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CulturalPractices
Aculturalpracticecanbedefinedasa cropgrowingmethodwhichhasbeen discoveredovertime,usuallyby farmersthroughtrialanderror.

CLASSNOTE:DEPARTMENTOFBOTANY,G.P.WOMEN'SCOLLEGE,IMPHAL

CulturalMethod
CulturalMethods(accordingtoStevens,1960) involveagriculturalcropping,harvestingand storage,tillage,croprotation,soil management,growingofresistantvarieties, planningoflanduseandotherrelated practices. Theseareagriculturepracticesusedto enhancecropandlivestockhealthand preventweed,pestordiseaseproblems withouttheuseofchemicalsubstances.,e.g. selectionofappropriatevarieties,planting sites,densityofplantings.

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CulturalControlofPlantDisease
Thepurposefulmanipulationofaplantgrowing, planting,andcultivationtoreducedamagefrom pathogenaswellreductioninpathogen population. Activitiesofhumansaimedatcontrollingdisease throughtheculturalmanipulationofplants. Thisistargetedinreducingtheamountofinitial inoculums,reducingtherateofspreadand plantingcropatasitenotfavourableto pathogen.

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Culturalmethods
Culturalmeasuresaremainlypreventive. Byproperadjustmentofculturalpractices,cropdiseasescanbe avoided. Successofculturalpracticesfordiseasecontrolcanbemadeonlywhen acompleteknowledge ofthenatureofpathogenanditsbehaviourin differentconditionsoftheenvironmentisknown. Suitableadjustmentinculturalpracticescanmodifytheenvironment insuchamannerthatitbecomesunfavourableforthepathogenand diseasedevelopment.

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TypesofCulturalApproaches

Cultural Approaches
Avoidance:toenable hosttoavoidcontactwith thepathogen Exclusion:toprevent
pathogenfromreading newuninfectedarea

Eradication:by breakingthediseasecycle andstarvingthepathogen

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TypesofCulturalPractices

Cultural Practices
Culturalpractices thatreduceinitial levelofinoculum Culturalpractices thatreducethe rateofspreadof disease

Selection and preparation ofplanting materials

Destruc tionof Crop residues

Crop Elimination Rotation ofliving plantsthat carry pathogens

Tillage practices

Sowing and harvestin g practices

Intercr opping

Mulching andSoil Amendm ents

Flooding

Irrigation

Roguing

Fertiliser andcrop nutrition

Strip farming

Trap and decoy crops

Miscellane ous practices

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AvoidanceofPathogen
Aimofthesemethodsistoenablethehostto avoidcontactwiththepathogen. SusceptibleStageofthePlant,favourable conditionsandpathogensshouldnotcoincide.

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AvoidanceofthePathogen
ProperSelectionofGeographicArea:
Cropssusceptibletoaparticulargeographical areaareidentified. Onlycropsareplantedinaparticularareawhere pathogensareleastlikelytobeactive.e.g.Fungal andbacterialdiseasesaremoresevereinwet areas.

BacterialWiltPathogenRalstonia solanacearum

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AvoidanceofthePathogen
SelectionofField:
Insoilbornepathogens,ifthesamefieldischosenfor cultivatingaspecificcrop,thereischanceofthe diseaseappearinginsevereformduetothebuildupof theinoculumpotentialofthepathogen.These diseasescanbeavoidedifthesamecropisnotgrown inthesamefieldyearafteryear.e.g.wiltofarhar, greeneardiseaseofbajra,lateblightofpotato,stem gallofcoriander,powderymildewofwheat. Drainageconditionandsurroundingenvironmentsare alsoimportant.Waterloggedfieldsfavourdiseaseslike redrotofsugarcane,downymildewofbajra.Apple orchardnearoaktreehavechanceofcollarrot.

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AvoidanceofthePathogen
ChoiceofTimeofSowing:
Pathogenscouldinfectsusceptibleplantsonlyunder certainenvironmentalconditions. Aslightdelayinsowingishelpfulinthiscase. weatherconditionswhichareunfavourableforthespread ofpathogensortheirvectorsandreducecroplosses. Ifthecropsaregrownsothatitcouldnotbeattackedby pathogensduringitsmostsusceptibleperiod,disease incidencecanbereduced.E.g.Rootrotofgramcanbe reducedifgramissownaftertherains(itisbecause pathogendevelopsrapidlyunderhightemperatureand moisturecondition).

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AvoidanceofthePathogen
DiseaseEscapingVarieties:
Certainvarietiesofcropsescapedamagebecause oftheirgrowthcharacters.Thesevarietiesescape theonslaughtofthepathogenanddonotresist theattackduetotheirinherent,characteristics. Usingthesevarietiescanhelpbecauseoftheir growthcharacters. Thesevarietiesescapetheonslaughtofthe pathogen. DiseaseEscape:Thefailureofahosttobecome diseasedbecauseofseparation,inspaceortime,of susceptiblehosttissuesandtheinfectiveunitsof thepathogen.

