

V
4left

V
4left
2250 N :=

formula (3.8):
M x ( ) M
0
x V x ( )
(
(
(
]
d + x m
d
x ( )
(
(
(
]
d + 13500 N m 2250. N x + :=
The bending moment has a linear variation. The value of the bending moment at the

M
4left

M
4left
6750 N m :=

- 143 -

V
4right
V
4left
P solve V
4right
, 5750 N

V
4right
5750 N :=

M
4right
M
4left
solve M
4right
, 6750 N m

M
4right
6750 N m :=

- Interval 4right-5left

The initial conditions are:
V
0
V
4right
:=

V
0
5.75 10
3
N =

M
0
M
4right
:=

M
0
6.75 10
3
N m =

p
n
x ( ) 0
N
m
:=

m
d
x ( ) 0
N m
m
:=

V x ( ) V
0
x p
n
x ( )
(
(
(
]
d + float 3 , 5.75 10
3
( )
N :=
The shear force is constant in this interval. The value of the shear force at the end

V
5left

V
5left
5750 N :=

formula (3.8):
M x ( ) M
0
x V x ( )
(
(
(
]
d + x m
d
x ( )
(
(
(
]
d + 6750 N m 5750. N x :=
The bending moment has a linear variation. The value of the bending moment at the

M
5left

M
5left
24000 N m :=


V
5right
V
5left
V
5
+ solve V
5right
, 0

V
5right
0 N :=

M
5right
M
5left
solve M
5right
, 24000 N m

M
5right
24000 N m :=

- 144 -
- Interval 5right to 6left

The initial values are:
V
0
V
5right
:=

V
0
0N =

M
0
M
5right
:=

M
0
2.4 10
4
N m =

p
n
x ( ) 0
N
m
:=

m
d
x ( ) 0
N m
m
:=

V x ( ) V
0
x p
n
x ( )
(
(
(
]
d + float 3 , 0 :=
The shear force is zero in this interval. The value of the shear force at the end point of
the interval is obtained:

V
6left
V x ( ) substitute x 2 m , 0 :=

V
6left
0 N :=

formula (3.8):
M x ( ) M
0
x V x ( )
(
(
(
]
d + x m
d
x ( )
(
(
(
]
d + 24000 N m :=
The bending moment has a constant variation. The value of the bending moment at

M
6left
M x ( ) substitute x 2 m , 24000 N m :=

M
6left
24000 N m :=

V
6rigt
V
6left
:=

V
6rigt
0N =

M
6right
M
6left
M
ext
+ :=

M
6right
0N m =

knowing the variations of these functions along the beam length, the shear
force and bending moment diagrams are draw as illustrated in Figure 3.2.3.c.
- 145 -
=
6
4
ext
M
5
V
2
q
= P
F
2
V
5 3
2
1

Figure 3.2.3.c

Problem 3.2.4

Using the shear force diagram shown in Figure 3.2.4.a, determine: (a) the free body
diagram of the beam, (b) the corresponding bending moment diagram and (c) the
possible support positions.

Figure 3.2.4.a


A.1. Analyzing the variation of the shear force diagram illustrated in Figure 3.2.4.a, it
is observed that three (3) intervals of continuity are found. They are described by four
(4) sections located at distances:
x
1
0 m :=

x
2
3m :=

x
3
4.5 m :=

x
4
6 m :=

measured from the left end of the beam.
- 146 -
A.2 The shear diagram has three jumps indicating the existence of concentrated
forces at these locations. They are positioned at point 1, 3 and 4 as illustrated in
Figure 3.2.4.b.

1 2 3 4
(a)
1.left
V
V
1.right
V
2
V
3.left
V
3.right
V
4.left
V
4.right

Figure 3.2.4.b

B. Calculations

B.1 Free-Body Diagram

Following the reasoning described in the paragraph A.2 can be concluded the
following: (a) in point 1 acts a concentrated vertical force kN P 18
1
= . The force is
positive orientated; (b) in point 3 operates a negative orientated vertical
force kN P 18
3
= and (c) in point 4 a positive orientated vertical force kN P 18
4
= is
found.

Note: These conclusions can be made also by interpreting the equation (3.7).

The construction of the free-body diagram is made in the following manner:

- a positive orientated concentrated force kN P 18
1
= is placed in 1;
- the variation of the shear force in the interval 1_right to 2 is linear indicating
the existence of a constant loading in this interval (see Table 3.2). Because the
value of the shear force decreases towards point 2, the uniform distributed
force is negative orientated. The magnitude of the distributed force is
calculated by writing the value of the shear force in point 2:

= + = + = 0 3 * 18 0 ) ( *
1 2 1 2
q x x q V V
right
kN q 6 =

- the shear force has zero magnitude in the interval 2 to 3_left, indicating that
there is not any distributed load in this interval;
- a negative concentrated force kN P 18
3
= acts in point 2;
- the shear force is constant in the interval 3_right to 4, and consequently, no
distributed force acts in this interval;
- 147 -
- a concentrated positive orientated force kN P 18
4
= is attached to point 4.

The free-body diagram is illustrated in Figure 3.2.4.c
1
P
q
3
P =
P
4

Figure 3.2.4.c

B.2 Calculation of the Bending Moment Diagram

The moment diagram can be calculated using the formula (3.8) or by using the
observation that the integral geometrically represents the area located under the
function. This time the second method is used.

m kN 0
1
= M
m kN 27 3 * 18 *
2
1
0
2 _ 1 _ 1 2
+ + =
shear
A M M
m kN 27 0 27
3 _ 2 _ 2 3
+ + =
shear
A M M
m kN 0 5 . 1 * 18 27
4 _ 3 _ 3 4
+ =
shear
A M M

The bending moment diagram is shown in Figure 3.2.4.d.
2
M
M
3

Figure 3.2.4.d

B.3 Discussion about the possible support configuration

Two vertical supports are necessary to be placed, for the beam to be statically
determinate, where the concentrated forces are located. The concentrated forces are
future candidates to be reaction forces. Two configurations illustrated in Figures
3.2.4.e and 3.2.4.f are yielding similar shear force and bending moment diagrams. It
can be concluded that problem has two possible configurations.

- 148 -

Figure 3.2.4.e

Figure 3.2.4.f

It is the configuration shown in Figure 3.2.4.g a real configuration?

Figure 3.2.4.g

Hint: To answer calculate the reaction forces, construct the free-body diagram and
compare with the free-body diagram shown in Figure 3.2.4.c.

- 149 -

Problem 3.3.1 3.3.36 Conduct the following tasks: (a) Draw the free-body diagram,
(b) calculate the reaction forces and moments, (c) calculate and draw the shear force
and bending moment using method 2.




- 150 -





- 151 -





- 152 -





- 153 -
Problems 3.3.37 and 3.3.38 Calculate the bending moment diagram and discussed the
possible free-body diagram related to the shear force diagrams shown in Figures
3.3.37 and 3.3.38.


- 154 -
CHAPTER 4 Axial Deformation


4.1.1 Basic Theory of Axial Deformation

- Definition 4.1

A plane linear member, when subjected to exterior loads and/or change of
temperature, undergoes an axial deformation if after the deformation:

(a) the axis of the member remains straight;

(b) the cross-sections remain plane, perpendicular to the longitudinal axis
of the beam and do not rotate about the same longitudinal axis after the
deformation.

- Equilibrium Equation

Figure 4.1 Equilibrium of an Elementary Beam Volume

The differential relation between the exterior load and the axial internal resultant is
obtained from the equilibrium of the elementary volume:

) (
) (
x p
dx
x dF
t
= (4.1)

where ) ( x p
t
is the distributed loading parallel to the beam longitudinal axis and
) (x F is the axial stress resultant .

Integrating equation (4.1) the stress resultant force ) (x F in a particular cross-section
is calculated as:

}
=
x
t
d p F x F
0
0
* ) ( ) ( (4.2)

- 155 -
where ) 0 (
0
= = x F F is the value of the axial force at the origin of the integration
interval.

- Strain-Displacement Equation

Figure 4.1 Geometrical Aspects of the Axial Deformation
(a) Undeformed Member and (b) Deformed Member

The extensional strain ) ( x
y
c along the longitudinal axis of the beam is obtained using
the notation shown in Figure 4.1:

dx
du
x
x u x x u
x
x x
x
x x x
=
A
A +
=
A
A A
=
A A
]
) ( ) (
[ lim ) ( lim ) (
0
*
0
c (4.3)

The rest of the generalized strain tensor components, extensional and shear strains,
are:

) ( * ) ( x x
x y
c v c = (4.4)

) ( * ) ( x x
x z
c v c = (4.5)

0 = = =
yz xz xy
(4.6)

The expression of the generalized strain tensor
c
T is:

x
x
x
z zy zx
yz y yx
xz xy x
T
c v
c v
c
c
c
c
c
* 0 0
0 * 0
0 0
= = (4.7)

The displacement ) ( x u is obtained by integration the differential equation (4.3):
- 156 -

dx x u x u
x
x
* ) ( ) (
0
0
}
+ = c (4.8)

where ) 0 (
0
= = x u u is the displacement at the beginning at the integration interval.

The elongation is calculated using equation (4.8) as:

}
= =
L
x
dx x u L u e
0
* ) ( ) 0 ( ) ( c (4.9)

where L is the total length of the bar.

- Constitutive Equation

The constitutive equation reflects the relation between the stress and the strain. If the
linear elastic material behavior is considered, applying the Hooks Law, the relation
between the normal stress ) , , ( z y x
x
o and extension strain ) (x
x
c is written:

) ( * ) , , ( ) , , ( x z y x E z y x
x x
c o = (4.10)

where E is the modulus of elasticity and is obtained performing tensile tests.

Considering the assumption that the cross-section of the bar is a small surface, the
variation of the modulus of elasticity ) , , ( z y x E is negligible on this surface, and
consequently, the constitutive equation (4.10) is expressed as:

) ( * ) ( ) ( x x E x
x x
c o = (4.11)

Note: equation (4.11) implies that the normal stress ) (x
x
o varies only along the
length of the member, but has a constant value on the entire cross-section.

The representation of the normal stress ) (x
x
o is shown in Figure 4.2.

Figure 4.2 Cross-Section Normal Stress Distribution

- 157 -
Note: equation (4.11) implies that the normal stress ) (x
x
o varies only along the
length of the member, but has a constant value on the entire cross-section.

The rest of the stress tensor
o
T components are zero:

0 ) ( ) ( = = x x
z y
o o (4.12)

0 = = =
yz xz xy
t t t (4.13)

Consequently, the generalized stress tensor is:

0 0 0
0 0 0
0 0
x
z zy zx
yz y yx
xz xy x
T
o
o t t
t o t
t t o
o
= = (4.14)

- Cross-Section Stress (Internal) Resultants

The following cross-sectional stress (internal) resultants are obtained using the stress
distribution expressed by equation (4.11) through (4.13):

) ( * ) ( * ) ( * ) ( ) ( x A x dA x dA x x F
x
A
x
A
x
o o o
} }
= = = (4.15)

y x
A
x
A
x y
S x dA z x dA x z x M * ) ( * * ) ( * ) ( * ) ( o o o
} }
= = = (4.16)

z x
A
x
A
x z
S x dA y x dA x y x M * ) ( * * ) ( * ) ( * ) ( o o o
} }
= = = (4.17)

The relations between the normal stress ) (x
x
o and the cross-section resultants ) (x F ,
) (x M
y
and ) (x M
z
are derived using the notation shown in Figure 4.3.

Figure 4.3 Normal Stress and Stress Resultants
(a) Normal Stress and (b) Stress Resultants
- 158 -
If the axes oy and oz of the coordinate system intersect such that the x axis passes
through the cross-section centroid, the static moments
y
S and
z
S are zero and the
axial force ) (x F remains the only non-zero stress resultant:

) ( * ) ( * ) ( * ) ( ) ( x A x dA x dA x x F
x
A
x
A
x
o o o
} }
= = = (4.18)

0 ) ( = x M
y
(4.19)

0 ) ( = x M
z
(4.20)

Then, from equation (4.18) the normal stress
x
o is calculated as:

) (
) (
) (
x A
x F
x
x
= o (4.21)

Note: It is concluded that a beam made from a linear elastic material undergoes an
axial deformation if the axial force passes through the cross-section centroid.

- Thermal Effects on Axial Deformation

The thermal strain was introduced as:

T
T
A = * o c (4.22)

where o is the thermal expansion coefficient and T A is the change in the member
temperature.

The total elongation strain is the sum of the elongation strain induced by the exterior
load action and thermal effects and is expressed as:

) ( * ) (
) ( * ) (
) (
) ( * ) (
) (
) (
) ( x T x
x A x E
x F
x T x
x E
x
x
x
x
A + = A + = o o
o
c (4.23)

Then, the total elongation of the member is written as:

} } }
A + = =
L L L
x
dx x T x dx
x A x E
x F
dx x e
0 0 0
* ) ( * ) ( *
) ( * ) (
) (
* ) ( o c (4.24)

4.1.2 Uniform-Axial Deformation

- Definition 4.2

The uniform axial-deformation element is a linear member characterized by:

(a) a constant area along the entire length of the member;

- 159 -
(b) is made of a homogeneous elastic material;

(c) is subjected to a constant axial force . F

- Uniform-axial deformed members (shown in Figure 4.4)

.
Figure 4.4 Member Exhibiting Uniform Axial-Deformation

Transcribing the requirements of the definition 4.2 the following expressions are
obtained:

0
) ( A x A = (4.25)

0
) ( E x E = (4.26)

0
) ( F x F = (4.27)

Note: Equation (4.27) implies the absence of the distributed load ) (x p
t
.

Rewriting equations (4.21), (4.23) and (4.24) previously obtained for the case of the
member with uniform axial-deformation the following equations are obtained:

0
0
0
) (
) (
) ( o o = = =
A
F
x A
x F
x
x
for axial stress (4.28)
0
0 0
0
* ) (
) (
) ( c
o
c = = =
A E
F
x E
x
x
x
x
for elongation strain (4.29)

T L L T L
A E
L F
T L L dx x T x dx x e
L L
x
A + = A + =
= A + = A + =
} }
* * * * *
*
*
* * * * ) ( * ) ( * ) (
0
0 0
0
0
0 0
o c o
o c o c

for total elongation (4.30)

- 160 -
- Axial flexibility and stiffness coefficients

L
A E
k
0 0
*
= the axial stiffness coefficient. (4.31)

0 0
*
1
A E
L
k
f = = axial flexibility coefficient (4.32)

Substituting the equation (4.32) into the total elongation expression (4.30), the total
elongation of a bar under uniform-axial deformation is recast as:

T L F f T L
A E
L F
e A + = A + = * * * * *
*
*
0
0 0
0
o o (4.33)

4.1.3 Nonuniform-Axial Deformation

If any one of the assumptions contained in definition 4.2 is violated the axial
deformation is called nonuniform-axial deformation. The most common cases of
nonuniform-axial deformation are:

- Member with non-homogeneous cross-section;
- Member with variable Cross-Section;
- Member loaded along its length.

The formulae described in the section 4.1.1 have to be adapted function of the
situation.

4.1.4 Verification of the Members Subjected to Axial Deformation

The design formula used is the relationship between maximum normal stress
max
o
and the allowable normal stress
all
o :

all
o o s
max
(4.34)

The formula (4.34) was used for a long period of time in a procedure known as the
allowable-stress design. Due to the simplicity of application, this method is still
commonly used in United States for the design of steel structures.

The allowable normal stress
all
o is defined by limiting the value of the normal stress
in the axially deformed member. Dividing the yield stress
Y
o pertinent to the material
subjected to axial deformation by a safety factor SF the allowable axial stress is
calculated:

SF
Y
all
o
o = (4.35)

- 161 -
The safety factor is greater than one, usually taking values between 2 and 3. The yield
stress for different materials is found in Appendix 1.2.

4.2 Solved Problems

Problem 4.2.1

A solid brass rod AB and a solid aluminum rod BC are connected together by a rigid
coupler of negligible length at B as shown in Figure 4.2.1.a. The diameters and the
modulus of elasticity of the two segments are d
1
= 65 mm, d
2
= 50 mm, E
1
= 105 GPa
and E
1
= 69 GPa, respectively. The system is loaded by two concentrated loads,
kN P
B
180 = and kN P
C
45 = , acting along the centroidal line of the system at point
B and C , respectively . Calculate the axial stress existing in the two rods and the
displacement at point B and C. Verify the rod segments.