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AvoidanceofthePathogen
SelectionofSeedandPlantingStock:
Manyplantpathogenslikebacteria,virus,fungi andnematodesaretransmittedbydiseasedseed orothervegetatively propagatingparts. Plantingofdiseasefreeseedsinadiseasefree fieldismostimportantmeansofdisease management.E.g.redrotofsugarcane,black scurfofpotato,viraldiseaseofpotato.Tuber indexingisusedtoobtainvirusfreeseed. Loosesmutofwheat,panamadiseaseofbanana, whipsmutofsugarcanecanbecheckedifseeds areproperlyselected.

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AvoidanceofthePathogen
SeedCleaning
Manyinactiveordormantstrainsof pathogensaremixedwithseed. Sopropercleaningoftheseedbefore sowingisnecessary. Toclean,theseedsaresubmergedin 5%saltsolution;floatingonesare removed.

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AvoidanceofthePathogen
ModificationofCulturalPractices:
Certainmodificationssuchasmaintainingproperdistancebetween plants,timeandamountofirrigation,quantityandqualityoffertilizers ororganicmanures,timeandmethodofplanting,mixedcropping method,depthofsowingcanhelpindiseasemanagement. Culturalpracticescanbemodifiedby
CropRotation Tillage Fallowing MixedCropping Management ofSoilwater FaultyMechanicalSowing

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AvoidanceofthePathogen:ModificationofCultural Practices
CropRotation
Ifaparticularcropisgrowncontinuouslyonthesame field,thecropbecomessusceptibletodisease. Diseasemaybesevereduetothebuildupofthe inoculumpotentialofthepathogen. Croprotationcancontrolthediseaseinthefollowing ways.
Thesurvivalofthepathogeninsoilislimited.Bycrop rotation,pathogenspopulationcanbereduced. Thephysical,chemicalandbioticeffectsofdifferent crops causeunfavourable soilenvironment tothepathogens. Bettergrowthofcropplantsduetobetternutrient availability alsohelpsinavoidingdisease.

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AvoidanceofthePathogen:ModificationofCultural Practices
Tillage
Helpsintemporaryimprovementinaeration, Acceleratesdrying Redistributessubstrates. Theseenvironmentalandphysicalchangescan predisposepathogenstoantagonisticeffectsofthe microbiota.

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AvoidanceofthePathogen:ModificationofCultural Practices
Fallowing :Fieldsareploughedbutremainuncultivatedfora season.Itisadoptedonlyifwateristhelimitingfactor.
DryFallowing:thefieldiskeptassuchforaperiodofoneseasonto killthepathogenbystarvation. WetFallowing:Inthistype,frequentirrigationisgivenduringthe fallowperiod.Itisusuallypractisedforsomeweeks.Themainaimis tomakethepathogengerminateinthesoilwhichlaterdiesdueto lackofhostplant.E.g.Pythium andAlternaria. FloodFallowing:Inthistype,thefieldiskeptsubmerged,then pathogensdieduetolackofoxygen.

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AvoidanceofthePathogen:ModificationofCultural Practices
Mixedcroppinghelpincheckingspreadofinfectious diseases. Italsoresultsintheefficientuseofnutrients,soilmoisture andsolarradiation. Diseasecontrolisattributedtofollowingcauses.
Inmixedcropping,thenumberofhostplantsisreduced,with theresultthatthediseasecannotspreadduetomixtureof plants. Rootsofresistantcropsactsasbarriertopathogens. Releaseofsometoxicsubstancefromsecondarycropssuppress thegrowthofpathogens.ForexampleSorghumplantroots exudateHydrogencyanide(HCN)whichistoxictoFusarium udam thatcausesarhar wilt. Duetolessnumberofhosts,theairborneandfoliarpathogens arereduced. Byproperselectionofcropsforthemixedcropping,soil environmentcanbemadeunfavourableforthepathogen.
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AvoidanceofthePathogen:ModificationofCultural Practices
Managementofsoilwaterhelpinmanaging pathogensthrough
waterpotential gasexchangeofthesoil.

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AvoidanceofthePathogen:ModificationofCultural Practices
FaultyMechanicalSowing
Effects:
Itmakesplantssusceptibletoinfection. Thismayalsoresultinanunequalanduneven distributionof seed. Overcrowding mayresultindampingoffofseedlings.

Thedepthofsowinghasanimportanteffectonsome pathogens,notablythosewhichattackseedlings. Bydelayingtheemergenceofseedling,deepsowingmay helptoincreasetheresistanceofasusceptiblecroptoa pathogenthisistrueinmanydiseasescausedbyFusarium andRhizoctonia.

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ExclusionofInoculum
Thesemethodsaimatpreventingnewpathogens anddiseasesfromreachinganuninfectedarea andavoidingcontactbetweenthepathogenand croporfield. Seedcertification,cropinspection,growingcrops inregionsunfavourableforpathogenand quarantinemeasuresaresomeofthemeansof preventingthespreadofpathogens.