Figure 4.2.1.a


Two axial forces are acting on the rod:

P
B
180 10
3
N :=

and P
C
45 10
3
N :=

The areas of the two rod segments are:

A
1
t d
1
2
4
:=
4
65 *
2
t
A
1
3.318 10
3
mm
2
=

A
2
t d
2
2
4
:=
4
50 *
2
t
A
2
1.963 10
3
mm
2
=

B. Calculations


The constraint located at point A is replaced by a horizontal reaction
A
H as shown in
Figure 4.2.1.b.
- 162 -

Figure 4.2.1.b

B.2 Reaction Calculation

The equation of equilibrium used is the projection of all axial forces on the horizontal
axis x :

= 0 X H
A
P
B
+ P
C
+ 0 solve H
A
, 135000 N

H
A
135000 N :=

The equilibrium equation contains only one unknown reaction force,
A
H , and
consequently, the system is statically determinate.

B.3 The Axial Force Diagram

The axial force diagram is drawn in Figure 4.2.1.c.

H
A
B
P
C
P

Figure 4.2.1.c

The axial force on the interval AB is a constant tension forceF
1
135 10
3
N := ,
while on the interval BC is a constant compression force F
2
45 10
3
N := . It can
be concluded that both segments of the rod are uniform-axial deformed members.

B.3 Stress and Strain Calculation

The stress and strain in the interval AB, where the rod is made of solid brass are
obtained as:

- 163 -
o
1
F
1
A
1
:=
2 3
5
10 * 318 . 3
10 * 35 . 1
m
N
o
1
4.068 10
7
Pa =

tension stress

c
1
o
1
E
1
:=
9
7
10 * 105
10 * 068 . 4
c
1
3.875 10
4
=

elongation strain

In a similar manner is calculated the stress and strain pertinent to the interval BC
representing the aluminum made rod.

o
2
F
2
A
2
:=
2 3
5
10 * 963 . 1
10 * 45 . 0
m
N
o
2
2.292 10
7
Pa = compression stress

c
2
o
2
E
2
:=
9
7
10 * 69
10 * 292 . 2
c
2
3.321 10
4
=

elongation strain

B.4 Flexibility Coefficients

The flexibility coefficients are calculated as:

f
1
L
1
E
1
A
1
:=
2 3 11
10 * 318 . 3 * 10 * 05 . 1
5 . 1
m Pa
m
f
1
4.305 10
9
m
N
=

f
2
L
2
E
2
A
2
:=
2 3 11
10 * 963 . 1 * 10 * 69 . 0
0 . 1
m Pa
m
f
2
7.381 10
9
m
N
=

B.5 Calculation of the axial displacements

The displacement
B
u of the point B , the right end of the brass segment, is calculated
as:

u
B
u
0
f
1
F
1
+ := +

N
N
m
m * 10 * 35 . 1 * * 10 * 305 . 4 * 0
5 9
u
B
5.812 10
4
m =

where the displacement at the origin of the interval

u
0
u
A
:= andu
A
0 m := , because
the point is constraint against the horizontal movement.

The calculation of the displacement
C
u implies the knowledge of the displacement of
the origin point of the interval BC .

u
0
u
B
:= m u
4
0
10 * 812 . 5

=

The displacement in point C is calculated as:

- 164 -
u
C
u
0
f
2
F
2
+ :=

N
N
m
m * 10 * 45 . 0 * * 10 * 381 . 7 * 10 * 81 . 5
5 9 4

u
C
2.49 10
4
m =
B.6 Verification of the Rod

The verification of the rod segments is conducted as:

- for the brass segment

brass
brass y
SF
_
brass allowable_ 1
o
o o = s Pa Pa
7 7
10 * 75 . 13 10 * 068 . 4 < ok

where
brass allowable_
o is the brass allowable stress,
brass y _
o is the brass yield stress which
can be found in Appendix 1.2, and
brass
SF is the safety factor . For this calculation
o
Y_brass
275 10
6
Pa := and SF
brass
2.0 := .

- for the aluminum segment

um alu
um alu y
SF
min
min _
aluminum allowable_ 2
o
o o = s Pa Pa
7 7
10 * 5 . 20 10 * 292 . 2 < ok

where
aluminums allowable_
ums alu y min _
o is the aluminum yield
stress which can be found in Appendix 1.2, and
um alu
SF
min
is the safety factor . For
this calculation o
Y_aluminum
410 10
6
Pa := andSF
aluminum
2.0 := .

Problem 4.2.2

Two uniform, linearly elastic members are held together at point B and the resulting
two-segment rod is attached to rigid supports at ends A and C. A single external load
P = 4000 kN is applied at joint B. Member (1) has a length 2 L
1
= m, diameter d
1
=
120 mm and is made of steel with a modulus of elasticity
1
E = 200 GPa. Member (2)
has a length
2
L = 1.8 m, diameter d
2
= 150 mm and is made of an aluminum alloy
with a modulus of elasticity
2
E =75 GPa. Conduct the following tasks: (a) verify the
axial stress in both members and (b) calculate the axial displacement at point B.

Figure 4.2.2.a
- 165 -

The areas of the two rod segments are:

A
1
t d
1
2
4
:=
4
120 *
2
t
A
1
1.131 10
4
mm
2
=

A
2
t d
2
2
4
:=
4
150 *
2
t
A
2
1.767 10
4
mm
2
=

B. Calculations


The constraint located at point A is replaced by a horizontal reaction
A
H as shown in
Figure 4.2.2.b.

Figure 4.2.2.b


The equation of equilibrium used is the projection of all axial forces on the horizontal
axis x :

H
A
P
B
+ H
C
+ 0 solve H
A
, P
B
H
C

The equation contains two (2) unknown reaction forces

A
H

and
C
H . Consequently,
the system is a statically indeterminate. An additional equation is necessary. This is
equation is geometrical in nature and represents the fact that the total elongation of
the beam is zero.

0 = =
A C
u u e

Considering that the calculation of the displacement starts at point A, u
A
0 m

and
the

axial displacement at the end B of the interval AB, representing the steel rod, is
calculated as:

- 166 -
u
B
u
A
L
1
A
1
E
1
F
1
+
substitute F
1
H
A
,
substitute u
A
0 m ,
u
B
L
1
A
1
E
1
( )
H
A

At the left end of the BC interval the axial displacement is expressed as:

u
C
u
B
L
2
A
2
E
2
F
2
+
substitute u
B
L
1
A
1
E
1
H
A
,
substitute F
2
H
C
,
u
C
L
1
A
1
E
1
( )
H
A
L
2
A
2
E
2
( )
H
C
+

This way the second equation is obtained as:

u
C
0

and by substituting the flexibility coefficients

1
f

and

2
f

into the expression of the
axial displacement

C
u the following algebraic system is obtained:

H
A
P
B
+ H
C
+ 0
f
1
H
A
f
2
H
C
+ 0

The solutions, representing the two reactions,
A
H

and

C
H , are found
:

Find H
A
H
C
,
( )
collect P
B
,
P
B
f
2
f
1
f
2
+
( )
f
1
P
B
f
1
f
2
+
( )
(
(
(
(
(
(

Substituting the numerical data the reaction forces are calculated as:

f
1
L
1
A
1
E
1
:=

Pa m
m
11 2 2
10 * 2 * 10 * 131 . 1
0 . 2
f
1
8.842 10
10
m
N
=

f
2
L
2
A
2
E
2
:=

Pa m
m
11 2 2
10 * 75 . 0 * 10 * 767 . 1
8 . 1
f
2
1.358 10
9
m
N
=

H
A
f
2
f
1
f
2
+
P
B
:=
+
6
9 10
9
10 * 4 *
10 * 358 . 1 10 * 842 . 8
10 * 358 . 1
H
A
2.423 10
6
N =

- 167 -
H
C
f
1
f
1
f
2
+
P
B
:=
+
6
9 10
10
10 * 4 *
10 * 358 . 1 10 * 842 . 8
10 * 842 . 8
H
C
1.577 10
6
N =

B.3 The Axial Force Diagram

The axial force diagram is drawn in Figure 4.2.2.c.
H
A
B
P
C
H

Figure 4.2.2.c

The axial force on the interval AB is a constant tension forceF
1
2.423 10
6
N = ,
while on the interval BC is a constant compression forceF
2
1.577 10
6
N = . It can
be concluded that both segments of the rod are uniform-axial deformed members.

B.3 Stress and Strain Calculation

The stress and strain in the interval AB, where the rod is made of solid steel are
obtained as:

o
1
F
1
A
1
:=
2 2
6
10 * 131 . 1
10 * 423 . 2
m
N
o
1
2.142 10
8
Pa =

tension stress

c
1
o
1
E
1
:=
9
8
10 * 200
10 * 142 . 2
c
1
1.071 10
3
=

elongation strain

In a similar manner is calculated the stress and strain pertinent to the interval BC
representing the aluminum made rod.

o
2
F
2
A
2
:=
2 2
6
10 * 767 . 1
10 * 577 . 1
m
N
o
2
8.926 10
7
Pa =

compression stress

c
2
o
2
E
2
:=
9
7
10 * 75
10 * 926 . 8
c
2
1.19 10
3
=

elongation strain

B.4 Calculation of the axial displacement

The displacement
B
u of the point B , the right end of the steel segment, is calculated:
- 168 -
u
B
u
0
f
1
F
1
+ := +

N
N
m
m * 10 * 423 . 2 * * 10 * 842 . 8 * 0
6 10

u
B
2.142 10
3
m =
where the displacement at the origin of the interval

u
0
u
A
:= andu
A
0 m := , because
the point is constraint against the horizontal movement.

B.5 Verification of the Rod

The verification of the rod segments is conducted as:

- for the steel segment

steel
steel y
SF
_
steel allowable_ 1
o
o o = s Pa Pa
8 8
10 * 667 . 2 10 * 142 . 2 < ok

where
brass allowable_
brass y _
o is the brass yield stress which
can be found in Appendix 1.2, and is
steel
SF the safety factor . For this calculation
o
Y_steel
400 10
6
Pa := andSF
steel
1.5 := .

- for the aluminum segment

um alu
um alu y
SF
min
min _
aluminum allowable_ 2
o
o o = s Pa Pa
8 7
10 * 1 . 1 10 * 926 . 8 < ok

where
aluminums allowable_
ums alu y min _
o is the aluminum yield
stress which can be found in Appendix 1.2, and SF is the safety factor . For this
calculation o
Y_aluminum
275 10
6
Pa := and

SF
aluminum
2.5 := .

Problem 4.2.3

A rigid beam AB, shown in Figure 4.2.3.a, is supported by two vertical rods made of
steel with a modulus of elasticity E=200 GPa. The support rod located at the end A
has a diameter d
1
=25 mm. The weight of the beam AB is negligible and is loaded at
point C with a concentrated force P = 60 kN. Calculated: (a) the diameter, d
2
, of the
hanger located at the end B, considering that the relation between the vertical
displacement at the ends of the beam
A B
u u * 2 = , (b) under same condition the
vertical displacement in node C, (c) if the hanger located at end B of the rigid beam
has a diameter d
2
=20 mm, what should be the position of the concentrated load P for
relation
A B
u u = to be true, and (d) the axial stresses in the hangers considering the
conditions stipulated in the previous question.

- 169 -

A.1 The steel rod (1) has a length L
1
3 m :=

and

diameter d
1
25 mm := , while for
the

steel rod (2) only the length is known L
2
2 m := . Both rods are made of steel with
a modulus of elasticity of steel E
steel
200 10
9
Pa := .

Figure 4.2.3.a

A.2 The vertical concentrated force P 60 10
3
N := is located at point C at a
distance of

a 1 m :=

from the left end. The total distance in-between the rigid beam
supports is L 3 m := ,

while the distance from the application point C to point
B is b 2m = .

B. Calculations


The rigid beam AB is supported at ends A and B by two steel rods which are
playing the supporting role for the beam. Sectioning the rods and replacing them by
two corresponding axial forces
A
V and
B
V , the free-body diagram of the system is
obtained as shown in Figure 4.2.3.b.

B.2 Reactions Calculation

Two moment equations are written:

=
B
M 0
V
A
L P b 0 solve V
A
, P
b
L

m
m
N
3
2
* 10 * 60
3
V
A
4 10
4
N =

- 170 -
=
A
M 0
V
B
l P a + 0 solve V
B
, P
a
l

m
m
N
3
1
* 10 * 60
3
V
B
2 10
4
N =

Figure 4.2.3.b

The two equilibrium equations are containing two unknowns, the forces

A
V and
B
V ,
and consequently, the system is statically determinate.

The verification of the reaction forces is done using the equilibrium equation of the
projection of the forces on the vertical direction:

= 0 Y 0 = +
B A
V P V 0 0 0 10 * 2 10 * 6 10 * 4
4 4 4
= = +

B.3 Calculation required by question (a)

The axial forces in the rods are tension type forces:

F
1
V
A
F
1
4 10
4
N =

F
2
V
B
F
2
2 10
4
N =

Because the axial forces in the rods and they have constant areas, both rods are
uniform-axial deformed members. The flexibility coefficients are obtained as:

f
1
L
1
A
1
E
steel

- 171 -
f
2
L
2
A
2
E
steel

The geometrical condition required is:

2 u
A
u
B
0
substitute u
A
f
1
F
1
,
substitute u
B
f
2
F
2
,
2 f
1
F
1
f
2
F
2
0 solve f
2
, 2 f
1
F
1
F
2

L
2
t d
2
2
4
|
\
|
|
.
2
L
1
t d
1
2
4
|
\
|
|
.
P
b
L
P
a
L
simplify
solve d
2
,
1
2 L
1
b
( )
2 L
1
b L
2
a
( )
1
2
|
\
|
|
.
d
1
1
2 L
1
b
( )
2 L
1
b L
2
a
( )
1
2
|
\
|
|
.
d
1
(
(
(
(
(
(
(

Because the rod diameter is always a positive value, from the two above solutions
only the positive value is a valid solution. Consequently, the diameter of the rod (2) is
calculated as:

d
2
1
2 L
1
b
( )
2 L
1
b L
2
a
( )
1
2
|
\
|
|
.
d
1
:=
1
1
2
* * *
2
1
d
b
a
L
L

d
2
10.21mm =

B.4 Calculations required by question (b)

The vertical displacement
C
u is composed from two components: one elastic and
equal with the vertical displacement
A
u and other rigid induced by the rigid rotation
of the beam in the vertical plane. The elastic vertical displacement
A
u is calculated:

u
A
f
1
F
1
:=

N
N
m
4 8
10 * 4 * 10 * 056 . 3 u
A
1.222 10
3
m =

where

f
1
L
1
A
1
E
steel
:=

Pa m
m
11 2 4
10 * 2 * 10 * 909 . 4
3
f
1
3.056 10
8
m
N
=

is
the flexibility coefficient of the rod (1).

The vertical displacement
C
u is obtained:

u
C
u
A
u
B
u
A
L
a + := +

3
10 * 222 . 1
10 * 222 . 1
3
3
u
C
1.63 10
3
m =
- 172 -
B.5 Calculations required by question (c)

The geometrical condition imposed is written as:

u
A
u
B
0
substitute u
A
f
1
F
1
,
substitute u
B
f
2
F
2
,
f
1
F
1
f
2
F
2
0

f
1
F
1
f
2
F
2
0
substitute F
1
P
L a
L
,
substitute F
2
P
a
L
,
f
1
P
L a ( )
L
f
2
P
a
L
0 solve a ,
f
1
f
1
f
2
+
( )
L

The flexibility coefficient of the rod (2) is calculated considering that the rod diameter
is d
2
20 mm := :
A
2
t d
2
2
4
:=
4
20 *
2
t
A
2
314.159mm
2
=
f
2
L
2
A
2
E
steel
:=

Pa m
m
11 2 4
10 * 2 * 10 * 14159 . 3
2
f
2
3.183 10
8
m
N
=

The position of the concentrated force measured from point A is obtained by
substituting the previously calculated flexibility coefficients:

a
f
1
f
1
f
2
+
( )
L :=
+
m 3 *
10 * 183 . 3 10 * 056 . 3
10 * 056 . 3
8 8
8
a 1.469m =

B.6 Calculations required by the question (d)

The axial forces in the hangers are:

F
1
P
L a
L
:=
m
m m
N
3
469 . 1 3
* 10 * 6
4
F
1
3.061 10
4
N =
for rod (1)

F
2
P
a
L
:=
m
m
N
3
469 . 1
* 10 * 6
4
F
2
2.939 10
4
N =

for rod (2)

The axial stresses are obtained:

o
1
F
1
A
1
:=
2 4 -
4
10 * 4.909
10 * 061 . 3
m
N
o
1
6.236 10
7
Pa =

tension stress in rod (1)

- 173 -
o
2
F
2
A
2
:=
2 4 -
4
10 * 3.142
10 * 939 . 2
m
N
o
2
9.354 10
7
Pa =

tension stress in rod (2)

B.7 Verification of the rods

Considering that the steel yielding stress and the safety coefficient employed are

o
Y_steel
250 10
6
Pa :=

and
SF
steel
2.5 :=

, respectively, the allowable steel stress
is calculated as:
o
allwable_steel
o
Y_steel
SF
steel
:=
5 . 2
10 * 5 . 2
8
Pa
o
allwable_steel
1 10
8
Pa =

Consequently,

Pa Pa
steel allowable
8
_
7
1
10 10 * 236 . 6 = < = o o the rod (1) is ok

Pa Pa
steel allowable
8
_
7
2
10 10 * 354 . 9 = < = o o the rod (2) is ok

Problem 4.2.4

The system shown in Figure 4.2.4.a is composed of a rigid beam AD, pinned into the
wall at point A, and two unequal linear elastic rods, BE and CF, made of steel with a
modulus of elasticity
11
2 1
10 * 2 = = E E Pa . The steel rods lengths and areas are
0 . 2
1
= L m and 3 . 1
2
= L m, and, 0 . 6
1
= A
2
cm and 0 . 3
2
= A
2
cm , respectively. The
system is loaded with by vertical force P acting at point D. The steel rods and
force P locations are determined by the following distances measured from point A:
5 . 1 = a m , 5 . 2 = b m and 0 . 4 = c m , respectively. What is the allowable force
all
P
supported by the system if the allowable normal stress for steel is
8
10 * 1 . 2 =
all
o Pa .