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EradicationofPathogen
Theseapproachesprimarilyaimattreatingthe"infectionchain"byremovingthefoci ofinfectionandstarvingthepathogen. Itcanbeachievedby
Roguing Eradicationofalternateorcollateralhosts CropRotation Sanitation HeatorChemicalTreatmentofDiseasedPlants SoilTreatment Soilamendments BiologicalControl

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EradicationofPathogen
Roguing
carefulremovalanddestructionofinfected plantsorplantpartsfromthefieldsatanearly stagebyremovingthe"foci"ofinfectionand preventingwidedisseminationofthe pathogen. Itisemployedindiseasessuchasloosesmutof wheat,looseandcoveredsmutofbarleyand sorghum,redrotofsugarcane,ergotofbajra, wiltofarhar etc.

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EradicationofPathogen
Eradicationofalternateorcollateral hosts
Somepathogensrequiretwohosts. Thedestructionofsuchawildhost plantbreaksthechaininthe completionofthelifecycleofthe pathogen. E.g.Barberryeradication.Eradication ofgrassinPyricularia oryzae.

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EradicationofPathogen
CropRotation
Continuouscultivationleadtoperturbationofpathogenicsoil bornefungusandgradualincreaseintheintensity. Ifthesamecropisgrowninthesamearea,particular essentialnutrientisexhaustedandaccumulationoftoxic substancesmayalsooccur. Croprotationhelpstocontrolmanysoilbornediseaseslike mosaics,rots,smutsandwiltsofvariouscrops.

Whenthepopulationofpathogenisincreasedbeyondalimit soilcouldnotcouldnolongersupportthegrowth.Suchsoils arecalledsicksoils

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EradicationofPathogen
Sanitation
Pathogenssurvivethroughdormantstructureinplant organsinthesoil. Thecollectionanddestructionofthesestructuresform animportantcontrolmeasure. Itiscommonpracticetobumdiseasedstubbleforplant diseasecontrol. sanitaryconditionsarehelpfulinalmostallinfectious diseases. Powderymildewofwheat,barley,peas,downymildew ofpeasandmaize,redrotofsugarcane,panamadisease ofbananaetc .

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EradicationofPathogen
Heatorchemicaltreatmentofdiseasedplants
Thepathogenpresentintheplantcanbekilledor inactivatedbyapplyingheatorchemicals. Hotwatertreatmenthavegenerallybeenmostsuccessful andareusedtoeliminateUstilago nuda fromwheatand barleyseed,Alternaria brassicae fromcabbageseedsand otherdiseasesfromsugarcanesets. Themostimportantapplicationofhotairtreatmentsisto eliminatevirusesfromvegetatively propagatedmaterial.

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EradicationofPathogen
Soiltreatments
Soiltreatmentinvolvestheuseofchemicals,heat energy,flooding,fallowingetc. Plantpathogenscanbeeradicatedfromthesoilbydry heat,steamorhotwater,floodingandfumigationwith chemicals. Heatandchemicaltreatmentshavebeensuccessfully usedfortheeradicationofplantpathogensfromgreen housesoilsaswellassoilsinplantbeds. Thetreatmentofsoilinlargefieldshasnotbeenso effective. Nematodescanbeeradicatedfromthesoilby fumigatingitwithDDmixtureorwithothernematicide.

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EradicationofPathogen
Soilamendment
Manyrootdiseaseshavebeencontrolledbyploughing organicmaterialsintothesoil AsaresultoforganicamendmentswithahighC/Nratio, thereisatremendousincreaseinthemicrobialnumberand activity.ThereisconsiderableliberationofCO2bysoil saprophyteswhichsuppressesthepathogenicactivityofthis fungus. Theorganicamendmentsincreasetheactivityofsaprophytic organismswhichresultsintheabundantliberationofCO2as aresultoftherespiratoryactivityofthemicroorganisms.The pathogenssensitivetoCO2areinhibited. Duetotherapidmultiplicationofmicroorganismsinsoilthe availablenitrogeninthesoilsisrapidlyutilizedbythefast growingsaprophytes.Thisresultsinacutenitrogenscarcity whichadverselyaffectsthegrowthofpathogens.

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Eradicationofpathogen
BiologicalEradicationofPathogen
Maybedefinedasanyconditionorpracticewherebysurvival oractivityofapathogenisreducedthroughtheagencyofany otherlivingorganism(exceptmanhimself),withtheresult thatthereisareductionintheincidenceofthediseased causedbythepathogen. E.g.controlofscabinpotatos throughinoculationwith Stremptomyces praecos.Rootdiseaseofpinescausedby Fomes annosus canbecontrolledbyPeniophora gigantean. Hyperparasitism :Certainfungiandbacteriaareparasiticon plantpathogens.Inoculatingthesehyperparasitescancontrol thediseasebyreducingthepopulationofpathogens.E.g. Cinccinobulus attackmembersofthefamilyErysiphaceae. Fungicanbeusedforcontrollingnematodes.

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