Figure 4.2.4.a
- 174 -

The system illustrated in Figure 4.2.4.a is geometrical defined by the data contained in
the text.

B. Calculations


The rigid beam AD is supported at the ends B and C by two steel rods, which are
playing the supporting role for the beam, together with the pinned support located at
point A. Sectioning the rods and replacing them by two corresponding axial forces
1
F
and
2
F , and substituting the constraints introduced by the pinned support by its
corresponding reaction forces,
A
H and
A
V , the free-body diagram of the system is
obtained and illustrated in Figure 4.2.4.b.

Figure 4.2.4.b

B.2 Reactions Calculation

The following equilibrium equations are written:

0 =
x
F 0 =
A
H no axial force

0 =
y
F 0
2 1
= + + P F F V
A

0 =
A
z
M 0 * * *
2 1
= + c P b F a F

The last two equilibrium equations contain three unknown reaction forces
1
F ,
2
F
and
A
V . The system is statically indeterminate. In order to find these unknown
quantities one additional equation is necessary. This equation is obtained from the
deformation compatibility condition schematically described in Figure 4.2.4.c.

- 175 -
Because the beam AD is rigid, purely geometric relations between the rod
elongations,
2
e and
2
e , and the rotation angleu are written as:

u *
1
a e =

u *
2
b e =

Figure 4.2.4.c

Using the elongation expressions the forces in the rods are calculated as:

u u * * * *
1
1
1
1
a k a
f
F = = u u * 10 * 9 * 5 . 1 * 10 * 6
7 7
N m
m
N

u u * * * *
1
2
2
2
b k b
f
F = = u u * 10 * 923 . 6 * 5 . 2 * 10 * 615 . 4
7 7
N m
m
N

where the stiffness coefficients,
1
k and
2
k , are calculated from the geometrical and
material properties characteristics of the rods as:

k
1
E
1
A
1
L
1
:=

m
Pa
0 . 2
10 * 6 * 10 * 2
4 11
k
1
6 10
7
N
m
=

k
2
E
2
A
2
L
2
:=

m
Pa
3 . 1
10 * 3 * 10 * 2
4 11
k
2
4.615 10
7
N
m
=

Substituting the expressions of the rod forces into the last two equilibrium equations
the three original unknowns,
1
F ,
2
F and
A
V , are replaced with two unknowns,
A
V
andu . The equilibrium equations are then written as:

Given
V
A
k
1
a u + k
2
b u + P 0
k
1
a
2
u k
2
b
2
u P c + 0

Solving the algebraic system, the two unknowns are found as:
- 176 -

Find V
A
u ,
( )
float 4 ,
1.069 P
1.055 10
-8
P
Pa m
2
( )
(
(
(
(

The axial forces in the rods are calculated:

F
1
k
1
a u
substitute u 1.055 10
8
P
Pa m
2
,
float 4 ,
F
1
.9495 P

F
2
k
2
b u
substitute u 1.055 10
8
P
Pa m
2
,
float 5 ,
F
2
1.1199 P

To find the force P producing an allowable stress
all
o in the rods the following
equations are written:

A
1
o
all
F
1
substitute F
1
0.9495 P ,
solve P ,
float 4 ,
1.327 10
5
Pa m
2

P
1_all
1.327 10
5
N

for rod (1)

A
2
o
all
F
2
substitute F
2
1.1199 P ,
solve P ,
float 4 ,
5.626 10
4
Pa m
2

P
2
5.626 10
4
N

for rod (2)

The allowable force P for the entire system is:

P
all
min P
1
P
2
,
( )
:= ) 10 * 626 . 5 , 10 * 327 . 1 min(
4 5
N N P
all
5.626 10
4
N =

The vertical displacements at point B and C are then calculated:

u
B
1
k
1
P
1_all
substitute P
1_all
1.327 10
5
N ,
float 3 ,
u
B
2.21 10
-3
( )
Pa m ( )
N

u
B
2.21 10
3
m

- 177 -
u
C
1
k
1
P
2_all
substitute P
2_all
5.626 10
4
N ,
float 3 ,
u
C
9.38 10
-4
( )
Pa m ( )
N

u
C
9.38 10
4
m
Problem 4.2.5

An axial load P is applied to a tapered circular rod of length L as shown in Figure
4.2.5.a. The variation of the rod radius along its length is expressed as:

)
1
1
( * ) (
0
L
x
r x r
+
=

where ) 0 (
0
r r = is the radius at the left end cross-section.

Symbolically express: (a) the axial stress ) ( x o , (b) the elongation strain ) ( x c and (c)
the total elongatione . Apply the above obtain expressions for the case when where P
= 9 kN, L = 2.50 m, r
0
= 0.50 m and the rod is made of an aluminum alloy for which
E = 69 GPa.

Figure 4.2.5.a


The tapered aluminum rod is subjected to a non-uniform axial deformation, because
the area is not constant along the length of the beam.

The variation of the area along its axis is expressed as:

2
0
2 2
0
2
) ( * ) ( * * ) ( * ) (
x L
L
A
x L
L
r x r x A
+
=
+
= = t t

where
0
A is the area representing the cross-section at the left end of the rod (x=0).

- 178 -
B. Calculations


The free-body diagram is illustrated in Figure 4.2.5.b.

Figure 4.2.5.b


The constraint located at the left end of the beam is replaced by a horizontal
concentrated reaction force
A
H . The reaction force
A
H is calculated using the
equilibrium equation involving the horizontal projection of all forces.

= 0 X 0 = + P H
A
P H
A
=

The system is statically determinate.

B.3 Expression of the Axial Stress

The axial force in the rod is constant and represents a tension force:

P x F = ) (

The general expression of the axial stress in the rod is obtained as:

2
0
2
0
) 1 ( *
) ( *
) ( ) (
) (
) (
L
x
x L
L
A
P
x A
P
x A
x F
x + =
+
= = = o o
where
0
o is the axial stress in the cross-section located at the left end of the rod.

B.4 Expression of the Axial Strain

2
0
2
0
) 1 ( *
) 1 ( *
) (
) (
) (
L
x
E
L
x
x E
x
x + =
+
= = c
o
o
c

where
0
c is the axial stress in the cross-section located at the left end of the rod.
- 179 -

B.5 Expression of the Rod Total Elongation

The total elongation is obtained as:

e
0
L
x c
0
1
x
L
+
|
\
|
|
.
2
(
(
(
]
d exp 1 ( )
7
3
c
0
L

B.6 Numerical Application

The following data is substituted in the above obtained expressions:

P 9 10
3
N :=

r
0
0.5 m :=

L 2.5 m :=

E 69 10
9
Pa :=

The reaction force is:

H
A
P :=

H
A
9 10
3
N =

The area at the left end cross-section:

A
0
t r
0
2
:=

A
0
0.785m
2
=

The axial stress and elongation strain at the left end cross-section are:

o
0
P
A
0
:=

o
0
1.146 10
4
Pa =

c
0
o
0
E
:=

c
0
1.661 10
7
=

The variation of the axial stress and elongation strain are calculated in a number of
twenty-one sections:

i 0 20 .. :=
x
i
L
20
i :=

o
i
o
0
1
x
i
L
+
|
\
|
|
.
2
:=

c
i
c
0
1
x
i
L
+
|
\
|
|
.
2
:=

The maximum values are calculated in the right end cross-section (x = L):

o
max
o
20
:=

o
max
4.584 10
4
Pa =

c
max
c
20
:=

c
max
6.643 10
7
=

The total elongation of the rod is:

e
max
7
3
c
0
L :=

e
max
9.688 10
7
m =
- 180 -

The variation of the axial stress is illustrated in Figure 4.2.5.c.

0 0.25 0.5 0.75 1 1.25 1.5 1.75 2 2.25 2.5
1
.
10
4
1.4
.
10
4
1.8
.
10
4
2.2
.
10
4
2.6
.
10
4
3
.
10
4
3.4
.
10
4
3.8
.
10
4
4.2
.
10
4
4.6
.
10
4
5
.
10
4
o
x

Figure 4.2.5.c

Problem 4.2.6

A magnesium-alloy rod (E
mag
= 45 GPa) of diameter d
m
= 30 mm is encased by a
brass tube (E
bra
= 100 GPa) with outer diameter d
b
. Both bars have an equal length L =
500 mm. An axial load P = 40 kN is applied to the resulting bimetallic rod. Assuming
that that the magnesium rod and the brass tube are securely bonded to each other
calculate: (a) the outer diameter d
b
of the tube, if three fourths of the load P is carried
by the magnesium rod and one fourth by the brass tube and (b) the total elongation of
the bimetallic rod. The bimetallic rod is illustrated in Figure 4.2.6.


A.1 It is assumed, due to the bondage between the materials, that the deformation at
the right end cross-section of the bimetallic rod is equal for both materials.

A.2 The reaction force located at the left end of the rod is not necessary to be
calculated, because the distribution of the external force P in-between the magnesium
and brass cross-section is established.

F
mag
1
4
P :=

F
mag
1 10
4
N =

for magnesium

F
bra
3
4
P :=

F
bra
3 10
4
N =

for brass

- 181 -
Note: It can be remarked that the bimetallic rod it is statically determined system, but
because the modulus of elasticity is not constant for the entire length of the rod, the
rod is subjected to a nonuniform-axial deformation.

Figure 4.2.6

B. Calculations

B.1 Calculation of the brass exterior diameter
b
d

The equality of the deformation at the right end of the bimetallic rod is:

end bra end mag
u u
_ _
=

Using the flexibility coefficients
mag
f and
bra
f , corresponding to magnesium and brass
rods the displacements equality is written as:

bra bra mag mag
F f F f * * =

where
mag mag
mag
A E
L
f
*
= and
bra bra
bra
A E
L
f
*
= .

Substituting the forces and the flexibility coefficients into the above equation, the
expression of the brass area is obtained:

L
E
mag
A
mag
1
4
P
L
E
bra
A
bra
3
4
P solve A
bra
, 3 E
mag
A
mag
E
bra

The area of the magnesium rod is calculated as:

- 182 -
A
mag
t d
m
2
4
:=
4
30 *
2
t
A
mag
706.858mm
2
=

and consequently, the area of the brass rod is obtained:

A
bra
3
E
mag
E
bra
A
mag
:=

2 3
9
9
10 * 706858 . 0 *
10 * 100
10 * 45
* 3 m
Pa
Pa
A
bra
954.259mm
2
=

The exterior diameter of the brass tube is calculated from the following equation:

A
bra
t d
b
2
d
m
2
( )
4
solve d
b
,
float 5 ,
45.990 mm
45.990 mm
|
\
|
|
.

d
b
45.990 mm :=

because only the positive value makes sense.

B.2 Calculation of total elongation

The total elongation is equal to the displacement of the either material calculated at
the right end of the rod. The calculation is conducted using the data pertinent for
magnesium and is also verified using the brass data.

e u
mag_end
:=

u
mag_end
f
mag
F
mag
:=

f
mag
L
E
mag
A
mag
:=
2 3 9
10 * 706858 . 0 * 10 * 45
5 . 0
m Pa
m
f
mag
1.572 10
8
m
N
=

u
mag_end
1.572 10
4
m =

e 1.572 10
4
m =

The verification using brass:

f
bra
L
E
bra
A
bra
:=
2 3 9
10 * 954259 . 0 * 10 * 100
5 . 0
m Pa
m

f
bra
5.24 10
9
m
N
=

u
bra_end
f
bra
F
bra
:=

u
bra_end
1.572 10
4
m =

- 183 -
Note: It can be remarked that the deformation of both materials is 1.572*10
-4
m and,
this way, the geometrical condition imposed is also verified numerically.

Problem 4.2.7

A uniform circular cylinder of diameter d and length L is made of a material with
modulus of elasticity E. It is fixed to a rigid wall at end A and subjected to a
distributed external axial loading of magnitude p(x) per unit length, as shown in
Figure 4.2.7.a. The axial stress, ) ( x o , varies linearly with x as shown in Figure
4.2.7.b. Determine: (a) the expression for the distributed loading, p(x) and (b) the
expression for the axial displacement, u(x), of the cross section.

Figure 4.2.7


A.1 The member is subjected to a nonuniform-axial deformation and it is statically
determinate system.

A.2 The axial stress has the following expression (see Figure 4.2.7):

o x ( ) o
0
1
x
L
\
|
|
.

B. Calculations

The horizontal reaction force

A
H is calculated as:

H
A
o
0
A
The axial force pertinent to a particular cross-section is obtained from the equilibrium
as:

F x ( ) H
A
0
x
, p ,
( )
(
(
]
d o
0
A
0
x
, p ,
( )
(
(
]
d

- 184 -
The axial stress is expressed:
o x ( )
F x ( )
A
H
A
0
x
, p ,
( )
(
(
]
d
A
o
0
0
x
, p ,
( )
(
(
]
d
A

Comparing the above expression with the expression given by the problem the
following equation is written:

0
x
, p ,
( )
(
(
]
d
A
o
0
x
L

and after the algebraic manipulation the integral becomes:

0
x
, p ,
( )
(
(
]
d o
0
A
x
L

Consequently,

p x ( )
o
0
A
L

It can be concluded that the linear variation of the axial stress is induced by a constant
axially applied load.

Problem 4.2.8

Two rods are stress-free when welded together at point B and welded to two rigid
walls at points AandC . The geometrical and material characteristics of the two rods
are illustrated in Figure 4.2.8.a. Subsequently, rod (1) and rod (2) are heated by an
amount
1
T A and
2
T A , respectively from their initial installation temperature.
Determine an expression for the axial forces induced in each rod by the change in
temperatures.

Figure 4.2.8.a
- 185 -

A.1 The rods have the same modulus of elasticity E , but different expansion
coefficients
1
o and
2
o .

A.2 It can be remarked the absence of any external load and the existence of a change
in temperature

B. Calculations


The free-body diagram is illustrated in Figure 4.2.8.b.

Figure 4.2.8.b


The constraints located at the left and right end points, AandC , of the member are
replaced by two horizontal reaction forces,
A
H and
C
H , respectively. The following
equilibrium equation is written:

= 0 X 0 = +
C A
H H
C A
H H . =

The system is statically indeterminate and in order to calculate the reaction forces an
additional equation is necessary. This equation is the fact that the total elongation e is
zero:

0 = =
A C
u u e
The expression of the displacements
B
u and
C
u are:

1 1 1 1 1
* * * T L F f u u
A B
A + + = o

2 2 2 1 1 1 2 2 1 1 2 2 2 2 2
* * * * * * * * * T L T L F f F f u T L F f u u
A B C
A + A + + + = A + + = o o o

- 186 -
where

1 1
1
1
* A E
L
f = and
2 2
2
2
* A E
L
f = are the flexibility coefficients

The axial forces in the rods are:

A
H x F = ) (
1
and
A
H x F = ) (
2

The elongation is calculated as:

2 2 2 1 1 1 2 1
2 2 2 1 1 1 2 2 1 1
* * * * * ) (
* * * * * *
T L T L H f f
T L T L F f F f u u e
A
A C
A + A + + =
= A + A + + = =
o o
o o

From the condition imposing that the total elongation to be zero, the reaction force
A
H is obtained:

2 1
2 2 2 1 1 1
* * * *
f f
T L T L
H
A
+
A + A
=
o o

Consequently, the reaction force
C
H is:

2 1
2 2 2 1 1 1
* * * *
f f
T L T L
H
C
+
A + A
=
o o
and the forces ion the rods are:

2 1
2 2 2 1 1 1
2 1
* * * *
) ( ) (
f f
T L T L
x F x F
+
A + A
= =
o o


Problem 4.3.2

The three-part axially loaded member, shown in Figure 4.3.2, consists of a tubular
segment (1) with outer diameter 32mm d
o1
= and inner diameter 22mm d
i1
= , a solid
circular rod segment (2) with diameter 32mm d
2
= and a third solid circular rod
segment (3) with diameter 22mm d
3
= .

Figure 4.3.2
- 187 -
All three applied loads shown are acting along the centroidal axis of the members.
Considering that the rigid couplers have a negligible length determine: (a) the axial
stresses in each one of the three respective segments, (b) the displacements in points
B, C and D if all segments have equal lengths L
1
= L
2
= L
3
= 0.50 m and the modulus
of elasticity of the material is 21000MPa E = .

Problem 4.3.3

The diameter of the central one-third of a 50 mm diameter steel rod is reduced to 20
mm, forming a three-segment rod, as shown in Figure 4.3.3. For the loading shown,
determine the displacements of the rod points B, C and D, respectively. The rod is
made of a material which has the modulus of elasticity E = 200 GPa.

Figure 4.3.3

Problem 4.3.4

A column in a two-story building is fabricated from square structural steel tubing
having a modulus of elasticity E = 210 GPa. The cross-sectional dimensions of the
two segments are shown in Figure 4.3.4. Two axial loads acting along the centroidal
axis of the column are applied to the column at levels A and B. Calculate: (a) the axial
stress both segments of the column and (b) the total shortening of the column length

Figure 4.3.4
- 188 -
Problem 4.3.5

A three-segment stepped aluminum-alloy column is subjected to the vertical axial
loads shown in Figure 4.3.5 The cross-sectional areas of the segments are A
1
=3870
mm
2
, A
2
=5810 mm
2
and A
3
=9035 mm
2
, respectively. The material modulus of
elasticity is E = 69 GPa. Calculate: (a) the axial stresses in all three segments and (b)
the vertical displacement of the column at nodes A, B and C under the given loading
system.

Figure 4.3.5

Problem 4.3.6

A uniform rod is subjected to three axial loads acting as shown in Figure 4.3.6 and is
made of a material with a modulus of elasticity E = 70 GPa. What is the minimum
allowable diameter of the cylindrical rod if the displacement at the right end D and the
maximum axial stress in the rod can not excide 5 mm and 80 MPa, respectively?

Figure 4.3.6
- 189 -
Problem 4.3.7

A 1.2 in diameter aluminum-alloy hangar, illustrated in Figure 4.3.7, is supported by a
steel pipe with an inside diameter of
i
d =75 mm. The moduli of elasticity for the steel
pipe and hanger are E
steel
=
3
10 210 MPa and E
aluminum
=
3
10 69 MPa, respectively.
Determine the thickness of the steel pipe if the maximum axial displacement at the
node C is 2.5 mm.

Figure 4.3.7
Problem 4.3.8

A 3.60 m rigid beam AB that weighs 0.80 kN supports an air conditioner that weighs
W
air
=4.45 kN. The beam is supported by hanger rods (1) and (2) located at its ends as
shown in Figure 4.3.8.

Figure 4.3.8
- 190 -
Conduct the following calculations: (a) if the diameter of rod (1) is 95 mm what is the
stress in the rod? (b) if the stress in rod (2) is to be the same as the stress in rod (1),
what should the diameter of rod (2)? (c) what are the downward displacements at the
ends of the rigid beam if the rods length are L
1
= L
2
= 1.80 m and they are made of
steel with a modulus of elasticity E =210 10
3
MPa?

Problem 4.3.9

A hanger rod CD is attached to a rigid beam AB. The beam is supported at its ends by
two hanger rods. Assuming that all tree hangers are identical and are made from the
same material, calculate: (a) the axial stress in all tree hangers, (b) the vertical
displacement of the points A, B, C and D.

Figure 4.3.9

Problem 4.3.10

A commercial sign of weight W is supported by a structural system comprised from a
rigid beam AB and a wire CD, as shown in Figure 4.3.10. The rigid beam has a
negligible weight, while the wire has length L, cross-sectional area A, and modulus of
elasticity E. Assuming that the attachment pin D is directly located above pin A, and
when there is no load acting on the beam, the beam is in a perfect horizontal position
calculate the following: (a) the axial stress in the wire CD when the sign is attached at
points B and C of the beam, (b) the vertical displacement in point C of the beam.

- 191 -

Figure 4.3.10

Problem 4.3.11

The inclined rod AB, shown in Figure 4.3.12, is pinned to a fixed support at A and is
pinned at the end B to a block that is forced to move only horizontally when the load
P is applied. Determine: (a) an expression for the axial stress in the inclined rod as a
function of P, L, E, A, and the angleu , (b) an expression for the horizontal
displacement at the end B.

Figure 4.3.11

Problem 4.3.12 A bimetallic bar is made by bonding together two homogeneous
rectangular bars, each having a width b, length L and moduli of elasticity of the bars
are E
1
and E
2
, respectively. An axial force P is applied to the ends of the bimetallic
bar at location (y= y
p
, z = 0) such that the bar undergoes an axial deformation only.
Assuming the following data: L = 1.5 m, b = 50 mm, t
1
= 25 mm, t
2
= 15 mm, E
1
= 70
GPa, E
2
= 210 GPa and P = 48 kN. Calculate: (a) the normal stress in each material,
(b) the value of y
p,
(c) the elongation of the bar.
- 192 -

Figure 4.3.12

Problem 4.3.13

A bimetallic bar, shown in Figure 4.3.13, undergoes an axial deformation. The bar has
the following geometrical and material characteristics: L = 2.55 m, b = 50 mm and h1
= h2 = 1.50 mm and E
1
=210 GPa. Calculate: (a) the modulus of elasticity E
2
if the
load P is applied at 10 mm, and (b) the total elongation of the bar for a load of P = 9
kN.

Figure 4.3.13

Problem 4.3.14

A steel pipe is filled with concrete, and the resulting column is subjected to a
compressive load P = 360 kN. The pipe has an outer diameter of 325 mm and an
inside diameter of 305 mm. The elastic moduli of the steel and concrete are: E
stel
=
210 GPa and E
conc
= 25 GPa. Determine: (a) the stress in the steel and the stress in the
concrete due to this loading, (b) the shortening of the column if its initial length is L =
3.70 m, (Ignore- radial expansion of the concrete and steel due to Poisson's ratio
effect.)
- 193 -

Figure 4.3.14

Problem 4.3.15

A homogenous rod of length L and elasticity modulus E is a conical frustum with
diameter d(x) that varies linearly from d
0
at one end to 2*d
0
at the other end, with d
0

<< L. An axial load P is applied to the rod, as shown in Figure 4.3.15. Determine
analytical expressions for: (a) the stress distribution, ) ( x o , on an arbitrary cross
section and (b) the elongation of the rod, ) (x e .

Figure 4.3.15

Problem 4.3.16 A uniform circular cylinder of diameter d and length L is made of a
material with modulus of elasticity E and specific weight . It hangs from a rigid
ceiling as shown in Figure 4.3.16. Determine: (a) the expression of the axial
stress ) ( x o , (b) the expression of the strain ) ( x c , (c) the expression of the
- 194 -
displacement ) ( x u and (d) the compression force necessary to be applied in order to
return the bar at its initial length.

Figure 4.3.16

Problem 4.3.17

A steel pipe with outer diameter d
o
= 50 mm, and inner diameter d
i
= 38 mm and a
solid aluminum-alloy rod of diameter d = 19 mm form a three-segment system that
undergoes axial deformation due to a single external load P
C
= 55 Kn acting on a
collar at point C, as shown in Figure 4.3.17. Considering the following data: L
1
= L
2
=
0.75m, L
3
= 1.20 m, E
1
= 210 GPa and E
2
= E
3
= 69 GPa, calculate: (a) the axial
stresses induced in all three segments and (b) determine the axial displacement at
points B and C.

Figure 4.3.17

Problem 4.3.18

A three-segment rod is attached to rigid supports at ends A and D and is subjected to
equal and opposite external loads P at nodes B and C, as shown in Figure 4.3.18. The
rod is homogeneous and linearly elastic, with modulus of elasticity E. Assuming A
1
=
- 195 -
A
3
= A and A
2
= 2A, L
1
= 2L and L
2
= L
3
= L, calculate: (a) the axial stresses in all
tree segments and (b) the horizontal displacements at nodes B and C, respectively.

Figure 4.3.18

Problem 4.3.19

A rigid beam AD, supported by a pin at its end point D and attached by the two
vertical steel rods at points A and C, is loaded by a vertical load P at point B.
Neglecting the weight of the beam and assuming that the support rods are stress-free
when P = 0, calculate: (a) the forces F
1
and F
2
in the support rods after load P is
applied, (b) the deformation of the supporting and (c) the expressions previously
obtained if A
1
= A
2
= 500
2
mm , L
1
= 1m, L
2
= 2m , E
1
= E
2
= 210 GPa, P = 50 kN, a
= 0.50 m and b = 1.5 m.

Figure 4.3.19

Problem 4.3.20

A rigid beam AD, shown in Figure 4.3.20, is supported by a smooth pin at B and by
two vertical rods attached to the beam at points and C. Neglecting the weight of the
beam and assuming that the rods are stress-free when P = 0. Considering that A
1
=
650 mm
2
, A
2
= 325 mm
2
, L
1
= L
2
= 1.25 m, a = 0.60 m, b = 1.25m, E
1
= E
2
= 69 GPa
- 196 -
and P = 22.70 kN, determine: (a) the axial forces in the support rods, (b) determine
the axial stress in each support and (c) calculate the elongation of the support rods.

Figure 4.3.20

Problem 4.3.21

A rigid beam AD, shown in Figure 4.3.21, is supported by three identical vertical rods
that are attached to the beam at points A, C, and D and loaded in node B with a
vertical concentrated load P. Assuming that A = 650 mm
2
, L = 1.50 m, a = 0.50 m, b
= 1.00 m, c = 1.50 m, E = 210 GPa and P = 45.5 kN, calculate: (a) the axial forces in
the support rods and (b) the vertical displacements at nodes A, B, C and D.

Figure 4.3.21

Problem 4.3.22

The rod composed from two segments as shown in Figure 4.3.22, is attached to rigid
walls at A and C. Determine expressions for the stresses pertinent to both segments
resulting from a uniform temperature increase T A of the entire rod. Numerical
- 197 -
application: A
1
= 1000 mm
2
, A
2
= 1500 mm
2
, L
1
= 2 m, L2 = 1.5 m, E
1
= 210 Gpa, E
2

= 120 GPa, o
1
= 12-10
6
and o
2
= 8.0-10
6
and T A = 30 C
.

Figure 4.3.22

Problem 4.3.23

A three-segment rod shown in Figure 4.3.23 is rigidly attached to walls at points A
and D. Subsequently, the middle segment is heated by an amount, while the segments
(1) and (3) are kept at their original temperature. Using the notation shown in Figure
4.3.23 and considering the system free at stress at the installation, calculate the
stresses in the segments and the axial displacements at points B and C.

Figure 4.3.23

Problem 4.3.24

A steel pipe with outer diameter d
o
, and inner diameter d
i
and a solid aluminum-alloy
rod of diameter d form a three-segment system as shown in Figure 4.3.24. The system
is considered stress free when is welded to the rigid supports at points A and D. The
installation temperature F T
on installati
0
60 = is recorded. Subsequently, the aluminum
rod is cooled by 100F ( F T T
0
3 2
100 = A = A ), while the steel pipe is held at the
initial temperature ) 0 (
0
1
F T = A . Assuming d
o
= 50 mm, d
i
= 38 mm, d = 19 mm,
L
1
= 1.25 m, L
2
= L
3
= 0.75 m, E
1
= E
3
= 210 GPa, E
2
= 69 GPa,
o
1
= o
3
= 6.5-106 and o
2
= 13.1-106.
- 198 -

Figure 4.3.24

Problem 4.3.25

The mechanical system shown in Figure 4.3.25 is composed from two identical steel
rods (A = 40 mm
2
, E = 200 GPa, o = 12.0-10
6
) and a "rigid" beam AC. The beam is
supported by a smooth pin at B. Assuming the two rods stress-free after installation,
determine: (a) the axial stresses induced in rods if their temperature is decreased by
50C and (b) the small angle u through which the beam AC would rotate due to this
temperature change.

Figure 4.3.25

Problem 4.3.26

The steel rod of diameter 20 mm is held without any initial stresses between two rigid
walls as illustrated in Figure 4.3.26. Determine the temperature drop AT at which the
stress in the rod reaches 200 MPa. Use for the steel E=200 GPa and o = 12.0-10
6
.

Figure 4.3.26

- 199 -
Problem 4.3.27

The bar AB, shown in Figure 4.3.27, is held between rigid supports and heated
nonuniformly in such a manner that the temperature increase AT at distance x from
end A is given by the expression AT (x) = AT
1
*(x/L)
2
, where AT
1
is the increase in
temperature at end B of the bar. Obtain a formula for the compressive stress in the
bar. (Assume that bar has a length L and is made of a material with modulus of
elasticity E and coefficient of thermal expansion o.)

Figure 4.3.27

Problem 4.3.28

The copper bar AB of length 1.00 m is placed in position shown in figure 4.3.28 at
room temperature. A gap of 0.2 mm exists between the end A of the bar and a rigid
restraint. Calculate the axial compressive stress in the bar if the temperature is raised
90F. Use for copper the following material constants: E=110 GPa and o = 9.8-10
6
.

Figure 4.3.28

Problem 4.3.29

Three identical springs, 10 in. apart, are attached to a horizontal rigid bar at points A,
B, and C, as illustrated in Figure 4.3.29. Three vertical loads of magnitudes 138 N, 45
N and 31 N act at points A, B, and C, respectively. Calculate the angle of rotation u
(degrees) of the rigid bar if the spring stiffness k is 14 N/m.
- 200 -

Figure 4.3.34

Problem 4.3.30

The rigid bar ABCD, shown in Figure 4.3.30, is pinned at point B and supported by
springs at A and D. The springs at A and D have stiffnesses k
1
= 11.20 kN/m and k
2
=
36.75 kN/m, respectively. The dimensions a, b, and c are 0.45 m, 0.90 m, and 0.35 m,
respectively. A load P acts at point C. Determine the maximum permissible load P
max
if the angle of rotation of the bar due to the action of the load P is limited to 2.

Figure 4.3.30
- 201 -
REFERENCES

1. Craig, Roy R., Mechanics of Materials, Second Edition, John Willey &
Sons, New York, 2000.

2. Gere, James M., Mechanics of Materials, Fifth Edition, Brooks/Cole,
Pacific Grove, CA, 2001.

3. Higdon, A., Ohlsen, E.H., and Stiles, W.B., Mechanics of Materials, Third
Edition, John Willey & Sons, New York, 1962.

4. Popov, E.P., Introduction to Mechanics of Solids, Prentice-Hall Inc.,
Englewood Cliffs, New Jersy, 1968.

5. Mazilu P., Posea N. and Iordachescu E., Probleme de Rezistenta
Materialelor, Vol I, Editura Tehnica Bucuresti, 1969.

6. Hartog, J.P.D., Strength of Materials, Dover Publications Inc., New York,
1961.

- 37 -
APPENDIX 1.1 Modulus of Elasticity and Poissons Ratio

- 38 -

APPENDIX 1.2 Yield and Ultimate Stress
- 39 -

- 104 -

APPENDIX 2.1 Geometrical Characteristics of Plane Areas

B - B axis respect to with inertia of moment
axes z and y the of origin the respect to with inertia of moment polar
axes z and y the respect to with inertia of product
ly respective axes, z and y the respect to with inertia of moments
C centroid to distances ,
area
BB
z y P
yz
z y
I
I I I
I
,I I
z y
A

- 105 -

- 106 -

- 107 -

- 108 -

- 109 -
APPENDIX 2.2 Properties of the Romanian Rolled Shaped Sections

TABLE 2.2.1 Wide Flange Sections (I SHAPES)

- 110 -

TABLE 2.2.2 Channel Sections (U SHAPES)

- 111 -

TABLE 2.2.3 Angle Sections with Equal Legs (L SHAPES)

- 112 -
TABLE 2.2.3 Angle Sections with Equal Legs (L SHAPES) - continuation

- 113 -

TABLE 2.2.4 Angle Sections with Unequal Legs (L SHAPES)

- 114 -
APPENDIX 2.3 Properties of American Rolled Shaped Sections

.

TABLE 2.3.1 Wide flange sections (W SHAPES)

- 115 -

TABLE 2.3.1 Wide flange sections (W SHAPES) - continuation

- 116 -

TABLE 2.3.2 Channel Sections (C SHAPES)

- 117 -

TABLE 2.3.3 Angle Sections with Equal Legs (L SHAPES)

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